Sanitation, Urban Environment and The

CEU eTD Collection

in Partial Fulfillmentof for Partial theRequirements in theDegr THE POLITICSTHE OF PUBLIC HEALTH IN LATE IMPERIAL MOSCOW Presented to the Faculties tothe University Presented oftheCentralEuropean SANITATION, URBAN ENVIRONMENT Supervisor: Professor Alexei Miller Supervisor: Professor

Budapest, Hungary Budapest, A DISSERTATION Anna Mazanik IN HISTORY AND 2015

ee ofee DoctorPhilosophy of

CEU eTD Collection by unless person another other any for accepted any materials in degrees no contains dissertation this that declare hereby I the Author. instructions such with accordance pagemust librarian.This and Author either in process, any by Copies author. the with rests dissertation this of text the in Copyright

full or part, may be made only in accordance with the instructio

lodged in the Central European Library. Details may be obtained by the the by obtained be may Details Library. European Central the in lodged

other institutions and no materials previously written and/or published and/or written previously materials no and institutions other

otherwise noted. form a part of any such copies made. Further copies made in made copies Further made.copies such any of part a form

may not be made without the written pe written the without made be not may

ns given by the rmission of rmission ii

CEU eTD Collection was hindered by same time, the dissertation emphasizes that the realization of these introduced need in those to assistance medical provide and expressed in “ wastes. urban of treatment and removal the production; meat and slaughtering of regulation the disease; venereal the R of late reforms. to attention little devoted have scholars subject, politicized highly a became health public of field shape their economic motiva which are: dissertation the of problems mid the between sanitation urban of sphere serving dis The The ussian urban history. - imperial medicine Russian and public health, as well as thehealth dimension to The goal The thesis the people” the -

through i through goals in took practice. sertation were were b

the local politics of health and the use of medical sciences in the urban the in sciences medical of use the and health of politics local the applying scientific knowledge oue o tre set o ubn elh oiis te rvnin of prevention the policies: health urban of aspects three on focuses the social andpolitical the realities social of the of the dissertation the of ehind ehind the sanitary reforms, who cared and why

mposing new norms of “healthy” and “healthy” of norms new mposing

analyzes and disciplining them disciplining and

It argues It

h atvt o te late the of activity the

Although innineteenthAlthough

ABSTRACT thus that Moscow’sthat

is to is and the municipal resources to fight disease . The . bring the urban dimension to the history history the to dimension bring urban the - 80 ad 1905 and 1870s tions tions . service to the urban community urban the to service

The disciplinary The

project of of project – - autocrati imperial Moscow elites in the the in elites Moscow imperial

oiia, scientific, political, - century emerging the Russia “civilized” “civilized” sanit c . they they cared and which

Russian Empire.Russian entangled processes h mi research main The ation mechanisms were mechanisms behavior implied both implied

social, or social, .

At the At was was

iii

CEU eTD Collection editing parts oftext this Seym two as Kilsey, influenced its shape and co the archival holdings. the Central State A Alexander Friedrich Dejanand Petkov. Hård Brantz, gained I assistance. bureaucratic procedures Molnar Aniko and Gergely Gyani, M Parnes, Ohad AlfredRieber, Hall, Karl faculty:CEU the of my friend and colleague Goran Miljan. This work. my for environment been a different very dissertation. so m 2012 HopkinsUniversityin Johns the stayat of work and careme his for to there years project.inspired onthis and during supported of me work the

any question any their nme o pol read people of number A valuable me gave and project my discussed countries several in scholars Many wonderful a been has community intellectual diverse and vibrant its with CEU My deepest gratitude goes to Daniel Todes and Graham Mooney Miller, Alexei supervisor, my thank to like would I all, of First I am often suprized how fortunate uch attention and support. Without their guidance and knowledge would this have , Dieter Schott, Schott, Dieter , whenever I needed his advice his Ineeded whenever u, rn Ldo, mgn Bay Imogen Ludlow, Frank our,

Maya Maya Peterson and my other colleagues from the Rachel Carson Center, Markian Prokopovych and Ostap Sereda. Sereda. Ostap and Prokopovych Markian lxne Shevyrev, Alexander and time nnmu rvees from reviewers anonymous -

intellectual or practical or intellectual energy to introducing me to the history of public health public of history the to me introducing to energy rchive of Moscow whose lt rm h suggestions the from lot a

ldmr odnv Ade Volodin, Andrey Bogdanov, Vladimir .

of the doctoral program

(which he probably would notadmit (which he would probably ntent ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

– atn Aust, Martin

: Victoria Frede, Andriy Zayarnyuk, Jon Mat idea of this this of idea certain their work and friendliness made the unavoidable unavoidable the made friendliness and work their

. Ienjoyed.

I am to have

I Kritika

ley A creditspecial goes to Andrey fromDavydov benefited at o m dissertation my of parts -

that I had, had, I that n Ldia Sharaya Ludmila and advice and publications guided me through project emerged out emergedproject uh dnil Crso Mauch, Christof Odenziel, Ruth

– . his

and I still wonder how I have deservedI have wonderhow I still and Ann Roeder, Robin Bellers, Nicole Nicole Bellers, Robin Roeder, Ann

easier toendure.

greatly outstanding of so many people who tought, helped,

wud lo like also would I aai Zemon Natalie his endless irony, endless his

from

)

Konstantin Poleshchuk, Poleshchuk, Konstantin ikhail Dmitriyev, Gabor Dmitriyev,ikhail ability to ability the expertise .

of

idy helped kindly

n ter critisicm their and

conversations with conversations

who - Davi who was who

o thank to his find a solution a find devoted devoted s,

trust in my my in trust and advice during my my during

h Dorothee ieu,

Mikael Mikael as as well always

Judit

with a lot Elin iv

CEU eTD Collection who Moscow. host that family my Rese German gra as well as debates and Ukraine in project ReSET the from colleagues network me with shared University Eidelman, Tamara Lóránd Uku I am very grateful to get access thenecessary to bo mygrant and reports applications, place they meinvarious hosted intellectual my were They people outstanding many of friendship Finally,I want to thank Th wo have I discussed ev Lember, Felcher, Anastasia e work on this dissertation has , Gleb Kozyritsky, Kozyritsky, Gleb ,

Gender in the European Town Town European the in Gender

and particularly Tod particularly and enjoyable has professional endured friendship challenge that ofwar. the arch Foundation arch kd n hs israin n five in dissertation this on rked t fo te emn cdmc Ex Academic German the from nts the last months of my work. my of months last the ery argument and argument ery readevery line ofthisdissertation. Maria Falina, Irina Savinetskaya, Yulia Karpova, Maria Kudinova, vey aao, h doctoral the Natarov, Evgeny ed and took care of me during my very long long very my during me of care took and

Ira Roldugina, Olga Chagadayeva, Alexander Varshavsky, Alexander Chagadayeva, Olga Roldugina, Ira companions, they shared the ups and downs of my career my of downs and ups the shared they companions, my most helpful oks

(DFG). I would also like to acknowledge the support of support acknowledge the to like also would I(DFG). s d Christopher d , tran Gábor and articles kept me company libraries, in Moscow’s

been sported my documents across mysported , most of whom also happened to be historians be to happened also whom of most ,

Szegedi, VedranSzegedi,

financed o al h poutv dsusos n my and discussions productive the all for and supportive

, and tookcare ofme inmany ways. other I also wish to thank the members of the of members the thank to wish also I and and

for the inspiration, the for different countries and enjoyed the the enjoyed and countries different by the stipend and grants from my hne evc (DAAD) Service change tdns f h Jhs Hopkins Johns the of students fellow Duančić boyfriend

students f students , Ernst Visser Ernst border exciting scholarl exciting research

Brendan Roeder rom s , submitted

helped me helped me CEU

and the the and , trips to to trips Zsófia Zsófia CEU

who

v y , .

CEU eTD Collection Animal bodies for the human good? CHAPTER FOUR “Habeas corpus cum lue venerea” CHAPTER THREE politicsLocal Moscowin and dynamics the sanitaryof reforms CHAPTER TWO Hygi CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION BIBLIOGRAPHY CONCLUSION sewerage system Between cesspools an CHAPTER FIVE Using seweragethe system and the problem of industrial discharge Constructing the sewerage system and the relations bet Choosing the sewerage system andthe scientific explanation Rivers, waste The limits of “public good”: Abattoir an as employer Civilized slaughter: violence torture? or The operation of the abattoir: science, technology and publicthe image “Public good” versus profit: motivations behind the slaughtering reform Outpatient clinics, Myasnitskaya hospital, and the treatment venerealof disease Moscow chooses between abolitionism and regulationism Human body, individual freedom andabolitionism Approaching syphilis andprostitution Municipal initia The Moscow municipality and the career Erismann of Sanitary reforms in Alekseyev The emergence of municipal sanitary control Moscow: ur Health administration and community me Friedrich ene and public health inimperial Russia Erismann, hygiene andbacteriology ban growth, social composition andcity government

s

and the images of po

tives, administrative resources: sanitary reform in the 1890s

d police stations: Campaign agai an Moscow, 1885 : Syphilis,: prostitution and public health

llution The public abatt

CONTENTS

dicine

-

1893: municipalization and“public good”

oir and slaughteringthe reform

nst water pollution and theMoscow

ween the city and the country

126 245 233 213 206 193 185 182 170 159 142 130 109

67 63 52 48 43 42 28 21 20 97 89 83 79 vi

1

CEU eTD Collection 5.1 4.3. 4.2. 4.1. The ofthe complex Moscow abattoir 1901 examinations, dis of Cases 3.3. 3.2. 3 2.2. The buildingMoscow oftheCity Council. 2.1. Figures 1912. 6.1. Deat year5.2. Financialresults ofthe M 5.1. Number of connected estates housing tothe Moscow sewerage system Income4.4. abattoir's of 1890 thepersonnelin Moscow the at products slaughter of rejection abattoir the and pigs of morbidity The 4.3. aba morbidity The 4.2. 4.1. Number of the Moscow animals abattoir Berlin 1890 at and livestock market, Incidence3.2. amongin 1901. ofdisease women inspected at 3.1. Number of examinations 2.4. Selected causes Moscow ofdeath in in1882 2.3. Mortality and other inMoscow Europea 2.2. Municipal revenues andinEuropeanper1879 taxes capita ofpopulation cities 2.1. 1.2. The cities and biggestRussian their sanitary organizations. 1.1. Sanitary provinces. zemstvo in organizations Tables LIST FIGURES OFTABLES AND .1. The . ttoir

The M The ofthe system. pumpingMoscow sewerage station The Moscowonthe city abattoir map Slaughterhousecattle. for Monthlye number of The mayors of late

.

Myasnitskaya hospital. h rates from infectious disease unicipal outpatient clinic of Rogozhskaya district: facade and waiting room ae mn isetd women inspected among ease

- of cattle cattle of 1911 - imperial Moscow imperial . xaminations at xaminations

and the rejection of slaughter products at the Moscow Moscow the at products slaughter of rejection the and

the Women’s clinicbycategory. os

cow sewerage system

in Moscow per 100,000 population in 1882 and the . . , 1912.

n cities. n Women’s ambulatoriya, 1889 .

.

in relation to the total number of of number total the to relation in

.

- . 1916

.

.

vii . .

CEU eTD Collection urban of model a as served indeed path often merged with ideas of a more general political change. standard”“European with a transformationand catchingup urban Europe, ideas of the metrop with cities other several in like societies. Western “advanced” with gap perceived the bridge urgently to cleaner and healthier country the making as mission their see to professionals medical intrinsically as Russia of portrayal the making anew ofthesocial mark health population of progress. cities Western many late a was Russia project. modernizing the of component essential an as reforms sanitary and health public promote to came with it? do doctors sanitary of hands weak the can what centuries; for accumulated original, the good results of the sanitary campaigns against Moscow dirt. This dirt is primordial, mistaken, but,judging th from be to like would We inspection. of comedy a play to now forced are cause, better a of city's magazine satirical 3 2 1

The centrality of health and sanitation to the idea of modernity, in combination with In the last de feelWe sincerely the newly for sorry the of one established, was organization sanitary Moscow when year the 1884, In (Budapest and New and (Budapest York:2014 Press, University European Central (eds.), Kohlrausch 2010). Obozreniye, (1700 imperii Rossiyskoy istorii v trasferov Rol' pares: 1861 Vulpius (eds.), Ricarda and Martin Miller,Austsee Aleksey Empire Russian the Russia, to in Question 1 pp. 1999), Press, Macmillan Agrarian Hampshire: the and Cooperatives On the Russian ideas of backwardness see Budil’ Jan Behrends and Martin Kohlrausch disscuss it in their introduction to Jan Behrends and Martin and Behrends Jan to introduction their in it disscuss Kohlrausch Martin and Behrends Jan 1

nik , 38 (1884), 455. (1884), p. , 38 cades of the nineteenth century Moscow's local government institutions Races to Modernity: Metropolitan Aspirations in Eastern Europe, 1890 Europe, Eastern in Aspirations Metropolitan Modernity: to Races

the public health and sanitary reforms took place decades earlier, earlier, decades place took reformssanitary and health public the s welcomed the new institution withthe followings welcomed institution words: the new

e experiencesyears, ofthe past can we believe hardly in INTRODUCTION Yanni Kotsonis,

-

- 8; on t on 8; - accomplishment or improving national public national improving or accomplishment Eastern and Central across aspirations olitan “backward”, led Russian educated elites and elites educated Russian led “backward”, made sanitary who,with zeal worthy doctors, comer in the European health campaign; in in campaign; health European the in comer he importance of transfers from Western Europe from transfers of importance he - Making Making Peasants Backward: Agricultural 1917) 1917)

- 1914 1914 (Moscow: Novoye Literaturnoye Literaturnoye Novoye (Moscow: 3

), pp. ), pp. Yet, although the Western

(Houndmills, Basingstoke, Basingstoke, (Houndmills, 1 - 19 .

2

Imperium inter inter Imperium In Moscow, In

- 1940 1940 1

CEU eTD Collection th name to (1874), reform military the and (1870) reform municipal self rural of establishment the (1864), reform juridical the by followed 1861, in serfdom of abolition the was Reforms Great the of Reforms Great of Alexander II as the watershed in imperial Russian the saw historians and contemporaries Both change. perceivable a effected and form systematic a acquired efforts these that Reforms Great the after only was II, Catherine of reign the during made were city the of regional bourgeoisie. the andpolice the administration, imperial and lat local the as such actors, other involved but medicine, community of format the in the it developed by which pioneered municipality, was reform sanitary The implementation. their controlled that sanitary infrastructure, introduction of new sanitary norms and rules and various bodies organ care, medical free to access of provision and institutions health public of networks of creation the including activities, of spectrum wide a embraced that discipline of hygiene as its scientific basis. This was a lengthy and complicated process of urban sanitation, or answersessentiallyways were inmany Russian. dete often model Western The policies. and solutions original in resulted and dynamics social and political regional the in process a was healthier Russia making of process the health, 4

Although certain attempts to provide health care and improve the sanitary conditions In the late 1870s 65 Constructing Imperial Moscow, 1762 61 pp. 2003), Press, University Oxford (Oxford: Alexander, John .

Bubonic Plague in Early Modern Russia: Public Health and Urban Disaster Disaster Urban and Health Public Russia: Modern Early in Plague Bubonic –

1890s, Moscow authorities launched an unprecedented campaign “ ozdorovleniye

- 1855 1855 ”,

which which relied on the newly established in Ru (Oxford: (Oxford: Oxford Uni rmined which questions were asked asked were questions which rmined - 97; Alexander Martin, Alexander 97;

- government Alexander I and Nicholas I, Nicholas and I Alexander versity Press, sui generis sui history. The cornerstone -

zemstvo Enlightened Metropolis: Enlightened 2013 e most important most e , it was rooted rooted was it , ), ), pp.

(1864), the the (1864), ization of ization – 14

but the the but - 24 , ssia 4 36

er er it 2 -

CEU eTD Collection motivations which are: dissertation my in explore will I problems research main The situation. epidemiological and environment the do it as societyitself the about much as just us tells it concern, public of issue research is that if the matters of pollution and sanitation suddenly became an important ha werewith zemstvos) highest bodies inRussia. the political elected beyond 1905, the main period of my research is the time when municipalities (together in narratives certain Although turmoil. revolutionary and politics party parliamentarism, Russian of beginning the marked that Revolution 1905 the is limit upper city.The the in conditions sanitaryimprove and health promote to Statute, by empowered government, Moscow local the of efforts first mid the between sanitation urban sanitary reform. inc initiatives, local many innovative way theto opened thus and to applyit, provided an arena for civic activism as well as the communication. authority and the economic resources political of patterns the changed political in participants of number the increased country, social the the in relations transformed They above. from reform the in belief the of culmination the marked bureaucrats, liberal enlightened by elaborated Reforms, Great The steps. 6 5

d to deal with broadly with deal to d Christopher Hamlin once wrote that “a “a that wrote once Hamlin Christopher late the activityof the examines thesis My Controversy,” 1839 Edinburgh, Rieber, in Sensibility “Environmental Alfred Hamlin, Christopher particularly 1994), Press, University “Interest Indiana Indianapolis: and (Bloomington (eds.), Zakharova Larissa and Bushnell John Eklof, Ben See - Group Politics int Politics Group Journal or Urban History, Urban or Journal

public he Era of the Great Reforms,” pp. pp. Reforms,” ofthe Great Era he

issues.” - 1870s and 1905. The earlier date corresponds to the to corresponds date earlier The 1905. and 1870s

20 6 ,

311 my for assumption underlying the Similarly, public

( - 1994 imperial Moscow elites in the sphere of of spherethe in elites Moscow imperial ), p. ),

controversy about the environment environment the about controversy -

5 333 scientific, ideological, social, or social, ideological, scientific,

58 hy rgee urbanization, triggered They Russia's Great Reforms, 1855 Reforms, Great Russia's . -

83 .

- 1840: The ‘Fetid Irrigation’ ‘Fetid The 1840: h 17 Municipal 1870 the

my dissertation go dissertation my luding the luding the

es about es ie and life - 1881 3

CEU eTD Collection mia broad the when revolution” “bacteriological city. isolated an in live not did were, they rooted locally however reformers, health Moscow the pol social in changes important effecting country'seconomy. the in elites its and Moscow of importance the to linked generally was endeavors new came from the paidtaxes by Muscovites, and the demand for a reforms the for basis financial the as economically, Academy; Agricultural Moscow with the use of expertise of the local academic centers, such as Moscow University and topography; social and b primarily out carried were reforms structure the as institutionally, planning climate, and geography landscape, city; migrant a of character specific and reforms were called into being by Moscow's rapid urb ways different various in context Moscow local the in embedded was reforms sanitary the of story The it. to important very remained dimension urban th beyond evolved project my Although historian. urban an as reforms sanitary of problem the on working started I cultural. broadly goalsshape those inpractice. took economic 8 7

My research illustrates the role of local actors and community and actors local of role the illustrates research My I deal with these problems in several contexts contexts several in problems these with deal I 2002). Press, 1982); Yu. A. Petrov, Rieber, 1855 Merchants, Moscow the of On merchant Moscow elites see Thomas Owen, 75 pp. 1990), Press, California of University (Berkeley: On migrant cities see Daniel Brower,

Merchants and Entrepreneurs in Imperial Russia -

were were behind the sanitary reforms, who cared and why they cared and The period of my research saw the paradigmatic shift known as the the as known shift paradigmatic the saw research my of period The 8

Moskovskaya burzhuaziya v burzhuaziya XX nachale veka Moskovskaya

- 1905 1905

The The Russian Ci Cmrde Cambr (Cambridge: icy, welfare and the standard of living. Yet, living. of standard the and welfare icy, 7

Capitalism and Politics Capitalism and in Russia: A Social History ptal, s hy eedd n h city's the on depended they as spatially, ty between Tradition and Modernity, 1850 smatic theory that linked disease with disease linked that theory smatic - e framework of a “city history”, the the history”, “city a of framework e 91. (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina – anization, anization, its metropolitan claims

idge University Press, 1981); Alfred Alfred 1981); Press, University idge ra, oiia, cetfc and scientific political, urban, y the municipal bodies and and bodies municipal the y nd nd the potential of these (Moscow: Mosgorarkhiv, - based initiatives in initiatives based –

socially, as the the as socially, which which - 1900 4

CEU eTD Collection sense of superiority over the West gardens, Moscow, century nineteenth the of half first the in and disease had a deep metaphoric meaning. servedwith zemstvos, as a kindoftest enterprise, it had a much wider resonance in the country where municipa same reasons, although the activity of the Moscow reformers was a local, city - constant in stay to had reformers urban the limited, quite was cities of autonomy because and state autocratic an remained Russia As country. the in processes – a of part adopting of circulation, and production knowledge of story transnational a were disease to approaches Moscow local the respect, this In abroad. congresses, international periodicals, academic colleagues foreign their with interacted eagerly they and community scientific European the of part a were practitioners medical Moscow subject change to the when understanding of disease, its diagnostics, treatment and time the policies of were prevention a was It pathogens. particular for search the by replaced was filth 10 9

and the new and translating scientific themi ideas

More importantly, in Russia the discussions about cleanliness and pollution, health health pollution, and cleanliness about discussions the Russia in importantly, More political general more the to tied also were Moscow in reforms sanitary The and Russia's Urban Crisis,1906 Russia's Urban and see politics local in liberalism the On and France Andrew Sciences, Biomedical and Biological of Philosophy and History in Studies Michael Warboys,“

sometimes enter into conflict into enter sometimes

cultivated the myth of being a healthy and harmonious place and and place harmonious and healthy a being of myth the cultivated Mendelsohn, “ Mendelsohn, Germany,1870 -

although thescopeand the Was Revolutiona there Late Bacteriological in Nineteenth

Cultures of Bacteriology: Foundation and Transformation of a of Transformation and Foundation Bacteriology: of Cultures – 1914,”

- 1914 1914

Ph.D. thesis, Princeton University,thesis, Princeton Ph.D. - European cities that suffered from overcrow - Robert Thurston, Thurston, Robert (

New York:Press University Oxford with the central and local administration. For the the For administration. local and central the with - model of elected liberalgovernment. As historian Alexander Martin has

course of this change are still disputed. course ofthischange are still nto social practice. dcto, nenhp o study or internships education, Liberal City, Conservative State: Moscow Moscow State: Conservative City, Liberal with its small houses and abundant and houses small its with –

hog proa letters, personal through 1996.

2007, no. 2007,

, 1987 ,

- Century Medicine?” CenturyMedicine?” ). lities, lities, together

–

38, pp. 20 pp. 38,

or resisting or 10 enjoyed a a enjoyed - Science in in Science

dialogue ding and centered centered argued, - trips – 42; 5 9

CEU eTD Collection system care health the of faults the stil Empire problems of health and sanitation as embedded in the entire reality of life in the Russian practice,as something hastobe having overcome despite that thereforever. been [ “primaeval” even or old centuries historic, a as contrary, the on but, jus is Moreover, the post readingthem. andwere writing who among those changes modernization political and anti of sense deepening Moscow's the “backwardness”, when the growing accounts on the to city's filth, pollution and way gave They regime. political the in faith public of Reforms, the affirming of waya was Moscow of stench and the everydayfilth about public Russian of silence the nature, interpretation, to Martin's In closeness harmony. social of and mores those patriarchal rather but danger, or decay of images any invoke social conflict 12 11

In the second half of the century, after the disaster of the Crimean War and the Great l is The late ancien régime Blagushinoy, V.F[idler], 22; 1, ( “ example: for See in Life Urban Moscow,1770 of Representations and Smell, Filth, City: the and “Sewage Martin, M. Alexander - IMGD sanita t one of them, described Moscow's pollution and dirt not as a new development, development, new a as not dirt and pollution Moscow's described them, of one t –

– not about health alone, but also about the state that failed to ensure it. Exposing

) the earlier visions of social harmony in the eyes of many yielded to the loss loss the to yielded many of eyes the in harmony social of visions earlier the political, economic and social. Speaking and writing about health was health about writing and Speaking social. and economic political, ry conditions reflected not only the physical reality, but also the demand for for demand the alsoreality, but physical onlythe reflected not conditions ry , , 4 (1879), pp. 1 - nineteenth nineteenth century Russian intellectuals and medical professionals saw the . Although Moscow public was aware of dirt and fetid odors, they did not 1897 - 1880,” 1880,” values and vitalitycountry's ofthevalues social order. - ), pp. ), pp. blagoustroystva gorodskogo ocherki Kratkiye Moskva. Reform Reform accounts, and the quote at the beginning of this introduction Zayavlenie glasnogo A.D. Lopasheva,” Lopasheva,” A.D. glasnogo Zayavlenie

The RussianReview, The - 89 2; 2; “Doklad N 55 po vorposu o kanalizatsii Moskvy,” - 90 .

–

be that catastrophic epidemiological statistics in statistics epidemiological catastrophic that be 67

(April 2008 ), pp. ), pp. Izvestiya Moskovsky Gorod Moskovsky Izvestiya 243 - 274 .

11 Mso: Tipografiya (Moscow:

IMGD, IMGD, pervobytny 10 10 ( skoy Dymy Dymy skoy 1879) 12 -

and , p the the

p 6 ] .

CEU eTD Collection the social ofhumans nature. to and and naturalhierarchies ontherelations purity, dirt and the on body, class genand – raise, the actions they took against the imagined health hazards and sources of pollution the used, they language the and argumentation decision the that explanations The the specific political setting but also control. social of expression an is control bodily the while order, social the about concerns elements.” inappropriate systematic ordering and classification of matter, in so far a by a is Dirt system. is there dirt is there Where event. isolated unique, a never is then “Dirt systems: cultural broader of areparts pollution and dirt aboutideas interp her In minds. our in only exists but category, absolute an not is dirt that argued Douglas place”, of out matter “a as dirt of definition famous a Giving orders. social of ideas general reflect and load symbolic a have pollution of visions as cultural constructions. Following the anthropologist Mary Douglas, I believe is alsoawayexposing thefaultspolitical regime. of ofthe existing the late nineteenth centuryor the unavailability pain reliefyears of 120 14 13

be they human, animal or environmental or animal human, they be That said, the Moscow sanitary reforms presen reforms sanitary Moscow the said, That In my research I do not take the disease, dirt and pollution as a given, but treat them On the relation between the physical and the social body see Mary Douglas, Douglas, Mary see body social New (Londonand the York:69 pp. 1996), Routledge, and physical the between relation the On Taboo Douglas, Mary 14

(London and New(London and York: Routledge, Purity and and Purity

13

For her, concerns about pollution reveal and articulate the articulate and reveal pollution about concerns her, For

agr A Aayi o te ocps f olto and Pollution of Concepts the of Analysis An Danger: longue longue durée - makers provided for the sanitary reforms, the the reforms, sanitary the for provided makers 1996 der, der, on violence and “civilized behavior”, on ), pp. - - 87, p 87,

reflected their cultural assumptions on assumptions cultural their reflected

questions that they raised and did not did and raised they that questions 2

cultural processes in Russian society. , articularly pp. t an excellent lens to study not only not study to lens excellent an t 36 .

s ordering involves rejecting 74 - 77 .

retation, human retation, later later Natural Symbols Symbols Natural - product of a of product

–

was and

that the 7

CEU eTD Collection years,for thirtywrote that reformers. Mitrofan Shchepkin, an economist and a deputy of the Moscow City Council natural from dimensions, climate andsocial topolitical regime. hand, to the environment as the complex of “external circumstances” that both implied and d preventing health promoting of means of spectrum all to referred instead but dwellings, sanitation meant not only the disposal of wastes or sewage, proper ventilation or cleaner the than physicalwell the thatdisturb moments those lifeall of organization social the frompossibly remove unfavorable circumstances local and climatic general of task the mayhealthsuffer, public “ word assoc and persons private the from institutions, government involve, measures these that self local the from state, the from implementation their for required Everything is everythingthat measures. sanitary practical for basis a as are methods, scientific its mostly created with by life itself, while hygiene life receives from hygiene by the explored tasks, The hygiene. of science abstract an be cannot and no is there hygiene; “applied” and “scientific” the between [ “ provi Erismann, Friedrich hygienist a work, my of 16 15 prikladnaya obshchestvennaya gigiyena obshchestvennaya prikladnaya sanitariya

This broad understanding of sa of understanding broad This This quote shows that in the Russian interpretation sanitation was a concept broader The of notion “ “ is “sanitation” for word Russian original The 150 the History of an Infectious Disease 1880 in1930" Flurin Condrau Britain, in Tuberculosis of Decline the Explaining McKeown: "Before Warboys, Michael p. 261. 28, vol. in “Sanitariya” Erisman, F. - sanitariya 151

lsia Cawcin oin ht ikd ies wt filth. with disease linked that notion Chadwickian classical .

” for the Russian Brockhaus”encyclopedic for anddictionary: theRussian Efron isease. It was tightly connected to policy and politics and, on the other other the on and, politics and policy to connected tightly was It isease. - being of the population. being ofthe

”. In relation to the external circumstances from which individual or individual which from circumstances external the to relation In ”. sanitariya

and Michael and Worboys (eds.),

Entsiklopedicheskiy slovar' slovar' Entsiklopedicheskiy ” isbestexpressedby phrase “applied the public hygiene”

(Montreal; (Montreal; Ithaca: McGill nitation was also shared by the Moscow municipal Moscow the by shared also was nitation sanitariya 15

] <...> There is, however, however, is, There <...> ] , on the one hand, is to fight against the againstthe fight to is hand, one the on , Tuberculosis Now: and Then Perspectives on sanitariya (St. e te olwn dfnto of definition following the ded

to health, on the other hand, to to hand, other the on health, to Petersburg: Brokgayz Petersburg: - Queen's University Queen's Press, ”. One of the protagonists protagonists the of One ”. iations is captured by the the by captured is iations

answers that can serve no absolute border absolute no

16 i Efron, 1900), 1900), Efron, i

n Russia In 2010 ), pp. 8 – -

CEU eTD Collection scholarship on the post general the provided work. my for background transformation metropolitan and urbanism urbanization, Russian of studies cultural and social Numerous Moscow. of and Russia of history “ meaning the word Russian of “ [ preobrazovaniya [ measures sanitary nineteenth the rule, a As infrequantly. relatively sources my in appeared fact, in “sanitariya”, the san schools, organizing and population urban of masses the among propagatingeducation to etc. class, working the protectingwhile the streets, r 18 17 sanitarnye trebovaniya sanitarnye ozdorovleniye

My dissertation is a contribution to several hi word exact the research, my to crucial is sanitation of concept the Although self municipal the whatever Urban History, Urban “ year researched in many doctoral dissertations, for fifteen the overview of those dissertations see last A the In 2009). dom, Evropeyskiy Steinberg M. (eds.), 1700 Russia, of History Social razvitiye ekonomicheskoye i sotsial'noye demograficheskoye, 1985); Press, California of University (Berkeley: 1976); Press, Bater, James P. M. Shchepkin, Research in urban history: new research trends in doctoral dissertations in Russia since 2000 since Russia in dissertations doctoral in trends research new history: urban in Research itarymunicipality tasks of the appeardemand and constant attention. - etr Ru century eorganizing the street traffic, taking measures to develop trade and industry ” (making orbecoming” (making improving healthier, conditions). sanitary St. oeh Bradley, Joseph 42, 3 42, , aiay oto [ control sanitary ],

Petersburg: Industrialization and Change Change and Industrialization Petersburg: Obshchestvennoye samoupravleniye v Moskvev samoupravleniye Obshchestvennoye aiane ey meropriyatiya mery, sanitarnye Kul

( 2015), forthcoming. 2015), - sa dcmns rfre te detv fr t te noun the to form adjective the preferred documents ssian Reform municipal government, its composition and relations to 'tury gorodov 'tury XIX na imperii rubezhe Rossiyskoy ]. The English w English The ]. 18

One aspect that is particularly is that aspect One - 1917

sanitariya - uhk n Msoie Ubnzto i Lt Ipra Russia Imperial Late in Urbanization Muscovite: and Muzhik government does, from paving, cleaning and watering and cleaning paving, from does, government , vol. 2 (Boulder: Westview(Boulder: 2 vol. , B. 2000); Press,

ord “sanitation” captures both the more static more the both captures “sanitation” ord aian nadzor sanitarny ” more and dynamic ofthe the meaning word -

everywhere, in each of these undertakings undertakings these of each in everywhere, s . N. B.

storiographical fields. The first is urban h late the

Mironov, , aiay eom [ reforms sanitary ], (Montreal: McGill (Montreal: - imperial Russian urbanism was also also was urbanism Russian imperial (Leningrad: Nauka, 1990); idem, 1990); Nauka, (Leningrad: (Moscow: S.n., (Moscow:

relevant to my thesis is the is thesis my to relevant , aiay requirements sanitary ], usi grd 1740 v gorod Russkiy - XX vekov XX -

Queen's University University Queen's 1906), p. 44. 1906),

I.

