Notes

Introduction

1. In my conversations with senior Polish military personnel, this argument was raised repeatedly by the officers, including Chief of the General Staff Gen. Tadeusz Wilecki. This might be dismissed as institutional self-justification were it not for the fact that it was also raised by junior rank officers, as well as by several civilians within the Ministry of Defense. All interviews were con• ducted by the author between January 1995 and July 1995 in , Poland. 2. These observations have been confirmed in my contacts with Czech, Slovak, Hungarian, Russian, and Ukrainian officers, all of whom tended to define professionalism in terms that presupposed autonomy within society and subordination to one power center within government, without much room for additional institutional oversight arrangements.

Chapter One

1. See, for example, A. Ross Johnson, Robert W. Dean, and Alexander Alexiev, East European Military Establishments: The W'arsaw Pact Northern Tier (New York: Crane Russak, 1982) and Timothy J. Colton and Thane Gustafson, eds., Soldiers and the Soviet State: Civil Military Relations from Brezhnev to Gorbachev (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1990). 2. In addition to Samuel Huntington's classic The Soldier and the State (Cam• bridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1957), some of the better works on civil-military relations include Amos Perlmutter and Valier Plave Bennett, The Political Influence of the Military (New Haven and London: Yale Uni• versity Press, 1980), Alfred Stepan, The Military in Politics: Changing Pat• terns in Brazil (Princeton, N. J.: Princeton University Press, 1971), John Samuel Fitch, The Military Coup d'Etat as a Political Process: Ecuador, 1948-1966 (Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1977), and Claude E. Welch, Jr., ed., Civilian Control of the Military: The• ory and Cases from Developing Countries (Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press, 1976). 3. These criteria have been used as a benchmark in Jeffrey Simon, NATO Enlargement and Central Europe: A Study in Civil-Military Relations (Washington, D.C.: National Defense University, 1996). 124 • The Soldier-Citizen

4. The classic study by Huntington, The Soldier and the State, still serves as a ref• erent for analyzing the prerequisites of military professionalism in democratic polities. Studies on the inadequacy of civilian oversight of the military in post• communist Europe include Jeffrey Simon's excellent work NATO Enlargement and Central Europe: A Study in Civil-Military Rel.atiom (Washington, D.C.: National Defense University, 1996) and Thomas Szayna and F. Stephen Larabee's East European Military Reform (Santa Monica, Cal.: RAND, 1995). 5. A number of Polish officers I interviewed between 1992 and 1996 asserted that the Polish army was at its core a national army, and as such it identified with the democratic aspirations of society. 6. Interwar Czechoslovakia may be an exception as far as the "usable past" is concerned in that it had preserved a working democratic system until the federation's demise in 1938. 7. This is the fundamental assumption underlying the theory put forth by Samuel Huntington in The Soldier and the State (Cambridge, Mass.: Har• vard University Press, 1957). 8. Roman Kolkowicz is prominently associated with the first paradigm, William E. Odom with the second, and Timothy J. Colton with the third. For an overview of the three paradigms, see Timothy J. Colton, "Perspectives on Civil• Military Relations in the ," in Timothy J. Colton and Thane Gustafson, eds., Soldiers and the Soviet State: Civil-Military Rel.atiom from Brezh• nev to Gorbachev (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1990). 9. This is the gist of the argument in my 1990 book Red Eagle: The Army in Polish Politics, 1944-1988 (Stanford, Cal.: Hoover Institution Press, 1990). 10. The chief of the General Staff, Gen. Tadeusz Wilecki, asserted that by de• ciding not to intervene, the Polish army "defended and saved the 1989 rev• olution." Interview with the author, General Staff Headquarters in Warsaw, September 20, 1995. 11. This section draws upon a study by Marian Kasperski and Adam Kolodziejczyk, Swiadomosc moralna kadry zawodowej WP, 1989-1992 (War• saw: WIBS, 1992), conducted by the Military Institute of Sociological Stud• ies (Wojskowy Instytut Badan Socjologicznych, or WIBS). I am grateful to Dr. Eva Busza of College of William and Mary for making a copy of the study available to me. 12. Marian Kasperski and Adam Kolodziejczyk, Swiadomosc moralna kadry za• wodowej WP, 1989-1992 (Warsaw: WIBS, 1992), p. 42. 13. Komunikat z badan nastrojow kadry zawodowej w miesiacu lipcu 1993 r. (Warszawa: Ministerstwo Obrony Narodowej/WIBS, 1993), pp. 8-9. 14. "Kogo lubia wojskowi, Zycie Wtmzazry January 23, 1995. 15. Marek Henzler, "Razeni smiechem," Polityka, January 28, 1995, p. 7. 16. Komunikat z badan nastrojow kadry zawodowej w miesiacu lipcu 1993 r. (Warszawa: Ministerstwo Obrony Narodowej/WIBS, 1993), p. 6.

Chapter Two

1. The Military Balance, 1986-1987 (London: The International Institute for Strategic Studies, 1986), pp. 52-53. Notes • 125

