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Introduction 1. in My Conversations with Senior Polish Military

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Introduction 1. in My Conversations with Senior Polish Military Notes Introduction 1. In my conversations with senior Polish military personnel, this argument was raised repeatedly by the officers, including Chief of the General Staff Gen. Tadeusz Wilecki. This might be dismissed as institutional self-justification were it not for the fact that it was also raised by junior rank officers, as well as by several civilians within the Ministry of Defense. All interviews were con­ ducted by the author between January 1995 and July 1995 in Warsaw, Poland. 2. These observations have been confirmed in my contacts with Czech, Slovak, Hungarian, Russian, and Ukrainian officers, all of whom tended to define professionalism in terms that presupposed autonomy within society and subordination to one power center within government, without much room for additional institutional oversight arrangements. Chapter One 1. See, for example, A. Ross Johnson, Robert W. Dean, and Alexander Alexiev, East European Military Establishments: The W'arsaw Pact Northern Tier (New York: Crane Russak, 1982) and Timothy J. Colton and Thane Gustafson, eds., Soldiers and the Soviet State: Civil Military Relations from Brezhnev to Gorbachev (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1990). 2. In addition to Samuel Huntington's classic The Soldier and the State (Cam­ bridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1957), some of the better works on civil-military relations include Amos Perlmutter and Valier Plave Bennett, The Political Influence of the Military (New Haven and London: Yale Uni­ versity Press, 1980), Alfred Stepan, The Military in Politics: Changing Pat­ terns in Brazil (Princeton, N. J.: Princeton University Press, 1971), John Samuel Fitch, The Military Coup d'Etat as a Political Process: Ecuador, 1948-1966 (Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1977), and Claude E. Welch, Jr., ed., Civilian Control of the Military: The­ ory and Cases from Developing Countries (Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press, 1976). 3. These criteria have been used as a benchmark in Jeffrey Simon, NATO Enlargement and Central Europe: A Study in Civil-Military Relations (Washington, D.C.: National Defense University, 1996). 124 • The Soldier-Citizen 4. The classic study by Huntington, The Soldier and the State, still serves as a ref­ erent for analyzing the prerequisites of military professionalism in democratic polities. Studies on the inadequacy of civilian oversight of the military in post­ communist Europe include Jeffrey Simon's excellent work NATO Enlargement and Central Europe: A Study in Civil-Military Rel.atiom (Washington, D.C.: National Defense University, 1996) and Thomas Szayna and F. Stephen Larabee's East European Military Reform (Santa Monica, Cal.: RAND, 1995). 5. A number of Polish officers I interviewed between 1992 and 1996 asserted that the Polish army was at its core a national army, and as such it identified with the democratic aspirations of society. 6. Interwar Czechoslovakia may be an exception as far as the "usable past" is concerned in that it had preserved a working democratic system until the federation's demise in 1938. 7. This is the fundamental assumption underlying the theory put forth by Samuel Huntington in The Soldier and the State (Cambridge, Mass.: Har­ vard University Press, 1957). 8. Roman Kolkowicz is prominently associated with the first paradigm, William E. Odom with the second, and Timothy J. Colton with the third. For an overview of the three paradigms, see Timothy J. Colton, "Perspectives on Civil­ Military Relations in the Soviet Union," in Timothy J. Colton and Thane Gustafson, eds., Soldiers and the Soviet State: Civil-Military Rel.atiom from Brezh­ nev to Gorbachev (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1990). 9. This is the gist of the argument in my 1990 book Red Eagle: The Army in Polish Politics, 1944-1988 (Stanford, Cal.: Hoover Institution Press, 1990). 10. The chief of the General Staff, Gen. Tadeusz Wilecki, asserted that by de­ ciding not to intervene, the Polish army "defended and saved the 1989 rev­ olution." Interview with the author, General Staff Headquarters in Warsaw, September 20, 1995. 11. This section draws upon a study by Marian Kasperski and Adam Kolodziejczyk, Swiadomosc moralna kadry zawodowej WP, 1989-1992 (War­ saw: WIBS, 1992), conducted by the Military Institute of Sociological Stud­ ies (Wojskowy Instytut Badan Socjologicznych, or WIBS). I am grateful to Dr. Eva Busza of College of William and Mary for making a copy of the study available to me. 12. Marian Kasperski and Adam Kolodziejczyk, Swiadomosc moralna kadry za­ wodowej WP, 1989-1992 (Warsaw: WIBS, 1992), p. 42. 13. Komunikat z badan nastrojow kadry zawodowej w miesiacu lipcu 1993 r. (Warszawa: Ministerstwo Obrony Narodowej/WIBS, 1993), pp. 8-9. 14. "Kogo lubia wojskowi, Zycie Wtmzazry January 23, 1995. 15. Marek Henzler, "Razeni smiechem," Polityka, January 28, 1995, p. 7. 