Kolonitskiy and and Kolonitskiy (St. nna Mazanik, 17 sanitarnye

Petersburg:

- 1860

- e: ,” 9 A –

CEU eTD Collection non the emphasized Owen, Thomas and Rieber Alfred group, social this on monographs main two the The of authors politics. municipal in involvement their and elites entrepreneurial Moscow's exploring thecontroversies ofdecision through looking not only at the outcomes, but also at the motivations and processes and created by urbanization. In my work I w logical andnecessary butinsufficient (infailure narratives side as only Moscow on and Russian urban history in general. The sanita American cities, development of the sanitary infrastructure were well researched for many European and smells. and sights geographies, the state. 19 23 22 21 20

The second historiography relevant for my research my for relevant historiography second The Bradley, Pisar'kova, VT: Ashgate,2005). Europe Modern of History Environmental an to Contributions City: the of Resources pollution: and Bill Schott, sanitation Dieter Waxmann, 2004); (Muenster: approached world the across cities Christoph Bernhardt (ed.), modern how of view panoramic t on essays of collections several 2000); Press, University Hopkins Johns The PresentTimes the from to Colonial America in Infrastructure Urban City: Per Historical Tarr,Joel 1991); Press, University Harvard For example, Donald Reid, the City.” and “Sewage (Moscow: Self “ Walter Hanchett, also Osaka see 2010); Meiji and L. Moscow Age Silver City Russian The nachale XX veka Na (Leningrad: V.A. Nardova, Nardova, V.A. P. Ilyin and B. Ruble (eds.), (eds.), Ruble B. and Ilyin P. F.

- Pisar'kova, Pisar'kova, Government,” 19

Muzhik and Muscovite and Muzhik The other is the research that explores Moscow's physical space, its internal Rossiyskaya Rossiyskaya politicheskaya entsiklopediya, Gorodskiyereformy, spective spective 21 k, 94; eadem, 1984); uka, Gorodskiye reformy v Rossii i Moskovskaya Duma Moskovskaya i Rossii v reformy Gorodskiye . . (St. Gorodsko

; this this perspective is quite new for the history of late

Blair Blair

University of Chicago Ph.D. dissertation, 1964. dissertation, Ph.D. ofChicago University

Petersburg: Nauka, 1994); Thurston, (Akron, OH: University of University OH: of Melosi, Martin (Akron, 1996); AkronPress,

- Ruble, Ruble, stories and appear as inevitable (in success narratives success (in inevitable as appear and stories Environmental Problems in European Cities in the 19 y Paris Sewers and Sewermen: Realities and Representations samoupravleni e - bourgeois character of Russian entre Russian of character bourgeois

; Ruble, Moskva rubezha XIX XIX rubezha Moskva Second Metropolis: Pragmatic Pluralism in Gilded Gilded in Pluralism Pragmatic Metropolis: Second pp. 348 pp. 20 Moscow in Moscow

Samoderzhavi Although the que the Although - Second 353. - ould like to challenge this teleological approach making and implementation. and making The Search for the Ultimate Sink: Urban Pollution in Pollution Urban Sink: Ultimate the for Search The Cmrde Cmrde nvriy rs, 2001); Press, University Cambridge (Cambridge:

y v osi 60 v Rossii v e the Late Nineteenth Century Nineteenth Late the

Metropolis.

Luckin, and Geneviève Massard Geneviève and Luckin, y e i gorodskiye dumy v Rossii v kontse XIX XIX kontse v Rossii v dumy gorodskiye i e ry ry reforms are mentioned in the studies 2004); 2004); - XX stoletiy: vzglyad v proshloye izdaleka izdaleka proshloye v vzglyad stoletiy: XX Liberal Liberal City, Conservative State stions of urban pollution and the and pollution urban of stions

Martin,

is the history of Russia's and and Russia's of history the is - h 23 –

) solutions to to ) solutions the problems

(Moscow: Novy khronograph, khronograph, Novy (Moscow: Enlig ahl 90 nachale htened htened Metropolis (Baltimore and London: London: and (Baltimore preneurs, unable to to unable preneurs, : A S A : - imperial imperial Moscow

th his topic provide a provide topic his

tudy in Municipal Municipal in tudy and 20 - - gdv I v. XIX godov h Guilbaud (eds.), (eds.), Guilbaud Age Chicago, Chicago, Age

The The Sanitary (Cambridge: (Cambridge: (Burlington, (Burlington, th

Centuries Centuries 22 ;

Brower, ) or as or ) ; idem, 10 –

CEU eTD Collection 27 traditional estate categories and were the broader than could that identity fragments that constituted the public, educated broadly, or, “ groups intellectual and professional bourgeois, politicalon an explicit ideology masssupport. or depend not did appearance whose elites urban the among activism civic of emergence developing civil society in Russia and stated that Rieber and Owen overlooked the rapid as politics municipal interpreted Brower Daniel discussion, the reformation. complex than rather sponsorship, direct and charity of patterns less successful undertakings in the improvement of the city followed the pre institut apolitical amorphous rather a as presented is government municipal Moscow the respect this In participation. political active from refraining Revolution 1905 the after until and liberalism bourgeois of ideology strong a develop 26 25 24 obshchestvo

Related to Related (Budapest: Central European University Press, 2011). Press, University Central European (Budapest: Becker, Elisa 2009); Press, University Harvard Voluntary inAssociations Tsarist Russia: Science, Patriotism, and Civil Society History Russian in Professions The Class: (ed.) Balzer Harley 1994); Press, University Illinois Northern (Dekalb: Wirtscha Kimerling 1860 Teachers, City Russian Ruane, Christine 1981); Press, University Princeton Frieden, Nancy (eds.), 428 pp. 2012), Obozreniye, Schierle Ingrid and Sdvizhkov p obshchestvennost' publika, “ Yu. O. Malinova, see Russia imperial in words those of history conceptual the For Culture, Urban 1861 5 pp. eds., XIX rubezhe na mir delovoi “Moskovkii Petrov. A. Iu. DanielR.Brower, Owen, raktik publichnoy kommunikatsii i obschestvennoy samodeyatelnosti” in Aleksey Miller, Denis Denis Miller, Aleksey in samodeyatelnosti” obschestvennoy i kommunikatsii publichnoy raktik - Kupecheskaya 20; see also also WilliamBoris see Brumfield, and 20; YuriAnanich, (eds.), Petrov Capitalism and Politics; Politics; and Capitalism ” t his is the scholarship on the Russian “missing middle class”, various class”, middle “missing Russian the on scholarship the is his r “ or Russian Physicians in an Era an in Physicians Russian

Russian City bet City Russian

nt te ies mdl strata middle diverse the unite Moskva: Moskva: Obrazy ushedshey rossiy fter,

obshchestvennost' - 1914 tutrs f oit: meil usas Pol o Vros Ranks” Various of “People Russia's Imperial Society: of Structures

(Washington, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson2001). Press, Center - v Rossii serediny XIX XIX serediny Rossii v 463.

– Russian Russian

1914 1914

Rieber, ween Tradition ween Modernity, and Ptsug: nvriy f itbrh rs, 94; Elise 1994); Press, Pittsburgh of University (Pittsburgh: Merchants and Entrepreneurs Merchantsand “ ” obshchestvo oyty o Rossii o Ponyatiya . (Armonk, N.Y. : M.E. Sharpe, 1996); Joseph Br Joseph 1996); Sharpe, M.E. N.Y.: (Armonk, 26

of Reform and Revolution, 1856 Revolution, and Reform of itras ae tde vros social various studied have Historians Medicine, Law, and the State in Imperial Russia Imperial in State the and Law, Medicine, –

nachala XX veka: Otrazheniye v ponyatiyakh ponyatiyakh v Otrazheniye veka: XX nachala Gender, Class, and the Professionalization of Professionalization the and Gender,Class, skoy skoy burzhuazii

25

- ” XX veko” in Iurii Petrov and John West, John and Petrov Iurii in veko” XX 27

and explored the patterns of social

intelligentsia intelligentsia --

ht i nt ac wt the with match not did that (Moscow: Novoye Literaturnoye Literaturnoye Novoye (Moscow: pp. 91 pp. , , (Moscow: ROSSPEN, 2004), ; for the response article see article response the for ; - Russia's Missing Middle Missing Russia's 139, particularly p. particularly 139, the manifestation of of manifestation the ion, whose more or more whose ion, and different from Commerce in Russian CommerceRussian in

(Cambridge, (Cambridge, Mass.: - 1905

Obshchestvo, Obshchestvo, - municipal municipal

24 (Princeton:

Joining adley,

121. 11

CEU eTD Collection interactions the“tsar” with and withthe “people”. Russian within ideologies and paths career dynamics, social the study of sanitarythe Moscow reforms can ho Russian the of diversity the of reminds reformers health had different opinions of how that goal could reached. be The diversity of the Moscow sanitary reform and their commitment to making the c Moscow the in involvement their was them united What monarchists. and liberals entrepreneurs and university professors, practicing physicians and engineers, socialists, a municipal convictions: political and occupations, was diverse and contingent in composition. It included people of various estates, ranks, that group a presented reformers health Moscow The commissions. and committees Council City the of arena the on usually condition ofthe sanitaryreforms, theyemerged inthe course ofcollective discussions, and because the appearance of such body on the local level was rather a goal than a pre health Moscow of inst central circle effective no had Russia As reformers. narrow a on focuses it Instead, intelligentsia. medical determinedRussians towo self economic on “[o]bshchestvennost'it, notso implied mucha class, possessing a based consciousness the As bourgeoisie. the 28

My dissertation is not meant to be a social history of merchants, professionals or or professionals merchants, of history social a be to meant not is dissertation My Princeton University Press, 1991), pp. 3 pp. 1991), Press, University Princeton IdentityLat Public for in the Quest and Society People: Educated and Clowes Edith in Society” Russian Imperial Late in Middle the of Problem The “Introduction: Clowes, Edith WestKassow, and James Samuel - neet a a ifra yt uhrttv peec o educated of presence authoritative yet informal an as interest,

editors of the volume the of editors rk for'progress'.“common good, for the

- 4. 4.

,

Samuel Kassow and James West (eds.), James and Kassow Samuel

Between Tsar and People and Tsar Between and, importantly, numerous advisory advisory numerous importantly, and, pefully provide some into insights the itution responsible for public health, health, public for responsible itution

tvss n meil bureaucrats, imperial and ctivists ity healthier, although they often obshchestvo e Imperial Russia Imperial e obshchestvo 28

itself. Therefore, itself.

tried to define to tried Between Tsar Between (Princeton: (Princeton: and its its and 12 -

CEU eTD Collection ideologi an as Chadwick Edwin of of a Foucauldian approach. Thus, Christopher Hamlin rei a pillar ofthe emergingwelfare state revision, was to often under subject the influence reformsas health centurypublic urbannineteenthinterpretationof decades the last the synthesis.but in it, to opposition in not themselves constructed and 1880s the in already bacteriology Russian i the in that, show and bacteriology and hygiene between relationship the problematize to like would I movement. sanitary Russian the of grounds scientific the health. public and sciences medical nterpretation, hygiene as science and sanitation as its practical continuation embraced embraced practicalcontinuation its as sanitation and scienceas nterpretation,hygiene 29 30

The second, more general point, is that about the nature of the of nature the about that is point, general more second, The Finally, the last important historiography is the scholarship on the history of Russi (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998). 1998). Press, CambridgeUniversity (Cambridge: Hamlim, Christopher kontse XIX v Rossii v mladenchestva i materinstva okhrany sistemy “Zarozhdeniye E.V.Kolganova, XIX poloviny vtoroy gubernii Tomskoy primere na slukha: i zreniya organov zabolevniyami stradayushchim lyudyam, organi University,Pedagogical 2011; XIX polovine Ru deyatel’nost’ meditsinskaya E.V.University, State 2008; Petersburg “Sanitarno St. Karavayeva, dissertation, i mladenchestva vo vtoroy polivine XVIII the in insights valuable T.G.health: public YakRussian of provided aspects specific the of functioning dissertations some Nevertheless, work). her of unaware often on focused however, zemst them, of Most dissertations. PhD Russian of number a in studied also been 1914 Disease, Health Care and Government Post in Medicine Kichigina, Galina 2002); Press, Enterprise Laboratory Interpretation, Experiment, Factory: 1890 Hutchinson, John 1990); Press, University (eds.), Hutchinson John and Frieden, - - nachale XX vv.,” nachaleUniversity,XX State Moscow dissertation, PhD ( vo medicine and did not go beyond the findings of Nancy Frieden (although the authors were authors the (although Frieden Nancy of findings the beyond not go did and medicine vo 1918 zatsiy Rossiyskoy imperii po sozdaniyu sistemy sotsial’noy i meditsinskoy pomoshchi pomoshchi meditsinskoy i sotsial’noy sistemy sozdaniyu po imperii Rossiyskoy zatsiy Abingdon & New New & AbingdonYork: 2011). Routledge, Russian Russian Physicians in an Era of Reform and Revolution, 1856

(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990); Daniel Todes,Daniel 1990); Press, University Hopkins Johns (Baltimore: - nachale XX v.:po materialam Tomskoy yeparkhii,” PhD dissertation, Omsk State State Omsk dissertation, PhD yeparkhii,” Tomskoy materialam v.:po XX nachale

- Crimean Russia Russia Crimean

Public Health and Social Justice in the Age of Chadwic of Age the in Justice Social and Health Public –

nachala XX vv.,” PhD dissertation, Russia dissertation, vv.,” PhD XX nachala Health and Society in Revolutionary Russia Russia Revolutionary in Society and Health I.I. Morozova, “Deyatel’nost’Morozova, I.I. i gosudarstvennykh obshchestvennykh

sskoy pravoslavnoy tserkvi sredi sel’skogo naseleniya vo vtoroy vtoroy vo naseleniya sel’skogo sredi tserkvi pravoslavnoy sskoy The Imperial Laboratory: Experimental Physiology and Clinical Clinical and Physiology Experimental Laboratory: Imperial The ( Amsterdam and New York: Rodopi, 2009); Charlotte Henze, Henze, Charlotte 2009); Rodopi, York: New and Amsterdam 29 cally

in in Late Imperial Russia: Life and Death on the Volga, 1823

One point of dialogue here is the question about question the is here dialogue of point One –

nachale XX vv.: na materialakh Sankt - oiis n Pbi Hat i Rvltoay Russia, Revolutionary in Health Public and Politics loaded disciplinary strategy disciplinary loaded

In the last 20 years the imperial public health has has health public imperial the years 20 last the In

(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University University Hopkins Johns (Baltimore: nterpreted the sanitary reforms n State Social Un Social State n 2012 ovenko, Ökhrana materinstva materinstva Ökhrana ovenko, - 1905 .

sanitary reforms. In reforms. sanitary (Bloomington: ;

Susan Gross Solomon k: Britain, 1800 Britain, k: Pavlov's Physiology Physiology Pavlov's . 30 - prosvetitel’skaya i - Peterburga,” PhD

Patrick Joyce Patrick iversity,

Indiana Indiana - 2011 1854 13 an – ;

CEU eTD Collection place in the specific discourses on sexuality and sexual dissent despite the authoritarian withclearcoexist despotism, andmeans withlaw as ofdir the control disciplinary internal of Mechanisms unfreedom. small the exclude not does unfreedom big “The mechanisms: disciplinary of development the prevent necessarily Foucault, ZhivovViktor suggested that the absence of the r becausecontext absencerule ofthe oflaw. of F view, her In practices. and ideas Western of penetration the despite Russia, autocratic in extent disciplines and free professions in the liberal Western states did not develop to the same Fouca of evaluation policy. urban on scholarship the in than rather sciences medical Russian of histories intellectual the of lines the along mostly vers Russian cities asoperation strategies ofand power of surveillance. the the within subjects. systems sewer the paradigm and governmentality slaughterhouses modern the explained 34 33 32 31

Similarly, Dan Healey suggested that Foucauldian disciplinary weremechanisms in of reception Russian the on article his in argument Engelstein's on Commenting the about debates provoked also Foucault Michel of ideas the studies, Russian In http://magazines.russ.ru/nlo/2001/49/zhivov.html Vikto (ed.), Goldstein Jan Russia”in Soviet and Imperial in Law the and Discipline Underdevelopment: “Combined Engelstein, Laura 2008). Press, Chicago of University London: and (Chicago Otter, Christ Joyce, Patrick r Zhivov, “Chto delat' s Fuko, zanimayas' russkoy istoriyey?” NLO, 49 (2001), (2001), 49 NLO, istoriyey?” russkoy zanimayas' Fuko, s delat' “Chto Zhivov, r 31

Chris Chris Otter analyzed the illumination and sanitary inspection in the Victorian oucauldian explanatory model generally does not apply to the Russian Russian the to apply not does generally model explanatory oucauldian o o mdriy n lbrls. hs dbts hwvr developed however, debates, These liberalism. and modernity of ion h Vcoin y: Pltcl itr o Lgt n Vso i Bian 1800 Britain, in Vision and Light of History Political A Eye: Victorian The The Rule of Freedom: Liberalism and the Modern CityModern the Freedom:of and Rule Liberalism The ult, argued that the authority that was enjoyed by the scientific scientific the by enjoyed was that authority the that argued ult,

-

Foucault and the Writing the and Foucault History of

s mcaim f raig iea, self liberal, creating of mechanism a as ar Eglti, n e fmu critical famous her in Engelstein, Laura , accessed February 22, 2015. 22, February accessed , 33

ule ule of law in Russia did not (Oxford: Blackwell, 1994). Blackwell, (Oxford: 32 ect coercion.” ect (London: Verso,2003).

- 34 gov

erning

- 19

14 10

CEU eTD Collection operating co within people real the by treated were and ground the on worked debates intellectual abstract reforms. urban the attentiont to little devoted health became a highly subjectpoliticized and contested arena of policy, scholars have nineteenth in Although history. urban publi and medicine Russian of project imperial ozdorovleniye the not or whether see to work my in explore to like would I and theories translated into public policy in pre regime. Soviet the of scientists and Russian liberalism in general were forerunners of the oppressive solutions ( renovation of project liberal the also but radical the just “not that claimed and argument Engelstein's to focused primarily on the ideas of social deviance, degeneration and pathology, objected developed. they which in contexts 37 36 35

My dissertation aims to bring the urban dimension to the history of late of history the to dimension urban the bring to aims dissertation My Russian State Social University, Social State Russian 2011. XIX poloviny vtoroy gubernii Tomskoy primere na slukha: sistemy sozdaniyu organ po zabolevniyami stradayushchim lyudyam, pomoshchi imperii meditsinskoy i sotsial’noy Rossiyskoy organizatsiy obshchestvennykh i gosudarstvennykh e 1860 Tomskagoroda “Zdravookhraneniye razvitii, istoricheskom vSemenova, K.A. example: for Russian verythat dealt, although descriptively,with the urban health, public particularly, Siberia, in Saratov. imperial in epidemics Russia Imperial Late in Government and Care rare The 200 Press, CornellUniversity (Ithaca: dissent Daniel Beer, Daniel Healey, Dan - 99” h Dsetto, os Sae nvriy 20; .. oooa “Deyatel’nost’ Morozova, I.I. 2009; University, State Tomsk Dissertation, PhD 1919,” (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001), p. 10. 2001), Press, Chicago of University (Chicago: English was in fact socoercive infact was inpractice. Renovating Russia: The human science and the fate of liberal modernity,1880 liberal of fate the and science human The Russia: Renovating Homosexual Desire in Desire Homosexual - language monograph that treats this problem is problem this treats that monograph language 37 ncrete social, political,ncrete legal, and economic spatial contexts.

36 A history of one specific city offers a possibility to see how the the how see to possibility a offers city specific one of history A ozdorovlenie)

Beer, however, did not investigate how scientific knowledge knowledge scientific how investigate not did however, Beer, he local politics of health and the use of medical sciences in medicalof sciencesin use the andhealth of politicslocal he c health, as well as the health dimension to the Russian Russian the to dimension health the as well as health, c

In the the In

8), pp. 23, 207 23, pp. 8), Revolutionary Russia: The regulation of sexual and gender gender and sexual of regulation The Russia: Revolutionary

35 recent years there have been several PhD dissertations in in dissertations PhD several been have there years recent

was by definition coercive” and that that and coercive” definition by was Daniel Beer, whose work on human human on work whose Beer, Daniel - etr Rsi te mrig il o public of field emerging the Russia century

that studies health politics and responses to cholera cholera to responses and politics health studies that - - revolutionary Russia 208.

–

nachala XX vv.,” PhD dissertation, dissertation, PhD vv.,” XX nachala

Charlotte Henze Charlotte -

t he problem that ,

Disease, Health Health Disease, ov zreniya i zreniya ov - imperial imperial imperial sciences

- 1930 1930 15 -

CEU eTD Collection correspondence of the municipal and adm dissertation. my for used I that documents of groups thematic major three are There historians. archiv the of Many TsIAM). Moscow, (TsGAMOS, Center for Documents prior to 1917, former Central Historical Archive of exclusively) and humans,thenaturalenvironment. animals levels different three on worked regime sanitary nutrition and excretion. On the other hand, they illustrate how the institution of the new d - of sanitation the project Russian diversityof and scope the cases thebreadth, the show reforms these of each Moreover, government. city the of bodies sanitary the by managed were nineteenth in dise venereal of spheres the today Perhaps, chapters. respective the of each of beginning studied together thes of creation of the public abattoir, and the construction of the sewerage system. The choice change in the urban policy treatment of urban w and removal the production; meat and slaughtering of regulation the disease; venereal

esire and attempts to regulate the vital functions of the body the of functions vital the regulate to attempts and esire both in its approaches to human health and to external circumstances. They reveal the ofpreventionthe policies: health urban of threeaspectson focusesdissertation The The first one includes the protocols of the meetings of the City Council, Council, City the of meetings the of protocols the includes one first The y eerh s based is research My ase, meat production or waste treatment appear quite remote from each other, but but other, each from remote quite appear treatment waste or production meat ase, e three case three e

in its own way was celebrated as Moscow's achievement. Together, these three

- century Moscow they were all perceived as parts of sanitation and all and sanitation of parts as perceived all were they Moscow century –

and is this exactly Iwhy introduce the relevant historiography the in - studies might seem quite unusual; indeed, they have rarely been been rarely have they indeed, unusual; quite seem might studies astes. astes. Each of these aspects of public health refers to the important

- n h hlig o te eta Sae rhv o Moscow of Archive State Central the of holdings the on

the the municipal reform of the supervision of prostitution, the al documents have not been previously used by by used previously been not have documents al inistrative institutions and the materials of the –

agtn (rmrl, but (primarily, targeting

–

those of reproduction, reproduction, of those not not 16

CEU eTD Collection commonalities and differences in how metropolises in various national and and national various in metropolises how in differences and commonalities women account into possible where and men of experiences variable take to try I but study, I that field the in active more elites this limitations respective the all with top a is This regulation. sanitary of sphere the in policy social actual the of analysis the with debates political and scientific of history intellectual sensitive and maps guidebooks, egodocuments. documentation, medical and political administrative periodicals, statistics, publicism, and legislation used also have I research my For conference papers, dissertations, university text accessed as archival files. only were some but published, were documents these of majority The congresses. international and national in city the of participation for the example, as, such occasions, specific for prepared or periodical either institutions, city advocates(or and by opponents) involved intheir im those their by them to attached was meaning what and discussed and elaborated were they how see to also but decisions, policy major trace to only not allow documents These Dumy Gorodskoy Moskovskoy Izvestiya journal municipal the in either published were some but archive, the in preserved were documents such Most congresses. and committees advisory expert numerous h gnrl prah o h hsoia sou historical the to approach general The monographs, academic as such texts, scientific diverse of consists group third The The other important group of sources comprises reports on the activity of the various Cities Cities present coherent forunits comparative analysis that may allow us to establish -

intellectual, economic or political. My research focuses on men, as they were they as men, on focuses research My political. or economic intellectual,

.

might entail. In my work I deal primarily with with primarily deal I work my In entail. might ( IMGD books or the minutes of public lectures. cs n y rjc cmie context combines project my in rces ) or i or ) n the form of separate volumes. volumes. separate of form the n plementation. - xiiin and exhibitions down approach approach down

17 -

CEU eTD Collection measure against venereal disease. Chapt analyzes 3 Chapter administration. the between relations the investigate and Moscow in evolved infrastructure and regulation sanitary the how of periodization the propose I chapter this In involved. actors the and reforms sanitary the of dynamics general grounds thesanitarythe scientific reforms. for professional medical associations) and discusses the discipline of hygiene that provided medica public health in post adaptedpolitical, cultural tovery andenvironmentalcontexts. different theories, technologies and social practices traveled across national boundaries and we scientific how reveal can work My exception. no clearly was Moscow and other, each transnational circulation of knowledge. Nineteenth Europeancontext. reformers were looking primarily at Europe, most of my comparative examples refer to health public urban of history the on scholarship the of most because opportunistic, partly intentional, partly was which perspective comparative implicit certain a keep to tried chall the to responded and disease and pollution of problems the tackled contexts geographical The three remaining chapters present the case the present chapters remaining three The politic and social the introduces 2 Chapter of organization the explains 1 Chapter chapters. five of consists dissertation The the and transfer of history the of that is issue methodological another Yet , environment and sanitation refers to non to refers sanitation and environment , l administration, zemstvo and municipal sanitary institutions, as well as as well as institutions, sanitary municipal and zemstvo administration, l enges of modernity. Although my dissertation is not explicitly comparative, I comparative, explicitly not is dissertation my Although modernity. of enges

- the introduction of the municipal supervision of prostitution as a a as prostitution of supervision municipal the of introduction the Reform Reform Russia (its legal framework, the place of central and local er er 4 explores the construction and operation of

al context of Moscow and studies the the studies and Moscow of context al - Russian case Russian - studies of specific sanitary reforms. reforms. sanitary specific of studies - century cities were borrowing from

uiiaiy n te imperial the and municipality - studies. Since Moscow Moscow Since studies.

18 re re

CEU eTD Collection and thirteen thetwentieth. in days behind century, nineteenth the in Gregorian the behind days twelve was calendar Julian The dates inthe textare given according calendar tothe Julian used inthe Russian the archival files oftheir (because length) inthebibliography are provided All section. of names full The names. Russian of versions English the render to forms simplified the appearance system. of the sewerage and pollution river against campaign the studies 5 Finally, Chapter abattoir. public the In my dissertation I used the BGN/PCGN system of romanization of Russian, with Russian, of romanization of system BGN/PCGN the used I dissertation my In

Empire. 19

CEU eTD Collection process. communit into incorporated was science this how matter, subject its defined practitioners its how studies saw that science be believed crucial thathe for to thewell self preventive amedicine, network of sanitary organizations, Swiss p (1842 Erismann Friedrich 1876 in wrote hygiene,” burning public the of questions to society of side the on interest practical any even nor government, self local the by direction this in endeavors explicit nor health, public about care 1 rogrammatic text on the organization of public hygiene in Russia

This new - “[A]ctually in the Russian Empire there are no governmental institutions that pp. 225 pp. F.F. Erisman, “Organizatsiya obshchestvennoy gigiyeny v Rossii,” oenet n of and government - born physician who recently came to Russia, Erismann was dreaming about about dreaming was Erismann Russia, to came recently who physician born

the entire community as an object of its intervention. The following chapter chapter following The intervention. its of object an as community entire the - y medicine and political dynamics and what actors were involved in this this in involved were actors what and dynamics political and medicine y 22 hygiene was not a matter of the 7 .

science of hygiene appeared and was institutionalized in Russia, how Russia, in institutionalized was and appeared hygiene of science Hygiene and public healthHygiene imperial and in Russia

ie crls f oit in society of circles wider rtmtci acul cec: suigta Iset no spent I that assuming science: cruel a is Arithmetic meouttoaconfinement.wish wascall for noone to only My sleep. or drink eat, to desire no had I evening, ni at hospital the left I when short, In operations. did also I and inpatients forty for ward a had twenty and hours minutes eight equals minutes hundred five t more

CHAPTER ONE a fv mnts n ah ain …ie.. then …five!... patient each on minutes five han Mikhail Bulgakov, Bulgakov, Mikhail –

without without a break, please note. Apart from that I narrow scholarly discussion - being population. Russian ofthe questions

A Young Doctor's Notebook Young A and the Otechestvennye Otechestvennye zapiski

f hygiene of . involvement involvement of local 1

A young and active s

ne o'clock in the in o'clock ne -

it it was a science - 95 n his in 1915) –

, , 6 h new the

would (1876), (1876),

20 -

CEU eTD Collection universi a becamea modelfor medical statistical study inRussia. were published in 17 volumes, six of which were prepared by Erismann personally, and result The province. Moscow of factories the at conditions sanitary disinfection worksfront he atcalledby line, the was zemstvo theMoscow who wasgreatest thenamong the auth Pettenkofer, von Max of laboratory the in work to Munich to went he sanitation, and poor. the of conditions housing school arrangements on the deve of influence the studying expertise, initial his of field the in first causation, disease in interested got Erismann physician female as an ophthalmologist, he century. Having earned figure in the sanitary reforms that evolved in 3 2

In 1882 he was invited lectureto on hygiene Imperialat Moscow University. While Russian the After Friedrich hygiene bacteriology Erismann, and Friedrich Erismann ( zavedeni 1882 Zemstvo, Gub. Mosk. F.F. Erisman, in Peterburge” gigiyeny, obshchestvennoy v zhilishcha Sankt “Podval'nye idem, v 1870); Kotomina, zavedeniyakh uchebnykh v uchashchimisya Erisman, F.F. y rfso, rsan lyd cuil oe n h isiuinlzto of institutionalization the in role crucial a played Erismann professor, ty y Klinskogo uyezda uyezda Klinskogo y Sanitarnoye issledovaniye fabrichnykh zavedeniy Moskovskogo uyezda, uyezda, Moskovskogo zavedeniy fabrichnykh issledovaniye Sanitarnoye s lyny skl a rikoheie lzrksi p nbydnym nad nablyudeniyam po blizorukosti: proiskhozhdeniye na shkol Vliyaniye ,

to Ru to

- uks Wr f 1877 of War Turkish

his his doctorate from the University of Zurich and initially trained known

ssia in 186 in ssia followed his wife September and December December September and (Moscow: Mosk. Gub. Zemstvo, Zemstvo, Gub. (Moscow: Mosk. questions of public hygiene and environmental factors in in factors environmental and hygiene public of questions - 85, os 1 vols. 1885),

in Russia 2 lopment of myopia, and then moving on to explore the

To expand his knowledge in the matters of hygiene of matters the in knowledge his expand To 9 . While a private practitioner in St. in practitioner private a While . orities in these fields.orities inthese

as Fyodor Fyodorovich Erisman) was the key - ; idem, 5; Nadezhda Suslova - Russia Russia in the last decades of the n 8 we Eimn ws novd n the in involved was Erismann when 78, 1871 - Peterburge

Sanitarnoye issledovaniye fabrichnykh fabrichnykh issledovaniye Sanitarnoye .