2. Jedrzej Kitowicz, Opis obyczajow za panowania Augusta III (Warsaw: Panst• wowy lnstytut Wydawniczy, 1985), pp. 169-71. 3. The term Second Republic (Druga Rzeczpospolita) refers to interwar Poland, the successor to the Commonwealth of Poland-, which had disap• peared from the map of Europe after the third partition of Poland in 1795. Communist Poland was officially known as the Polish People's Republic (Polska Rzeczpospolita Ludowa, or PRL), while the democratic Poland after 1989 is called either the Republic of Poland (Rzeczpospolita Polska) or, less formally, the Third Republic ( Trzecia Rzeczpospolita). 4. Marian Kukiel, Zarys historii wojskowosci w Polsce (London: Puis Publica• tions, Ltd., 1992), p. 301. 5. One of the most enduring images in Polish literary tradition is that of Konrad Wallenrod, a hero from the work of Poland's premier Romantic poet, Adam Mickiewicz. In Mickiewicz's poem, Konrad Wallenrod is a Polish patriot in medieval times who rises within the hierarchy of the Teu• tonic Order in order to destroy it from within and save his country. See Adam Mickiewicz, Konrad Wallenrod and Other Writings ofAdam Mick• iewicz, translated from the Polish by Jewell Parish (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1975). 6. Jerzy J. Wiatr, The Soldier and the Nation: The Role ofthe Military in Polish Politics, 1918-1985 (Boulder, Col.: Westview Press, 1988), p. 22. 7. Gen. Wladyslaw Sikorski, Nad Wisla i Wkra: Studium polsko-rosyjskiej wojny 1920 roku (Lwow: Wydawnictwo Zakladu Narodowego im. Ossolinskich, 1928), p. 257. 8. See Tadeusz Bor-Komorowski, Trzy wyklady o AK (Paris: Zeszyty Histo• ryczne, no. 49, 1979). 9. VII rocznica udzialu lotnictwa polskiego w Bitwie o Anglie (Toronto: Zwiazkowiec, 1977), p. 6. 10. Wladyslaw Anders, Bez ostatniego rozdzialu: Wspomnienia z fat 1939-1946 (London: GryfPublications Ltd., 1981), pp. 196-221. 11. See Janusz K. Zawodny, Death in the Forest: The Story of the Katyn Forest Massacre (Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, 1962). 12. Ktystyna Kersten, Narodziny systemu wladzy: Polska 1943-1948 (Paris: Li• bella, 1986), pp. 260-61. 13. Adam Michalski, Los sie przychylil (Warsaw: Wydawnictwo Ministerstwa Obrony Narodowej, 1986), pp. 200-201. 14. Kersten, Narodziny systemu wladzy, p. 89. 15. W)tyczne operacyjne Nr. 00275, june 16, 1947, "Wisla"- rozkazy i wytyczne operacyjne, Departament Org. i Planowania MON/GO., January 7-Decem• ber 31, 1947. Documents from Centralne Archiwum Wojskowe, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C., W-1 and W-2. 16. For an excellent discussion of Polish-Jewish relations in the postwar Polish People's Republic, see Ktystyna Kersten, Polacy, Zydzi, komunizm: anatomia polprawd, 1939-68 (Warsaw: Niezalezna Oficyna Wydawnicza, 1992). 17. Kersten, Narodziny systemu wladzy, p. 354. 18. Malgorzata Subotic, "Wewnetrznie uzbrojony: Rozmowa z generalem broni Jozefem Kuropieska," Rzeczpospolita Magazyn, September 1995, pp. 4-5. 126 • The Soldier-Citizen

19. A number of the victims of the purge survived to offer their eyewitness tes• timony in two films, Proces (The Trial) and Dno Piekla (At the Bottom of Hell), shown on Polish television after 1989. 20. Zbigniew Blazynski, Mowi ]ozef Swiatlo: Za kulisami bezpieki i partii, 1940-1955 (London: Polska Fundacja Kulturalna, 1985), p. 82. 21. Ibid., p. 140. 22. Ibid., p. 23. 23. Document no. 21: "Trese wystapienia W. Gomulki w dniu 12 X 1956 na posiedzeniu Biura Polirycznego KC PZPR, Section 'Sprawa doradcow w wo• jsku,"' in Jakub Andrzejewski, ed., Gomulka i inni: Dokumenty z archiwum KC, 1948-1982 (London: Aneks, 1987), p. 94. 24. Edmund Makowski, ed., Wydarzenia czerwcowe w Poznaniu, 1956 (Poznan: Uniwersytet im. Adama Mickiewicza, 1981), pp. 58-59. 25. Ibid., p. 70. 26. In fact, Khrushchev had known Gomulka for some time prior to 1956, and on one occasion "recommended him very highly to Stalin." Khrushchev Re• members (Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1970), p. 360. 27. Zbigniew Brzezinski noted that during the October crisis the Polish Army was restive and that probably, "in a critical situation, would not obey Rokossovskiy." Zbigniew Brzezinski, Soviet Bloc: Unity and Conflict (New York: Praeger, 1962), p. 258. 28. Teresa Rakowska-Harmstone, Christopher Jones, and Ivan Sylvain, \~maw Pact: The Question of Cohesion, Phase IL vol. 2, Poland, German Democratic Republic, and Romania (Ottawa: ORAE Extra-Mural Paper no. 29, February 1984), p. 66. 29. A. Ross Johnson, Robert W. Dean, and Alexander Alexiev, East European Military Establishments: The warsaw Pact Northern Tier (New York: Crane Russak, 1982), p. 24. 30. The original draft and the subsequent revisions were submitted in 1956 to Gen. Marian Spychalski, Gomulka's defense minister. Umowa miedzy Rza• dem Po/skiej Rzeczypospolitej Ludowej a Rzadem Zwiazku Socjalistycznych Re• publik Radzieckich w sprawie statusu wojsk radzieckich stacjonujacych w Polsce, Centralne Archiwum Wojskowe, Library of Congress, W-13. 31. Johnson, Dean, and Alexiev, The warsaw Pact Northern Tier, pp. 28-29. 32. In addition to a book on the concept of OTK, Chocha has written exten• sively on strategy and tactics in modern warfare. His key theoretical works include Rozwazania o sztuce wojennej (Warsaw: Wydawnictwo Ministerstwa Obrony Narodowej, 1984) and Wojna i doktryna wojenna (Warsaw: Wydawnictwo Ministerstwa Obrony Narodowej, 1980); the latter study was written jointly with Julian Kaczmarek. 33. Johnson, Dean and Alexiev, The warsaw Pact Northern Tier, p. 30. 34. George C. Malcher, Poland's Politicized Army: Communists in Uniform (New York: Praeger, 1984) p. 38. 35. Janusz Rolicki, Edward Gierek: Przerwana dekada (Warsaw: BGW, 1990), p. 187. Notes • 127