16. Komunikat z badan nastrojow kadry zawodowej w miesiacu lipcu 1993 r. (Warszawa: Ministerstwo Obrony Narodowej/WIBS, 1993), p. 6. Chapter Two 1. The Military Balance, 1986-1987 (London: The International Institute for Strategic Studies, 1986), pp. 52-53. Notes • 125 2. Jedrzej Kitowicz, Opis obyczajow za panowania Augusta III (Warsaw: Panst­ wowy lnstytut Wydawniczy, 1985), pp. 169-71. 3. The term Second Republic (Druga Rzeczpospolita) refers to interwar Poland, the successor to the Commonwealth of Poland-Lithuania, which had disap­ peared from the map of Europe after the third partition of Poland in 1795. Communist Poland was officially known as the Polish People's Republic (Polska Rzeczpospolita Ludowa, or PRL), while the democratic Poland after 1989 is called either the Republic of Poland (Rzeczpospolita Polska) or, less formally, the Third Republic ( Trzecia Rzeczpospolita). 4. Marian Kukiel, Zarys historii wojskowosci w Polsce (London: Puis Publica­ tions, Ltd., 1992), p. 301. 5. One of the most enduring images in Polish literary tradition is that of Konrad Wallenrod, a hero from the work of Poland's premier Romantic poet, Adam Mickiewicz. In Mickiewicz's poem, Konrad Wallenrod is a Polish patriot in medieval times who rises within the hierarchy of the Teu­ tonic Order in order to destroy it from within and save his country. See Adam Mickiewicz, Konrad Wallenrod and Other Writings ofAdam Mick­ iewicz, translated from the Polish by Jewell Parish (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1975). 6. Jerzy J. Wiatr, The Soldier and the Nation: The Role ofthe Military in Polish Politics, 1918-1985 (Boulder, Col.: Westview Press, 1988), p. 22. 7. Gen. Wladyslaw Sikorski, Nad Wisla i Wkra: Studium polsko-rosyjskiej wojny 1920 roku (Lwow: Wydawnictwo Zakladu Narodowego im. Ossolinskich, 1928), p. 257. 8. See Tadeusz Bor-Komorowski, Trzy wyklady o AK (Paris: Zeszyty Histo­ ryczne, no. 49, 1979). 9. VII rocznica udzialu lotnictwa polskiego w Bitwie o Anglie (Toronto: Zwiazkowiec, 1977), p. 6. 10. Wladyslaw Anders, Bez ostatniego rozdzialu: Wspomnienia z fat 1939-1946 (London: GryfPublications Ltd., 1981), pp. 196-221. 11. See Janusz K. Zawodny, Death in the Forest: The Story of the Katyn Forest Massacre (Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, 1962). 12. Ktystyna Kersten, Narodziny systemu wladzy: Polska 1943-1948 (Paris: Li­ bella, 1986), pp. 260-61. 13. Adam Michalski, Los sie przychylil (Warsaw: Wydawnictwo Ministerstwa Obrony Narodowej, 1986), pp. 200-201. 14. Kersten, Narodziny systemu wladzy, p. 89. 15. W)tyczne operacyjne Nr. 00275, june 16, 1947, "Wisla"- rozkazy i wytyczne operacyjne, Departament Org. i Planowania MON/GO., January 7-Decem­ ber 31, 1947. Documents from Centralne Archiwum Wojskowe, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C., W-1 and W-2. 16. For an excellent discussion of Polish-Jewish relations in the postwar Polish People's Republic, see Ktystyna Kersten, Polacy, Zydzi, komunizm: anatomia polprawd, 1939-68 (Warsaw: Niezalezna Oficyna Wydawnicza, 1992). 17. Kersten, Narodziny systemu wladzy, p. 354. 18. Malgorzata Subotic, "Wewnetrznie uzbrojony: Rozmowa z generalem broni Jozefem Kuropieska," Rzeczpospolita Magazyn, September 1995, pp. 4-5. 126 • The Soldier-Citizen 19. A number of the victims of the purge survived to offer their eyewitness tes­ timony in two films, Proces (The Trial) and Dno Piekla (At the Bottom of Hell), shown on Polish television after 1989. 20. Zbigniew Blazynski, Mowi ]ozef Swiatlo: Za kulisami bezpieki i partii, 1940-1955 (London: Polska Fundacja Kulturalna, 1985), p. 82. 21. Ibid., p. 140. 22. Ibid., p. 23. 23. Document no. 21: "Trese wystapienia W. Gomulki w dniu 12 X 1956 na posiedzeniu Biura Polirycznego KC PZPR, Section 'Sprawa doradcow w wo­ jsku,"' in Jakub Andrzejewski, ed., Gomulka i inni: Dokumenty z archiwum KC, 1948-1982 (London: Aneks, 1987), p. 94. 24. Edmund Makowski, ed., Wydarzenia czerwcowe w Poznaniu, 1956 (Poznan: Uniwersytet im. Adama Mickiewicza, 1981), pp. 58-59. 25. Ibid., p. 70. 26. In fact, Khrushchev had known Gomulka for some time prior to 1956, and on one occasion "recommended him very highly to Stalin." Khrushchev Re­ members (Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1970), p. 360. 27. Zbigniew Brzezinski noted that during the October crisis the Polish Army was restive and that probably, "in a critical situation, would not obey Rokossovskiy." Zbigniew Brzezinski, Soviet Bloc: Unity and Conflict (New York: Praeger, 1962), p. 258. 28. Teresa Rakowska-Harmstone, Christopher Jones, and Ivan Sylvain, \~maw Pact: The Question of Cohesion, Phase IL vol. 2, Poland, German Democratic Republic, and Romania (Ottawa: ORAE Extra-Mural Paper no. 29, February 1984), p. 66. 29. A. Ross Johnson, Robert W. Dean, and Alexander Alexiev, East European Military Establishments: The warsaw Pact Northern Tier (New York: Crane Russak, 1982), p. 24. 30. The original draft and the subsequent revisions were submitted in 1956 to Gen. Marian Spychalski, Gomulka's defense minister. Umowa miedzy Rza­ dem Po/skiej Rzeczypospolitej Ludowej a Rzadem Zwiazku Socjalistycznych Re­ publik Radzieckich w sprawie statusu wojsk radzieckich stacjonujacych w Polsce, Centralne Archiwum Wojskowe, Library of Congress, W-13. 31. Johnson, Dean, and Alexiev, The warsaw Pact Northern Tier, pp. 28-29. 32.
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