3 1891

).

rhv sudebnoy Arkhiv (St. , one of the first Russian

eesug Tipografiya Petersburg: s of this inspection this of s

to study the Petersburg,

eisn i meditsiny ineteenth ineteenth (Moscow: (Moscow: 21

CEU eTD Collection so, doing when even but, physiology or physics chemistry, bacteriology, as such disciplines related other of methods used also it purposes its for that meant hygiene with experimentalsciencepositivist a hygieneassaw He statistics. sanitaryand experiment factors. meant him for that environment its and body human the beyond focus its had hygiene laws these explore To health. human govern that laws the find the of morbidity population.” and mortality the influence therefore, and, organism human of functions physiological the of disturbance the to contribute another or way one in that hygiene was a science that studied “all those natural c research and onpublic health sanitation. e laboratory the 1891, in Finally, physicians. practicing to open also was laboratory this students, for obligatory made were laboratory hygienic the in i received hygiene 1884 In resources. and equipment necessary with laboratory hygienic proper acreated he Immediatelyoffice,assuminghis after discipline. academic an ashygiene 5 4

What was this new discipline of hygiene that Erismann was promoting? In his words, As Erismann explained, hygiene was based on the dual methodological ground of ground methodological dual the on based was hygiene explained, Erismann As F.F. Erisman, Universiteta Moskovskogo F.F. as werepublished Hygiene Instituteof (ed.), Erisman Tipo K i Kushnerev I.I. va S. Boubnoff, S. the -

lit nlsso miia dt s t mjr too major its as data empirical of analysis ts own chair within the Department of Medicine. From 1885 on, the classes the on, 1885 From Medicine. of Department the within chair own ts ogragiya T ogragiya merged in the first the in merged 5

The main goal of all hygienic research hygienic all of goal main The Kursgigiyeny, Institut d'hygiène de l'Université impériale de Moscou Moscou de impériale l'Université de d'hygiène Institut internal physiological processes and to look at the relations between relations the at look to and processes physiological internal - va I.I. Kushnerev i K i Kushnerev I.I. va

o , 1897), p. 3; N. Mikhailov, N. 3; p. 1897), , , vol , vol. vol. s

. 1 - 1 in -

(Moscow: Tipografiya A.A.Kartseva, 5 (Moscow: (Moscow: Tipografiya5 Kartsev - Russia Institute of Hygiene, an important center of center important an Hygiene, of Institute Russia o , 1915), p.5. The works of the hygienic laboratory and the and laboratory hygienic the of works The p.5. 1915), , 4

Pamyati professora F.F.professora Erismana, Pamyati Sbornik rabot gigienicheskoy laboratorii laboratorii gigienicheskoy rabot Sbornik onditions onditions and factors of social life l. The experimental character of of character experimental The l. , according to Erismann, was to was Erismann, to according , medical students. Apart from from Apart students. medical

both natural and man and natural both a, a, (Moscow: Tipo(Moscow: 1886 1887 - 1894 ), ), p. ).

9 . -

litogragiya T litogragiya

to expand expand to (Moscow: (Moscow: - made made 22 -

CEU eTD Collection 8 for sentence” death one the of dominance “the that bacteriology. for distrust his including ideas,Pettenkofer’s Erismann von Max of disciple a was he that fact the particular, in biography, Erismann’s bacteriology. of science new the of opponents as specific pathogens. germ the by replaced was explanation environmentalist deprivation. and exhaustion poverty, to health of dis linked that theory miasmatic among view by natureand society. outside located forces the account into take to had from physiology that studied the human organism in itself. Hygiene, in its turn, always may get sick or die.” veryThis word “circumstances” [ hygiene subject kept distinct matter its

9 7 6

Historians of Ru of Historians on emphasis The russkikh russkikh 35 Health in Revolutionary Russia, 1890 Volga the Charlotte Henze, 28 Present the Times to fromColonial America 82 pp. 2002), Press, The Early Nineteenth Cam (Cambridge: Hamlin, Christopher Erisman, F.F. Erisman, “Znacheniye bakteriologii dlya sovremennoy gigiyeny” in in gigiyeny” sovremennoy dlya bakteriologii “Znacheniye F.F. Erisman, - - 36 68 . .

vrachey v Moskve Moskve v vrachey s “thoro a as , 1823 , gigyeny, Kurs nineteenth - 1914 1914 Disease, Health Disease, Health bridge University Press, 1998), pp. 52 pp. 1998), Press, University bridge ssian medicine tend to present Erismann and his school of hygieneof school his and Erismann present to tend medicine ssian

urban and rural and urban disease of locus the as environment unfavorable - - 1800 Britain, Chadwick: of Age the in Justice Social and Health Public 6 100; Martin Melosi, Melosi, Martin 100; Century Century French Public Health Movement (New York: Routledge, 2011 York:(NewRoutledge,

- 1887 century sanitarians. This scientific belief was grounded in the in grounded was belief scientific This sanitarians. century ughgoing environmentalist” and devoted proponent of of proponent devoted and environmentalist” ughgoing (Moscow: Pechatnya Pechatnya (Moscow: Yakovleva, , pp. , pp.

Care 7 ease with filth or social theory that connected the lack the connected that theorysocial or filth with ease - - sided bacteriological approach would have have would approach bacteriological sided 10 - 1918 .

and and Government in Late Imperial Russia: Life and Death on public health campaigns. health public - , , (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press,

h Sntr Ct: niomna Srie i U in Services Environmental City: Sanitary The “a man in give“a manin

(Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, Press, Pittsburgh of University (Pittsburgh:

Pettenkofer, could give an impression of impression an give could Pettenkofer, ) pp. 23; John Hutchinson, Hutchinson, John 23; pp. ) - the human body and imposed on it on imposed and body human the 83; Ann La Berge, La 83; Ann 7

n h 1870s the In 1887 usloviya n circumstances whichhe from n

(Cambridge: Cambridge University - ), pp. pp. ), 8 theory with its search for for search its with theory

Indeed, Erismann claimed Indeed,Erismann 9

] ] distinguished hygiene 25 This, however, did not did however, This, , 27 rd vooo s’yezda vtorogo Trudy - Mission and Method: Method: and Mission 80 ta broad that 1880s .

Politics and Public and Politics was a prevalent prevalent a was 2008 1990 meant a a meant - ), pp. pp. ), ), ), pp. 1854 rban rban 23

CEU eTD Collection temperature,humidity, etc.) as facilitating the accumulation, transmission and dust, growth of bacteria but instance, (for factors environmental regarded He microbes. by approach. late in such as seen not were exclusive, mutually considered be would today that causation, disease of explanations dem will I As refuted. immediately not were emanation their and wastes decomposing of risks the about ideas older the practitioners, medical Russian synthesis also meant that, although the new bacteriological knowledge was accepted by scien umbrella germ the incorporated that hygiene rather was it Russia happened Barnes, to according infection. of agents the as microbes of knowledge integrating old concerns about cleanliness and unwholesome environment with the new synthesis” B David with them interpret I opponents, Instituteplace, ofHygiene whilethea had special later bacteriological department. laboratory at Mos hygienist. the for tool useful a bacteriology considered and Koch” and Pasteur of discoveries “brilliant the praised Erismann bacteriology. of denial the mean 12 11 10

It is clear that Erismann was positive about certain infectwas about positive Itclear that Erismann is late Russian seeing of Instead Germs Barnes, David 134 D na Universiteta ed., Erisman, pp. meditsiny”, sovremennoi dlya bakteriologii “Znacheniye Erisman, - 138

(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, Press, University Hopkins Johns (Baltimore:

.

-

a flexible framework of understanding and combating disease by by disease combating and understanding of framework flexible a ce for the campaign against campaign the for ce T oy kiii isiuy kiihsi grdk Iprtrkg Moskovskogo Imperatorskogo gorodok) (klinicheskiy instituty i kliniki Novye cow University in e ra Sik f ai ad h Nineteenth the and Paris of Stink Great he evichiyem pole pole evichiyem

- (Moscow: Tipolitografiya T Tipolitografiya (Moscow: meil usa n cud oxs wti te same the within coexist could and Russia imperial n France in - the the 1880s nineteenth century bacteriology and hygiene as as hygiene and bacteriology century nineteenth arnes's concept of “sanitary of concept arnes's health threats. The san The threats. health through the language of bacteriology, in in bacteriology, of language the through bacteriological methods held a prominent 2006 ), ), p. 12 - 3

- etr Srgl gis Flh and Filth Against Struggle Century va I.N. Kushnerev I Ko, Ko, I Kushnerev I.N. va oee, if However, .

- ious diseases being caused being ious diseases hoy n rmie the remained and theory 19 - 20 itary onstrate below, the below, onstrate , 26

hs integration, this . - -

bacteriological bacteriological bacteriological bacteriological 10

In his own his In 1891 ), pp. ), 11 24

CEU eTD Collection causality. this of that fact mere pathogenic microbes cause The dise mechanisms. its of understanding insufficient the to pointed germ chol that denied he instance, miasmatic explanation. inoculation” appropriate nutrient medium as well as testing their for air the the in cultivation through microbes particular isolating of requires that forms pathogenic analysis direct the “with only but air the in microorganisms the of merely through reached be cannot locality particular a in disease infectious from morbidity of causes the of understanding the unambiguous: disease can b i.e.thosethat specificmicrobes, pathogenic or saprophytes innocent indifferentthe microbes,the “[A]re herewith dealingquestion: we important air. the substancein virulent unspecific equally an meant and miasma for name new a just was “bacteria” bacteriological analysis in his university lectures might give an impression that for him not as the cause of infectious diseases

The fact that Erismann was wrong about the etiology of particular diseases diseases particular of etiology the about wrong was Erismann that fact The 18 17 16 15 14 pp. 13

- theory. In his lectures Erismann did not question contagionism as such but rather

122 ?” Erisman, Erisman, Erisman, Erisman, Erisman, Erisman, Erisman, 15 - 124

16 Iais n rgnl. h ase ta h gv t ti qeto was question this to gave he that answer The original]. in [Italics .

- Kurs gigiyeny, Kurs gigiyeny, Kurs gigiyeny, Kurs gigiyeny, Kurs gigiyeny, Kurs

K mn te irognss f h ar ut hr ae lo so also are there dust air the of microorganisms the among a method that clearly referred to Koch’s postulates rather than to the to than rather postulates Koch’s to referred clearly that method a 18 r gigiyeny, urs

The focus on environmental factors reflected Erismann’s concerns Erismann’s reflected factors environmental on focus The 14

Yet, the quantitative bacteri quantitative the Yet,

1892 p. 1892, 1892 1892 1892 era is waterborne is era o. 2 vol.

ase did not satisfy him as he wanted to know the details , p. , p. ,pp. ,pp.

(Moscow: Tipolitografiya T Tipolitografiya (Moscow: 128 136 134 133 125 per per se . . .

- - 134 133 . . .

13

17 Erismann’

-

e considered the agents of infectious e of consideredtheagents does not negate his general belief in belief general his negate not does ological analysis led Erismann to an to Erismann led analysis ological pathogenic features through animal

examining the general quantity general the examining s emphasis on the quantitative - va I.N. Kushnerev i Ko, 1892), 1892), Ko, i Kushnerev I.N. va - called –

for for 25

CEU eTD Collection 20 19 if as constructed now are cities and houses the “that 1873, in wrote he itself,” against commits humanitythat crime a almost considered be should “It life. social in changes social anthropology. and sociology sciences, environmental economics, health biostatistics, epidemiology, health, public by studied today are that fields the incorporated it interdisciplinary: units.” geographical the healthsanitaryconsiderable peopleand ofthenumber condition ofconsiderable of on factors social various and conditions living status, social professions, of influence st population, of mortality the and morbidity the over govern “that laws as which well in asdisease context ofthe theunderstanding social operated. broader picture that included the mechanisms of its action, transmi in agent disease of identification verified the Even question. under still was discovery each of very limited; for many diseases the agents were not yet identified or if so, th cultivating nutrient media).” them invarious the regarding particular (in methods research advanced more use to us allow would that future the in discovered be only pathogens: “We should admit the existence of the pathogenic elements <...> exi the as etiology, disease of bacter of limitations the about

Erisman, Erismann, The role of hygiene was seen not only in establishing scient hygiene Erismann, For In Erismann itself was of little help to a to help little of was itself Kurs gigiyeny, Kurs Kursgigiyeny ’s time, time, ’s

20

1892 , knowledge of microbes and their pathogenic effect was in factin was effectpathogenic their andmicrobes of knowledge h hgee f rsan a wa w wud o ca now would we what was Erismann of hygiene The 1887

was , p. p. , , p. p. ,

139 iological knowledge and and knowledge iological both a medical and medical a both 10 sting methods did not allow to easily identify the the identify easily to allow not did methods sting . .

practitioner like Erismann. He required a much much a required He Erismann. like practitioner ifrnito o te irognss through microorganisms the of differentiation 19

a social science as it explains those those explains it as science social a contemporary understanding contemporary ific laws but in prompting ssion, ssion, and prevention e reliability

which which will

de the udies 26 ll s

CEU eTD Collection to improve the life of the uneducated and impoverished maj regime and a collective ethos and a conviction that they were called and morally obliged background social different of group Historians of Russia’s of movement populist Russian the and socialism liberalism, European of ideology developedacute discussed by the questions theRussian also and reflected sanitation and hygiene of agenda social The poverty. eventually, nutrit housing, conditions, and hygiene from the harmful influence ofprofessional labor.” the regulate that laws sanitary the side of the disease; construction business; the infectious laws that protectof the health spreadof the the against measures the for aga of the others. Therefore, it is necessary to have the laws against the falsification of food, side the from health their for dangerous actions all against themselves protect to tools protec the concern sanitation was sanitary legislation: sanitation. into turned hygiene practices, exist.” not does doctrines its with hygiene 22 21

Russian medical practitioners and health reformers g reformers health and practitioners medical Russian m inevitably disease of operation the in factors external of importance The Sanitary legislation regulateshould the relations between humans allin matters that inst thesaleinst of or spoiled unhealthy products; thelaws that wouldprovide thebasis vol. 28, p. p. 261. 28, vol. in “Sanitariya” F. Erisman, F.F. Erisman,

sanitation movement needed to target to needed movement sanitation the the Rukovodstvo k gigiyene Rukovodstvo

intelligentsia, which absorbed the broad ideological spectrum of of spectrum ideological broad the absorbed which intelligentsia, tion of health; it should give every individual and an entire society society entire an and individual every give should it health; of tion

intelligentsia have pointed out that what E ntsiklopedicheskiy slovar' slovar' ntsiklopedicheskiy ion and food control, schooling and childcare and, and, childcare and schooling control, food and ion

, (St. , s

Petersburg: Tipografiya Stasyulecivha, a te poiin o h eitn autocratic existing the to opposition the was

Erismann believed that the major tool of of tool major the that believed Erismann 21

When When 22 (St.

social questions such as working working as such questions social scie

Petersburg: Brokgayza i Efron, 1900), 1900), Efron, i Brokgayza Petersburg: obshchestvo. enerally shared the values and values the shared enerally ntific laws turned into social into turned laws ntific ority and move the country brought brought cohesion to that

1873 h 1860s. the ), ), p. eant that eant workers 2 .

27

CEU eTD Collection yethygiene, Health administration community and medicine weregoals. toachieving indispensable thehealth public autonomy from the imperial government connection to social policy, it could advance the role of scien direct its through time, same the At disease. preventing and health promoting through and sanit knowledge the offered hygiene followers, his of many for and Erismann For to promote Russian public health he worked together with populists and liberals alike. for theprofession'sauthority and prestige. at the same time they stressed their social activism and service to the nation in the quest but people, the with merger for vehicle a as profession their saw practitioners medical the to denied were greater that influence political for and autonomy claims own intelligentsia's the with side by side went often ethos this to a brighter future. 25 24 23

Friedrich Erismann was convinced that the state should use the a the use should state the that convinced was Erismann Friedrich P S.I. Mitskevich, Mitskevich, S.I. Russia, thesis, PhD Berkeley Imperial Late in Medicine Preventive of Rise Press, University Princeton Frieden, Nancy Post History, in Eurasian and Russian Society of Visions Nation? the of Part University of Wisconsin Press, 2011), pp. 13 Frede, Victoria olitically Friedrich Erismann himself was close to social ation the tools ation thetools g overnmental intervention in overnmental Zapiski Russian Physicians in an Era of Reform and Revolution, 1856 Revolution, and Reform of Era an in Physicians Russian ob, tes ad h Nineteenth the and Atheism Doubt, 23 required required

In the debates on the reorganization of Russian society, however, 2003 vracha .

1981 to significantly improve the life of the Russian population Russian the life of the to significantly improve 7, 4 (Fall 2006): 733 4 2006): (Fall 7,

- obshchestvennika obshchestvennika ), pp. pp. ), 313 - 314 - 16, 16, 218 24 sanitary reform ; Lisa Kay Walker, “Public Health, Hygiene and the the Walker, and Kay Lisa ; Hygiene Health, “Public

- mniain Russia,” Emancipation (Moscow: Meditsina, (Moscow: - - - 758.

219; 219; Nathaniel Knight, both both of which, according to Erismann,

- century Russian Intelligentsia Intelligentsia Russian century

1874 - 1912 m by the autocracy. Russian Russian autocracy. the by m s

had toremain very limited: - tific expertise and su ,” University of California at at California of University ,” democrats, but in his task 1969 rtk: xlrtos in Explorations Kritika: “Was the Intelligentsia ), pp. pp. ), chiev - 1905 69 , mns of ements 81

(Princeton: (Madison: (Madison: .

pport 28 25

CEU eTD Collection physicians. registered 10,000 limited very T foreigners autonomy were low, because the occupation was new and for a long time dominated by eighteenth an was medical for practitio positions few very century nineteenth the in early fact, in personnel; rank licensed, educated, wereorganize empowered their welfare to now systems. allowed for theappearance ofa inthe actor health new policy 1870 of Statute Municipal new the and 1864 in zemstvo of introduction particular,the II,Alexander of Great indeed The Reforms relativelyinRussia. phenomenon a new based of thelocal on“the participation population.” the sanitary conditions. improve to means the studying for responsible be would that institutions the localities self regional the give to and a municipalities in organizations sanitary of emergence the for obstacles the all remove to necessary is it Then punished. being without trespass could that nobody health public of interests the in boundaries certain undesira create absolutely to has is only legislation hygiene public of organization the in legislation the 29 28 27 26 he scope of scope he

ro t ta, medicine that, to Prior i population local the of participation The He believed that the best way to organize pu

[T]he experience of our Western neighbors shows that a too direct interference of of interference direct too a that shows neighbors Western our of experience [T]he Erisman, “Organizatsiya obshchestvennoy gigiyeny v Rossii”, p. p. Rossii”, v gigiyeny “OrganizatsiyaErisman,obshchestvennoy p. Rossii”, v gigiyeny “OrganizatsiyaErisman,obshchestvennoy Frieden, Frieden, Frieden, also 38; see p. 2003), Press, University Oxford (Oxford: Alexander, John ners could be found outside found be could ners - Russian Physicians, Russian

the first university medic university first the

- public health measures and and measures health public

in the 1860s, the 80 the 1860s, the in - uoi Pau i Ery Modern Early in Plague Bubonic century cre century

26

ed, employed and supervised supervised and employed ed,

in Russia had largely been a state enterprise. The state state The enterprise. state a been largely had Russia in p. p. -

ation of the Russian state; Russian the of ation 28 government the right to independently create in their their in create independently to right the government 29 .

h appear The - million population of the Empire had only about about only had Empire the of population million st al degree was awarded in Russia only in 1794. in only Russia in awarded was degree al ate institutions. The medical profession as such as profession medical The institutions. ate general access to medical care had remained had care medical to access general blic hygiene was a decentralized system n ne f e lcl self local new of ance

Russia: Public Health and Urban Disaster Disaster Urban and Health Public Russia: atr o pbi hat plc was policy health public of matters 27

corporate consciousness and and consciousness corporate 251 226 Russian Physicians, Physicians, Russian majority of the medical medical the of majority . .

-

local communities that communities local - nd zemstvos nd government pp. pp. ble. The The ble. 21 - 52 .

29

in in 28

CEU eTD Collection 30 policy. ne could itself by that body advisory amorphous small a just emp the to going before Council Medical the through pass to had health public concerning medicine. forensic and treatment, and science a described legally was tha Council Medical the was Ministry the within organ key The Interior. of Ministry national level. respolittle with control were with overlap often scattered, andamong confusion, several stateagencies sanitation and health of functions The other. any in than more perhaps, sanitation, under fact in was assassinationII ofAlexander in1881. the after government Russian the of turn conservative the during deepened two the them to act for and on behalf of the allowing professionals, medical for opportunities employment alternative numerous institutions 33 32 31

Central European University University CentralEuropean see it, outside than rather state also after the Great Reforms and that physicians strove to redefine their role from within strong the state remained profession medical the that however, argued, has Becker Elisa According to the law, the sphere of civil and veterinary medicine belonged to the to belonged medicine veterinary and civil of sphere the law, the to According Even though contemporaries often viewed Russia as an over Hutchinson, Hutchinson, 1 (St. vol. part 24, III, coll. Zakonov Rossiiskoi Imperii srvnitel'noy “Ustavvrachebny” in v imperii Rossiyskoy 83 pp. 2005), Izdatel'stvo, v armii i in perspective,” byurokratii “Chislennost' Velychenko, Stephen eror. Although the legal description of its competence was impressive, it presented 33

-

that had been very weak in Russia before the Great Reforms Reforms Great the before Russia in weak very been had that Politics and Public Health Public and Politics

nsibility and executive potential to coordinate any efficient policy on a policya coordinatetoany on efficient potential executive nsibility and Rossiyskaya imperiya v sovremennoy zarubezhnoy istoriografii istoriografii zarubezhnoy sovremennoy v imperiya Rossiyskaya - governed,

Svod zakonov zakonov Rossiyskoy Imperii Svod s the supreme authority for for authority supreme the s Elisa Becker, Elisa - 114.

, , coll. II, vol. 17, part 1 (St. Petersburg, 1907), Petersburg,1907), Press, 2011), Press, 270. p. particularly 31

and in the spheres of social welfare, public health and health public welfare, social of spheres the in and obshchestvo , p.5 , Medicine, Law, and the State in Imperial Russia Russia Imperial in State the Law, and Medicine, 30

- 6.

Nr.24254. , and no

Petersburg, 1843), Nr. 15202; see also ibidem, 32 (St. (St. Petersrburg: 1892), pp. 1

questions of public health, medical health, public of questions

l isrcin ad rf laws draft and instructions All

t the state while the gap between ither initiate, nor execute execute nor initiate, ither - bureaucratized state, it ly dependant on the the on dependant ly (Moscow: Novoye Novoye (Moscow: - 2; 2; – Polnyi Svod (Budapest: (Budapest:

created 30 t

CEU eTD Collection ensuring province, the in food included providing protection, others, health public among for “measures responsibilities, whose governors, city and provincial idea the thatwasend until realized of not theimperial era. another central institution incapable of implem Botkin promine the by chaired and Council Medical the under purposes the causes o given the Medical Council declared that the sanitary reform was of vital ne health public of questions related their issues ownjurisdiction. inthestructureswithin Public of Ministries Inst the addition, In controversial. often was and control medical veterinary the of delineation the although committee, Veterinary the included also Interior of Ministry the of bodies medical The measures. sanitary and epidemics fig of category general 3) statistics; and education societies, medical hospitals, state of supervision 2) pensions; and awards appointments, its personnel, medical to corresponded Department the 35 34

n h lcl ee, h sae me state the level, local the On The impotence of the existing medical structures of the E ruction, Finance,ruction, Transportation,Agriculture and State Domains controlledhealth Tipografiya Stasyulevicha, 1901), pp. 2 pp. Tipografiya1901), Stasyulevicha, “Ustavvracheb 184; vrachebno i sanitarnym .. ooo ad . . Grebenshchikov, I. V. and Sokolov D.A. “Vrachebno Freiberg, N.G. xecutive power was concentrated in the Medical Depart exceptional death rates. The Ministry of Interior initiated the investigation into into investigation the initiated Interior of Ministry The rates. death exceptional on ocue th concluded soon f high mortality and ways to fight it. A special Committee, created for these enting sanitary reform in Russian and ny”, pp. 1 ny”,pp.

- bytovym voprosam, bytovym

that would manage all the sanitary affairs of was quite clear even to the St. the to even clear quite was - t h Mdcl eatet i its in Department, Medical the at sanitarno - 2; Hutchinson, Hutchinson, 2;

three main spheres of its activity: 1) registration of of registration 1) activity: its of spheres main three y - zkndtlto” in zakonodatelstvo,” e dical administration belonged to the appointed appointed the to belonged administration dical 3; Hutchinson, Hutchinson, 3; mrns’ Rsi i o’a neyu s bor’ba i Rossii v Smertnost’ (Moscow: Tipographiya Richter, 1910), pp. 182 pp. 1910), Richter, Tipographiya (Moscow: Politics and Public Health Public and Politics Politics and Public Health, Health, Public and Politics

Petersburg officials. In 1885, In1885, officials. Petersburg paohi p obshestvenno po Spravochnik that

35 state government to manage 34

ment. Three offices w

it it was necessary t

, pp. 4 pp. , xsig shape existing nt physician Sergey physician nt cessity to the state, - the 5. (St. , p.6. empire

Petersburg: o create ,

hting hting – ithin was was

- - the the 31 -

CEU eTD Collection the of third last the in discourse public Russian entered physicians” “community and obsh activists themselves.zemstvo the of parts the as but state, local the as Interestingly,Russia disease. treat self elected of authority the through regions their in policy health the for responsible and health. I chargesand the in link crucial the was actually department police The regulation. sanitary in involved authorities the all by issued instructions the of realization the for accountable were his decisions. of executor an was and governor the to role subordinate a had health, public of sphere Inspector, the main specialized medical body of the local imperial administration in the consultation pharmacies and personnel decisions could be made by the governors instructions.” and orders legal all of necessary care to the sick and helpless and suprem 36 37

2000), p. 8; Hutchinson, Politics and Public Health, p. 15. Health,p. Public and Hutchinson,p. 8; Politics 2000), The new concepts of concepts new The efficiarguably,another,more about brought Reforms Great The sys state the in step lowest The

A.N. Davydov, Moskva, vek XX. Istoricheskaya ekologia, 1901 - Freibe execution of effective of execution oenet ntttos n t dvlp cesbe nrsrcue o rvn and prevent to infrastructure accessible develop to and institutions government ch estve t t empowered the local communi rg,“Vrachebno nnik Te rvnil eia Bad he Board, Medical Provincial The . bring matters tocourtbring matters when 36

that can roughly be translated into English as “community medicine” “community as English into translated be roughly can that

- sanitarno obsh control ch

y

e zakonodatelstvo,” p.184 zakonodatelstvo,” e estvennaya meditsina, obsh meditsina, estvennaya . It was the police alone that had the power to lay lay to power the had that alone police the was It . n tem of sanitary control was the local police, as they they as police, local the was control sanitary of tem

obshchestvo Questions of anti of Questions ties themselves to become actively involved in san obshchestvo itary regulations wereregulations itary violated.

saw municipalities and zemstvos not zemstvos and municipalities saw e e control of the quick implementation

aded by the Provincial Medical Medical Provincial the by aded - 185. - epidemic measures, openings of of openings measures,epidemic

– - 1917, 1917, vol. 1 (Moscow: Mosgorarhiv,

and so did the municipal or municipal the did so and ch estvenny vrach vrach estvenny ent actor in public public in actor ent

alone without any 37

or or vrach 32 -

CEU eTD Collection altogether.” con health the improve that social own his interfere inthe people’s life. sanitary possible introduce to to hygiene, prejudices, fight propagate to necessary is it that clear became immediately It <…> factors environmental all from epidemics and diseases of dependence the see to healthy, the healthy the and community diseased of of masses the in getconvinced to them, around population the emergence with the deal to With necessary became around. it medicine happening was what and afterwards each other, and his task was only following words: not surprisingly, a member of the populist movement, later described this shift with the individuals, the medicine andare physicianssociety.” calledtoservethewhole to service fruitless of centuries “after 1873, in development this Kazan the As treatment. of medicine shift the meant they hand, other the on demands; its to according functioning i they hand, nineteenth century. The understanding of these concepts was double 40 39 38

Erismann was among the main advocates of community medicine, consonant with consonant medicine, community of advocates main the among was Erismann to connectednot patients, individual onlywith dealt doctor a practice private his In remarkable figuresmost the of oneDmitryZhbankov, Bulletin of the Histor the of Bulletin Quoted in N.A. Semashko “Friedrich Erismann: DawnThe of Russian Public Hygiene and Health,” vrachebno uchrezhden sanitarnykh 1907 revolutsiayami dvumya mezhdy 3 p. 11. 1964), Meditsina, period v Kazani”, meditsina vrachey obshchestvennaya Obshchestva “Dnevnik .. hakv Kaky seeia vzinvni dytlnsi obshchestvenno deyatel’nosti i vozniknovenii o svedeniya “Kratkiye Zhbankov D.I.

focused on an individual to individual an on focused 40 - bytovym voprosam bytovym mplied the medical system organized by the local community and and community local the by organized system medical the mplied

- hygienic outlook, arguing that “only those measures can be beneficial beneficial be can measures those “only that arguing outlook, hygienic

y of Medicine, of y

iy v zemskoy Rossii” in in Rossii” zemskoy v iy ditions of the whole groups of people or of the population the of or people of groups whole the of ditions 39 described Petrov A.V. anatomy pathological of professor (Moscow: (Moscow: TipographiyaRichter, p. 39. 1910),

to cure the sick, without thinking what would happen vol. 20 medicine focused on a community as the object object the as community a on focused medicine , no , 1

(June Spravochnik po obshchestvenno po Spravochnik 17) ctd n .. Strashun, I.D. in cited (1873), tight connection between the sick and and sick the between connection tight 1946

esrs s t sy t actively to say, to so measures, ), p. ),p.

5 in community medicine and,community medicine in .