36. For Jaruzelski's biography see Mala Encyklopedia Wojskowa (Warsaw: MON, 1967-1971); Rocznik Wojskowo-Historyczny, 1961 (Warsaw: Wydawnicrwo Ministersrwa Obrony Narodowej, 1961), p. 446; Zdzislaw Rurarz, "Komu• nisci polscy czy polscy komunisci," Pomost, 2(26) Ouly 1985); Current Biog• raphy Yearbook: 1982 (New York: The H. Wilson Co., 1982); Whos Who in Poland (Warsaw: Interpress Publishers, 1982); and Sovyetskaya Voyennaya Entsiklopediya (Moscow: Voyenizdat, 1980), vol. 8, p. 673. 37. Kto jest kim w Polsce (Warsaw: Wydawnicrwo Interpress, 1993), p. 247. 38. Zolnierz Wolnosci, Aprill2, 1968. 39. Wojciech Jaruzelski, Stan wojenny: Dlaczego (Warsaw: BGW, 1992), p. 399. 40. Jeffrey Simon, mzrsaw Pact Forces: Problems ofCommand and Control (Boul• der, Col.: Westview Press, 1985), pp. 62-67. 41. See, for example, Gen. Stefan Mossor, Przewidywania dotyczace warunkow przyszlych dzialan wojennych (Biuro Studiow przy Ministrze Obrony Naro• dowej, 1957). The Central Military Archives in Warsaw recently released to the Library of Congress a large number of General Staff documents from the 1950s and 1960s, which suggest that our assumptions about the scope of mil• itary research conducted in Poland under communism ought to be reassessed. 42. Johnson, Dean, and Alexiev, The mzrsaw Pact Northern Tier, p. 46. 43. Ryszard Socha, "Bojownicy w nieslusznej sprawie," Polityka, December 21, 1996, p. 26-30. 44. Jaruzelski, Dlaczego, p. 50. 45. Eugeniusz Walczuk, "Oficerowie," Polityka, April 29, 1972, and Michael Sadykiewicz, "Jaruzelski's War," Survey 26(Summer 1982). 46. Dale R. Herspring, "The Warsaw Pact at 25," Problems ofCommunism, (Sep- tember-October, 1980), p. 6. 47. Stanislaw Kania, Zatrzymac konfrontacje (Warsaw: BGW, 1993), pp. 86-94. 48. Jaruzelski, Dlaczego, p. 51. 49. Jacek Zakowski, Rok 1989: Geremek opowiada (Warszawa, Plejada, 1990), p. 215. 50. Rolicki, Gierek, pp.155-56. 51. Jaruzelski, Dlaczego, p. 163. 52. Kania, Zatrzymac konfrontacje, p. 215. 53. Ibid., p. 236. 54. Reportedly, this assessment of Jaruzelski by Bronislaw Geremek, one of the key advisors to Walesa in 1989, predated the "round-table" negotiations by several years. Zakowski, Geremek opowiada, p. 152. 55. Ibid., p. 214. 56. Bronislaw Lagowski, "Nierozpoznany general," Polityka Polska, November 1990, p. 31. 57. Jaruzelski, Dlaczego, p. 10. 58. This interpretation came up repeatedly in my discussions with Polish offi• cers berween 1991 and 1995. 59. Romania was a special case among the WTO, as it had a genuine national defense doctrine and did not permit WTO maneuvers on its territory; 128 • The Soldier-Citizen

however, Romania was run not by the communist party per se but by the Ceausescu clan and, from a strategic vantage point, did not come close to the critical value of Poland. 60. This argument has been made quite persuasively by Roman Kolkowicz, The Soviet Military and the Communist Party (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton Univer• sity Press, 1967), p. 103.

Chapter Three

1. Address by H. E. Aleksander Kwasniewski, President ofthe Republic ofPoland, to the Participants of The Nato Workshop, june, 1996 (Warsaw: Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 1996). 2. Wojsko Polskie: Informator '95 (Warsaw: Wydawnictwo Bellona, 1995), pp. 12-32. 3. "NATO Hardware First Used in Polish Manoeuvres," Reuters, June 2, 1996. 4. Polish General Staff briefing, June 8, 1995. 5. This has been the position articulated by a succession of Polish defense min• isters. Interviews with the author in 1993 and 1995 with Janusz Onyszkiewicz, Piotr Kolodziejczyk, and Zbigniew Okonski, three of the country's postcommunist defense ministers. 6. The two-week defensive capability as the planning target has not been offi• cially confirmed by the Ministry of Defense; however, based on fteld re• search in Poland from January through June 1995, I concluded that it can be accepted as a de facto standard. 7. Poland was visibly unenthusiastic about the CSCE as a genuine alternative to NATO from the outset; in contrast, Czechoslovakia abandoned its strong pro-CSCE position after the Soviets used force in Vilnius in 1991 and the organization found itself unable to censure Moscow's actions. 8. The discussion of the organizational structure of the Polish armed forces is based in part on Sily Zbrojne Rzeczpospolitej Polskiej-1992: U7bor materi• a/ow dla prasy (Warsaw: Ministerstwo Obrony Narodowej, Grudzien 1992). 9. Polish General Staff briefing, June 8, 1995. 10. Briefing by Gen. Tadeusz Jemiolo, commandant of the National Defense Academy in Rembertow, June 6, 1995. 11. "Za trzy lata-na rok do wojska?" Polska Zbrojna, November 7, 1996, p. 1. 12. Marek Henzler, "Czolgiem z mostu: Nowa 'konstytucja obronna,"' Polityka, November 16, 1996, p. 18. 13. Ibid., p. 18. 14. Polish General Staff briefing, June 8, 1995. 15. Polish army and air force officers often joke about the limited resources of their naval colleagues, describing them as the "mud, swamp, and bushes" units. 16. The Armed Forces of the Republic of Poland (Warsaw: Ministry of Defense, January 1995). 17. "Wilecki on Troops for Bosnia, Changes in Army," FBIS-EEU-96-035, Feb• ruary 20, 1996. Notes • 129

18. "Weekly Interview: Poland's Chief of General Staff, Gen. Tadeusz Wilecki," jane's Defence Week(y, April22, 1995. 19. "Interview: Lt. General Jerzy Gorowala," fane's Defence Week(y, March 13, 1996. 20. With the exception of the corvettes Orkan, Piorun, and Grom, and the sub• marine Orzel, most Polish naval equipment is obsolete, some dating back to the 1960s (the only Polish destroyer, Wizrszawa, was built in 1970). The Mil• itary Balance 1995196 (London: IISS, 1995), pp. 92-93; Polish Navy 1995 (World Wide Web at http:/ /info.fuw.edu.pl/ ~janbart/pnt.html). 21. Kwasniewski Names 10 Generals, Awards One White Eagle," FBIS-EEU- 96-088, May 3, 1996. 22. Sily zbrojne Rzeczpospolitej Polskiej (Warsaw: Ministerstwo Obrony Naro• dowej, Biuro Rzecznika Prasowego, December 1992), p. 35. 23. Polish General Staff briefing, June 8, 1995. 24. Transition Report 1995 (London: European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, 1995). 25. The Military Balance 1995196 (London: IISS, 1995), p. 92. There are con• siderable discrepancies among defense budget figures quoted in Western sources. For example, the SIPRJ Yearbook 1995 (Stockholm: SIPRI, 1995) gives a much lower estimate of approximately $1.25 billion for 1993 and $1.1 billion for 1994. The discrepancy is largely due to the exchange rates and inflation factors used. I have used the IISS figures because they appear to be closer in line with the Polish General Staff data and also reflect the gradual increase in the defense budget in the years 1994-96. 26. Przeglad Prasy Krajowej (Warsaw: Biuro Prasowe URM, November 23, 1995). 27. "Kwasniewski Wants 5-Year Plan on Defense Spending," FBIS-EEU- 96-078, April 19, 1996. 28. "Limity i ograniczenia wojskowego budzetu," Polska Zbrojna, November 15-17, 1996, p. 1. 29. "Budzet MON bez przelomu," Polska Zbrojna, October 31--November 3, 1996, p. 1. 30. "Limity i ograniczenia wojskowego budzetu," Polska Zbrojna, November 15-17, 1996, p. 1. 31. "Dziurawy jak sito: Poslowie o budzecie MON," Polska Zbrojna, November 14, 1996, p. 3. 32. "Co sie wojsku oplaca," Polska Zbrojna, November 8-11, 1996, p. 1. 33. "Nie obawiamy sie konkurencji," Polska Zbrojna, November 4, 1996, p. 1. 34. "Interview: Lt. General Jerzy Gotowala," jane's Defence Week(y, March 13, 1996. 35. "Air Defense Forces Receive 10 New MiG-29s," FBIS-EEU-96-035, Febru• ary 19, 1996. 36. Sylvia Dennis, "Poland Teams with Russia on Military Technology," News• bytes News Network, April 10, 1996. 37. "Interview: Lt. General Jerzy Gotowala," jane's Defence Week(y, March 13, 1996. 130 • The Soldier-Citizen

38. "Samoloty: Okonski nadal sceptyczny wobec 'Irydy'," Zycie warszazry De• cember 12, 1995. 39. Marek Henzler, "Iryda: samolot w okopach," Polityka, December 16, 1995, p. 28. 40. Ibid., p. 28. 41. Marek Jarocinski, "Ciezka na nos: Kto wierzy w lryde?" Polityka, February 17, 1996, p. 16. 42. Marek Henzler, "Huzar sie zbroi: Smiglowca jeszcze nie rna, jest natlok ra• kietowych konkurentow," Polityka, November 2, 1996, p. 22. 43. Stanislaw Lukaszewski, "Robimy swoje: Po Dorocznej Konferencji Sil Zbro• jnych RP," Polska Zbrojna, October 31-November 3, 1996, p. 1. 44. "Trudne loty," Polska Zbrojna, February 14, 1996. 45. "Wiecej na 'MiG-29': Przesiadka 13 pilotow," Polska Zbrojna, February 19, 1996. 46. World Military Expenditures and Arms Transfers, 1987 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Arms Control and Disarmament Agency, 1988), p. 30. 47. Sily zbrojne Rzeczpospolitej Polskiej, 1992 (Warsaw: Ministerstwo Obrony Narodowej, Biuro Rzecznika Prasowego, December 1992), p. 30. 48. Igor T. Miecik, "Przeciw atakom z powietrza," Gazeta W5'borcza, February 9, 1995. 49. For a good discussion of the problems facing the Polish defense industry in transition, see Pawel Wieczorek, Polski przemysl obronny w kontekscie nowego modelu sil zbrojnych (Warsaw: Panstwowy lnstytut Spraw Miedzynaro• dowych, 1993). 50. Raport o stanie bezpieczemtwa panstwa: aspekty zewnetrzne (Warsaw: Panst- wowy Instytut Spraw Miedzynarodowych, 1993), p. 124. 51. The Military Balance 1995196 (London: IISS, 1995), p. 72. 52. Ibid., p. 71. 53. "Wojsko: Czeskie 'Albatrosy' za polskie 'Huzary,"' Zycie warszazry July 28, 1995.