38

-

edged edged - - 1917 1917 sanitarnym i sanitarnym –

on the one (Moscow: (Moscow: Russkaya Russkaya from - 33

CEU eTD Collection congresses sanitary control delegated of Statute the approved Ministry the 1901 In Ministry. and advance in created be to had also listeners and participants any prevent to order debatesin rep the all read to obliged now were who Inspectors, 1889, From composition. however, the Ministry insisted on giving the presidency over the cong in restriction no had and public to open chairmen, presided was program, own its to according functioned It Interior. of liberalism andopposition of the congresses, in an attempt from switch t domain, public audible increasingly the by Disturbed administration. central the for concerns serious raised practice the urgent, as recognized officially fa in was and zemstvo the of authority than 300sanitary tookplace European congresses all across Russia. Nov Nizhny Kazan', a and province, Tver’the in 1871 in held was them representatives of the provincia the the in 1870s of turn 42 41

At first, the convocation of a congresssanitary required limited the transgress not did congresses sanitary the of convocation the Although the at started control sanitary and medicine community of institutionalization The 45 pp. Rossii,” v zemskoy uchrezhdeniy obshchestvenno deyatel'nosti i vozniknovenii o svedeniya “Kratkiye Zhbankov, D.N. Zhbankov,45 pp. svedeniya,” “Kratkiye mere l mere sntr congresses sanitary l

to provincial governors who had to approve the program and the the and program the approve to had who governors provincial to icensing gorod, Perm’ and Samara. In the following thirty five years more more years five thirty following the In Perm’Samara. gorod,and zemstvo

zemstvo

to the d the to in local self

circles; it was usually initiated and coordinated through coordinated and initiated usually was it circles;

to discuss and devise to discussanddevise

deviation from the purely scientific agenda. The list of of list The agenda. scientific purely the from deviation to qu irect supervision and interference with the ac the with interference and supervision irect ell the hopes of those who saw - - 46. 46. ct the step towards the sanitary reform that was that reform sanitary the towards step the ct - -

government periodical meetings of physicians and and physicians of meetings periodical

public health policy. . year later the initiative spread to spread initiative the later year

rs n ppr ad moderate and papers and orts

approval by the Ministry of resses to the Medical

the potential cradle 42

rsne t the to presented

vr by over he state had to had state he 41

The first of - sanitarnykh sanitarnykh elected elected tivity tivity that that 34

CEU eTD Collection delu sanitarnomu voprosam, in Rossii” zemskoy v uchrezhdeniy Zhbankov “Kratki D.I. Source: 1.1. Table the with provinces, exception of Vyatka, Poltava and Orel. zemstvo all in operated modification, some in that, bureaus permanent zemstvo advisory organs. The executive functions were gi and smaller creating to led discussion purposeful and ordered more a for need The ne not though open, for arena an providing lectures, prepared or plan preliminary any tasks.” “should theactivity meeting ofthe reveal any disorder, or deviation from the entrusted shut or congress the forbid could generally and congress the of participants 44 43 province (if different) province

The congresses, especially in the first decades, often worked spontaneously, without

Kishinev Bessarabia/ the of city capital Province/ Penza Orel Olonets/Petrozavodsk Novgorod NizhnyNovgorod Moscow Kursk Kostroma Kaluga Kazan Ekaterinoslav Vyatka Voronezh Vologda Vladimir Ibid., 57. p. Ibid., 49 pp. Ibid., 43

Sanitary organization Sanitary

Mso: iorpia ihe, 90; Idem, 1910); Richter, Tipographiya (Moscow:

-

50. (Moscow: Tipographia

cessarily productive, debates on debates productive, cessarily

y e svedeni e s

in zemstvo provinces. in zemstvo

paohi p obshestvenno po Spravochnik

y Richter, 1915). Richter, congresses (1871 congresses a o vozniknovenii i vozniknovenii o a Number of provincial sanitary sanitary Numberofprovincial 44

- 1909) 11 10 18 10 11 10 13 4 2 4 9 5 8 8 7 9 deyatelnosti obshchestvenno

urgent questions of public health. public of questions urgent bri p grdkm vrachebno gorodskomu po Sbornik

- aianm vrachebno i sanitarnym

social activism and activism social bureau sanitary zemstvo ven ven to the sanitary Creation ofCreation

- 1891 1885 1883 1898 1875 1886 1895 1905 1898 1896 1897 1902 1883 1892 sanitarnykh sanitarnykh No No it down it - bytovym bytovym

35 -

CEU eTD Collection the diphtheria outbreak of the 1880s in Nizhny Novgorod and Nikolayev, the cholera cholera the Nikolayev, and Novgorod Nizhny in 1880s the of outbreak diphtheria the s of development epidemics. Theplague typhusepidemic of and 1878 dis scholarly that there was it and cities, the in located were profession, medical the of suppliers main the Universities, costlyimprovements. implement sanitary to resources enough(o had empire, modernizing the of facades representative the as also and education, and potential breeding grounds for disease. At the same time, cities migrants of target for Russian influence. its indirectly, under or directly and, activity cussions took placecussions took thatacademic and knowledge foundapplications. its often Institutionalization of urban sanitary control was fostered by the spread of of spread the by fostered was control sanitary urban of Institutionalization Municip Yaroslavl Chernigov Kherson Kharkov Ufa Tula Tver Tambov Simpheropol Tavria/ Smolensk Simbirsk Saratov St. Samara Ryazan Pskov Poltava Perm

Petersburg

the hygi r at least more than the rest of the country) material, human and institutional and human country)the material, of restthe than more least at r

l novmn i cmuiy eiie ok lc prle t zemstvo to parallel place took medicine community in involvement al

from the rural areas and the failure to accommodate them provided the provided them accommodate to failure the and areas rural the from

anitary organization anitary ene ene movement. Drastic growth in

s

in St. in

Petersburg, Moscow and Ekaterinoslav, and Moscow Petersburg, 10 17 10 15 11 11 13 14 10 14 16 11 4 8 6 5 7 7 urban population, -

1879 ledtotheestablishment and ,

as the centers of wealth cities were an obvious obvious an were cities a constant constant influx 1903 1889 1886 1896 1885 1904 1888 1897 1892 1892 1896 1889 1878 1893 1896 1899 1890 No

36

CEU eTD Collection 1915. Richter, 1. Table health control, while sanitary technologies and i f Ho inspection. veterinary and slaughterhouses vaccination smallpox organized Dvinsk) and Vitebsk Minsk, for (except them of all Practically laboratories. chemical and bacteriological of prod cases registered diseases, systematically contagious 100,000 over of population a with cities the inspection. sanitary and legislation sanitary local mea health public basic epidemics of 1892 Source: D.I. Zhbankov: Sbornik po gorodskomu vrachebno gorodskomu po Sbornik Zhbankov: D.I. Source: 45 orms were not that common common that not were orms Astrakhan City Nizhny Novgorod Moscow Minsk Kiev Kishinev Kharkov Kazan Irkutsk Voznesensk Ivanovo Ekaterinoslav Ekaterinodar Dvinsk Baku

Richter, 442 pp. 1915), .. Zhbankov, D.I.

2

.

-

Theb

iggest Russian cities and th and cities Russian iggest

- bri p grdkm vrachebno gorodskomu po Sbornik 93 in Baku, Ekaterinodar and Orenburg and of 1908 in Samara. The 127000 168000 197000 101000 111000 217000 150000 (1912) Population 115000 1399000) suburbs (without 1612000 100000 500000 130000 238000 179000

- 443. sures of the city councils, like those of the zemstvos, included zemstvos, the of those like councils, city the of sures

cd ttsis f obdt ad otlt ad had and mortality and morbidity of statistics uced

–

about a half of the biggest Russian cities had school had cities Russian biggest the of half a about 1889 1884 1911 1878 No 1878 1913 1882 No thecity) to subordinated (from1883 1879 1892 1890 1890 1883 organization sanitary permanent ofCreation eir sanitary organizations. sanitary eir

nfrastructure nfrastructure functioned in only wever, the more elaborated and costly costly and elaborated more the wever, -

aianm delu sanitarnomu By the eve of World War I most of of most I War World of eve the By - sanitarnomu delu. Moscow: Tipographia Tipographia Moscow: delu. sanitarnomu 4 60 3 14 2 15 1 4 1 5 4 1 9 7 or 1913) (1912 doctors sanitary Numberof

s

and all had municipal municipal had all and

(ocw Tipographia (Moscow: . 2.98 [1911] 2.98 [1914] 8.96 0.63 [1912] 1.74 [1911] 1.19 1913] 4.91[ [1912] 1.04 [1913] 2,34 [1913] 0,83 [1911] 2,43 [1912] 5,26 [1911] 0,2 [1911] 3,80 [1912] 3,19 expenses) cityall to (% health public Expenses [1911]

on the the on a a few.

37 45

CEU eTD Collection associations in some form existed in most of the cities of the Empire, from Vilno to Vilno from Empire, the of cities the of most in existed form some in associations in doctors Russian of societies St. the by counterbalanced becoming later 1820, around Riga and cities capital imperial both in appeared doctors German of societies fo the in initially century, knowle nic supra for organ representative collective any possess not did municipalities and zemstvos though Even scene. the the self Yaroslavl Warsaw Vitebsk Vilnius Tula Tsaritsin Tomsk Tiflis Tashkent Saratov St. Samara Rostov Riga Revel Orenburg Omsk Odessa Nikolayev

Medical communities emerged in Russia from the beginning of the nineteenth nineteenth the of beginning the from Russia in emerged communities Medical im any hinder to state the of desire the Despite e a fle by filled was he - national level allowed an alternative actor in the form of civil associations to enter to associations civil of form the in actoralternative an allowed level national eesug 13) n Mso (1858 Moscow and (1833) Petersburg

government institutions government Petersburg

dge and practices bypassingdge and practices

-

on

- Don Don

105000 781000 100000 240000 132000 100000 110000 300000 226000 223000 1686000) suburbs (without 2018000 156000 202000 400000 130000 120000 133000 (1910) 546000 103000

the professional organizations that would allow for transfer of of transfer for allow would that organizations professional the

m f nvriy lb o eptit ascain. Thus, associations. expatriate or clubs university of rm , its its , -

einl icsin n ecag o exchange and discussion regional own incapacity to coordinate to incapacity own direct intergovernmental cooperation. No police) to belongs control (sanitary No 1902 1890 No 1908 1897 1893 1902 1904 1884 1908 1904 (?) 1885 1879 1892 1903 1897 1885

. y h mid the By ). mediate cooperation between between cooperation mediate No 1 2 11 3 3 3 8 2 5 150 7 5 6 2 2 2 14 2

- 80 lcl professional local 1860s

public health policy on on policy health public f experience, this this experience, f 1.22 [1912] 1.22 - [1911] 0.35 [1911] 0.78 [1912] 2.43 [1911] 1.62 [1911] 2.56 [1912] 1.98 [1912] 1.03 [1911] 4.44 [1912] 6.06 [1912] 2.36 [1912] 3.00 [1911] 3.21 [1912] 1.93 [191 1.65 [1911] 0.86 [1911] 3.81 [1911] 3.48

1]

local local 38

CEU eTD Collection of public health, monopoly functions. and over toclaim these at state, the of functions managingand regulative appropriatethe to also but knowledgeproduction, and expertise of tasks the keep to only communitynot coordinate and moderate sanitaryorgans. local programfor work common a and nomenclature and framework conceptual consistent a collection, data country uniform a introducing and creating body coordinating a of function the assumed Society workers’ mortality,relief, child faminedisinfection and insurance, pollution. water with concerned commissions of anddiscussions activity.Out its in place prominent occupieda commun problems,scientific and therapeutic and Pirogov. N.I. of organization professional national the of borders the left associations medical the Tiflis. to Arkhangelsk from and Irkutsk, 49 48 47 46

In the situation when sanitary reform was bound ato particular locality, the Pirogov Tipographiya7 Richter, pp. 1910), in 224 pp. 2009), Press, Sci Russia: Tsarist in 1905, Rossii v meditsiny obshchestvennoy Strashun, I.D. Ibid., 14. p. Ibid., K. I. Shidlovsky, “Nekotorye svedeniya ob Obsh On the Pirogov Society see: Frieden, paohi p obsh po Spravochnik p. 118 p.

- ntae b te ioo Scey n h 19s n 1900 and 1890s the in Society Pirogov the by initiated 122. 47 questions questions

Russkaya obshchestvennaya meditsina, meditsina, obshchestvennaya Russkaya ; Hutchinson, Hutchinson, ; The interests of the Pirogov Society included a wide spectrum of spectrum wide a included Society Pirogov the of interests The

- 253. 253. ne ptits, n cvl society civil and patriotism, ence,

ch

of loca estvenno

Politics and Public Health Public and Politics aiain n welfare, and sanitation atr rsle i atmt by attempts in resulted actors l - 8. (Mo

Russian Russian Physicians in an Era of Reform and Revolution, 1856 -

- the Society of the Russian physicians in Memory in physicians Russian the of Society the aianm vrachebn i sanitarnym scow: Meditsina, 1974), pp. 99 pp. 1974), Meditsina, scow: 49 46

The inability of the ce inabilitythe Theof

It was not, however, until the 1880s when 1880s the until however, not, was It - wide system of demographic and medical medical and demographic of system wide ch estve estve russki ir localities and acquired the form of a a of form the acquired and localities ir ity medicine and public health policy andity public health medicine

(Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University University Harvard Mass.: (Cambridge, ; Joseph Bradley,Joseph ;

. ; .. Levit, M.M. 8; p. Fr xml, t nae in engaged it example, For . k nldn fcoy legislation, factory including h vrachei v pamyat’ N.I. Pirogova.” o - yoy voprosam, bytovym

- 105. ntral administratio ntral

about three dozen of threedozen about Voluntary Associations

least in the sphere sphere the in least h professional the , ot were most s, Stanovleniye Stanovleniye (Moscow: (Moscow: n ton 48 39

-

CEU eTD Collection power the with dialogue into enter to had it results practical achieve to order healthier,in Russia modern the make to how of discourse a initiated medicine community of proponents institu an required education hygiene and regulations government sanitary thefield in of reform. do narrowed state autocratic the and medicine community of opposition perceived The find to trying projects. reformative their of state, realization the for methods utopian often and alternative the of authority coercive the share to unwilling sometimes discipline,” social of mechanisms the disperse to “reluctance showed Engelstein, Laura of expression the use to who, state sanitation.” and medicine community real the of enemies the are inevitable companions 1902 could claim that “centralization, public surveillance over the andpopulation their st the declarative the rejection not only of its in policy but also of any resulted mechanisms of governing associated with cases some in administration central the to opposition medica state the of reform the of disapproval their in instance, for resulted, it with cooperate 52 51 50

n h fed o psil coeain ewe cmuiy hscas n the and physicians community between cooperation possible for field the wn In practice, however, planof any public health improvements, prophylaxis, sanitary of mistrust The p. (ed.), Goldstein Jan in Russia” Soviet and Imperial in Law the and Discipline Underdevelopment: “Combined Engelstein, Laura pirogovskiy s’yezd Ivanov,usloviya N. “Ob Health, Public Grebenshchikov, and Sokolov

ate. Thus, one of the participants of the eighth congress of the Pirogov Society Pirogov in the congress of eighth the theof participantsof one Thus, ate. 230. admini l

- odr. eia atvs hd o e hnee th channeled be to had activism Medical holders. stration and the creation of a of creation the and stration pp. 7 pp. (Moscow: Pechatnya(Moscow: Yakovleva,8. p. vol 4, 1902), - omnt pyiin t te tt ad hi uwliges to unwillingness their and state the to physicians community

9.

-

k order and the punishment for the non h uspeshnogo provedeniya uspeshnogo h Smertnost

ocut n t and Foucault 52 ’

v Rossii I bor’ba s neyu, neyu, s bor’ba I Rossii v

but the modern professional groups that we that groups professional modern the but

e rtn o History of Writing he

togcnrl eia authority. medical central strong

v zhizn sanitarny zhizn v tional base. Although the the Although base. tional p. 4; Hutchinson, 4; p. - fulfillment of the ord

k

(Oxford: Blackwell, 1994), 1994), Blackwell, (Oxford: h meropriyati h 51 rough the existing existing the rough

It was not only the only not was It y ” Politics and and Politics

in in Vos’moy 50

The er 40 re -

CEU eTD Collection explore howthese process rhetoric the with negotiations least at or course, the reshape and institutions government legitimized through th same time, the successful development of sanitation, medical care and welfare systems, projects. complicated the andAt costly implement to potential financial and executive composition of the local gove the implementation of any measures.sanitary for authorities executive of source the as them on rely to and structures governmental

h ntr o sntr rfr dpne gety n esnl ntaie the initiative, personal on greatly depended reform sanitary of nature The officialdom e use of expert knowledge, could expand the authority of the self es ofthe evolvedMoscow. sanitary inthecourse reforms in r nment, its receptiveness to n h atcai sae Te following The state. autocratic the in

public health concerns and its

chapters will will chapters

f their of 41 -

CEU eTD Collection Europe. urban highestin the among remained rates morbidity and mortality Moscow's as city migrant booming the to threat serious a posed Epidemics authorities. Moscow’s for job difficult and food and water tothem, ofkeepin the areaaside. set Moscow of complexity and population the of size sheer the because town, typical a not was it feature characteristic many possessed Moscow process. this of example striking a was unique, not obviouslythough Moscow, cities its among and exception, no was Russia America. North and Europe in cities many for growth 1

The task of accommodating hundreds of thousands of new urbanites, of providing providing of urbanites, new of thousands of hundreds accommodating of task The wa century nineteenth the of third last The Gilded Age Chicago, Silver Age Moscow, and Meiji Osaka Osaka Press), Meiji and Moscow, Age Silver Chicago, Age Gilded 14 pp. Press), University Oxford of California Press, pp. 1985), 22 Joseph Bradley, pp. pp. Local politics in Moscowand thedynamics in Local sanitary reforms politics of 267 , 277 Muzhik Muzhik and Muscovite: Urbanization in Late .

1

In a world wh worlda In

indigenous. were things wheresuch theWest, survived and through lived we into organism, simply not were soil copied like slaves from own their masters […]; they were intoinoculated our our in transplanted and Europe from took we things the of many very Many, […] Slavophiles ourselves call we homelands: two Russianshave We

- 25; 25; Robert Thurston, - 0 Bar Ruble, Blair 20; g themhealthyand removing was a theirnew wastes CHAPTER TWO our flesh and blood. There are some things, indeed, that indeed, things, some are There blood. and flesh our ere the health of the population was becoming was population the of health erethe a ea f oenzto ad abrupt and modernization of era an s What London needs, is too early for Moscow. Moscow. earlyfor is too needs, London What eod Metropolis: Second Liberal City,Liberal Conservative State Alexander Pushkin, Pushkin, Alexander independently Fyodor Dostoevsky, Fyodor

- Imperial Imperial Russia s of Russian urbanization, but urbanization, Russian of s (Cambridge: Cambridge University University Cambridge (Cambridge: our own Russia and Europe, even Europe, and Russia own our

, just as they did there in there did they as just ,

Pragmatic Pluralism in in Pluralism Pragmatic

(Berkeley: University A Letter to Censor to ALetter A Writer’s Diary AWriter’s

(New York:

42

if

CEU eTD Collection as major European cities. By the turn of the twentieth century, among European European among citywithout biggest the wasand population in rankedsixth was Moscow metropolises century, twentieth the of turn the By cities. European major as promoter ofpublicand health sanitation was challenged. the municipality, but, on with the othe cooperation its in resulted hand, one the on which, reforms, sanitary the in involved more got administration imperial the when period the was this time, same stage, and completed, although the last the In 1880s. the commencing in the early 1890s, many throughout endeavors of the previous period were continued administration local the and leaders back the against politics, local in actors important into evolved institutions city The activity. municipal wereIt and developed commissioned. was aof time unprecedented speed scope and of breakthrou major saw proceeded rather slowly. The second stage, between the mid goal that of realization the but problem, this tackle to responsibility its acknowledged became city the of condition sanitary poor the and pollution 1880s, early the till 1870s early the from to how pre process; it had its conflict citygovernment. the of agenda the of top the to moved reform sanitary the asset, political important an The and size metropolitanclaims oflate growth,Moscow: urban socialcompositionand city government consistent and steady a always not expectedly, was, campaign sanitation This - 1905 authorities approached sanitary reforms in Moscow. In the first period, ground and in spite of the opposition between the Moscow municipal Moscow the between opposition the of spite in and ground

a subject of public debate. The reformed Moscow municipality municipality Moscow reformed The debate. public of subject a ghs, when the key projects of public health and sanitary services sanitaryservices and health public of projects key the when ghs, s, advances and retreats. I identify three stages corresponding

pace and the scale of reforms somewhat decreased. At the r hand, meant that the role of the municipality as the main - imperial Moscow put it inthe same Moscow putit imperial

- 1880s and the early 1890s,

league league 43

CEU eTD Collection the greatest proportion of immigrants had Moscow cities European major the among 1880s, the in Yet, Russian. peculiarly the was immigration three almost since had been serfdom. under and pay to abilitypeasants’ the exceeded which process and due to the necessity of redemption payment for the land after emancipation, intensified serfdom of going to the city in search of wages ( land. of Russia European of provinces in 1907and1,612,0001912. 1,346,000 by followed residents 1,043,000 already had Moscow 1897 in and decades, following the in continued growth of pattern The 1871. in 602,000 reaching half, by populati the liberation the after decade first the In work. of search in city the into peasants flooded of as thousands theliberation, immediately impactfelt of the abolition of serfdom in 1861. Located at the heart of the agricultural provinces, Moscow status. capital a 5 3 2 4

In thelast decades of peasant the to belonged migrants the of Most Mironov, Russia Mironov, Boris 106; p. 1980), Press, University Princeton (Princeton: E 1913); S.n.; (Moscow: 1908 Moskvy goroda ezhegodnik Statisticheskiy 6. p. Barbara Anderson, Anderson, Barbara I. I. A.Verner,

4 - 1916), p.7; p.7; 1916),

The peasants were forced to look for alternative means of subsistence, and subsistence, of means alternative for look to forced were peasants The (Boulder: Westview Press, 2000) WestviewPress, (Boulder: A

Social History of Imperial Russia Imperial of History Social Sovremennoye khozyaistvo gorodaMoskv khozyaistvo Sovremennoye 2

The bifurcation point in the growth of Moscow was connected to the to connected was Moscow of growth the in point bifurcation The Glavneyshiye predvaritelnyye dannyye perepisi goroda Moskvy 6 marta 1912 g. 1912 marta 6 Moskvy goroda perepisi dannyye predvaritelnyye Glavneyshiye - quarters of its population was non was population its of quarters Internal Migration during Modernization in Late Nineteenth Late in Modernization during Migration Internal

dominant factor of substantial urban growth was not something something not was growth urban substantial of factor dominant the peasant migration to Moscow due to the facilitation of the of facilitation the to due Moscow to migration peasant the

. the nineteenth century Moscow 5

A.Zvyagintsev et al., eds. eds. al., et A.Zvyagintsev

– 3

a region that suffered from overpopulation and a lack lack a and overpopulation from suffered that region a

otkhod) , – pp.

about three quarters Mso: zae'to okvky ooso dumy, gorodskoy moskovskoy Izdatel'stvo (Moscow:

, p. 333. p. , 333, 341 333, became Moskva

arguably made rural life worse than it it than worse life rural made arguably - 2. y

(Moscow: Gorodskaya tipografiya, 1913), 1913), tipografiya, Gorodskaya (Moscow: estate and came from the the from came and estate

a common solution.

(Moscow: I.N. 1915), p. p. 112.1915), I.N. (Moscow: - native. Naturally, the fact that that fact the Naturally, native. was a true city ofimmigrants, -

and still held this position A

Social History of Imper of History Social - The abolition Century Russia Russia Century on increased on

central 44 ial ial

CEU eTD Collection 8 7 Moscow” “Merchant economy. capitalist the in the bourgeoisie, Russian emerging the of centers key the of one it made production, textile in predominantly economy. urban developing a for force labour cheap envi urban and structure 1,000 males thefigure in1871, increasing755in1897andto7671902. slowly to B and Vienna pattern this of illustration good a was Moscow of village. the in working remained members family older and phenomeno family. same the within city the in wages additional and labour agricultural of survival combination the around constructed was strategy common The village. the to migrants of ties strong the and migration of their hometown. – 20 years later. The

9 6

in 1902, a mere 12 per cent of the entire active male population could call Moscow call could population male active entire the of cent per 12 mere a 1902, in Drastic urbanization resulted in the considerable reshaping of the city’s social social city’s the of reshaping considerable the in resulted urbanization Drastic What is peculiar about the Russian urbanization experience is the transient character Ve p. 104. 1997), Press, University (eds.), Poór János and Moskvy goroda atlas Statisticheskiy 25 pp. 1998), Press, Policies: Labor Migration and the Russian Village, 1861 Mironov, 54 pp. (2013), Turn the around Workers Moscow of Patterns Bradley, rner, Sovremennoyegoroda khozyaystvo Moskvy, Muzhik and Muscovite and Muzhik n: husbands and sons went off to the city, while wives together with children A

udapest, women outnumbered men, outnumbered women udapest, Social History of Imperial Russia Imperial of History Social - 56. 6

ratio of immigrants was particularly striking among the labour force - 38.

Budapest: A History from its Beginnings to 1996 1996 to Beginnings its from History A Budapest: ronment. The tremendous influx of migrants constituted the constituted migrants of influx tremendous The ronment. nouveaux

, p. 103; 103; p. , “ Anna Mazanik

(Moscow: Gorodskaya tipografiya, 1887), p. 43; András Gerö Gerö András 43; p. 1887), tipografiya, Gorodskaya (Moscow: riches

, p. 347; Jeffrey Burds, Burds, Jeffrey 347; p. , whose supremacy was built on their success their on built was supremacy whose f h wnit Century,” Twentieth the of O tkhod tkhod pp. pp. –

8 9 this was the late the was this –

The City as a City Transientas Residential The Home: – Moscow had only 700 females per females 700 only had Moscow 1905 – 10 remained a predominantly male male predominantly a remained

while in London, Paris, Berlin, Paris, London, in while .

(Pittsburgh: University of Pitt ocws industrialization, Moscow's 7

The gender composition gender The Peasant Dreams and Market Market and Dreams Peasant - nineteenth ra History Urban (Boulder: Columbia Columbia (Boulder: - century century 4, 1 40, , sburgh sburgh 45 9

CEU eTD Collection Only men over the age of 25 could personally take part in the elections, but women and or property estate real from either city, the to According health”. Municipal Statute of public 1870, suffrage was given to Russian citizens who paid taxes to of the protection “the and removal waste supply, beautification infrastructure, urban of spheres the to limited were legally Council City the of responsibilities The mayor. ( Board executive small a elected which body making memoirs. famous his for title a as used Buryshkin Pavel merchant a that city the of nickname 10

Moscow was governed was Moscow Blair Ruble, Blair 1982); Yu. A. Petrov, EntrepreneursRussia MerchantsImperial and in merc Moscow Moscow business elite see: . Buryshkin, P. khronograph, 2010). khronograph, Pisar'kova, L. Source: Tab le 2.1. The mayorslat The of 2.1. le 1914 1905 1897 1893 1885 1883 1881 187 1873 1871 1869 1863 10

7 ------1917 1912 1905 1897 1893 1885 1883 1881 1876 1873 1871 1869 Second Metropolis Second at, 1855 hants, Moskva kupecheskaya kupecheskaya Moskva

Moskovskaya Moskovskaya burzhuaziya v nachale XX veka

ooky rfry Rsi i okvky Duma Moskovskaya i Rossii v reformy Goroskiye - 1905 1905 Thomas Thomas Owen, by the City Council ( Council City the by e

, pp. pp. , - imperial Moscow imperial Cmrde Cmrde nvriy rs, 91;Afe Rieber, Alfred 1981); Press, University Cambridge (Cambridge: 80 , economy and welfare, including food and water and food including welfare, and economy , - 87 the On 1954). Chekhova, imeni Izdatelstvo York: (New Nikolay Guchkov Nikolay Prince VladimirGolitsyn Rukavishnikov Konstantin Nikolay Alekseyev Stepan Tarasov Chicherin Boris Sergey Tretyakov Daniil Schumacher LyaminIvan Prince Cherkassky Alexander Prince Shcherbatov Alexander Mikhail Chelnokov Mikhail .

Capitalism Capitalism and politics in Russia: A social history of the in the form of commercial or industrial fees. industrial or commercial of form the in (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, Press, Carolina North of University Hill: (Chapel

Gorodskaya Duma Gorodskaya

Gorodskaya Uprava Gorodskaya

(Moscow: (Moscow: Mosgora

) -

a large policy large a Mso: Novy (Moscow: rkhiv, 2002); ) and the the and ) 46 -

CEU eTD Collection after 1882 when the financial policy of the City Council shifted towards long towards shifted Council City the of policy financial the when 1882 after only changed situation This small. remained taxation, from primarily formed budget, early 1880s, although economic considerations p voters of apartment tax elect from excluded were workers) servants, civil professionals, of groups (large activity commercial in engaged not were and city the in apartment an rented who those All owners. property and entrepreneurs wealthy elected and city the o amount same the paid group Each groups. three into electorate the divided warrants. via Vvoting rights were also given to juridica will their express could taxes, necessary the paying 25, under men ( The inequality of electoral qualification was conveyed by the curial system, which system, curial the by conveyed was qualification electoral of inequality The goda”, 1882 smete po Moskvy khozyaystvo “Gorodskoye Shchepkin, Mitrofan Source: Table inpopulation 1879 of European per cities capita in taxes revenues and Municipal 2.2. 1882). Moscow Frankf Munich Triest Prague Stockholm Copenhagen Turin Vienna Berlin Paris City

- urtMain on

was actively discussed in the Moscow City Council in the late 1870s and and 1870s late the in Council City Moscow the in discussed actively was

-

which would allow renters to become city tax

h sm qatt of quantity same the francs) r Municipal 18.63 97.74 124.09 104 105.31 71.13 47.42 49 61 42.09 119.3

evenues per capita (in (in capita per evenues l entitiesl if they were subject to city taxation. euis o h cucl tu privileging thus council, the to deputies orate. The introduction of a special special a of introduction The orate. revailed in this matter as the municipal 30.9 24.4 25.57 30.51 35.97 23.72 23.31 37.04 26.73 87.81 francs) (in per taxes capita Municipal 14.47 - payers and enter the rolls

f taxes to taxes f IMGD, IMGD, - term term

47

2

CEU eTD Collection when, during the severe typhus epidemic, the City Council 1866 in only Moscow in appeared institution health municipal first The Muscovites. 1879. The infact,experience City had, indea Council little very 1866 in cholera as such epidemics, coming of threat the under taken measures temporary of out emerged an preventing of projects complex as conceived were particular fight and hygiene pollution. promote to ventured that interest public the in act to claiming was it 1870s, late the In society. civil Russian of undevelopment and passivity the of signs as also but life urban of features unpleasant [ interest public interesam the to considerable residents sources, the water of abundance anti became city the vegetation, the conditions, topographic favorable emergencemunicipalThe control sanitary of of which later a revenues. became source ofmunicipal lar into invested then were that bonds municipal 12 11

Pollution and the poor sanitation of Moscow were seen not only as long negli and pollution of model the become ago long has Moscow n ocw nihr omnt mdcn i gnrl nr aiay eom in reform sanitary nor general, in medicine community neither Moscow, In In committees ofthestated that 1879,one municipal “Doklad N 55 po vorposu o kanalizatsii Moskvy,”vorposu o po 55 N “Doklad Duma reformyMoskovskaya i Rossii v 90 nachale (St. Nardova, V.A.

eesug Nua 19) p 1; eadem, 10; p. 1994), Nauka, Petersburg: ].

12

- h godov kh Samoderzhaviye i gorodskiye dumy v Rossii v kontse XIX XIX kontse v Rossii v dumy gorodskiye i Samoderzhaviye - 67, smallpox in 1872, typhus and smallpox in 1878, and plague in in plague and 1878, in smallpox and typhus 1872, in smallpox 67,

I v. XIX

Lnnrd Nua 18) p. 82 pp. 1984), Nauka, (Leningrad:

- hygienic in all aspects because of the indifference of of indifference the of because aspects all in hygienic

(Moscow: Novy khronograph, khronograph, (Moscow: Novy andsie bvtly obshch k obyvateley ravnodushiye oosoe aopalny v osi 60 v Rossii v samoupravleniye Gorodskoye IMGD, IMGD, ge

the - scale infrastructural projects, some some projects, infrastructural scale 10 ( 10 refor 11 1879

- - med urban self urban med 0; .. Pisar'kova, L.F. 108; then presided by the mayor ), ), p. 2010 22 ling with the health of withthe ling d treating disease but but disease treating d . ), pp. pp. ),

gence. Despite its its Despite gence. –

313 nachale XX veka veka XX nachale - - - existing and government government 331 estvennym Goroskiye .

- kh 48 –

CEU eTD Collection and keeping animal laundries, slaughtering, production andwastefood sale, disposaland peddling,t and baths of organization the maintenance, and cleaning street construction, housing of norms new prescribing constantly, published wat ground and rivers of pollution and stench the prevent City Council issued another decree on the of upkeep cesspools, yardsdustholes, and to approved in October 1875, regulated waste disposal and cesspool cleaning. In 1879 the air cleaner, we thedisposalof with wastes. todeal need and soil the make To <...> wastes cesspool the by polluted extremely are air and the where cities condition those of soil and air in drops mortality that show statistics and research Hygienic goal? this reach it can how but smaller, it make to municipality the of responsibility Europe. Western of cities is no other place with such high mortality rate, neither in the small towns, nor in the big high mortality rates in Moscow. It is said that the rate is 39 out of every 1000, and there Levental,words of theand municipal physician deputy A.G. the In sanitation. city the of projects large the about discussions the of core the at was r mortality high the general improvement and sanitation of the urban environment. It was the concern about became 2ndmunicipal Shcherbatov the hospital. Shcherbatov Alexander 15 14 13

decre sanitary the with started reform sanitary The pr in Council, City the in public, In the to related as seen was epidemics against struggle the 1880s, the of turn the At postanovleniy Moskovskoy Gorodskoy Moskovskoy Dumy postanovleniy 24 pp. 1897), Yakovleva, Pechatnya Sbornik obyazatel'nykh dlya zhiteley g. Moskvy i chastiyu drugikh gorodov postanovleniy IMGD, Pechatnya (Moscow: Yakovleva, p. 86; Pisar'kova, 1903), 1915), Richter, Tipografiya Zhbankov, I. D. 9 ( 9 1881), 9 p. 1881), ates in Moscow, especially in comparison with Western cities, that that cities, Western with comparison especiallyin Moscow, in ates Sbornik Sbornik

94. are improved and where they are made cleaner. In our case soil

-

pnd tmoay optl ih 4 b 240 with hospital temporary a opened

o oosou vrachebno gorodskomu po ned or otlt rts r vr hg, n i i the is it and high, very are rates mortality our Indeed, . 6 AA Chertov, A.A. 16; p.

- 41; 41; ess we hear complaints about the exceptionally the about complaints hear we ess Sbornik obyazatel’nykh dlya zhiteley goroda Moskvy Moskvy goroda zhiteley dlya obyazatel’nykh Sbornik

(Moscow: Gorodskaya Tip(Moscow: Gorodskaya Gorodskaya meditsina v Evropeyskoy Rossii Rossii Evropeyskoy v meditsina Gorodskaya 13

- Gorodskiyereformy aianm dl v Rossii v delu sanitarnomu 14

es. The first among them, them, among first The es. ers. These decrees were were decrees These ers. ografiya, , p. 264. p. , ransportation. d, hc later which eds, 1896

), ), pp. (Moscow: (Moscow: (Moscow: (Moscow: 1 - 131 15 49

.