Chapter Four

1. Mala Komtytucja z komentarzem (Warsaw: Wydawnictwo AWA, 1993). For additional analysis, see Louisa Vinton, "Poland's Little Constitution Clari• fies Walesa's Powers," RFE/RL Research Report, vol. 1, no. 35, September 4, 1992. 2. The National Defense Academy (Akademia Obrony Narodowej, or AON), formerly the Academy of the General Staff, has developed a brief course for high-ranking government officials to introduce them to the principles of de• fense management. Interview with Gen. Tadeusz Jemiolo, head of the AON, June 6, 1995. 3. "Wezyki demokracji," Polityka, June 24, 1995. 4. Jacek Kurski and Piotr Semka, Lewy czerwcowy (Warsaw: Editions Spotka• nia, 1993), p. 81. Notes • 131

5. Ibid., p. 64. 6. Allegedly, Parys visited units wearing a bulletproof vest and under heavy es• cort from his security men. While it is impossible to verify all such accounts, these stories suggest that the officers saw the minister as paranoid and hos• tile. Author's interviews in Poland, January-September 1995. 7. "Kariera szefa sztabu," Gazeta uryborcza, February 6, 1995. 8. Author's interviews with several senior and midlevel Polish officers, January• June, 1995. 9. "Kariera szefa sztabu," Gazeta w:Yborcza, February 6, 1995. 10. Ibid. 11. "Wojsko rna prawo sie bronic," Polityka, September 9, 1995. 12. Gazeta uryborcza, April21, 1994. 13. "General Wilecki on General Staff Tasks, Structure," FBIS-EEU-96-160, August 15, 1996. 14. Briefing by Gen. Edward Pietrzyk, chief of the operations directorate of the Polish Armed Forces General Staff, at the General Staff Headquarters in Warsaw, June 8, 1995. 15. The Armed Forces of the Republic of Poland (Warsaw: Ministry of Defense, January 1995). 16. "General Wilecki on General Staff Tasks, Structure," FBIS-EEU-96-160, August 15, 1996. 17. Interview with Janusz Onyszkiewicz, January 17, 1995, Warsaw, Poland. 18. Interview with Przemyslaw Grudzinski, January 14, 1995, Jadwisin, Poland. 19. The following discussion reflects the outline contained in the regulations of September 17, 1993. Regulamin Organizacyjny Ministerstwa Obrony Naro• dowej w Czasie Pokoju (Ministerstwo Obrony Narodowej). 20. See "Ustawa z dnia 21 listopada 1967 o powszechnym obowiazku obrony Rzeczpospolitej Polskiej," Dziennik Ustaw z 1992, no. 4 poz. 16, especially Articles 13 and 14. 21. Interview with Adm. Piotr Kolodziejczyk, March 28, 1995, Gdynia, Poland. 22. Ibid. According to Kolodziejczyk, Waniek's name was brought up in an in• formal discussion involving the SLD leadership and Walesa's confidant Mieczyslaw Wachowski. 23. Interview with Dan uta Waniek, March 10, 1995, Ministry of Defense, War• saw. This assessment was confirmed in several informal conversations with Polish officers at the time. 24. Interview with Admiral Piotr Kolodziejczyk, March 28, 1995, Gdynia, Poland. 25. From a number of accounts, including Kolodziejczyk's, it appears that Walesa initiated the discussion of his minister's competence. The author's in• terviews with Polish officers, January-June, 1995. 26. Zycie Wlrszaw)\ January 21, 1994. 27. See "Panstwo w panstwie: 0 co gra Sztab Generalny WP," Wprost, June 11, 1995, pp. 26-28. 28. "SLD sklada bron? Danuta Waniek odchodzi z resortu obrony," Zycie Wlrsza~ May 15, 1995. 132 • The Soldier-Citizen

29. Dan uta Waniek stressed that view repeatedly in an interview with the author two months prior to her resignation. Warsaw, Ministry of Defense, March 10, 1995. 30. "MON bardziej wojskowy," Zycie ~rszaury, May 18, 1995. 31. Depesze Polskiej Agencji Prasowej, Polish Press Agency, August 11-16, 199 5. 32. "Czyje wojsko," Zycie ~rszaury, January 20, 1995. 33. "Komu blizej do NATO," Zycie ~rszawy, January 20, 1995. 34. "Szarza Lecha Walesy," Gazeta ~borcza, January 20, 1995. 35. "Komu blizej do NATO," Zycie ~rszaury~ January 20, 1995. 36. News Highlights, Polish Press Agency, June 27-29,1995. 37. Longin Pastusiak, Civilian Control of the Armed Forces of the Republic of Poland (Brussels: NM International Secretariat, Working Group on Transatlantic and European Organizations Draft Report, 1995). 38. "MON z moca ustawy: Juz obowiazuje," Polska Zbrojna, February 14, 1996, p. 1. The text of the Law on the Minister of Defense was published in Dziennik Ustaw, no. 10, January 30, 1996. 39. "Control oflntelligence Services, Armed Forces," FBIS-EEU-96-079, April 2, 1996. 40. Marek Henzler, "Kwadratura rogatywki: Cala wladza w rece MON?" Poli- tyka, March 2, 1996, p. 4. 41. Ibid. 42. "Nowy przetarg na 'Huzara?'" Polska Zbrojna, November 13, 1996, p. 1. 43. "Poland: Minister Deprives Wilecki of Army Money," FBIS-EEU-96-021, January 31, 1996. 44. "Deputy Defense Minister on MON Restructuring," FBIS-EEU-96-032, February 15, 1996, p. 51. 45. Ibid. 46. "Poland: Gen. Wilecki 'Disturbed' by U.S. Report," FBIS-EEU-96-032, February 15, 1996, pp. 50-51. 47. Marek Henzler, "Kwadratura rogatywki: Cala wladza w rece MON?" Poli• tyka, March 2, 1996, p. 3. 48. Ibid., p. 4. 49. Depesze Polskiej Agencji Prasowej, Polish Press Agency, December 27-29, 1995. 50. "Walesa Names New General Staff Chief," RFEIRL Daily Report, August 6, 1992. 51. "Chief of General Staff Wilecki Profiled," FBIS-EEU-96-111, May 27, 1996. 52. According to Admiral Piotr Kolodziejczyk, the idea of establishing the BBWR originated with Walesa's confidant in the chancellery, Minister Mieczyslaw Wachowski, and was rationalized in terms of delivering the vote of the military in "tight formations." Interview with the author, March 28, 1995, Gdynia, Poland. 53. "Polish Officers Gathered Signatures Supporting President," OMRJ Daily Digest, August 31, 1995. Notes • 133