CEU eTD Collection any professionals. medical of circles wide the on ofinstead relying managers, administrative devoid practically was and character collegial expressly an had measures the received also they 1886 supervising of thewardens. function in and 20 to increased doctors sanitary of number the Later character. permanent a acquired finally organization sanitary the that 1884 du reintroduced were measures year, these following The poor. the of confluence the and sale food of places the in particularly inspection, sanitary as well as sick the of isolation and detection the for responsible mana each districts, 17 in Moscow divided Council, City the by supported plan, elaborated An disease. of spread the Empire, city mayor Sergey Tretyakov convened a commission of physicians to prevent and also in the fear of the int smallpox of outbreak the to connection in In1878, measures.extraordinary temporary as undertaken again once were Moscow in organization sanitary a create to attempts f was regulations existing support, as the municipal body responsible for sanitary inspection and the control of the 16

h s The executive proper without remained regulations these however, years, several For Source: 2.3 Table

Zhbankov, Vienna, Moscow, London, Paris, 1876 Berlin, se o cmuiy eiie ht vle ot f hs anti these of out evolved that medicine community of ystem Smertnost' naseleniye g. Moskvy 1872 Moskvy g. naseleniye Smertnost' . Mortality in Moscow and other European cities (per 1000 of population) population) of 1000 (per cities European other and in Moscow . Mortality 1879 1880 Sbornik po gorodskomu po vrachebno Sbornik 1881 1878 - 1884 - 1 - - 1885 885 - 1885 1885

ounded in a stable form nearly a decade later. The first first The later. decade a nearly form stable a in ounded roduction of typhus from the seat of war with the Ottoman

16 ged by a physician and a warden who were were who warden a and physician a by ged

- 1899 1899 e to the threat of plague, but it was not until not was it but plague, of threat the to e - sanitarnomu delu sanitarnomu (Moscow 21.36 25.15 27.6 29.19 33.15 : Gorodskaya tipografiya, 1891) tipografiya, : Gorodskaya

, pp. pp. ,

27 - 28 .

-

epidemic epidemic

50

CEU eTD Collection doctors, trade or physicians inspectors the in was personnel health of authorities links executive lowest the from local even expected consulting and bodies advisory municipal in Participation ti its through policymaking the in necessary training. opinion variety of a where discussions, professional open and regular for allowed and government local public health policy, this collegiality provided an indispensable advisory support to the ins of situation a In This system lacked the clear hierarchy of power and involved most of its members members its of most involved and power of hierarchy clear the lacked system This Source: 2.4 Table Cancer Syphilis Pertussis Smallpox Measles Diphtheria fever Scarlet Dysentery Typhus,( fever relapsing or typhoid fever Relapsing Typhus Typhoid Sepsis diseases respiratory Other Tuberculosis Acutegastroenteritis from: deaths Including Total d of Mosco Population Smertnost' naseleniya g. Moskve, 1872 Moskve, g. naseleniya Smertnost'

. Selected causes of death in Moscow in 1882 inMoscow death of causes Selected .

eaths in eaths

s and first and s

1882

titutional immaturity and general incompetence in the sphere of of sphere the in incompetence general and immaturity titutional

w, 1882

- hand observations made up for the lack of experience and experience of lack the for up made observationshand

tif neopre h cneto t te uiia government. municipal the to connection ght - 1899 1899 delennogo vida delennogo city hospitals. Thehospitals. activitycitythe sanitary of (Moscow: Gorodskaya tipografiya, 1891). 1891). tipografiya, (Moscow: Gorodskaya

)

–

such as sanitary sanitary as such 753500 29312 1069 3577 3241 6085 1073 503 100 300 372 401 538 576 616 408 472 488

51

CEU eTD Collection schoo a only is now Council The <...> constantly Council is the andby shadowed initiative personal for freedom no has mayor city the discussions, City and Council parti among the municipal reformers and among the health professionals, that would become both making, decision the in authority and charisma personal of role the and increased mechanisms power informal more for space opened sanitation of field the in health services. understaffed and overloaded the to burden extra an presented and process executive ofsanitarat the meetings the Commission of compensated by the weekly of discussions all the activities of the sanitary organization degree some to was instructions of absence “the reforms, those before 1896, in noted themselves. among from service municipal at physicians by elected deputies the of consisted that Board sanitary branch receive organization health public Moscow the that 1896 in only was It instructions. any without acted they century the of end the until and regulated strictly and formalized not was members its and organization the “public good” the “public Our Council gathers almost every week, every trifle provokes long and meaningless In 1881, the Slavophil newspaper “Rus” lamented the state of affairs in the Moscow reformsSanitary in Moscow,Alekseyevan the down slowed discussions multilevel of necessity practical the However, 1886), p. 24. 1886), 18 vrachebno gorodskomu 17 cularly thesecond and of in early evident the1880s half 1890s.

.. Petrovsky A.G. Chertov,

oosaa eisn v voeso Rossii evropeiskoi v meditsina Gorodskaya - At the same time, the lack of the institutionalized managerial hiera

and the municipal medical council

the weakness ofthemayor: weakness the 17 ,

Gorodskoy sanitarny nadzor v Moskve Moskve v nadzor sanitarny Gorodskoy As the future head of s of head future the As - sanitarnomu delu, sanitarnomu

pp. 27 pp. is director its d y doctors.” -

49. anitary 1885

-

an advisory body to the Municipal - - p. 100 pp. , 1893 medical branch A.G. Petrovsky A.G. branch medical 18 (Moscow: Gorodskaya tipografiya, tipografiya, Gorodskaya (Moscow:

- : municipalization: and

h ha o te medical the of head the - 1; Zhbankov, 110; l to exercise in the in exercise to l

bri po Sbornik rchy rchy 52 -

CEU eTD Collection manage a largeurban public sphere of whole network of sanitary and medical institutions that empowered it to independently a umbrella its under united municipality the that Alekseyev under was It medicine. t in interest keen a took Alekseyev matter amongthis city the public noequals he had to the municipal cause, h work”. for thirsty energy, Alekseyev's successor in the office Vladimir Golitsyn mentioned his “endless devotion inexhaustible his by touched indirectly, or directly “it and compensation” [ Moscow for breathed he mayor, the becoming “after that Alekseyev of account favorable and reform. spheres of Moscow's includingaccomplishment, community medicine and the sanitary (1852 Alekseyev raise is completely resolution for ofthe the questions useless but exercise, who those for useless not is It questions. public of discussion public 21 20 19

rig o xad h ifune n efcec o te ocw self Moscow the of efficiency and influence the expand to Trying Alexande hardly could mayor the and Council the between relations the later, years four Just 2014), p. 333. 2014), sovremennikov,” vospominaniyakh “M Gusev, A.G. in quoted Golitsyn 259. 246, A.V.Amfiteatrov, Rus',

such concerns. In 1885, the Moscow municipality elected a new mayor Nikolay mayor new a elected municipality Moscow the 1885, In concerns. such

10 (1881), p. p. 4. (1881), 10 hz'u do dyshal odnoy zhizn'yu

r Amfiteatrov, a Moscow journalist and literary critic, wrote in his famous

- 83 woe em n h ofc bcm te ih on i various in point high the became office the in term whose 1893) Nedavniye lyudi lyudi Nedavniye

is difficult to find a sphere of public activity which was not, was which activity public of sphere a find to difficult is is sincere desire to properly manage it, to be its real master; in

(St. Gosudarstvennoye upravleniye. Elektronny upravleniye. vestnik, Gosudarstvennoye , “h hnr f evn Mso ws i only his was Moscow serving of honor “the ],” sosy ooso glv NA lkee v nviah i dnevnikakh v Alekseyev N.A. golova gorodskoy oskovsky he matters of urban infrastructure and community and infrastructure urban of matters he

Petersburg: Tipografiya T Tipografiya Petersburg: policy.

–

andrivals”. even less . 19

- va Khudozh. Pechati, 1901), pp. 1901), Pechati, Khudozh. va - government, 21

45

(August (August 53 20

CEU eTD Collection urba of spheres more and more penetrating diversified, control sanitary of yearand more that than92,000individual patients. served they remained inferior to that of the cl hospitals. outpatient of equipment the and services of quality the generally although the city nowreceive populationthat could treatment thewages, medical while keeping clinics outpatient a new level, when, in addition to the inpatient the hospitals, city opened two m the management of the city. ( MariaEmpress the Department of belonged totheState Welfare Department ( the police and given to the municipality. of Six Moscow's hospitals that had previously 24 23 22

1913). Source Figure In 1889, the municipal laundry and disinfection station were founded. The functions In 1887, on the initiative of Alekseyev, epidemiological control was taken away from 11 “ vrach budushchem,” E.F.i blizhayshem nastoyashchem v eye “Ambulatoriya Pechorkin, 89 IMGD, Kratkiy otchet o deyatel'nosti gorodskikh ambulatoriy za 5 let (1887 let 5 za ambulatoriy gorodskikh deyatel'nosti o otchet Kratkiy - .

16. 16.

, 6 (1912), pp. (1912), 753 pp. 6 , : I.A. Verner,

2.1

4 4 (1887), Appendix, p. 8; 8 (1887), section 1, p. 10; Chertov, . Municipal outpatient clinic of Rogozhskaya district: facade and waiting room and waiting facade district: Rogozhskaya clinic of outpatient . Municipal ( ambulatoriya Sovremennoyegoroda khozyaystvo Moskvy

- 765. 22

The network of community medicine institutions went to

). The outpatient clinics became very popular among among popular very became clinics outpatient The ). Vedomstvo Marii Imperatritsy 23

In 1891 there were already five such clinics Prikaz ObshchestvennogoPrikaz Prizreni (Moscow: Gorodskaya tipografiya, tipografiya, Gorodskaya (Moscow: Gorodskaya meditsina, - 1891),” 1891),” 24

) were also moved to also) were movedto IMGD, IMGD, Obshchestvenny Obshchestvenny n life after life n 3 ( 3 1892), pp. 1892), ya unicipal unicipal

) or to ) or to pp. pp.

inics 86 54 -

CEU eTD Collection [ values. In the words of his late Governor Moscow been seventy was Dolgorukov mayor, Moscow elected was when Alekseyev 1885, In I. Nicholas of time the in back career military Alekseyev. (1810/1865 Dolgorukov Vladimir Prince General the conflict reached its culmination towards the end of the decade, when the Governor but Chicherin, Boris lawyer the of mayorship the in 1880s early the in already started growing the with self the concerned of influence and administration, independence the and city the between conflict seweragewaste and long the commissioned eventually, and supply water of systems existing the expanded and, municipality the Finally, centralization municipality. the the by production meat to of monopolization led and facilities slaughtering private 1886 In police. the disease venereal of prevention and prostitutes dissertation (Chapters 3, 4 and 5). In 1889, the municipality took over the inspection of detail in discuss I that undertakings three commissioned Council City 1891. in laboratory a with station Sanitary the the creation of school, veterinary and trade inspectors in 1889 25 vernopoddanicheskikh

Dolgorukov was a descendent of an old Russian aristocratic family and had made a a made had andaristocratic family Russian old an of descendent a Dolgorukov was the of lines the along Moscow in momentum gaining was reform sanitary The Petrovsky,

Gorodskoynadzor, sanitarny - - 1888, Moscow constructed the public abatto public the constructed Moscow 1888, treatment system. treatment

] feelings of Muscovites” and “the principles of of principles “the and Muscovites” of feelings ] - General. Dolgorukov was a believer in the the in believer a was Dolgorukov General. -

imperial biographer, he was the “mouthpiece of the loyal pp. 12 pp.

- oenet instituti government - - five years old, for twen for old, years five 24.

- 25

a task that had previously belonged to to belonged previously had that task a

It was also under Alekseyev that the that Alekseyev under also was It –

81 faced 1891) - n.Teopsto had opposition The ons. 1890 and the opening of ir that replaced small replaced that ir ty of which he had had he which of ty

h newly the

nin régime ancien later on in my my in on later protecting the the protecting - d iscussed iscussed - elected 55 -

CEU eTD Collection 30 29 28 27 26 his from Alekseyev remove to tried unsuccessfully and below) (discussed prostitutes water the in involvement municipal the opposed Dolgorukov when 1887 in then close, to ordered Dolgorukov which arcades commercial the of issue the over then Moscow, to visit emperor's the when 1886, in himsel allowed Alekseyev first repeatedly, clashed Dolgorukov and Alekseyev of interests independent remain to how knew but authorities the before cringe not did merchant Moscow in and inthe City liberalism Council the promote could he “thoughtvoice” loud Alekseyev and wealth enormous his “with across the country; he was young, ambitious and energetic. In the words of Dolgorukov, very several managed and family merchant a from came three, the of governmental administration.” influence beneficial and “necessary the avoiding were view, his in which, institutions, municipal Moscow’s in “parliamentarism” and “liberalism” dangerous lie.” to and flatter to grovel, to toe, to head from scoundrel and vulgar be to needs one business; of knowledge high Russian the conscience, nor education, nor intelligence, neither needs “[O]ne bureaucracy: of quintessence the him in saw Dolgorukov, disliked nationality”. and Orthodoxy of tsar, the of power autocratic

Chicherin, Chicherin, K.P.korrespondenty i ego Pobedonostsev izdatelstvo, Gosudarstvennoye 39 pp. 1910), S.n., (Moscow: Vishnevsky, A.N. B.N. Chicherin, B.N. See letters of V.D. Dolgorukov in Boris C Boris The mayor Nikolay Alekseyev was the opposite in most respects. He was only thirty hicherin described Alekseyev as “a son of the Russian merchant estate whoestate merchant Russian the of son “a as Alekseyev described hicherin Vospominaniya, Vospominaniya. Knyaz' Vladimir Andreyevich Dolgorukov, byvshiy moskovskiy gubernator gubernator moskovskiy byvshiy Dolgorukov, Andreyevich Vladimir Knyaz' p. 173, quote p. 173, - - pipe cons pipe f to publicly comment on the Russian foreign policy during during policy foreign Russian the on comment publicly to f 40. 40. 1923 27 Zemstvo i Moskovskaya duma duma i Moskovskaya Zemstvo

28 As the Governor the As K.P. i Pobedonostsev ego korrespondenty ), pp. pp. ),

d in Owen,d truction and the city reform of the supervision of of supervision the of reform city the and truction , pp. , pp. 266 - 268 268 . , 346 344 Capitalism and politics and Capitalism - . - General, Dolgorukov tried to curb the curb to tried Dolgorukov General,

346 .

(Tambov: Yulis, p. 197. 2007), .” 29

26

Chicherin, who clearly who Chicherin, successful enterprises enterprises successful , p. p. 88. , (Moscow and Leningrad: (Moscow Leningrad: and

- .” ranking ranking nor the the nor 30

The 56 -

CEU eTD Collection was it Yet, politics”. “about not indeed was emperor, the of expression the use in thenineteenth second halfcentury. of the independence for of the concept of “liberalism” as the lack of with do to little understanding own Dolgorukov's revealed rather but convictions political Alekseyev's had about writing was Dolgorukov that liberalism” “merchant example, his self urban the of name only but politics, abou about not was he because him loved “I said: allegedly mayor, Moscow the of death sudden the after and, Alekseyev Nikolay favored also III Alexander Emperor family. the mayor of Moscow. administration”. Alekseyev's “lack of respect to authorities, his desire for independence and ignoring the appealed to the emperor Alexander III for Dolgorukov Moscow, of mayor the as reelected was Alekseyev when 1889, In post. 34 33 32 31

Alekseyev did not put forward any explicit political program and, in that sense, that in and, program political explicit any forward put not did Alekseyev the in autocracy the challenge openly not did elites municipal Moscow's Indeed, f in Alekseyev, (Moscow: Novoye Literatu Novoye (Moscow: eds., Shirle, I. and Sdvizhkov i nepublichnom Rossiyskoy prostranstve vimperii kontse XIX L.V. Bibikova, “Politicheskaya politsiya, konservatory i sotsia Owen, 108. p. dolzhnost'...”, v Moskve werewordsmentionedin ofthe diary These in“Nevozmozhnaya quoted Suvorin, Poleshchuk, A.S. 106 pp. (2012), 12 v Moskve dolzhnost' gorodskogo golovy”: Nikolay Alekseyev i koronnaya administratsiya,” O n the conflicts between the mayor and the Governor Capitalism and politics and Capitalism

predecessor inthe mayor's o 31 – act, repeatedly displayed his reverence and respect for the imperial the for respect and reverence his displayed repeatedly act,

The emperor, however, took Alekseyev's side and confirmed him as -

10 the understanding shared by several groups of the Russian society Russian the of groups several by shared understanding the

7, t work” [ t work”

- government. quote quote 107. fromp. rnoye Obozreniye, 2012), pp. 516 pp. 2012), Obozreniye, rnoye , p. 89. p. , Ponyatiya o Rossii: K istoricheskoy semantike imperskogo perioda perioda imperskogo semantike istoricheskoy K Rossii: o Ponyatiya

zanimalsya ne delom politikoy, atol'ko

33

Alekseyev was not a theoretician a not was Alekseyev

ffice, the non discipline discipline and subordination and the desire 34

the liberalthe lawyer Boris Chicherin. The - General General see K. Poleshchuk, “Nevozmozhnaya - recognition of elections, referring to - listy: igra liberalizmami v publichnom 519. –

nachale XX veka,” in A. Miller, D.

]. 32 –

as was, for was, as Rodina, Rodina,

57 to to

CEU eTD Collection a to it put and question precise a asked discussions, the summarized clearly and quickly agenda, the to stick to him asked he digressed, deputy a if and much, too speak to allow not did “He discussions: government.” public the in undesirable is which mayor the of hands the in instrument obedient an became and independence its of deprived wasassembly “the him under and grounds”, [ Council the in tsar a became moment first the from and votes of majority the with politics. municipal in introduced pers Alekseyev's of character despotic the noted Contemporaries Council. City the in tendencies democratic hindered goals autocratic.domain could be itself quite state autocratic the from entities distinct from the state”. by the belief in its value and importance, enhanced the role of municipalities as political legitim power,when municipal of practiceBrower,“the Daniel historian of words of influential social groups who were convinced in the legitimacy of their action. In the an independent public domain. This domain was defended by the active representatives of the municipal affairs implicitly marked the to opposition autocracy through opening Alekseyev's “work” that had an important political meaning. The expansion and success 37 36 35 votsarilsya v dume

One of Alekseyev's strategies t his pursue zealously to inclination and “work” his to devotion Alekseyev's Thus, Chicherin, Chicherin, reform velikikh Grigor historian by 1892 in used was regime” “Alekseyevan term The 1990), Press, California Brower, R. Daniel Vospominaniya, 37

(Moscow: (Moscow: Territoriyap. 185. 2, vol. 2008), budushchego, ]; it was no longer self

usa Ct bten rdto ad Modernity, and Tradition between City Russian

pp. 91 pp. – p. p. 175.

lhuh h md o gvrac wti t within governance of mode the although - 139, quotation from p. 95. from quotation p. 139,

35

vote.”

This process gave the urban elites a sense of autonomy 36 o reach his goals was the manipulation of the Council

codn o hcei,Aesyv ws elected “was Alekseyev Chicherin, to According

The minutes and protocols of the City Council Council City the of protocols and minutes The onality and “the Alekseyevan regime” that he he that regime” Alekseyevan “the and onality - gov ernment, ernment, but rather self

y Dzhanshiyev in in Dzhanshiyev y

(Berkeley: University of of University (Berkeley: - rule on the public e municipal he Epokha Epokha ated ated 58

CEU eTD Collection receptions and ceremonies, his funds were used, for example, for the construction of construction the for example, for used, were funds his ceremonies, and receptions City the of expenses the covered Alekseyev same. the do to elite business Moscow initiatives city the for sums huge donated he budget; city the in money that leaving salary, mayor's the receive to refused He of promoting his cause, he was ready to invest his private funds in municipal endeavors. mo Even gains. financial for politics municipal to come not did clearly generalin elites urban 1913). chairthem inthe directionwanted. toskilfully he channel st is It opinions. competing of variety a with debates heated provoked often reforms urban of proposals it: described Chicherin as passive and silent so not was it Alekseyev, under that, reveal meetings The other strategy, employed by Alekseyev, was convincing the Council Council the convincing was Alekseyev, by employed strategy, other The Source: I.A. Verner, Figure

2.2.

The building of the Moscow City Council. CityCouncil. Moscow the Thebuilding of Sovremennoye Sovremennoye khozyaystvo goroda Moskvy -

with his own behavior. Alekseyev was a very rich man and he and man richveryown behavior.Alekseyeva was his with ill apparent that Alekseyev fully used his position as a a as position his used fully Alekseyev that apparent ill –

n prudd te m other persuaded and

(Moscow: Gorodskaya Tipo

re, for the sake sake the for re, mes f the of embers -

and the and grafiya, 59

CEU eTD Collection 39 38 self a as emerged “backwardness” Russia imperial in that - professional withtheclose municipal government. claimscooperation through their experts the Erismann, Friedrichof example reforms. health and politics local Moscow in goals. allowed Nevertheless,situation scientific this experts to become very influential adju unanimous, not was community scientific the when especiallyand, advantagepolitical for this use also to fail not did Alekseyev although experts, the of words the to receptive very was Council City the sense, that wa sphereswhere it the in especially Muscovites, of life the in intervention its justify to it allowed and progressive and rational necessary, objectively as municipality the of activity the present to helped expertise scientific various in discussions committees organized municipal by the station sanitary the of opening the or system, sewerage the and abattoir the of construction the or disease, venereal over control or relied on expert knowledge. Any major decision in this sphe his death. after hospital psychiatric Moscow the of construction the for rubles 300,000 donated the municipal water

those of backwardness, public good and mu

I must add here that I use the word “expert” descriptively descriptively “expert” word the use I that here add must I Hall who pointed out the need for suchexplanation. for need outwho the pointed Hall person a meant Russian imperial self group any to refer not does text my in “expert” word The experience. or education of because area particular a about Pisar'kova, In the 1880s, the city on discussions sanitation were centered on three major themes Finally, Alekseyev, especially in the matters of sanitation and public health, heavily 38

Gorodskiyereformy, - pumping pumping stations and several schools, and, on his reques

- name. It is also not a translation of the Russian word “ekspert” which in late in which “ekspert” word Russian the of translation not a isalso It name.

pp. 274 pp.

providing expertise in legal procedures. I would like to thank Karl Karl thank to wouldlike I procedures. legal in expertise providing - 275.

managed to lobby their ideas, projects andprojects ideas, their lobby managedto nicipalization. nicipalization. Yanni Kotsonis has argued 39

sted expert conclusions to his political his to conclusions expert sted

As I will demonstrate below with the with below demonstrate will I As – s likely to encounter resistance. In encounterresistance. likelyto s -

meaning a pe a meaning were preceded by the experts' experts' the by preceded were re - – otie faeok of framework contained ity.

be that new regulations,

rson very knowledgeable knowledgeable very rson The extensive use of use extensive of The t, his wife 60

-

CEU eTD Collection in valid longer no was chapter, this to epigraph the in invoked Moscow,” for early good”. “public the Moscow resemblesa European city”. that so accomplishment urban in step a make should municipality the that discusses tha years five the “in 1885, in exclaimed deputies cope. could they which with challenge a but irreversibility you to according coat protyagivay nozhki your to need cut We proverb: better. work Russian the a and there remember is labor the valuable more much how ours, than productive more and wealthier are countries those much how forget not should lif Paris and areby especiallyWe Vienna. spoiled the discussions: European cities, which can be summarized in the following quote from the City Council data statistical of sets growing the to abroad trips their during deputies the of impressions personal information of sourcesavailable all cities; bigother with comparison make refo Moscow The leaders. municipal Moscow the of imagination necessarily crucial to that construction of backwardness, it certainly played a role in the phenomena. any practically c this and underdeveloped and backward was Russia that agreed public educated The right. own its in ideology of kind a and explanation 42 41 40

Overcoming that “backwardness” and turning “more European” was presented as as presented was European” “more turning and “backwardness” that Overcoming of kind a not was backwardness perceived Moscow's reformers city the for Yet, London, as cities beautiful such in expenses municipal of examples the see [W]e IMGD, I 1861 Russia, in Yanni Kotsonis, MGD ,

7 ( 7 10

1885), pp. 787 pp. 1885), ( 1885 – -

1914 1914 confirmed them in the conviction that Mosc that conviction the in them confirmed ),p. Making Peasants Backward: Agricultural cooperatives and the agrarian question question agrarian the and cooperatives Backward:Agricultural Peasants Making ].

Push 41 1109 (Houndmills, Basi (Houndmills,

- kin’s famous, if ironic statement “what London needs, is too is needs, London “what statement ironic if kin’sfamous, . 788.

40

lhuh h cmaio wt te et a not was West the with comparison the Although 42 ngstoke, Hampshire: Macmillan Press, 1999), pp. 1999), Press, Macmillan Hampshire: ngstoke,

t I am a deputy, the Council always Council deputy,the a am I t e in these beautiful cities, but we cities, butwe beautifule inthese laim could be used to explain explain to used be could laim

As one of the municipal the of one As ow was far behind the behind far was ow coh [ cloth r rmers did not fail to fail not did rmers o odezhke po –

from the from

1 - 8.

61

CEU eTD Collection of certain social groups or of “the people” was typical for all participants of the political debates. Russian specifically some in incorporated life. urban of problems complex the with cope to forces market of failure the to response a was municipalization and century.cities European nineteenthmanyAmerican the In means peculiarly Russian no by was jurisdiction and activities city the of expansion the municipalization, of regarded the municipal government as the key guardian of public health. policy in the sphere of sanitation. B city the for basis the became 1880s the in which municipalization in seen was good” make “less it backward”. rati new the on life urban reorganize help should that knowledge nation. the of service Slavophil values of the Moscow merchants who wanted to place their businesses at the referred also it time, same the At 1860s. the Russian since intelligentsia the of circles the dominated had which people,” the “serving of formula to haveLon everything what needed sanitation, urban of sphere the Moscow,in 1880s. That least the at of Moscow 45 44 43

oee, n usa uiiaiain a a pa a had municipalization Russia in However, “public achieving and “backwardness” overcoming of mechanism practical The The “public good” of the sanitary reforms in Moscow rhetorically embraced the the embraced rhetorically Moscow in reforms sanitary the of good” “public The H. 179:58:44:17 in reforms sanitary of discussions instance, for See, 45 AlfredRieber, Robert Morris, “Governance: Two centuries of urban growth” in Robert Morris and Richard Richard and Morris Robert in growth” urban of centuries Two “Governance: Morris, Robert

Trainor (eds.), - 18 MerchantsEnterpreneurs and .

Urban Governance: Britain and Beyond since 1750 Beyond and Britain Governance: Urban

43

That “service” was combined with the promotion of scientific of promotion the with combined was “service” That

–

it it was a phenomenon don had, and form. inabetter don had,

oth the City Co , pp. pp. , 139 - I 148 known known to the whole western world in uncil deputies and the invited experts MGD, The claim of being the mouthpiece the being of claim The rticular symbolic value and was was and value symbolic rticular ; 165

( 7 - 177

85, p 1885), .

(Aldershot: 2000). Ashgate,

p. p. to the patriotic and patriotic the to onal principles and and principles onal 779 - 788 44

The process ; TsGAMOS, ; 62

CEU eTD Collection xmlr sinii sho o a aetd rfso bt aaei ad practical and academic both professor this talented in a guidance. received physicians of young school and scientific Students exemplary up. wakes then, until asleep was Ins exemplary an with University Moscow municipality.His involvement, ashisobituary was putit, twofold: drew upinthe1870s. Erismannprogram the inthat like services,just health efficientpublic andof suppliers According to this rhe utility. public of expense the atrules” sanitarythe avoid to and profit gainmaximum to inclined “always and “ignorant” “undisciplined”, as described were entrepreneurs incompetent, coercive. inefficient, as presented was it administration, service private and bodies sanitation, gavewise lawmaker ability usthis “the it, put Lanin Nikolay deputy municipal the as because, community urban the of legitimate representatives of the city popu only the as themselves presented elites municipal Moscow The terms. legal in right this legitimize could bodies, governing elected only the remained that zemstvos, and debate, in Russia and elsewhere. Yet, in the 48 47 46

On the one hand, he, as a professor, creates the chair of scientific hygiene in Moscow fact, in was, Erismann MoscowmunicipalityThe thecareer and Erismann of and hygiene promoting in task its see municipality Moscow the did only Not I TsG I MGD MGD AMOS, AMOS, 47 , 10 7 ( 7

On the other hand, together with together hand, other the On

but it claimed a monopoly in this sphere, both against the administrative administrative the against both sphere, this in monopoly a claimed it but When it was it When

( 1885 1885 179:58:30:13 ), ), p. ), p. ),p. 787 1113 toric, only the municipalwere institutions responsible, competent

.

the private business the municipality was arguing against, the against, arguing was municipality the business private the . -

16 a remarkably influential figure in the sanitary reform of the the of reform sanitary the in figure influential remarkably a , - rvdr. hn h opnn i te eae a the was debate the in opponent the When providers. 63

- 64 . .” titute of Hygiene, first in Russia. The science, that science, The Russia. in first Hygiene, of titute

46

lation, as lation, as acting on behalf and for the benefit autocratic autocratic Russian state only municipalities

this university work, Erismann becomes a a becomes Erismann work, university this

arbitrary

and too too and 63 48

CEU eTD Collection af to potential and power remarkable accumulate to him allowed time same the at and reforms sanitary and German periodicals. kn particularly were provinceMoscow coursebooks on hygiene and his multivolume survey of sanitation at the factories of the His writer. prolific very a was Erismann Furthermore, physicians. Russian of society medical organizations. He was one of th medicine.” community and prevention about spoke never they practitioners, private as patients and this broad social formulation of medical qu words these heard never have we medicine of professors other our “From University: Moscow at hygiene on lectures Erismann’s by was he impressed how remembered am popular clearly also was He personnel. its recruited municipality the which from physicians of generation younger the of supervisor direct the even or to lecturer a was He projects. sanitary of matters laboratory Erismann themain was an [ urgent and interests ofsociety. practical the to science w of his interests All With involvement. municipality. active his and with or zemstvo initiative his on either Moscow appeared sanitation of sphere the the in time the for of undertakings important worker creative and prominent 51 50 49

All this made Erismann a big name in the circles that were involved in the Moscow Moscow inthe circles thatwere involved the bigname in a madeAll this Erismann non in famous also was Erismann work, university his to addition In Indeed, as a professor of hygiene at Moscow University and the head of its hygienic h ls o Eimn' publication Erismann's (St. of list The Mitskevich, S.I. Mikhaylov,

Petersburg: Brokgauz i Efron, i Efron, Petersburg: Brokgauz 50

Pamyati professoraPamyati F.F. Erismana Zapiski vracha Zapiski 49 et h decision the fect

51

- obshchestvennika 1904 ong his students. One of them, Sergey Mitskevich, Mitskevich, Sergey them, of One students. his ong s can be found in in found be can s ), pp. pp. ), d also the most obvious authorityd alsoobvious themost inthe scientific - making in urban health policy. The Moscow Moscow The policy. health urban in making own, but he also regularly published in Russian in regularlypublished also he but own, e founders and an active member of the Pirogov 25 (Moscow: Kushnerev,1915) - 27

(Moscow: Meditsina, (Moscow: . estions: estions: they all approached disease and

eordtenm i zhiznennymi i neposredstvennymi nskoeihsi slovar', Entsiklopedicheskiy orks, Erismann connected the the connected Erismann orks, 1969

p. p. ), p. ), 5 .