54. "Heard in Passing," Wlzrsaw Voice, May 5, 1996. 55. This was suggested to me by a Polish officer on the eve of the election. Wilecki's statement with which he greeted Kwasniewski's election-"The king is dead, long live the king!"-might have been more than sheer opportunism. 56. "Chief of General Staff Wilecki Profiled," FBIS-EEU-96-111, May 27, 1996. 57. Some of the most obvious examples, such as the continued active service of Col. Franciszek Puchala, who in 1980-81 had been instrumental in plan• ning and executing martial law, have raised eyebrows both in Poland and abroad. However, questions about the political suitability of such men to continue serving in the new Polish army have been answered by the General Staff as irrelevant in light of their professionalism and outstanding qualifica• tions. More importantly, high ranking civilians in the Ministry of Defense, including Jerzy Milewski, seemed to have tacitly accepted their continued presence. Meeting with the author, Ministry of Defense, April28, 1995. 58. Zycie Wlzrszaw)l March 11, 1997. 59. Zycie Wlzrszaw)l March 12, 1997. 60. Marek Henzler, "Kwadratura rogatywki: Cala wladza w rece MON?" Poli• tyka, March 2, 1996, p. 7. 61. Ibid. 62. This issue was raised repeatedly in my conversations with Polish officers in 1995, who argued that Polish officers would never have opportunities to serve on corporate boards or as consultants to the government or the private sector. 63. Marek Henzler, "Wojna domowa: Ministerstwo zaatakowalo Sztab Gener• alny," Polityka, October 12, 1996, p. 21. 64. This was confirmed in my discussions with several General Staff officers, in• cluding General Wilecki.

Conclusion 1. Miroslaw Cielemecki, "Poligon Dobrzanskiego: Nowy model dowodzenia polska armia to karykatura wzorca amerykanskiego," Wprost, March 17, 1996, pp. 32-33. 2. "Ongoing Reshuffles Within Army Criticized," FBIS-EEU-96-054, March 17, 1996. 3. Ibid. 4. Marek Henzler, "Wojna domowa: Ministerstwo zaatakowalo Sztab Gener• alny," Polityka, October 12, 1996, pp. 20-21. 5. Polish Press Agency, September 28, 1995. 6. Janina Paradowska, "My narod polski, wszyscy obywatele," Polityka, May 24, 1997, pp. 3-8. 7. Marek Henzler, "Razeni smiechem," Polityka, January 28, 1995, p. 7. 8. General Wilecki admitted that the quality of the new classes of officers grad• uated after 1991 is increasingly falling behind compared to the amount of 134 • The Soldier-Citizen

training received by the officers in the Polish People's Army. Interview with Wilecki, September 20, 1995, Polish Army General Staff, Warsaw. 9. Marek Henzler, "Kwadratura rogatywki: Cala wladza w rece MON?'' Poli• tyka, March 2, 1996, p. 4. Index

air and air-defense forces, 54, 55, 58, Conference of the Armed Forces of the 64, 74 Republic of Poland, 73 Air Cavalry Division, 60, 66, 72, 118 Council of Ministers' Committee on Air Defense Units (WOPK), 36, 85 Defense (KSORM), 70, 71, 98 Alpha Jet, 69-71 Cracow Military District, 55 Anders, Gen. Wladyslaw, 29, 30, 40 Cultural Revolution, 13 Armed Forces 2005, 74, 77 , 50 Armor Officer School, 84 Czechoslovakia, 16, 75 Armored Cavalry Division, 60 defense industry, 74-77, 98 Balcerowicz program, 63 defense budget, 62-65, 67 Belarus, 49, 50 Defense Ministry Military Council, 82 Berling, Gen. Zygmunt, 29, 30, 32, 40 defense-propaganda campaign, 31, 43 Bierut, Boleslaw, 31, 33 Democratic Left Alliance (SLD), 47, Big Constitution, 117 64, 88,90-95, 103, 111, 120 Bordzilowski, Gen. Jerzy, 34 Democratic Union, (UD), 19, 87 Borowski, Marek, 92 Denel, 72 Brown Amendment, 73 Department for Integration with Bureau of Research and Analyses, 87 NATO, 106 Bureau of Security (UB), 31 Directorate of Maps, 101 Directorate of Physical Fitness, 101 Center Alliance (PC), 20 Dobrzanski, Stanislaw, 67, 96-99, 105, Central Planning Office (CUP), 82 107, 108, 112-115, 117 CFE treaty limits, 58, 60, 72 Draft Law on Military Service and Chilean coup of 1973, 15 Defense Duties, 53 Chocha, Gen. Boleslaw, 36 DRAWA,65 Christian National Union (ZChN), Drawsko affair, 81, 91-93, 97, 104 20 Duchy of Warsaw, 25 civil-military relations, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9, 11, Duszynski, Gen. Zygmunt, 35 12, 15, 78, 79,111-122 Dziok, Gen. Kazimierz, 71 civilian control over the military, 1, 3, 8, 13, 80, 99, 111-122 election of 1947, 31 Collins, John M., 99, 114 European Union, 3, 48 Confederation for Independent Poland (KPN), 20, 94 F-16, 68, 70 1 36 • The Soldier-Citizen