37 - .

educational educational

vol. 64 81 ]

CEU eTD Collection rector the university, the reached project created under the umbrella of the hygienic laboratory of Moscow University. When this fact, in and, hygienist a by headed be necessarily should health” public of guardian commi The Erismann. Friedrich with together doctors sanitary Moscow of committee the by discussed was station sanitary the of on food, water,was research conducting constructionmaterials. or soil, activity the with coincided ways many in sanitarythe station of responsibilities potential Inthe fact, goods. household basic and station sanitary the career.1889, Inown Erismann's of advancement academic bodies favored not only the dissemination of hygienic knowledge but also the the ensured synergyand po ofuniversity health research municipality Moscow the with cooperation his and activity zemstvo position. this for nominated were d committee executive the of chair but it attend to invited only not was city, Erismann the in disease Alekseyevconference convened a measures todiscussthe possible tocombat venereal expertis immediate the beyond (school health public water inspection, of matters the on advise to him invited often municipality 52 54 53

h fc ta Eimn ifune decision influenced Erismann that fact The va I.I. Kushnerev i K Kushnerev vaI.I. Boubnoff, S. 179:58:30:64. TsGAMOS, Gorodskaya Tipografiya,5; p. 1901) Mikhaylov, ayt poesr F.F. Erismana, professora Pamyati Institut d'hygiène de l'Université impériale de Moscou Moscou de impériale l'Université de d'hygiène Institut -

- a special laboratory meant to prevent the falsification of food, drinks food, of falsification the prevent to laboratorymeant special a supply, waste removal, abattoir construction), even those that were that those even construction), abattoir removal, waste supply,

o , 1897), pp. 7 1897), , pp.

o Erismann. of e - 8. 53 IMGD, IMGD,

espite the fact that several famous syphilologists famous several that fact the espite At the same time, Erismann's involvement in the in involvement Erismann's time, same the At 7 (1885), pp. 7 pp. (1885), 7

of Erismann's hygienic laboratory that too that laboratory hygienic Erismann's of licy thecityand provinceMoscow. in of

p. 7; 7; p. ttee concluded that this institution “as a a “as institution this that concluded ttee too convened a commission for its its for commission a convened too - 52 aig n eea gvrmna and governmental several in making

hs fr ntne we i 1887 in when instance, for Thus, Kanalizatsiya goroda Moskvy Moskvy goroda Kanalizatsiya municipality intended to create a create to intended municipality 87 - 791 ; 10 (Moscow: Tipo (Moscow:

( 1885 was ), pp. also elected the elected also 54 13

The question - litogragiya T litogragiya - 15 . (Moscow: (Moscow:

65

-

CEU eTD Collection preventive on emphasis strong a with municipalities and certain benefits career personal for him. of cause his promoted only not Erismann and government local the between cooperation close the that clear is it place, healthier a into Moscow and Russia turning to energy his devote undermine E Erismann clearly reinforced his standing in the academic world. Although this does not to given was it that fact the and municipality Moscow the by created position rank h to resources institutional and financial attracted it Moreover, hygiene. experimental in laboratory his with compete potentially could that institution new a of appearance the prevented to him allowed service. a higher level of scientific expertise, bringing the university knowledge to the municipal station to the hygienic laborator sphere of hygiene in the city. It is also quite plausible that the connection of the sanitary seemed tobe a choice, reasonable indeed was thegreatest as Erismann authority inthe and laboratory hygienic the of control the the plan. approved predictably and members its among Erismann had again that consideration Erismann was very consistent in his belief that the community medicine of zemstvos career.It Erismann's for was arrangement this convenient how note Yet,to has one The new municipal sanitary station, financed by the city, was thus established under 55

TsGAMOS, 179:58:44:8 TsGAMOS,

55

rismann's commitment to the goals of public health and his willingness to willingness and to public health his tothe goals of commitment rismann's hygiene but also increased his authority in the scholarly circles and had had and circles scholarly the in authority his increased also but hygiene is own laboratory. The director of the sanitary station was the first high first the was station sanitary the laboratory. of own director is The

nt udr i ifune h ky rnhs f ulc aiain It sanitation. public of branches key the influence his under unite

- 20.

y allowed to cut the expenses of its creation and ensured

Erismann was appointed its director. This director.This its appointed was Erismann

esrs a te only the was measures 66 -

CEU eTD Collection functions authority, granted the within government, municipal the that stated that and central authorities. The so symbolic and for implication local practical inMoscow. politics that had 1892 Municipalof Statute change thenew was structural Moscow. major The health at reformleast and atthelocal modernization, level. the for credit claim could that government central the not and municipality the was arguably had, reform sanitary of state and enhanced the authority of the municipal institutions. In this context, the agency The new strategies of social control challenged the monopoly of power of the autocratic cit the monitor to municipality the allowing the sanitary reform offered the city both his scholarly expertise and his political support, Moscow municipality under Alekseyev. The involvement of Erismann in the matters of regulation”. governmental of constraints the without experience real the of soil the on stronger get and emerge should organization sanitary the of necessity the of acknowledgment “the health and sanitation onthe imperial level, Erismann decisively oppos public manage effectively to body central strong a create to proposed commission Botkin the When Russia. in system health public the organizing of way appropriate 56

in campaign sanitary the reshaped developments important several 1890s the In initiatives,Municipals administrativeresources: sa This position was very convenient to the active se T Tipografiya1901), Stasyulevicha, Grebenshchi I. V. and Sokolov D.A. he legislation of 1892changed thelogic of between therelations themunicipality 56

-

called “golden words” of the Municipal Statute of 1870, p. p. , no , 4 . kov,

t

less symbolic value than its actual content, as it as content, actual its than value symbolic less Smertnost y and regulate the lives of its inhabitants its of lives the regulate and y '

v Rossii i bor’ba s neyu neyu s bor’ba i Rossii v lf - government institutions like the nitary reform the in

ed saying it, that (St.

Petersburg; 1890 67 s

CEU eTD Collection governor Vladimir Dzhunkovsky remembered memoirs, inhis Moscow future the As before. year a completed been had that Council, murdered by a demented man right at his office in the new building of the Moscow City the corenew the and legislation only council, of strengthened their positions. formed already had citizens honorary and merchants 1880s, the Throughout Council. deputies. earlier the favored and priorities their in continuity remarkable showed electorate the activeabstention, of the minority thehigh ratesof legislation.With before thenew among especially abstention, mass the and stations, voting the to coming were vote to entitled those of minority a only exception, no was Moscow and towns, Russian most in that out pointed have num small already the qualification was replaced by a new one based on the property ownership; this reduced public the appoint to right the administration the gave and decisions council’s the nullify cases when the governor and other authorities could delay the implementation and even spheresall imperial for governor the of to report to obliged was Council City control The them. over administration the increased and bodies municipal the of independence the in 60 59 58 57 dependently, were not to be found there anymore. The new statute of 1892 limited 1892 of statute new The anymore. there found be to not were dependently,

There were also some personal changes personal some also were There tax The system. electoral the of change the was innovation Another Pisar'kova, Pisar'kova, p. Nardova, Pisar'kova, Nardova,

29; Brower,29;

officials government ofthelocal even deputiescouncil. ofthe and the 59

of its activity, from elections to budgeting. The statute stipulated numerousbudgeting.stipulated statute to Theelectionsactivity, from its of The new statute statute new The Samoderzhaviye i gorodskiye Samoderzhaviye dumy Gorodskoye samoupravleniye, samoupravleniye, Gorodskoye Gorodskiyereformy, Gorodskiyereformy, Russian city Russian

ber of voters in Moscow from 23,000 to 6,000. to 23,000 from Moscow in voters of ber , p. 123. , i nt rn ay aia cag t te ocw City Moscow the to change radical any bring not did

p. 212. p. 190. p. the poor, had effectively reduced the electorate even even electorate the reduced effectively had poor, the

pp.61 , pp. 12 pp. , . In March 1893, Nikolay Alekseyev was was Alekseyev Nikolay 1893, March In . - 6 eadem, 66; - 13.

Samo ezaie grdky dumy, gorodskiye i derzhaviye 58

Yet, historiansYet, 57 - payment payment

60

68

CEU eTD Collection the death of Alekseyev, meant that Moscow's community medicine was deprived of its where he worked until his death in 1915. Swiss Social to back career go own Erismann's of end and the not was This 1896. University in Switzerland Moscow quit him making Erismann, reprimanded In Public of Ministry the within reaction harsh a provoked document The affairs. university the in police the of interference the and protestors of punishment the against administration imperial the petitioned university the of riots the he supported 1895 In ending. abrupt very a had Russia in Erismann of career scholarly The administration. an manner calmer much a in Moscow murdered the succeeded that Alekseyev mayors The started. had Alekseyev that projects of influence such a devoted and powerful leader, and his absence was reflected in the efficiency and and supporters Both improvement. urban of matter opponents of a was it when him stop could nothing and Council, City the of head the mayor, the activist, public city outstanding 63 62

Another loss of Moscow's health reformers was the departure of Friedrich Erismann. [t]he Clearly, after the death of Alekseyev, the Moscow municipality never produced produced never municipality Moscow the Alekseyev, of death the after Clearly, Mikhaylov, Owen, materialy Biograficheskiye 61

V. F. Dzhunkovsky, “Vospominaniya” in in “Vospominaniya” Dzhunkovsky, F. V. death of Alekseyev was a tremendous, unparalleled loss for Moscow. It was an Capitalism and politics and Capitalism – -

the Moscow municipality that in the following years was finishing the the finishing was years following the in that municipality Moscow the Democratic Party and was elected a member of th Alekseyev had toagreewasAlekseyev death lossfor thathis indelible thecapital. Pamyati professoraPamyati F.F. Erismana, Konstantin Rukavishnikov and Prince Vladimir Golitsyn Golitsyn Vladimir Prince and Rukavishnikov Konstantin 62

(Moscow: Novospassky monastryr', 2 monastryr', Novospassky (Moscow: , pp. 160 pp. ,

- 161.

tdns n, oehr ih te professors, other with together and, students 63

But the departure of Erismann, together with tuto ta cnend h ptto and petition the condemned that struction aodd pn ofottos ih the with confrontations open avoided d p. Velikiy knyaz Sergey Aleksandrovich Romanov: Romanov: Aleksandrovich Sergey knyaz Velikiy 13 .

011), p. p. 321 011), e e City Council in Zurich,

-

he joined the joined he -

governed governed 69 61

CEU eTD Collection andscared him annoyed well. whodid notknowhim who talked to those those grumpiness, his short temper, his harshness <...> his manner “to bark this even at the and moon” officer guard the was police of author Sergeyfeelingssocialism had mixed chief:Zubatov his about the and police security Moscow of head the ally, and colleague pogrom a and education by sergeant “a as Trepov described who Urusov, Sergey Prince Reforms Democratic of Party the from Duma State the of member a later and Interior of Minister Deputy the by left was him officials St. in bykilled theterrorists. Vera Zasulich organization revolutionary a of member a by wounded was Trepov, Dmitry of father St. of governor the 1878 In revolution. and unrest of Trepov, Dmitry adviser main appointed theChiefPolice in1896. ofMoscow his about said be can same The elements. radical against repressions and views conservative his for notorious hardliner, political a was brother the and uncle the Romanov, Governor coursereforms. of influe and authority personal whose leaders charismatic most 65 64

He was a man of great soul who carefully upheld his honor and conscience. But he he But conscience. and honor his upheld carefully who soul great of man a was He Dmitry Trepov particularly not was lovedneitherby by theMoscow public,nor the Both Significant changes also occurred in the imperial administration. In 1891, the elderly 1928), pp. 70 pp. 1928), provokatorovi okhrannikov, zhandarmov of letter the See 350. 2, p. vol. 1960), Quoted in S. Yu. Witte,

Trepov andTrepovSergey Prince had sensitivity Romanov particular tothe questions - General Vladimir Dolgorukov was replaced by Prince Sergey Alexandrovich . Three years later emperor Alexander

Petersburg. The most famous The most Petersburg. - 71.

Zubatov to V.L. Burtsev in B.P. Koz'min, B.P. in V.L. Burtsev to Zubatov

Vospominaniya,

was where his quirks came from: his arrogance, his his arrogance, his from: came quirks his where was - in (Moscow: sotsial'no Izdate'stvo (Moscow and Leningrad: Gosudarstvennoye izdatel'stvo, izdatel'stvo, Gosudarstvennoye Leningrad: and (Moscow - law of law – - ae b conviction.” by maker

and, probably, the harshe probably,and, the the emperor Nicholas II. Prince Sergey Sergey Prince II. Nicholas emperor the

II, the father of Prince Sergey, was

Zubatov i yego korrespondenty: Sredi korrespondenty: yego i Zubatov Petersburg Fyodor Trepov, the the Trepov, Fyodor Petersburg

nce could determine the determine could nce - ekonomicheskoy literatury,ekonomicheskoy 64

vn Trepov Even st –

account of 65

70 's

CEU eTD Collection conflict and alienation the to way giving public, educated the of eyes the in regime autocratic the discredited tsarist and population the the of wellbeing of the ensure to incompetence government the demonstrated year, preceding the of famine the with together epidemic, The era. revolutionary Russian the of beginning the signaled of Russian public health have argued that the cholera epidemic was a turning point that late as 1892 which was estimated to have caused more than 250,000 deaths. Histori as epidemic the of outbreak devastating particularly a by hit was nineteenth Russia yet century, the of end the by declined gradually had cholera of threat the Europe, them. editing without suggestions and conclusions words, Trepov's repeated often Sergey Governor Moscow the rukovoditel' colleague closest “the Trepov called Witte Sergey Count Finance happen and thepriwants as hethem, things affairs, city the over rules his who Trepov of is head it reality, the In Istomin. and administration Trepov Polizmeister the by headed oprichnina his by managed doe he anyone; by loved not and Vishnyakov it, said Nikolay Council City Moscow the of Deputy the As Sergey. Prince over influence 67 66

The other landmark of the decade was the cholera epidemic of 1892. In W In 1892. of epidemic cholera the was decade the of landmark other The of Minister the Thus, contemporaries. other the by voiced was opinion similar A unpleasant, and unintelligent [Sergey], prince the is Moscow of ruler unlimited the agreea very not apparently his Despite vol. 2, p. 348. p. 2, vol. Witte,Yu. S. 400. p. in Pisar'kova, Quoted

] ] of Prince Sergey Alexandrovich”.

Vospominaniya,

- General indeed reveal that in his letters and documents Prince documents and letters his in that reveal indeed General

(Mos

o: zaesv sotsial'no Izdate'stvo cow: nt oayhn n losaltemtest be to matters the all allows and anything do not s nce only follows him. nce only ble personality, Trepov had a remarkable remarkable a had Trepov personality, ble 67

The archival sources fro - ekonomicheskoy literatury, 1960), 1960), literatury, ekonomicheskoy 66

- os [ boss m the fund of sotrudnik estern ans ans 71 -

CEU eTD Collection Sergey. long over, it was reintroduced as a result of the joint efforts of Dmitry Trepov and Prince extraordinary, cholera hig and monitoring closer through activity of the municipality and make the city population comply with the sanitary rules health public the reinforce to resources administrative its of potential large the use than complyinglaw. withthe violator the for cheaper and easier was fines those paying cases, certain in fine; minor was sent to court that, usually after a several re was violation the When implementation. their control to possibility Moscow, many of its rules and decrees had remained stillborn because the city had little municipality sanitation and health public of matters the in involved more became administration imperial the choler the of outcomes of One medicine. community sanitation, showanuanced between morestate relations and ofthe picture theRussian Rus making for struggled who those, pushing and Russia in society and state the between 70 69 68

The cholera of 1892 was the mo the was 1892 of cholera The Although since the mid I would argue, however, that Moscow local politics, at least in the questions of urban TsGAMOS,16:130:240:25 1823 Volga, the Years Cholera Hamburg: the in in Politics Death and Society on Death and Life 3 pp. 2011), Routledge, Russia: Imperial Late in Government Press, University Princeton Frieden, Nancy sia healthier, opposition. into TsGAMOS,16:130:240:34

-

h shr ta i Aesyvn ocw a be dmntd y the by dominated been had Moscow Alekseyevan in that sphere the -

and explicitly withcommunity and soughtcooperation Russian Russian

- related measure, at the end of the 1890s, after the epidemic was was epidemic after theof theend 1890s, at related measure,the - 4; 4; P hysicians in an an in hysicians - , for the study of that cholera epidemic in Germany, see Richard Evans, Evans, Richard see Germany, in epidemic cholera that of study the for - 1870s 1870s the municipality to tried regulate the statesanitary of 35; 34 91, pp. 1981), 69 -

35 IMGD

.

68

her fines for such violations. such for fines her ment when the Moscow Governor Moscow the when ment , 7

- 8 (1892), 179. p. (1892), 8 135 Era of R of Era - 177, 177, - month month consideration, could only impose a Charlotte ef orm and R and orm

a epidemic for Moscow was that that was Moscow for epidemic a (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987 Press, Clarendon (Oxford: Henze, Henze, evolution, 1856 evolution, ies, elh Car Health Disease, 70

medicine. Though this was an was this Though - corded, the case the corded, - General tried to tried General 1914 - 1905 1905

Nw York: (New ( Princeton: Princeton: e and and e ).

72

CEU eTD Collection his own power, avoiding the legal court procedure. He proposed that those who did not extraordi the Interior of Ministry the from presented to him by the municipal sanitary committee, Prince Sergey in 1896 requested trade tea in involved been had and factory varnish aowned also house, that apartfrom who, excavations in the yard. Second was the fact that Popov turned out to be a wealthy man out from invisible completely was that inventiveness or the house the wasinvestigators.First the particularly aspects Tworiver. stunned the straightinto complicated a revealed th it drains and sinks of system clandestine 1896, August in place took eventually investigation of abundant snow, and then until summer because of the spring floods. When the expert to had who engineer, municipal the for asked however, police, The rubles. 10 of fine minimal a only pay him made court justice the again and estate, Popov's from River Moskva the of channel the to going y following The court. justice kitchen organized improperly an for except wrong anything find not did engineer The estate. cle cesspool used never Popov that noticed police local 1894 In intervene. to reason a administration the gave complete disregard for sanitary regulations and amazing inventiveness in avoiding them 71

Using that outstanding case of Popov and other materials of the sanitary ofthe negligence othercaseUsing materials ofPopovand thatoutstanding t for pretext The TsGAMOS, –

- and clearly could haveclearlycouldand afforde midden, for which Popov had to pay a 10 a pay to had Popov which for midden, 16:130 : his was the case of a Moscow house Moscow a of case the was his

240:7 nn crs n ivtd h mncpl nier o hc the check to engineer municipal the invited and carts aning - - 8 owner, owner, who devised such an elaborated underground system .

ear, in November 1895, the police recorded the drain drain the recorded police the 1895, November in ear, postpone the inspection first until spring because because spring until first inspection the postpone d paying for the waste for services.d paying removal side and could only be found after extensive after found be only could and side at conveyed the wastewaters from the house house the from wastewaters the conveyed at nary right to punish sanitary violations with violations sanitary punish to right nary - ruble fine on the sentence of the of sentence the on fine ruble - owner M.P. Popov, whose Popov, M.P. owner 71

73

CEU eTD Collection favorable created authorities, the of eyes the in regulations, sanitary disregarded confl by the accompanied was as disease of challenge” outbreak political a also but medical a only not represented “epidemics 1892, in to preventdisorders. various public broadly quite applied was it practice in although threats, political counter to primarily aimed and police security the of tool a as conceived was it sanitation; of field the 500 in result wasa under issuenon threatrightspecialorders, to had of reinforced security and stipulated that the governors of the regions where state order “temporary”, remained in force until 1917. The decree allowed to introduce the regim by Alexander III in 1881 as a part of his counter t for ground for granting such extraordinary right, Sergey referred to the Decree on Measures ofimprisonment. months of 500 rubles (instead of maximum 50 o fine to subject be should Council City the of requirements sanitation the with comply 76 75 74 73 72

That Decree on Measures to Protec to Measures on Decree That The choice of juridical explanation of this request was quite remarkable. As the legal no. 1 (Spring 2005), pp. 117 pp. (Spring 2005), 1 no. TashkentRiot 1892 Cholera ‘Civilization’ the and in Ethnicity, Class, Empire: Russia imperial Charlotte Henze, TsGAMOS,16:130:240: Russia”, Imperial Review, Late in Legislation Emergency of Significance the “On Daly, Jonathan Polnoye sobraniye zakonov Rossiiskoy Imperii TsGAMOS, he Preservation of State Order and Social Stability. This decree was promulgated promulgated was decree This Stability. Social and Order State of Preservation he 75

1995, vol. 54, no. 3, pp. 609, 617. 609, pp. no. 3, 54, vol. 1995, but that year, to use the words of the cholera researcher Charlotte Henze, Charlotte researcher cholera the of words the use to year, that but - ruble fine or three or fine ruble 16:130:240:23 (New York: Routledge, 2011), pp. 3 pp. 2011), Routledge, York:(New Life and Death on Volga, 1893

23 72 - -

24 25 - 139. . .

-

month arrest. month 74

t State Order was indeed introduced in Moscow in introduced indeed was Order State t

n the sentence of the justice court) or even three . . Collection III, vol. 1, (St. Petersbur - 1914: 1914: Disease, Heal 73 -

revolutionary attack, but, despite being This decree, however, did not did however, decree, This icts, riots and violence. and riots icts, - 5, 51; see also Jeff Sahadeo “Epidemic and and “Epidemic Sahadeo Jeff also see 51; 5, - compliance with which would compliancewhich would with thcare and Government in late ”, Slavic Review Slavic ”, g: 76 1885

Those who Those

), ), no. concern Slavic 350

64, 64, 74 e .

CEU eTD Collection arr was notasingle person as reported Trepov in1902, their direct tokeep responsibility their all house inorder thetime.” without that knowing notification, a get preliminary notifications the to violators because “some people ignore ban all sanitary regulations until they to proposed also Trepov Dmitry afterwards, months Several used for thenecessary purposes”. be will rights these that guarantees power state the of representative local highest the to right extraordinary this of granting “the Ministers, of Committee the of permission II. Nicholas emperor the of permission special a as years five next the for power own his with violators punish to right outstanding St. to visit personal a and correspondence o year a After side. different a from problem the approach could family, groundsforaforementioned applying the Decree. the to not did He Sergey. of insensitive concerns was legislation, extraordinary of application the for necessary self of supporter a and legalist a Goremykin, Ivan stabilityand order. grounds for the spread of disease and contributed to the social turmoil, undermining the 80 79 78 77

The main goal of these measures was deterrence rather than punishment, because, because, punishment, than rather deterrence was measures these of goal main The sani persecuting of mode new The t i nt icuae h Governor the discourage not did It In 1896 that reasoning w TsGAMOS, TsGAMOS, TsGAMOS, TsGAMOS,16:130:240:32 16:130:240:99 16:130:240:64 16:130

:

240:43 . - -

, 66 33. 46 as, however, no more convincing. The Minister Interiorof .

, 49 see their relations to state security and, therefore, any therefore, and, security state to relations their see , 79 53

, 63 tary violators was promulgated on March, 1898. March, on promulgated was violators tary .

-

General who, as a member of the imperial imperial the of member a as who, General it they cannot be persecuted... although it is it although persecuted... be cannot they it

Petersburg, Sergey managed to receive the receive to managed Sergey Petersburg, 78 77

- As it was formulated in t in formulated was it As government, whose permission was permission whose government,

ested on those grounds, and the ested onthose 80

f intensive f he official he 75

CEU eTD Collection Russia did not fit in the binary model of “sel format of community medicine. self the by san developed been the initially had that for measures credit receive to attempt an as also interpreted be can municipal endeavors the support to administration local the of desire the 1892, of epidemic cholera the after Russia in received topics health the that attention public the given population comply with the rules created by the self Governor the St. in level governmental highest the at recognized exp municipal of value the Furthermore, efforts. municipal of legitimacy and benefit the acknowledged he Instead, undertakings. its of expansion the hinder to try not did and institutions municipal the of authority growing the Governor with concerned The sanitation. and health public of questions the century self twentieth local the of of supporter a turn and ally the an be could by administration that shows it Firstly, general. in politics re sanitary the of aspects important some reveals years. five another for prolonged were violators sanitary the of persecution administrative percent. 17 to dropped part their 1902 in while requirements, municipal the with comply not did houses inspected 500 82 81

Secondly, once it again thatthe reality confirms thelocal of politics inthe pre case presented the but speculation, of subject a is measures these of efficiency The 2000), Davydov, A.N. TsGAMOS: - ruble fine was a rare case. According to his reports, in 1897 63 percent of the the of percent 63 1897 in reports, his to According case. rare a was fine ruble 82

p.37. - 16:130:240:130

General allowed him not to establish new rules but only to make the make to only but rules new establish to not him allowed General oka vk X Itrceky eooia 1901 ekologiya, Istoricheskaya XX. vek Moskva,

- 81 131

In 1903, the special power special the 1903, In .

f - government vs. imperial administration”

- om i Mso ad municipal and Moscow in forms Petersburg. The special powers of of powers special The Petersburg. government government institution. P - government institutions in the in institutions government s of the Governor the of s - 1917 1917 - Gener Mso: Mosgorarkhiv, (Moscow: - oenet n the in government l a n more no was al - General in General rie was ertise lausibly, lausibly, - 1905 1905 itary 76

CEU eTD Collection stood that groups social the of influence the despite undertakings, successful its all f perceivable reform active of presence the situation In this it. towards tendency visible the despite low, quite was bureaucratization and formalization its in the matters of public health and sanitation, was a “work in progress” and the level of throughout the last decades of the nineteenth century municipal government, especially withholding thetraditional administrative arbitrariness. and law of Russian rule the towards the moving of trends within conflicting the between tension officialdom fundamental the reflected administration imperial their determined seeminglyincon The which actors. local with interactions questions certain central on the opinions of opposite elements had various government on, later discuss will I As governors. local the St. in authorities of Goremykin to Prince Sergey, although in different ways, demonstrate that the central support of IIAlexander Alekseyev to in his conflict with Dolgorukov and the response emperor himself, could have diverse opinions and the including actors, central and local where system complex a municipalities. was “administration” Russian on studies the in persistent strikingly remains that 83 igures inthelocal administration.

More importantly, the discussed case demonstrates that the municipal rule, despite despite rule, municipal the that demonstrates case discussed the importantly, More Fin Management, 2010; 2010; Management, sotsial’no razvitiyu Press, 2014), pp. 101 1890 Europe, Eastern in Aspirations (eds.), Kohlrausch Martin and Behrends Jan in Stalinism” to See for example: Jan Behrends, “Modern Moscow: Russia's Metropolis and Metropolis thefromState Russia's TsarismSee Moscow: “Modern for Behrends, example: Jan ally, it also reveals the limits of municipal rule in Russia. On the one hand, hand, one the On Russia. in rule municipal of limits the reveals also it ally, –

and so was their absence, especially when combined with the powerful powerful the with combined when especially absence, their was so and

Petersburg could in fac in couldPetersburg - ekonomicheskoy infrastruktury Moskvy”, PhD dissertation, State University of University State dissertation, PhD Moskvy”, infrastruktury ekonomicheskoy Gusev,“Mos

- 124; 124; A.A. Romanov, “Deyatel’nost’ organov gorodskogo samoupravleniya po kovskiy gorodskoy golova.” gorodskoy kovskiy -

1940 1940 (Budapest and New and (Budapest t side with the self the with side t

take different sides in each case. The sistent actions and responses of the of responses and actions sistent

- York: Central European University University York:European Central ae t Mdriy Metropolitan Modernity: to Races minded individuals was very very was individuals minded - government bodies against against bodies government 83

The 77

CEU eTD Collection problem withincreasing withreformsbut arbitrary not administrative power. the the to respond to government imperial the for easier was it again, Once law. existing extraordinary bur the the on based were introduced that measures restrictive instead but courts the of efficiency or the municipality the improving of authority the expanding legally of path the follow not did and that the court procedures were ineffic structure admitted that governmentalthe power of municipality to the improve the sanitation in the city of was limited levels all on Actors resource. administrative the to rep throughpublic legitimation its and it behind

ient. The resolution of this problem, however, resentation, still yieldedimportance in still resentation, eaucratic discretion and bypassed the bypassed and discretion eaucratic

78

CEU eTD Collection conscripts revealed 5130 cases of syphilis meaning that 0.6 percent or one of every 157 examinatio the 1880) 1879, (1878, years three in Department, Medical the of data official the to According conscripts. army the of the examination medical from drawn be can syphilis of spread the about conclusions some unreliable, statist medical official Although population. rural the of interaction and urban the among disease venereal of incidence the of awareness raised intense physicians the and facilities health public of expansion the medicine, hahealtha seriousas syphilis see cameto officials has dramatically thecharacted changed the peasant”. Russian of inhabitants of the black [ terrorizes equally that masses the of disease typical a become to managed has it everywhere “almost Gertsenshtein, Grigory dissertation, doctoral 1

y h ls tid f h nntet cnuy ay usa pyiin ad public and physicians Russian many century nineteenth the of third last the By o undoubtedly is “Syphilis 27 Gertsenshtein, G.M. “Habeas corpus cum lue venerea”“Habeas corpus cum .

Sifilis v Rossii Rossii Sifilisv - soil

Russian Russian steppe and the provinces where developed industry “No,nose! Kolya,The becomes theall notonly person “OfI've nose The course heard... falls through” “ seriousyourself stage.God.” and Now dress thank you understand? This you these see whitespots? diseased: bones, his senews disease calledsyphilis?”

e f h gets sca eis” rt i 18, n his in 1885, in wrote evils,” social greatest the of ne But haven't youBut haven't heard ever whatthat a thing sort of is (St. CHAPTER THREE

Petersburg: TipografiyaRumsha, : S yphilis, prostitution and public and health prostitution yphilis, -

syphilis fearful, inthemost most the Aleksandr Kuprin, Aleksandr zard. The emergence of community community emergenceTheof zard.

, brains grow, brainsDo diseased... c wr sac ad often and scarce were ics -

is syphilis, Kolya! Do 1 svirepstvuet

1885 ),vol. Yama: The Pit Yama: o 807746 of n 1 ,part. ] the rural the ]

1 , pp. 79

4

, CEU eTD Collection infectious other the with contrast in century, twentieth the until least at syphilis persisted of vision the in overtones moral the wedlock, of outside or promiscuous the degeneration and of extermination theRussianpeople. to lead soon would and countries” “cultured the in unknown scale a acquired had disease the Russia in that concerns their in experience, other each social echoed new contemporaries the and syphilis of spread the between connection direct conflicts. social and criminality pollution, with together about brought symbol of moral and physical contamination joined the list of the a threats that modernity syphilis and degeneration, and chaos dissolution, of fear the by haunted were Mikhail million. researcher, another with arguing percent Stu 1.9 at it set Gertsenshtein 100 the among diseased percent. 1.4 or 60941, in medical at various examination places prisons,etc.), (factories, and sy infected. was 5 4 3 2

ie te ih cneto bten ven between connection tight the Given elsewhere like Russia in intellectuals century nineteenth the of decades last the In kovenkov, who suggested that the number of syphilitics in Russia had reached five five reached had Russia in syphilitics of number the that suggested who kovenkov, the Body Politics in Imperial Russia Russia PoliticsImperial in Body the 1880 Revolution: Siecle Bartlett 1880 Modernity, Liberal fin this late of historians Cultural Stukovenkov, Gertsenshtein G p. 7; 1883), tipografiya, Stukovenkov, M. 4

" in Catrion in " -

de and Linda Edmodson, "Collapse and Creation: Issues of Identity and the Russian Russian the and Identity of Issues Creation: and "Collapse Edmodson, Linda and - siecle anxiety: Daniel Beer, Daniel anxiety: siecle 2

In these years, the total number of 4362608 people underwent general underwent people 4362608 of number total the years, these In , O rasprostraneniiO sifilisa Sifilis v Rossii v Sifilis - a 1940

O rasprostranenii sifilisa i merakh bor'by s nim nim s bor'by merakh i sifilisa rasprostranenii O Kelly and David Shepherd (eds.), (eds.), Shepherd David and Kelly

(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998); Susan Morr Susan 1998); Press, University Oxford (Oxford: - 1930 3 - ertsenshtein, ertsenshtein, imperia

Yet, contemporaries believed that the actual proportion of proportion actual the that believed contemporaries Yet, - , vol. , million population of the Empire was even higher. higher. even was Empire the of population million (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 2008); Rosamund 2008); Press, University Cornell London: and (Ithaca

l 1

and revolutionary Russia have explored different aspects of of aspects different explored have Russia revolutionary and part , (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, University Press, Cambridge (Cambridge: Sifilis v Rossii Sifilisv , p. 6; Gertsenshtein, Gertsenshtein, 6; p. , Renovating Russia: The Human Sciences and the Fate of Fate the and Sciences Human The Russia: Renovating 1 , p. p. , 30 .

ra dsae n sx particularly, sex, and disease ereal , vol. , Constructing Russian Culture in the Age of Culturethe Age in Russian Constructing 1 , part part , Sifilis v Rossii Sifilisv

1 , p. 29 (Kiev: Universitetskaya Universitetskaya (Kiev: .

, vol. , issey, philis was found wasphilis found 2006 1 , part. part. , 5 ). Suicide and Suicide

rwn a Drawing 1 , , p. Fin de Fin 48 a s . 80

CEU eTD Collection Moscow the was debate this of outcomes the of One it. abolish to called who those was centered on the controversy of those who supported state public debate which would continue throughout the entire imperial period. obvious too target a was prostitution elsewhere, as Russia in and, transmission, its interrupting on focused syphilis of prevention the so unavailable, vaccination and impossible were ill the make to and often inefficient treatment that contemporary medicine could offer made it difficult be concealed, the psychological stigma associated with it and the protracted, unpleasant cours long The limited. encourageand vice immoral behavior. would prophylaxis successful whether and all at disease this prevent to try should moral norms. Western moralists and public health offic the of violation willing a and irresponsibility sexual of aftermath logical a as regarded was syphilis contracting understanding, modern the In sins”. human for “punishment t transmission of means “immoral” less with diseases 6

In the 1880s the prevention of syphilis and inspection of prostitutes emerged as a a as emerged prostitutes of inspection and syphilis of prevention the 1880s the In quite fact, in remained, syphilis against weapons health public of arsenal The 784 see abroad, bycolleagues noticed their 7 179 2000 to 1800 Tradition Medical Western 357; 1830 Europe, in State the and 1880 Brandt, Alan

- - 785; 2, 785; 183.

W.F.By (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985) The particular interest of Russian medical community towards venereal disease was also also was disease venereal towards community medical Russian of interest particular The to beignored.

1279 (July, 1885), p. 28. p. 1279 (July,1885), n No Magic Bullet: A Social History of Venereal Disease in the United States since since States United the in Venereal Disease of History Social A Bullet: Magic No apply for professional care. The traditional measures, like quarantine, like measures, traditional The care. professional for apply um, Anne Hardy, Stephen Jacyna, Christopher Lowrence and E.M. Tansey, E.M. and Lowrence Christopher Jacyna, Stephen Hardy, Anne um,

e of disease with sometimes painless symptoms that can easily easily can that symptoms painless sometimes with disease of e -

1930

(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), pp. 355 pp. 1999), Press, University Cambridge (Cambridge: The British Medical Journal BritishMedical The 6

(C ambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), pp. pp. 2006), Press, University Cambridge ambridge: , , pp. 3 ials debated whether the society hat ceased to be seen as the the as seen be to ceased hat - 51; 51; Peter Baldwin, , 2, 1242 (October, 1884), pp. 1884), (October, 2, 1242 , - regulated

prostitution prostitution and 7

This debate Contagion Contagion The The 81 -

CEU eTD Collection actors multiple the by shaped was case each in regulation of practice the profess boundaries, social, across differed and unitary not was behavior sexual of vision the as Inasmuch locality. on depending policies legal and practices social various in implemented and interpreted was it state, Russian health policies and sanitary reforms. local the of context the in embedded were they demonstrates, Moscow on studied together with the other aspects of urban public health, although, as my research local other projects. the for implications their and discussions earlier the to paid been has last twenty years of the Empire, or the experience of St. of research prostitution and the medical discussions of sexuality and venereal disease. authority policeexpanding ofthe and themedical facilities for syphil the from prostitutes of health the exempting prevention syphilis of reform municipal 9 8

hl te oeain n rglto of regulation and toleration the While towards attitudes Russian modern studied have historians cultural and social Both Omsk State University, OmskState 1999. bol’shikh istorii 1880 Sibiri, v Zapadnoy “Prostitutsiya gorodov Bykova, A.G. see cities Siberian in prostitution on information Lands,” Polish Stauter Keeley Daughter Sonia's 1998). Press, and Judith Vowles (eds.), Russia Bernstein, Laurie 1992); Press, t and Sex codes,” criminal nineteenth in rape and Prostitution Subject: Juridical the and “Gender Engelstein, Laura Pre profile,” social abr len ne, Pottts n ae ieenh etr St. Century Nineteenth Late in “Prostitutes Engel, Alpern Barbara Laurie Bernstein briefly discusses some of the local cases, for example, of Minsk and Odessa in her - Revolutionary Russia,” Russia,” Revolutionary 9

(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995); Jane 1995); TusseyPress, of California Cost University (Berkeley: In addition, the questions of venereal disease and prostitu and disease venereal of questions the addition, In

he Search he Fin in Modernity for pre

- revolutionary Russia tends to favor the macro the favor to tends Russia revolutionary - Journal of the History of Sexuality of History the of Journal Russian Review Russian Halsted, “The Physician and the Fallen Woman: Medicalizing Prostitution in the the in Prostitution Medicalizing Woman: Fallen the and Physician “The Halsted, Journal of Modern History Modern of Journal s ; for the discussion of prostitution in the Polish lands of the Russian Empire see Empire Russian the of lands Polish the in prostitution of discussion the for ;

Sexuality Sexuality and the Body in Russian Culture Jahrbuec

, 48 (1989), pp. 41 pp. (1989), 48 , - Sonia's Daughters: Prostitutes and Their Regulation in Imperial in Regulation Their and Prostitutes Daughters: Sonia's 3 –

1914 g.: Po meterialam Omska i Tomska”, PhD dissertation, dissertation, PhD Tomska”, i Omska meterialam Po g.: 1914 e fe Gshct Osteuropas, Geschichte fuer her - de - , 60 458 (1988), 60 , siecle Russia siecle rsiuin a a eea psto o the of position general a was prostitution , Vol. , 20 - 44, Richard Stites, “Prostitute and Society in in Society and “Prostitute Stites, Richard 44, ional, educational and geographical geographical and educational ional,

(Ithaca and London: Cornell University CornellUniversity London: and (Ithaca , No. 2 (May 2011),(May 2 No. , - 495; eadem, 495;

Petersburg, while less attention

(Stanford: (Stanford: Stanford University

eesug proa and personal APetersburg: -

level, especia level, 1 18) p. 348 pp. (1983), 31 The Keys to Happiness: Happiness: Keysto The low, tion have not been been not have tion

itics. itics.

Stephanie Sandler, Stephanie pp. 270 pp. 8

The The existing

- 290; for the the for 290; lly in the the in lly - century century - 365; 365; 82

CEU eTD Collection non in passed be also could and disease venereal a only sexual contac through transmitted primarily be to considered is disease this knowledge, medical todays’s to According etc. system, cardiovascular bones, brain, the including chronic the gum by characterized is infection initial the after years several occur may that syphilis tertiary the finally, debate; of subject a still was this century nineteenth it manifests stage second the genitals; the on likely most but body the of part any on appear can that secretion contagious highly with chancre primarythe stages: three through passes class, thebodyasfreedom. as individual well reconstruct to historian a healt on debates general the of context the in prevention syphilis of questions the to responded broad culturalcould emerge. processes this of study the through exactly is it and attributed tothe involved. Nowhere state of was regulation prostitution state alone, the Syphil Approaching and syphilis prostitution Nineteenth community medical and municipality Moscow the how explores chapter This 19, 1 (January 1994), pp. 1 pp. 1 (January19, 1994), 10 mas, often considerable in size, and involves the destruction of the vital organs, vital the of destruction the involves and size, in considerable often mas,

t.

h and venereal disease. These responses were shaped by shaped were responses These disease. venereal and h Paul Paul W. Wer s s asd y h sioht bacterium spirochete the by caused is is self with rash (papules) on the trunk and is also infectious, although in the in although infectious, also is and trunk the on (papules) rash with self - etr Rsin hscas hwvr blee ta spii ws not was syphilis that believed however, physicians, Russian century th, “Through the Prism of Prostitution: State, Society and Power,” and Society State, ofProstitution: Prism th,the “Through

- 15. -

h clua asmtos n oaiy sxaiy gender, sexuality, morality, on assumptions cultural the

10

micro

- diversity that a clearer picture of the the of picture clearer a that diversity rpnm pallidum Treponema - sexual ways through close through ways sexual –

and thus could help help could thus and

Social History Social n usually and 83 ,

CEU eTD Collection [ people” Russian the of disease customary “the syphilis self of measures individual take who those sparing not often Gertsenshtein, “syphilis pres [ position material and social current the “Given relations. social of system entire the blaming towards empha the syphilis, on debates Russian the from absent entirely not was dimension moral the care. Although medical basic the provide to failed that governance of structure and society s of spread the connecting explanations, social and environmental broader for looked physicians that and nonvenereal societies traditional in transmission nonsexual of possibility biological real a reflected fears these exaggerated, although that, argued has Engelstein Laura impos the and “ignorance” peasants’ of because village, the in especially contact, physical 13 12 11

The belief in the casual syphilis meant that in their understanding of disease Russian Gertsensthein, Gertsensthein, research on national minorities”, in minorities”, national on research Soviet “The Solomon, Gross Happiness: Sex and the Search for Modernity in Fin Diseases Infectious of a of Geography Cultural and Actual: Historical "Syphilis, Engelstein, Laura 195. Fin in Modernity is argumentation non on publications foreign and Russian of sifilisom zarazhenii vnepolovom sifilisom zarazhenii Gertsensthein, iiiy o bev te iia hgei rqieet de o te poverty. utter to due requirements hygienic minimal the observe to sibility

yphilis to oppression, poverty, lack of education and the whole order of of order whole the and education of lack poverty, oppression, to yphilis

syphilis wassyphilis indeed a threat,particularly intherural Russian world. Sifilis v Rossii Sifilisv iii v Rossii v Sifilis

- discussed in Laura Engelstein, Engelstein, Laura in discussed de sis was shifted from the individual (ir)responsibility and behavior behavior and (ir)responsibility individual the from shifted was sis -

siecle Russia Russia siecle obshchestvenno (St. , 8, 6 (November 6 8, ,

eesug Tipograf Petersburg: , vol. , - ents an elemental force that cankers everything on its way, German Syphilis Expe Syphilis German vl 1 pr. , p 1, part. 1, vol. ,

(St. 1 (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1992), pp. 174 pp. 1992), Press, University Cornell London: and (Ithaca , part. , Slavic Review, Slavic 2 52,

Petersburg: - - yoy usloviya bytovye

1 December 1986), pp. 1036 pp. 1986), December , pp. , pp. - eeel yhls p. 46 (pp. syphilis venereal 1 y Te, 89, p 6 pp. 1889), Trei, iya

Yablonsky i Perott, 1889) contains extensive list list extensive containsYablonsky 1889) Perott, i - for Search the and Sex Happiness: to Keys The 2 . 421 p. - .

de dition to Buryat Mongolia, 1928: Scientific Scientific 1928: Mongolia, Buryat to dition - siecle siecle Russia (Summer,221 pp. 1993), - 9; .. Chistyakov, M.A. 494; ]

yoaa oen russkogo bolezn' bytovaya of our people,” wrote wrote people,” our of , , pp. - 1048; eadem, 1048; - - 70); the validity of their their of validity the 70);

- protection.” 165 5 A. 15; - Disease" in Disease" 211; see also: Susan

- I. 223. O vnepolovom vnepolovom O

Pospelov, The Keys to to Keys The

13 Reviews Reviews Calling 12

O 84 - 11

CEU eTD Collection regional and changes slight some with Although examination. medical undergo and police in registered be to prostitutes obliging Odessa, and Warsaw Moscow, in police committees state through saving and reeducating the “fallen” women and thus supported the abolition of Alliance, proposed a different solution Purity American the or Britain in Association National Ladies’ the as such world, medical control. with register to prostitutes as working women obliged scheme this Scandinavia, to Mediterranean the from continent, European Parent Baptiste devised First disease. venereal of spread the curborder and public helpmaintainthe would thatit hope in the prostitutes mo and legalized p the accepted model French The disease. portrayed theautocratic regimeas unable of ensuring the well naroda Russia Russia adopted the French model of “reglementation” in 1843. The special medical venereal and sex commercial of problem the to approaches different were There yin: oe, rsiuin ad h “mrcn ln” 19 Plan,” “American the 2002). and Press, Greenwood Prostitution, Women, Hygiene: century nineteenth the (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982; Linda Mahood, 16 2000). Akkademi, Atlas (Stockholm: Svanström, afte France in Sexuality Corbin, Alain 1986); Press, University Rutgers Brunswick,: Gibson, Mary 1985); Press, University 15 14 -

regulated prostitution. ], Judit Walkowitz, Walkowitz, Judit 179:58:30:66. TSGAMOS, il Harsin, Jill 14

usa pyiin in physicians Russian oiig ulc oe: h Rglto o Pottto i Sokom 1812 Stockholm, in Prostitution of Regulation The Women: Public Policing - 15 Duchâtelet and then accepted and adapted in many cities across the the across cities many in adapted and accepted then and Duchâtelet

ioe bohl, mobilizing brothels, nitored

The reform were created for these purposes first in St. Policing Prostitution Prostitution Policing

(New York and London: Routledge, 1990); David J. Pivar, Pivar, J. David 1990); Routledge, London: and York (New rsiuin n Vcoin Society: Victorian and Prostitution 1850 r

16

-

oriented groups, more influential in the Anglo

(Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1990); Yvonne Yvonne 1990); Press, University Harvard Mass.: (Cambridge,

oprtd t n h bod iea dsore that discourse liberal broad the in it corporated n 86 n ai b a aiain Alexandre sanitarian a by Paris in 1836 in rsiuin n te tt i Iay 1860 Italy, in State the and Prostitution - n ieenh etr Paris Century Nineteenth in

they str rostitution as a given fact and restricted it to it restricted and fact given a as rostitution

ove ove to eradicate commercial sex as such

eeooit t iset n tet the treat and inspect to venerologists the authorities and subjected them to them subjected and authorities the Women for Hire: Prostitution and and Prostitution Hire: for Women

oe, Clas Women, The The Magdalenes: inProstitution

Petersburg and a year later 00 - – being of the population. ofthe being 1930 1930

(Princeton: Princeton Princeton (Princeton: (Westport, Conn.: Conn.: (Westport, , n te State the and s, – 1915 uiy and Purity - American

– (New (New - 1880 Jean 85

- -

CEU eTD Collection 30. and 20 between group age about 42 percent in Moscow, with the biggest gap in number of men St. in population city the of percent 45 about composed females since migrant workers tended to leave their dependents back in the village. In the 1880s, in the West. Russian cities were notorious for their relative lack of fa that from different quite often was Russia in prostitution of understanding the points, toguaranteealmost impossible didnotcarry thattheprostitute gynecologicalinstruments. disease was often overlooked or even passed from a sick prostitute to a healthy one with the system did not fail to point out. The superficial character of examinati of critics the that coercion and arbitrariness the involved inevitably and police the by because wereconfiscated internalby “public” t their passports as registered women for document identification only the as eventually, that served as a license for practicing prostitution, a health guarantee for the client and, recognized and controlled. They were issued a so was removed with thetsarist only together regime. o system this variation, 19 18 17

lhuh hs ytm f euain onie wt is rnh rttp i basic in prototype French its with coincided regulation of system this Although made was not or control to subjected be should woman a whether on decision The The regulation produced a new social category “public of women” whose trade was Gender in the European the in Town, Gender c KaartinenMarjo (eds.) and Chalus in Moscow” Elaine Working and Space Gender, Men: of City “The Mazanik, Anna 228 pp. 116 Moskve v vrachey russkikh s'yezda Trudyvtorogo Bernstein, - 231 - 117; V.M. Tarnovsky, .

Sonia's Daughters Sonia's

f tolerating and regulating prostitution survived until 1917 and and 1917 until survived prostitution regulating and tolerating f 18 , p. 25. p. ,

Prostitutsiya In addition, the difficulty of the early diagnostics made itmade earlydiagnostics the of difficultyIn the addition,

.1500 19

This combination of socio of combination This – 1914 i

abolitsionism abolitsionism (London: Routlege, 2015), forthcoming. 2015), (London: Routlege, (Moscow: Pechatnya Yakovleva, 1887), vol.2, Yakovleva,vol.2, Pechatnya 1887), (Moscow: - called “yel Conceived, Constructed &Spaces: Constructed Contested Conceived,

(St. he police.

Petersbur - Class Domesticity in Late in Domesticity Class low ticket”, a medical card - economic circumstances economic

17 the infection. g: Karl Ricker,

Petersburg and only only and Petersburg

milies milies and women and women in the on meant that

1888 - Imperial Imperial ), ), pp. 86

CEU eTD Collection sacrificedgoals. for hygienic was liberty” “individual female only when approach gendered the of favor in refuted mid the By discussion. regulationist European the had women and men both target should disease venereal against measures preventive that idea The control. medical of object the become working to were entire population the but prostitutes, only not that meant transmission sexual often persisted anddisregarded. could be not transmission disease of mechanisms and practices hygienic rural primitive, contacts sexual illicit the and promiscuity of nest a as seen was contrary, the on city, The modern syphilis. of spread the to explanation an as transmission casual the preferred id of efficient measures against syphilis. Russian physicians were reluctant to give up their the victims oftheexisting socialtheir that order normal impeded family life. as seen be could sex commercial of consumers the and suppliers the both where poor middle and women poor between interaction Western colleagues, many Russian physicians regarded prostitution not so much as the th Unlike classes. working migrant the among prostitution for demand constant extra favored society Russian the of norms gender the and 20 21 eal of peasants' virtue and monogamy and, when talking about the rural world, world, rural the about talking when and, monogamy and virtue peasants' of eal

The perception of syphilis as the disease of the poor and th and poor the of disease the as syphilis of perception The The broad medical explanation of venereal disease contributed to the imagination the to contributed disease venereal of explanation medical broad The Women: The Regulation of Prostitution in Stockholm in of Prostitution Regulation The Women: Harsin, Gertsensthein, bt vn n h ubn niomn, s oe eerhr mitie, the maintained, researchers some as environment, urban the in even but , oiig rsiuin n nineteenth in prostitution Policing Sifilis v Rossii v Sifilis

, vol. 1, part. 1, part. 1, vol. , 21

20 -

etr Paris century p.317.

- class men but rather as the plague of the the of plague the as rather but men class

, pp.167 - nineteenth century it was generally was it century nineteenth p 15 Svanström, 125; p. , - 175.

- aia rltos n a and relations marital e emphasis on the non the on emphasis e Policing

its place in in place its

Public - class class eir 87 -

CEU eTD Collection 23 For some working status. her of legality the prove to inspection medical and police local with comply to legal valid a document only as with the appropriate medical stamp. usedWithout her passport, a wom be could which ticket”, “yellow the by replaced and police th to inspection. Once a woman was women designated as a prostitute, her passport was taken andby the men “dangerous” these subjecting in tool important connected. legally were prostitutes the of part substantial a and workers migrant of majority the which to commune, peasant the particular, traditio protect and maintain to meant was and population the of mobility the regulated system That population. laboring the for system passport of controlling the poor. The medical inspection was tightly intertwined with the existing the departure their of those until infectedwith syphilis recovery.” “special surveillance of the working tem or live who workers the all of syphilis to respect prostitution Medical working indeed bore the main burden of blame and responsibility for reglamentaion. the spread of syphilis, French some the of introduction the after dismissed 24 22

in male for plans initial the Russia, In The mechanism of controlling venereal disease was integrated the century: in 1901, they composed 75% of prostitutes registered in Moscow Central Sanitary Sanitary Central Moscow in registered 179:58:387:282). 179:58:30:71; (TSGAMOS, Bureau prostitutes of 75% composed they 1901, in century: the largest group among registered prostitutes (41.8%). This proportion was g 179:58:30:69 TsGAMOS, Bernstein, According to the statistics of the Medical the of statisticsthe to According - - oie omte sae ta, pr fo te rmr goal primary the from apart that, stated committee police ls mn ee lo ujce t control. to subjected also were men class - Sonia's Daughters Sonia's

its responsibilities also included “medical surveillance of the health in health the of surveillance “medical included also responsibilities its - class men inMoscow andclass St.

, pp. 19 pp. ,

- 21. - class people who intend to leave the city to prevent

- police committee for 1870 for committee police spection, voiced in the 1840s, were not not were 1840s, the in voiced spection,

Petersburg, tovenereal thesubjection

h isrcin o te Moscow the of instructions The porarily reside in the city” and and city” the in reside porarily 24

- The passport became an became passport The a sca srcue, in structures, social nal 1880, peasants composed the composed peasants 1880, r 23 22 o in the general policy w

ing towards the end of lhuh women Although –

oto over control e venereal venereal e an had 88

CEU eTD Collection the examinations that noted is “It syphilis. against measures of discussion the initiated Council City Moscow the when 1887 in Mansurov Nikolay syphilologist claimed states”, move reformers. health Moscow the of tasks the of one become would branches two these disunite To pollution against efforts medical and disorder against struggle police the where control, state stricter even to them subjecting for allowed infection of sources as groups these Labelling terms. hygienic and medical in also but social, traditional was threat this their but threatening, as seen were of structures communal control the evading cities the in work for came who peasants displaced and society.women “Loose”tsarist the of rigidboundariestransgressingthe areas. inrural ofdisease prevent spread tothe departure before their treatmenthad toreceive check medical possibl only was That back. passport their get to needed they home, travel [ passports w becameexamination a pre hen coming to the city the to coming hen “One can hardly take seriously the voices against the control of prostitution and the and ofprostitution the control against voices the seriously the “One hardlycan take Human body, individual freedom abolitionism and Clearly, in its Russian version the regulationist system targeted 25

ments against its regulation are unlikely to have success in European or American

Stukovenkov, Stukovenkov,

plakatnyi pasport plakatnyi

of prostitutes contradict the law of individual freedom individual of law the contradict prostitutes of - up showed that they were not infected with syphilis. with infected not were they that showed up O rasprostranenii sifilisa rasprostranenii O

from rural areas or towns or areas rural from - condition to receive a passport. a receivecondition to passport. ] for a city residence permit [ permit residence city a for ]

, p. 14 p. , - 15.

,

had to exchange their travelling travelling their exchange to had

In Russia, adresnyi bilet adresnyi reinforced each other. other. each reinforced the the groups that were defined not only in only not defined - 25 migrant migrant

habeas corpus habeas

The syphilitics The ]. In order to to order In ]. workers i the if e 89 - ,

CEU eTD Collection members its as counted Stansfeld, James minister former and politician British the preside Federation, the of council ruling The States. United the and Switzerland générale league repeal international the of creation i resulted This cause. abolitionist the promote to Europe continental around tour generaland political elite and public eventuallyActs. succeeded inrepealing the abolitionist groups emerged as a political power that influenced both the opinio the 1880s early the By rape”. “instrumental as examination gynecological mandatory the denounced and vice, maleencouraging time same the at rights, constitutional their wom poor the deprived Acts the that claimed abolitionists, or repealers, British authorities to extend the Acts to the other regions resulted in a fierce public controversy. vene of venereal not. disease or unconstitutional and defended the autonomy of the human body, whether it suffers from Eng of coalition a when campaign public impressive an after happened this that and prostitutes of inspection medical the for providing Acts Disease Contagious the repealed Parliament British every And infection. syphilitic the of Englishman give willpossibly up front in words empty just is law this but 27 26

In 1874 one of the leaders of the British repeal campaign Josephine Butler made a a made Butler Josephine campaign repeal British the of leaders the of one 1874 In The Contagious Disease Acts of 1864, 1866 and 1869, introduced to stop the spread Mansurov could n Walkowitz, TsGAMOS,179:58:30:66. real disease in British garrison towns and ports, together with the efforts of the the of efforts the with together ports, and towns garrison British in disease real or 'blto d l prostitution la de l'abolition pour ProstitutionVictorian and Society,

ot be sincere when saying it. He must have known that in 1886 the

ih oe n e eone hs cs s moa and immoral as acts these denounced men and women lish

habeas corpus habeas pp. pp.

ééain rtniu, otnnae et continentale britannique, Fédération 1 ih etos n rti, rne Italy, France, Britain, in sections with - 5 , if this this if 90 - 112 corpus .

is cum lue venerea. n of the 27 en of of en n the the n d by d

” 26 90

CEU eTD Collection the to report appropriate international congress of abolitionists in the Hague. an In June 1885, professor of hygiene sending prostitution of control police and medical provinc Bryansk South moral forFinnish of population theSwedish theRussiancapital. and Denmark), who granted her permission to give lectures and organize a society of pu St. to went Andersson Helsinki, After towns. Finnish several in groups abolitionist Andersson Natalia activist repeal Swedish invited it 1885 In 1879. in Helsinki in founded Federationwas the of section first The capital. the reached it until passed years several borderland; in general. women and prostitutes the of rights civil the for or body the of matters private extra of immorality aga struggle the cause their as saw who those physicians, and clergy socialists, and liberals uniting appeal, hadbroada it movement, abolitionist the in role important an played moralists Christian Although supporters. of audience wide a attracted that The Federation heldBulleti regular international and publisheda congresses monthly Josephine Butler, Giuseppe Garibaldi, William Lloyd Harrison and Wendell Phillips. 30 29 28

oe upiigy te bltoities lo rvkd infcn itrs i the in interest significant provoked also ideas abolitionist the surprisingly, More In the Russian Empire, the spread of the abolitionist sermon started f prostitutok Ashkharumov, D.D. Baldwin, p. 4. (1875), Continental: Bulletin Le - Western provinces of the Empire. In 1883, in a small town of Novozybkov in in Novozybkov of town small a in 1883, In Empire. the of provinces Western 29

Contagion and the State in Europe, the in State and Contagion eesug hr se a rcie b te mrs Mra Dga of (Dagmar Maria Empress the by received was she where Petersburg (Poltava: (Poltava: Tipografiya Pigurenko, N.

e, the local public health committee unanimously voted against the against voted unanimously committee health public local the e, - - ejrem wo ae eea scesu lecture successful several gave who Meijerhelm, marital sex and those who fought against the state intervention in intervention state the against fought who those and sex marital

ormny vzgly Sovremenny

Organ central de la Fédération britannique, continentale et générale et continentale britannique, Fédération la de central Organ

ad na sanitarnoye znacheniye domov terpimosti i osmotra osmotra i terpimosti domov znacheniye sanitarnoye na ad p. p. 381. 1886

), ), p. 42

30 rom the Western

s and formed formed and s - Meijerhelm Meijerhelm blic inst inst 91 , 1 1 , 28 n

CEU eTD Collection an abolitionism radical his with agree unanimously in personality human the denies fundamentally the that woman. of institutions the commemoration of in one physicians with of Congress this that rightsenlightened Nikolay women for fighter hope only can We task. this contradicts regulation while society, entire the and women of development the causes of prostitution; we need to prospects intheEmpire: Russian ofabolitionism Se britannique, continentale et générale pour l'abolition de la prostitution immediately be banned. fornica encourages only regulationprostitution of the andthat it” attachesto law the that goodaims the despite that the forced medical examination of women “would always remain an act of violence months afterwards Dmitry Ak police of introduction the against called and movement abolitionist the of history and ideology the presented he where Society gave YakobiyArkady 33 32 31

cond congress of the Pirogov society of Russian physicians in Moscow to discuss the h ssin f omnt mdcn wee krkv a peetn cud not could presenting was Okorokov where medicine community of session The combat reasonablyto adequatelyis andefficientsyphilis measureagainst most The the of behalf on Okorokov Vladimir abolitionist an 1887, January In Bernstein, Akhsharumov, TipografiyaSoikina V.V. 94 pp. vol.2, 1887), Yakovleva, protiv Amerike i Yevrope Zapadnoy in reglamentatsii prostitutsii” v dvizheniya obshchestvennogo istorii “K Okorokov,V.P. Okorokov, vZapadnoy dvizheniya Yevrope obshchestvennogo “K istorii i Amerike,”p.

33 Avchinnikova

Sonia's Daughters, Daughters, Sonia's Sovremenny vzglyad na sanitarnoye znacheniye domov terpimosti , -

Arkhangel'skaya, Arkhangel'skaya, 1904 a lecture on the prophylaxis of syphilis in the Kharkov Medical Medical Kharkov the in syphilisof prophylaxis the on lecture a 32 in cnrbts o h sra o spii ad hs should thus and syphilis of spread the to contributes tion, ), ), p.

Trudy vtorogo s pp. 270 pp. 31 hsharumov hsharumov stated in front of the Poltava Medical Society

.

- 5 VM Tarnovsky, V.M. 95; - 271. rsiuiaa po. .. Tarnovsky, V.M. prof. i Prostitutisaya raise the level of moral, intellectual and economic

'yezda russkikh vrachey v vrachey Moskve russkikh 'yezda - eia cmite i Kharkov. in committees medical Ivanovich Pirogov will start the struggle start PirogovIvanovich will

d, after a passionate discussion, it discussion, passionate a after d, rsiusy i abolitsionism i Prostitutsiya (Moscow: Pechatnya Pechatnya (Moscow: , proposed to the , , pp. 77, 90; (St. Fédération Fédération

p. 31 pp. , 105 31 Petersburg:

Three . see also

92 - 33;

CEU eTD Collection inclination for fornication. In his view, prostitutes were to blame for the alarming spread criminality female of type specific a represent instead prostitutes are not the passive victims of male desire and unfavorable that insisted Lambroso, Cesare psychiatrist forensic Italian of ideas the following and, life social of part necessary and inherent an as prostitution regarded Tarnovsky [ wicked several of freedom of sake the for age and gender of regardless society of members the all calamities innumerable with “threatening is Society late in 1887, called propagation of abolitionist ideas “a criminal weakness” that Veniamin Tarnovsky, speaking in front of the Russian Syphilogical a St. in disease venereal and dermatology of Professor savants etles médecinsque nosidées rencontren les parmi spécialement tout c'est et signalés, déjà avons nous que rapides progrès des Russie en fait abolitionniste mouvement “[l]e that wrote enthusiastically prostitution newspapers. St. Moscow, in associations local the in discussed was It debate. abolitionist Acts, Disease Contagious the remainshould open.” abolitionists of federation international the by raised question “the that decided was 37 36 35 34

The abolitionist movement also had its fierce opponents in Russian medical circles. circles. medical Russian in movementThe opponents alsohadfierce abolitionist its mid the By Tarnovsky, Continental Bulletin Le abolitsionizm 5 pp. D.D. Ashkharumov, D.D. Trud - y vtorogo s'yezda russkikh vrachey v Moskve v vtorogovrachey y russkikh s'yezda 8; 8; Trudy vtorogo s'yezda russkikh vrachey v Moskve, Moskve, v vrachey russkikh s'yezda vtorogoTrudy 35 Prostitutsiyai abolitsionism

- , p. p. , 1880s, when the British Federation finally made the Parliament repeal repeal Parliament the made finally Federation British the when 1880s, h junl f h internation the of journal The 33 .

34 Prostitutsiya i eya reglamentasiya eya i Prostitutsiya

, 4

( 1887

Petersburg, Kiev and Riga, as well as on the pages of of pages the on as well as Riga, and Kiev Petersburg,

), ), p. usa pbi ws el wr o te European the of aware well was public Russian

26 . , pp. 245, 250. 245, pp. ,

, vol. , t le meilleur accueil. t le

l soito fr h fedm of freedom the for association al 2 , , p. zemstvo (Riga: Tipografiya Blankenshteyna, 1889), 1889), Blankenshteyna, Tipografiya (Riga: 117 vol.2, p. 117, Tarnovsky,117, p. vol.2,

eesug eia Academy Medical Petersburg – .

degenerates with an inborn inborn an with degenerates

etns i professional in meetings, poroc nd Dermatological hnykh

” environment, butenvironment, 36

] women”. ] Prostitutsiya 93 37

i CEU eTD Collection discus the paralyzed that control of limits possible the and freedom arguments front in ofthe congress, problem of venereal disease in the country. TarnovskyWhen repeated his regulationist attempt governmental first the was that Congress Syphilogical Russian andexamination forced treatment ofprostitutes. hospital the on of resolution a passed Tarnovsky influence the under Society Dermatological and Syphilogical the Thus, ideas. disease venereal on textbooks university syphilis thepopulation. entire within of spread the with second, fornication; for provocation and seduction with first, ways: two in society harms freedom this as freedom, individual of right wickedn the use fully cannot habitual their of because Prostitutes, society. of interests freedom seduce men.” of anything from own apart her be entertainment not deprived would ofthe pleasure to t to syphilis passed inexperienced male clients, whose lives were “sacrificed so that consciouslya girl who cannot think they as disease, venereal of 42 41 40 39 38

the to sacrificed be should individuals of interests the good, public of cause the In denied Tarnovsky criminals, as prostitutes Viewing anvk' authority Tarnovsky's n 87 h Mdcl eatet f h Mnsr o Itro ognzd h all the organized Interior of Ministry the of Department Medical the 1897 In V.M. Tarnovksy, Tarnovsky, voen. idem, 1863); Pisarevsky, K.A. Tarnovsky, Tarnovsky'sviewEngelstein, see Tarnovsky, V. M. Tarnovsky,V. M. - - med.Upr.,

the concept that the entire ideology concept that abolitionist the based was on: Prostitutsiyai abolitsionism Prostitutsiyai abolitsionism 38 rsiusy i abolitsionism i Prostitutsiya

Bor'ba s sifilisom ssifilisom Bor'ba 1870 Raspoznovaniye venericheskikh boleznei u zhenshchin i detey i zhenshchin u boleznei venericheskikh Raspoznovaniye

).

s patcn spiooit n te uhr f several of author the and syphilologist practicing a as

us eeihsih oeni perel boleznei: venericheskikh Kurs

The Keys to Happiness Keysto The (St. 42

Petersburg, del, Tipografiyavnutrennikh Ministerstva 39 , p. p. , pp. , it provokedit fierce arguments about the individual p. 176 pp. ,

necessity of administrative regulation, medical regulation, administrative of necessity 246 242 40 .