First Warszawa Fighter Regiment, 67, Jaruzelski, Gen. Wojciech, 10, 12, 82, 74 101 and 1981 martial law, 40 General Electric, 68 and collapse of communism, 41, 42 general inspector of the armed forces career of, 36-40 (GISZ), 82 and the Czechoslovak crisis, 37, 39 General Staff, 3, 13, 18, 49, 60, 79, 96 ]AS-39 Grippen, 68 recommendations, 61-63, 66, 67, 77 structure of, 85-87, 89, 90 Kania, Stanislaw, 40, 41 General Staff Academy, 84 Karkoszka, Andrzej, 66, 98, 99, Geremek, Bronislaw, 41 104-108, Ill, 112, 114, 117 German invasion of Poland (1939), 28, Karkoszka Commission, 105, 106 37 Karyn, 29 , 3, 12 Khrushchev, Nikita, 34 Gierek, Edward, 36, 37, 39 Kolodziejczyk, Adm. Piotr, 72, 81, 88, Glodz, Gen. Leszek, 72 90-92, 104, Ill Glowacki, Col. Kazimierz, 97 Komar, Gen. Waclaw, 32-35 Gomulka, Wladyslaw, 10, 31-35, 38, Kosciuszko Infantry Division, 29, 30 39 Kosciuszko, Tadeusz, 24 Gorbachev, Mikhail, 42 Kosciuszko uprising, 24, 25 Goryszewski, Henryk, 92, 94 Krzywoszynski, Col. Marcin, 67 Gotowala, Gen. Jerzy, 74 Kuropieska, Gen. Jozef, 32 Grabowski, Tadeusz, I 08 Kwasniewski, Aleksander, 48, 51, 64, Grechko, Marshal Andrey, 39 77, 95, 102, 120 GROM,65 Grot, 72 Labedy plant, 76, 118 ground forces, 54, 64 Lancucki, Gen. Edward, 39 Ground Forces Command, 66, 99, Law on National Defense (1967), 88, 104, 105, 107 91 Grudzinski, Przemyslaw, 87, 88, 90 Law on the Office of the Minister of National Defense, 50, 67, 88, 95, Haller, Gen. Jozef, 25 Ill, 115 Hellfire, 7 3 Little Constitution, 79, 80, 83 Home Army (AK), 28, 29-31 Loara program, 76 Hughes, 68 Luczak, Aleksander, 64 Hungary, 24, 50 L~ 23,26, 30,38,40 Huzar, 72, 73, 76, 98, 116 see also Polish People's Army insurrectionary tradition, 23-25, 27 Main Political Directorate, 7, 16, 36, Internal Defense Detachments 37, 42, 45, 80, 101 (WOW), 36 Malejczyk, Gen. Konstanty, 97 Internal Security Corps (KBW), 33, 34 martial law (1981), 16, 42, 43 lryda, 65, 69-71, 73, 75, 116 Mazowiecki, Tadeusz, 10, 51, 63, 87 McDonnell Douglas, 68 Janula, Eugeniusz, 67 Medwid, Wladyslaw, 67 Index • 137

Meyers, Jason D., 99, 114 navy, 54, 55, 64 Milewski, Jerzy, 73, 83, 92-94, 103 Non-Party Bloc in Support of Reforms Military Council of National Salvation, (BBWR), 94, 102 82 Northrop Grumman, 68 Military Counterintelligence Service, November uprising (1863), 25 89 Military Information Services (WSI), October 1956 crisis, 34, 35, 44 81, 89, 96, 97 Okonski, Zbigniew, 69, 70, 92, 97 Military Institute for Sociological Oleksy, Jozef, 92, 93, 114 Research (WIBS), 17-20 Olszewski, Jan, 81-83 Military Medical Academy, 53 Onyszkiewicz, Janusz, 84, 87, 88, 90, military reform program, 3, 4, 50-53, 97, 102, 119 63, 77, 78 Organization for Security and Military Technological Academy Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), (WAT), 53 48-50 Ministry of Defense, 35, 38, 53, 64, Organizational Regulations of the 76,95, 98 Ministry of Defense in Peacetime and General Staff, 51, 53, 54, 81, (1993), 87-91 85, 87-91 Orlik, 65, 71, 72 recommendations, 65, 66, 68, 71 structure of, 50, 81, 93, 94, 101, Partnership for Peace (PfP), 49 112,121 Parys affair, 81 , 8 5 Ministry of Defense Security Detail, 86 Parys, Jan, 82-84, 91 Ministry of Industry and Trade Pawlak, Waldemar, 2, 95, 103, 104, (MPiH), 76 117 Ministry of Internal Affairs, 44 People's Army (AL), 28, 29, 32-34, 38 Miracle on the Vistula (1920), 93 People's Guard (GL), 29, 32, 38 Mirage 2000-5, 68 Pilsudski, Marshal Jozef, 10, 16, 24-27, Moczar, Mieczyslaw, 38 37,93 Monte Cassino, 29, 40 and the 1926 coup d'etat, 16, 26, 27 Pilsudski's Legions, 10, 25, 26 Narutowicz, Gabriel, 26 Pol, Marek, 72 National Council (KRN), 30 Polish Academy of Sciences Institute of National Defense Academy, 53, 96, Non-European Countries, 82 106 Polish armed forces, 2, 4, 10, 62, 58, 78 National Defense Committee, 103 after 1989, 13, 16, 17, 19,43 National Security Bureau (BBN), 81, in 1956 crisis, 10-12, 44 83, 84, 92, 94 in the 1960s and 1970s, 12 NATO, 51, 87, 105, 109 in 1970 crisis, 39, 43 and Warsaw Pact, 36, 58 in 1981, 7, 12 expansion of, 2, 3, 5, 9, 15, 47-49, in NATO Implementation Force, 49, 69, 103, 104, 121 66 invitation to Poland, 77, 92 in the Czechoslovak crisis, 39 Polish contribution to, 75, 77, 99, purges of, 30, 38 107, 115, 118, 120 values of, 16-21, 26 138 • The Soldier-Citizen

Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, 11, Sejm Commission on National 23,24,27 Defense, 67, 70, 80, 94, 98, 104, officers of, 24 ll9 third partition of, 23-25 Shalikashvili, Gen. John, II7 Polish Military Organization (POW), Siemiatkowski, Zbigniew, 9I 28 Sikorski, Radek, 83 Polish Peasant Party (PSL), 19, 20, 30, Sikorski, Gen. Wladyslaw, 24, 29 88,90,94,97, 103, Ill Silesian Military District, 55, 56, 84 Polish People's Army, 7, 23, 30, 3I, 39, Skorpion, 67, 72 42,43 , 50 see also LWP Social Democracy of the Republic of Polish People's Republic, 24, 35, 40, 44 Poland, the (SdRP), I9, 20 Polish-Russian war (1830-31), 25 Sokol, 65, 72, 76 Polish security policy, 3, 47, 50 exchange for Czech MiG-29s, 65, Polish-Soviet war (19I9-I920), 10, 26, 68, 74, liS 27 soldier-citizen, 2, 5, 15, 17, ll6, ll7, Polish United Workers' Party (PZPR), I22 I1,32-37,42 the paradigm of, 8-I2 Polish Workers' Party (PPR), 29 Solidarity Trade Union, 10, 20,40-43, Pomeranian Military District, 55, 56, 63 64 Soviet invasion of Poland (1939), 28, 37 Portillo, Michael, I 04 Soviet Union, the, 3, 4, 10, 12, 35, 38 Poznan riots, 33 Spalinski, Leszek, 92 praetorian military, 5, 9, IO, II, 13, Special Services, 44 15, 26 Spychalski, Gen. Marian, 32-37 PT-9I, 75, 77 Stalin, Joseph, 29, 3I, 33 Pulaski, Tadeusz, 24 Stalinism, I3, 44 Status of Forces agreement, 34, 35 reform of the military, 3, 4 see also Warsaw Pact regional security of Poland, 3 Stelmaszuk, Gen. Zdzislaw, 84 Ribbentrop-Molotov Pact, 28 Struzik, Adam, 92 Rockwell, 73 Suchocka, rlanna, 84,87,88, 97 Rokossovskiy, Marshal Konstantin, SUPRASL, 65 3I-34 Szumski, Gen. rlenryk, 104, II2 Rolls-Royce, 68 Russia, 49, 50, 68 T-72, 76, 77, I08 Russian revolution and civil war, I5, Tatar, Gen. Stanislaw, 32 I6,44 Territorial Defense (OTK), 36, 58, 77, 85 sanacja, 27, 28 Third Republic, 43, 50, 54, I03 Scierski, Klemens, 98 Third World military, 8, I3, I9 Second Republic, 2, II, 23-28, 35, 86 Toczek, Vice Admiral Marek, 102 Sejm, 94, 95, I02 transitional state, I, II Sejm Commission on Foreign Affairs, 80 Ukraine, 47, 49 Index • 139

Union of Freedom (UW), 19, 20,94 see also WTO Union of Labor (UP), 19, 20,94 Warsaw uprising, 28 United States, 3, 12 Wawrzyniak, Adm. Czeslaw, 81 Wejner, Lt. Col. Edward, 39 Visegrad Group, 50 Westerplatte, 28 Vistula Operation, 31 Wilecki, Gen. Tadeusz, 1, 2, 54, 69, Vistula Units (NJW), 83, 102 70, 91, 107, 108, 112 Voroshilov Academy, 84 career of, 83, 84 eclipse of, 97, 101-104, 111 Wachowski, Mieczyslaw, 83, 92, 102 on the conditions in the army, 72, Walesa, Lech, 19, 20, 41, 48, 51, 70, 73, 74,86,99,105 91, 103, political influence of, 81, 83, 92, 93, and the military, 2, 79, 81, 83, 95, 97, 114, 115 92-95, 97, 102, 114 Wisniewski, Adm. Jan, 34 defeat of, 64, 69 World War I, 25, 26 legacyof, 117,119,120 World War II, 3,23, 27, 42, 86, 119 Waniek, Danuta, 1, 19, 91-93, 103 WSK Mielec, 65, 69-72 Warsaw Military District, 55, 56 WTO, 38,43 Warsaw Pact, 1, 15, 26, 40, 43, 45, 58 and the Polish Front, 35, 36 Zabinski Report, 50, 51, 80, 86 coalition warfare, 1, 36, 38 Zimowski, Jerzy, 102 dissolution of, 3, 69 Zych, Jozef, 92 Joint Command of, 80 Zymierski, Michal Rola, 30, 32