- 243 nue a osdrbe eoac t his to resonance considerable a ensured - 8, 247 180, .

, pp. pp. , - 134 4; o a oe eald nlss of analysis detailed more a for 248; 41

- hm h rgt o personal to right the them

137 . oy

(St. sion. According to to According sion.

heir passive and and passive heir s [ ess Petersburg: Glavnoe Glavnoe Petersburg:

to address the the address to

(St. porochnosti

Petersburg: Petersburg: 1897 94 - ] ).

CEU eTD Collection Medical Moscow the of member a also and disease venereal for hospital Myastnitskaya Moscow of head the Pospelov, Aleksey society, juridical Moscow his shared concerns. venerologists Russian other disease”; of signs external any reveal not did moment the at examination detailed most the if even woman a with intercourse an admitted in1885,“a takerightdoctor sanitaryto hasresponsib no St. the of physician chief the As proclaimedaim. its reached hardlycontrol of form existing the that doubt g was there 1880s the by already decades, for physicians Russian among existence ofbrothels against is thehumanitarian tasksof thestate.” “itslavery” andof formbrothelsa presents in prostitutes vénériennes maladies des et syphilis la the at participants Russian of group medical the of head the by general. in permitted be not should institutions these that saying sanitaryin the ballot measures to refused 300) minorityout (140 greater part of the Congress members was still on the side of regulati it.” opposed province and zemstvo while view, of point one had police “St. geographically: grouped opinions the participants, the of one 46 45 44 43

Although those who radically opposed organized prostitution were in the minority minority the in were prostitution organized opposed radically who those Although russkikh vrachey v Moskve, Moskve, v vrachey russkikh p prostitutsii merakh i o zabolevayemosti statistiki vorposu “Teoriya Shperk, E.F. po Brussele v in bolezney" i venerichskikh sifilisa rasprostraneniya konferentsiya "Mezhdunarodnaya Petrovsky, A.G. A.A. Tsenovsky, p. 9. Leont'yeva,1902), i Akinfiyeva Monasein, P. M. 46

hn h aoiins Vaii Oooo dlvrd lec a delivered Okorokov Vladimir abolitionist the When i

sifilisa” sifilisa” in Abolitsionizm i bor'ba ssifilisom i bor'ba Abolitsionizm eooy dny o sifilidolog o dannye Nekotorye

Petersburg Kalinkin hospital for venereal disease Eduard Shperk Eduard disease venereal for hospital Kalinkin Petersburg

Vestnik sudebnoy meditsiny, vol.2, pp. 116 pp. vol.2, - sanitary branch of Moscow munici Moscow of branch sanitary

Conférence internationale pour la prophylaxie de de prophylaxie la pour internationale Conférence - 117.

in Brussels made a statement that “the life of of life “the that statement a made Brussels in

(Odessa: Slavyanskaya, Slavyanskaya, (Odessa: 18 s'yezde. icheskom smertnosti i primeneniye eya k issledovaniyu issledovaniyu k eya primeneniye i smertnosti IMGD, IMGD, 85, 85, vol. 1, p. 35; see also 1900 is necessary to admit that the necessary admit is to , vol. , (St. 1 pality A. Petrovsky, a a Petrovsky, A. pality 44 , section II, sectionII, p. , maisons detolérance maisons ility for the safety the ility of for

1903 In 1899, as reported as In1899,

onism, onism, a substantial 45 eesug Tipografiya Petersburg: Petersburg and the the and Petersburg

Trudy vtorogo s'yezda ), p. ), enerally little little enerally 43 52 ue n the in ture

. While the While 24 .

- police police rotiv rotiv 95

CEU eTD Collection against violence “direct or functions punitive and administrative any without prostitutes of inspection the for bodies sanitary specific create to proposing system, in Moscow, Kazan' a committees Special Empire. the of parts different in physicians by voiced were police mid the th and police the in incarnated was them for which state, the oust to wanted turn, their in Abolitionists, prostitution. and syphilis over control efficient more for way the it in saw Tarnovsky, venerea of questions to physicians education.” special with basis of a court decision. The sanitary activity, in its turn, “should be given exclusively pro as registered be could women that meaning police, and court of responsibility the be should former the prostitution; of surveillance the in functions sanitary and administrative the separate to necessary was it view, his In regulation. against infection. syphilis are the same in both cases, but the former gives a false impression of protection presen patented officially that stating declaration a sent committee, 48 47

n at ti cam o te rae atoiy f h mdcl rfsinl i the in professionals medical the of authority greater the for claim this fact, In defe to ready not is he that admitted himself Tarnovsky Even vol.2, pp. 117pp. vol.2, Tarnovsky, Continental Bulletin Le t a greater threat than clandestine prostitution, because the chances of contracting - 1870s the ideas to remove medical preventive measures from the control of of control the from measures preventive medical remove to ideas the 1870s Prostitutsiya i abolitsionism i Prostitutsiya .

e administration, from the private matters of sex and the body. From From body. the and sex of matters private the from administration, e 47

nd Nizhny nd Novgorod presented their projects for reorganizing the

dsae a pplr n h bt cms Rgltoit, like Regulationists, camps. both the in popular was disease l , 4

( 1887

), ), p. 28 .

, p. 235; 235; p. , 48

Trudy vtorogo s'yezda russkikh vrachey v Moskve v vrachey russkikh s'yezda vtorogo Trudy maisons de tolérance tolérance de maisons stitutes only on the the on only stitutes nd every form of of form every nd 96

, CEU eTD Collection Moscow Medical The budget. municipal the by covered Governor epidemiological measures were control. under brought municipal sides diverse the over took municipality the 1887 in local chapter, previous the the in discussed I As and administration. municipality the between conflict the of lines the along developed “ police committee,” wrote Tarnovsky, agreeing with an abolitionist journal that called it Medical the subsidize to refused twice already has year last the in Paris, of example t following Council, City Moscow the that fact the in seen be can prostitution of in one of the imperial metropolises. “The practical results of the sermon for the freedom decision the Moscowto wait until 1887. municipality in revived them women.” 50 49 éclatant en de Russie. succès deslaFédération principes

The measures against syphilis, however, remained under the control of the the of control the under remained however, syphilis, against measures The de the InMoscow, Moscow chooses between abolitionism regulationism and What Tarnovsky really feared was that the abolitionist ideas would affect the the affect would ideas abolitionist the that was feared really Tarnovsky What Bulletin Co Bulletin Tarnovsky,V.M. p. 894. 10, Fair,see the of period the during Novgorod Nizhny in introduced was prostitution 3 pp. 1892), Universiteta, Imperatorskogo 1 pp. 1888), Schmidta, Pospelov, I. A. - 49 making and turn into real policy, and not in the provincial Novozybkov, but but Novozybkov, provincial the in not and policy, real into turn and making - Ober General, although the expenses of the Medical

These plans, howe ntinental - Polizmeister Novaya sistema nadzora za prostitutsiyey v Moskve Moskve v prostitutsiyey za nadzora sistema Novaya Prostitutsiya ,

bate on the prevention of syphilis in the second half of the1880s of halfsecond the insyphilis of preventionthe on bate 4

- ( 3; 3; Ge, A. of the urban public health, after Moscow's hospitals and the the and hospitals Moscow's after health, public urban the of 1887 ),p. three , ver, did not result in any reform on the city level and had

i

abolitsionism abolitsionism Po povodu nadzora za prostitutsiei g. Kazani Kazani prostitutsiei g. za nadzora povodu Po 28 .

Polizmeister - . hs reorgani This 4. (St.

eesug Kr Rce, 88, p 33 pp. 1888), Ricker, Karl Petersburg: te ed f ocw optl for hospital Moscow of head the , - police committee consisted of the the of consisted committee police zed system of sanitary control over over control sanitary of system zed - po ” lice committee were mostly 50

(St.

eesug Tipografiya Petersburg: (Kazan': Tipografiya (Kazan': IMGD, IMGD, 1887, no. 1887, - 34; 34; 97 he Le -

CEU eTD Collection logical the as it presented himself Alekseyev and municipality the resolution, this under Medical the subsidize longer no should it that resolution a passed Council City Moscow the polic general ofa health part as ofvenereal disease prophylaxis regarded and prevention the municipality The Alekseyev. under pursued municipality Moscow the that health public urban the in trend municipalization the with conflict into come to bound was threethousand, meaning percity was almost cent ofthe infected. that population twenty exceeded Moscow in syphilitics of number the Shiryayev, Pavel syphilologist so the paid were reserved for prostitutes and 300 for laborers [ for syphilitics (377 for men and 264 for women) in six hospitals, out of which 150 beds Those found sick could receive specialized treatment. In 1887, Moscow had 641 population. rural the among disease of spread the stop to city the leave to intending inspecting the prostitutes, the Committee also performed medical check so the to belonging rest the with brothels, in lived which of 805 prostitutes, 2993 counted Committee the of register the 1886 In examination. medical the performed who physicians police Governor the from clerk a Pospelov), (Aleksey disease venereal 55 54 53 52 51

The existence of the Medical the of existence The TsGAMOS, TsGAMOS.179:58:30:86. TsGAMOS,179:58:30:111. TsGAMOS, TsGAMOS, y and, therefore, as belonging to the competence of the city. On February 24, 1887, its own control. own its - police committee, but instead should take all measures to counter syphilis syphilis counter to measures all take should instead but committee, police - ald optl a [ tax hospital called 179:58:30:13 179:58:30:69 179:58:30:69 - called “loners” [ “loners” called

55

In the long negotiations with the administration that followed that administration the with negotiations long the In . . -

70

.

- o'ihy sbor bol'nichny police committee as a separate administrative body administrative separate a as committee police odinochki, kvartirnye prostitutki kvartirnye odinochki, ] chernorabochiye . 53

codn t te eval the to According - ] ] of both sexes who eea a General ]. - ups ups of workers 51

Apart ain of uation d eight nd

places 54 from

98 52

CEU eTD Collection the that shows time, that at influence personal great his confirming from apart b not receivedwas v of number highest the above, mentioned As field. the in experts be to believed medical Inpublicists. fact, many delegates had no expertise in venereal disease at all. docto sanitary physicians, community and private hospitals, Moscow's of heads professors in various disciplines (gynecology, hygiene, ophthalmology, and pediatrics), university invited it syphilologists, famous from Apart representation. medical widest have to wanted municipality The medicine. forensic and surgery to dermatology specialization medical of spectrum wide a represented experts The discussion. the over took also but 71) of 40 least (at participants the of majority the up make they how decide to be should supervisedprostitution ifthewent proposal through. and initiative this of outcomes possible the discuss to conference Mar On later. weeks three only place took the city, it had, in fact, no concrete plan of how to implement it; the expert consideration in disease venereal control to right the claimed ambitiously so municipality the When [ through committee the problem was, of course, not about the money. The city just needed to be and institutions medical Moscow transferred that epidemiological m line the of continuation 58 57 56

Realizing these limitations, the assembly elected a committee of seven members members seven of committee a elected assembly the limitations, these Realizing only Not professionals. medical by dominated fully was conference large The As Alekseyev later explained, “in the question of the subsidy to the Medical For the protocol of the meeting, see meeting, TSGAM ofthe the protocol For TsGAMOS,179:58:30:84. TsGAMOS,63. 179:58:30:14, razdelat'sa easures under the city authority. y a syphilologist but byhy but the ysyphilologist a ] with the existing situation existing the with ]

OS, 179:58:30:63 h 6 18, lkee cnee a convened Alekseyev 1887, 16, ch

gienist Friedrich Erismann. This fact,This Erismann. Friedrichgienist of the Medical the of 56

- 75 .

- police committee.” police - – rs and and rs police police

from otes did the the 99 58 57

CEU eTD Collection thepetitionaboutthe registration it wouldhardly of prostitution, success.” any have advocating was circumstances other in who Okorokov, Vladimir abolitionist convinced the Even syphilitics. for facilities health public expand and prostitution clandestine supervise of banning the for petition any that suggested Alekseyev conference, the of front in Speaking influence medical evadelikelyanymoreclandestine was to that into prostitution overt on the health of prostitution was a given thing, and they saw their task only in neutralizing its impact prostitution as such could possibly be eradicated. For them, the existence of some form fro reformers social and moralists religious unlike Yet, regulationism. of critique abolitionist the to Moscow.conferenceovert in The prostitution weresensitive participants and aware of was conference the at raised question first the Symptomatically, reformers. sanitary Moscow among prostitution and sex disease, venereal to attitudes of spectrum the reveal syphilis of famous syphilologists, gynecologists, sanitary and doctors newly this of members ag sanitary broad a of matter a as syphilis against measures saw members conference 60

enda, rat enda, The minutes TsGAMOS,179:58:30:63. 59

TsGAMOS, 179:58:30:64 TsGAMOS, her than of the targeted prevention targeted the of than her overt prostitution would be inappropriate before the city took measure took city the before inappropriate be would prostitution overt the immediate abolition, had to admit that “although it is necessary to ban ban to necessary is it “although that admit to had abolition, immediate the

of the urban population. They believed that any ban would only transform te bltoit ap Mso pyiin hd o luin that illusion no had physicians Moscow camp, abolitionist the m of the conference and the meetings of the Committee for the prevention whether the municipality should petition the government to ban the the ban to government the petition should municipality the whether

- rae Cmite o te rvnin f yhls included syphilis of prevention the for Committee created

of venereal disease. The other elected elected other The disease. venereal of zemstvo

physicians. 59

100 s

60 to

CEU eTD Collection applicable for those who used their services, as, in his view, they were corpus therefore needed to be controlled and educated for the sake of public good. The undevelop often aggressive, irresponsible, immoderate, be to seen and vices similar weaknesses to their workers had brothels the of clients the physicians, Moscow of eyes the with him. The rationale for the inspection of men was very simil agreed members Committee the of most and Mansurov, Nikolay argued reasonable,” who freq of men medical the by prescribed strictly in the conferenceincluded and theCommittee. inthe beagenda of p Moscow among discussed topic a was inspection male of necessity The transmission. disease of chain the in link a also were infection of source Housefor when nursing inthe sent rural area. Foster municipal the of orphans the by syphilis of spread the and disease venereal of fac questions concerned prostitution. Others dealt with the inspection of the brothel eight clients, of out two Only disease. venereal of problem the framing in gender of those Committee 62 61

“If the inspection o inspection the “If seei from far were reformers Moscow the of agenda the in included conference municipal the that questions of set The tory workers, domestic servants, the extension of health facilities for the treatment the for facilities health of extension the servants, domestic workers, tory TsGAMOS,170:58:30:63,197 TsGAMOS,179:58:30:75. argumentation,

for the prevention of syphilis reveals that the issues of class prevailed over class of issues the that syphilisrevealsof prevention the for uent brothels and from whom and from brothels uent . They realized that copulation involved two parties and that men that and parties two involved copulation that realized They .

f

public women is considered necessary and its performance is is performance its and necessary considered is women public ht asrv eetd for rejected Mansurov that

–

usually of the same working

- police regulations [...], i [...], regulations police hysicians for years for hysicians ng prostitutes as the only or even or only the as prostitutes ng 61 public women get infected will be most bewill most get infected women public

rsiue, a smlry not similarly was prostitutes, - class background, they were t is clear that the inspection inspection the that clear is t 62

and was bound to appear to bound was and ar to that of women. In

ed and drunk and and drunk and ed

unlikely to have

the primary the habeas 101

CEU eTD Collection control.” syphilis about d workers, factory bedshospital [ such as “providing available and cheap outpatient treatment, a sufficient number of free i and inspection male reducing over the supply control medical commercial sex inthe city. clients seek reformers health the abolition, c the in as Furthermore, future. nearest the in measure this of implementation o abuse easy organization, its of difficulty the examinations, the perform to personnel medical trained of lack The government. imperial the to petition a required and municipality several diseaseconsidering medical anda their desirable examination measure. venereal of spread the for responsible equally men seeing inspection, male on view [ disciplined [ to attended be not should brothels the of visitors “the Mansurov, of words the In morality. and shame dignity, human of feeling any 66 65 64 63

In this light, the Committee unanimously decided to postpone the introduction of the had clients brothel of inspection the institute to plan the desirable, however Yet, TsGAMOS,179:58:30:83 TsGAMOS,179:58:30:83. TsGAMOS,179:58:30:82. TsGAMOS,89. 179:58:30:82, aodne f hs rul this of avoidance r irresolvable shortcomings. First of all, it was beyond the authority of the the of authority the beyond was it all, of First shortcomings. irresolvable 66

the services of the clandestine prostitutes, increasing their number and thus distsiplinirovat' pri vozmoshnosti svobodno lechit'sa nakrovatyakh svobodnolechit'sa pri vozmoshnosti -

all connected to the proper and large and proper the to connected all omestic servants and, eventually, the dissemination of information information of dissemination the eventually, and, servants omestic

nstead to direct maximum efforts to broader sanitary measures, measures, sanitary broader to efforts maximum direct to nstead -

84. ].”

63

, n h ee o te elh reformers health the of eyes the in e, suspected that any restriction would only make male male make only would restriction any that suspected

Most of the Committee members shared Ma shared members Committee the of Most tseremonit'sa - scale organization of sanitary sanitary of organization scale ], the examination ofexamination the ], ] 65 ,

hy hud be should they

64 ipdd the impeded ,

nsurov's ase of ase 102

CEU eTD Collection patern if explicit, the as seen was “civilizing” and poor “disciplining” mission of the elites; but, at the same time, it was the full of among syphilis of incidence the reducing of narrative unwillin than in seen were it intemperence, promiscuity or queer sexual practices. venere of spread the for responsible as seen were poor the or migrants America North and Europe in communities urban many In Russian. exclusively course, of not, was disease venereal commerceand industry. workshops, small in laborers and prostitutes being rest be the to with servants, reported domestic were patients the all of third one Almost clientele. its of majority v for hospital Myasnitskaya village.” the from it bringing syphilis, of spread the in role big a play undoubtedly, workers, factory and workshop thus, population; targe “should syphilis against measures that believed Alekseyev Nikolay mayor the Even metropolises. American and European in than sex commercial on concentrated less arguably was transmissi 70 69 68 67

The im The explanation broad The TsGAMOS,179:58:30:112. 77 pp. 2001), Press, California of University Shah, Nayan TsGAMOS,179:58:30:63. TsGAMOS,179:58:30:112. on resulted in the fact that the municipal campaign against venereal disease disease venereal against campaign municipal the that fact the in resulted on agined link between the laboring populations, especially migrant, and the and migrant, especially populations, laboring the between link agined ns, o ep p ih h ms bsc yinc norms. hygienic basic most the with up keep to gness, deplorable poverty, lack of social security and the impossibility, rather impossibility, the and security social of lack poverty, deplorable otgos iie Eiei ad ae n San in race and Epidemis Divide: Contagious alistic, compassion and empathy. The ways to prevent disease were were disease prevent to ways The empathy. and compassion alistic, al disease that was often attributed to their alleged immorality, immorality, alleged their to attributed often was that disease al

t not only prostitution but also the other elements of the urban urban the of elements other the also but prostitution only not t 68

f netos ies ad the and disease infectious of

enereal disease, the known prostitutes did not compose a a compose not did prostitutes known the disease, enereal

- 104.

69 67

In Russia, however, t codn t te eod of records the to According

- belief in the casual syphilis syphilis casual the in belief Francisco's Chinatown Chinatown Francisco's 70

h whole The he roots of (Berkeley: (Berkeley: 103

CEU eTD Collection syphilogical a in is he that relatives his to write to dare would person every “not as and outpatient clinics, instead of organizing specialized institutions for venereal disease o umbrella the under syphilitics for departments mask to proposed “ could that disease venereal fear losinghousing of theiror and jobs th the poverty,primarily environment, entire their byhindered and discouraged were but are.” m the as hospital, the of outside when debauchery in indulge readily who and uneducated undeveloped, are who those for especially syphilisof treatment the successin the of hospitalsalreadyhalfthe makesa in alcohol venerea with patients the of day care and proper regiment the that well very know “Syphilologists treatment: hospital inpatient organized the needed population laboring the while class” wealthy developed less warned that outpatient treatment of ven care of their own health. The head of Moscow Myasnitskaya hospital Aleksey Pospelov did not mean that physicians had any particular in trust the poor's ability taketo proper syphilitics, which would be cheaper to organize apartcuring from theillness played their role. repul than on the conditions believed to be most favorable for the laborers that would attract rather treatment medical to access facilitating and encouraging in but restrictions in not seen 72 71

Moscow health reformers Although the Committee generally favored the idea of outpatient clinics for for clinics outpatient of idea the favored generally Committee the Although TsGAMOS 179:58:30:112 TsGAMOS,179:58:30:113. 72

St ill, ill, Pospelov believed that se them. In this light, other stimuli (i.e. free lodging and food in hospitals) hospitals) in food and lodging free (i.e. stimuli other light, this In them. se

- 113.

repeatedly noted the dangers of labelling the patients with

cr” n dvr te from them divert and scare” laborers in fact wanted to receive medical treatment, ereal disease could work only with the “more or e lackstationary of beds. 71

and and allow the sick to keep their jobs, it

l disease as well as abstaining from from abstaining as well as disease l ajority of the working the of ajority optl. hs t was it Thus hospitals.

f general hospitals hospitals general f - class people people class 104

CEU eTD Collection wher quarters the to close inspection venereal for clinics locate to proposed project the of version 1887 final The 1870s. the of proposals unrealized earlier the to consonant was ways many in that prostitutes of supervision medical the reforming gynecological seek to byexamination less humiliating and more making it anonymous. them motivate and care medical to access prostitutes' the I fromprostitutes any public health institutions. averted and inefficient it made character degrading and arbitrary forcible, its because simply but body, female the of autonomy the violated it because not itself, discredited results intheprophylaxis ofsyphilis amongprostitutes. that encouragement rather than compulsion or direct force would yield the most fruitful rather lin a but in them perceived group, outcast or immoral wicked, particularly a as prostitutes see not infection; it was framed the in same rhetoric “serving of the poor”. The did Committee meas the as principles and break transmittance. chain the of workers and domestic servants that would allow to detect incidences of venereal disease notified. For these purposes the Committee proposed be to needed employers their workers, or servants domestic the among revealed be could be hospital.” However, in the view of the Committee, the pri 73

The work of the Committee for the prevention of syphilis resulted in a p a in resulted syphilis of prevention the for Committee the of work The existin the reformers, Moscow of eyes the In same the on based was prostitutes of inspection medical the to approach The TsGA MOS. 179:58:30:81 MOS. sacrificed if the health of

ures targeting other social elements believed to be sources of of sources be to believed elements social other targeting ures e with the rest of the working class. Similarly, it was believed was it Similarly, class. working the of rest the with e - 82, 82, 90

- 93. community was endangered: should infectious cases

73

t was considered facilitate necessaryt was to univ g system of police inspection inspection police of system g

vate interests of the sick poor ersal free inspection of

roject of roject

e the the e wage 105

CEU eTD Collection wheretheir sought clients. prostitutes tickets” (medical certificates) from brothels, assignati in need. The role of the police was seen only in prohibiting women without valid “entry including the prostitutes, and providing free treatment of venereal disease for everyone wor the of health the checking for responsible were institutions municipal The control. (administrative) police and (sanitary) municipal of spheres semi offer they abuse, and arbitrarinessits with inspection police forced of model old the of instead poor: the of disciplining subtle more to coercion voluntary. The project of Moscow reformers reflected an intention to transit from direct almost treat we everyonesimply freeelsegodless for is when [ them on payments impose To creatures. outcast those to pity the visit to close, them the mayor Nikolay ofthe Alekseyev City said1887infront in Council, inspe the name. her disclosing without woman permit a of identification would that photograph, a with records medical introduce to proposed was it origin,” andname her than public the to face herrather reveal“would prostitute a that Considering pudency”. women's “spare members, Committee the of words the in to, personnel medical female with staffed and hours convenient in operate to were clinics These commuting. expenses on and time to save them tendedprostitutes tolive 74 75

e, h fcl on o te 87 rjc ws o ae the make to was project 1887 the of point focal the Yet, see to need You least. saythe to inhumane, is women these from paymentstake To IMGD, IMGD, TsGAMOS,179:58:30:14 - ction and treatment of venereal disease was also meant to be free of charge. As As charge. of free be to meant also was disease venereal of treatment and ction voluntary compliance with “rational” medical rules. The project separated the the separated project The rules. medical “rational” with compliance voluntary 1887, no. 10, p. p. 894. 10, no. 1887,

Myasnitskaya hospital to be filled with great compassion and and compassion great with filled be to hospital Myasnitskaya - 15.

bezbozhno ]. 75 on houses, baths and other places

74

The new system of medical of system new The ed a new one based on the on based one new a ed king venereal inspection inspection venereal - class population, class

106

CEU eTD Collection they of toobtain aproof toperform their certain had health professionalactivities. but women, on examination medical force directly could nobody ideally, process: this still re clinic.” outpatient the to or post inspection an to comes woman prevent the spread of syphilis” and that “it makes no difference for the city if a syphilitic “th that saying undergo inspection by themselves. check authority theof the police, the new system in fact in remained prostitution the of registration the Although it. from independent MinistryInteriorwas of and ap the of Department Medical the in support found project local municipal The the institutions. of shoulders the onto disease venereal preventing for responsibility the and yi to eager quite Dolgorukovseemed with side not did government central the However, institutions. self the of involvement minimal with administration the of hands the in Governor by Alekseyev and the City Council, but, quite predictably, was opposed by the Moscow 78 77 76

ocw eomr epiil rfsd o efr ay diitaie measures, administrative any perform to refused explicitly reformers Moscow inspection health made reform the enlisting, prostitutes' the abolishing Without approved fully was prostitution of supervision the of reorganization proposed The TsGAMOS,179:58:30:13 TsGAMOS,179:58:30:172. TsGAMOS,163. 179:58:30:84, - quired ups and was meant to make “all women engaging in fornication in public places” - Gener

prostitutes prostitutes to be regularly inspected, but now gave them certain agency in e aim of the municipal the of aim e al, who believed that the control over venereal disease should remain should disease venereal over control the that believed who al,

eld to the requests of the Moscow City Council and to move move to and Council City Moscow the of requests the to eld - 14.

proved for implementation from forproved March implementation 1889. 77

government is not to reveal to not is government did not rely on the police lists and forced 78

The

prostitutes, but to but prostitutes, proposed plan proposed - government government 76

107

CEU eTD Collection grouppotential targetembrace working themajority ofthe class.to its expanded and decades following the into principles its protracted system reformed examination, mandatory a of rape” “instrumental the repealing of Instead it. to subjected were who and enforced who those both of dispersion the and normalization supervision at ofwomen the who moment evadeany med Medical the ofinefficientinstitution and outdated the reorganizationof throughthe andcamps two compromise between the abolition and regulation of kind a as perceived was Interior, the of Ministry the of Department Medical the a note about their satisfactor get would they when discovered be not would secret their Similarly, disclosed. be those who receive be course of would they which in informed be would and assistance immediate get would sick found the those and quality, about this in certificates certificates issue domesti to male or female and nannies, wet as disease such purposes, legal some for venereal it need who those and to health satisfactory syphilis with ill those onejust ofmany ofsanitaryamongcomponents thepoor: routine poor. In their rhetoric, measures against those engaged in commercial sex emerged into 80 79

its by masked was inspection medical obligatory the of character intrusive The of report experts’ the in formulated was it as reorganization, of project entire The doc the of aim main [T]he T TsGAMOS,179:58:30:172. TsGAMOS, 170. 179:58:30: he Committee viewed prostitutes as a part, although marginalized, of the urban urban the of marginalized, although part, a as prostitutes viewed Committee he are - police committee devises a more thorough and more humane sanitary sanitary humane more and thorough more a devises committee police in need of special treatment, and the secret of their occupation would not

y ontheirrecord. photographic health

hospital they could receive could they hospital

toral inspection is to provide urgent medical care to all to care medical urgent provide to is inspection toral d under their real name and not as prostitutes, but as but prostitutes, as not and name real their under d c servants. Prostitutes would also apply for medical medical for apply also would Prostitutes servants. c : “The proposed reform reconciles the ical care.”

free treatment. In that case, that In treatment. free 79

80

- nurses, nurses, 108 the

CEU eTD Collection the for personnel female the of employment the on insisted municipality the and syphilis aid six of consisted [ Dolgorukovskaya nursing scho nurses six and hospital, Myasnitskaya the at studied or worked previously had whom of all physicians, female cl outpatient reporting. financial and administrative as well as syphilis of statistics the compiling treatment, dise venereal for clinics outpatient the opening for responsible was Bureau The hospital. Myasnitskaya of medical examination. undergo could they where them inform to and prostitutes the all to back passports th ordered Interior the of Ministry the of Department Medical The syphilis. of prevention the given to the municipality on the conditions outlined in the project of the Committee for 82 81 83

disease hospital, clinics, Myasnitskaya andOutpatient the treatment venereal of

To perform the inspection of inspection the perform To From that time on, the Moscow municipality took the baton in Early rsiue. n ac, 89 t rae te eta Sntr Bra udr the under Bureau Sanitary Central the created it 1889 March, In prostitutes. TsGAMOS, TsGAMOS,179:58:30:15. IMGD ambulatoriya , 8 (1888), (1888), 8 , Appendix,pp 82

Mso plc t aoih h ntros ylo tces, o ie the give to tickets”, “yellow notorious the abolish to police Moscow e

1889 the full control over the venereal disease in Moscow was ultimately ultimately was Moscow in disease venereal the over control full the 1889 Professor head AlekseyBureau. appointed ofthe Pospelovwas inic [ inic 179:58:30:14 ase, keeping the records of records the keeping ase, 83 zhenskaya ambulatoriya zhenskaya . In the words o words the In -

women and a doorman. The Committee for the prevention of of prevention the for Committee The doorman. a and women 81

,

176 . . 5

fel'dsheritsa ol under Myasnitskaya hospital. The auxiliary personnel - 6.

prostitutes, the municipality opened a free Women's free a opened municipality the prostitutes,

f Po f spelov, “however cynical a cynical “however spelov, ]. The clinic employed seven male and two and male seven employed clinic The ]. ], who had completed the course at at course the completed had who ], prostitutes, organization of their hospital their of organization prostitutes, in the medical inspecti

prostitute might be, might prostitute

109 on

CEU eTD Collection accountant of the Central Sanitary Bureau kept their positions for more than ten years. e those of out stable: relatively was clinic the of personnel medical the this, Despite view.” of point scientific and medical the from interesting anything present not “did and job independent practicecomrades.” withtheir male together were the first foretellers of the new era positions, their to appointed colleagues, female his “that mention to pleased very was female these of physicians, saying that “despite all the difficulties connected to employing achievements the praised Pospelov Aleksey Congress, Pirogov seven male colleagues were just licensed physicians [ and Ekunina Both better. [ degree fact medical higher the had Vyshinskaya in was qualification their although annum), per wasinspectionprostitutes of thebrothelleft under empl were (Ekunina Ekunina Maria physicians, female the of opposition of the Gubernatorial Medical adminis feeling a keeps she and woman doctor”. male a by examined is a she when embarrassment still is she fallen, had she low however 88 87 86 85 84

Physicia The female physicians received the same salary as their male colleagues (700 rubles TsGAMOS, 179:58:309:13 179:58:43:260; Trudyvrachei russkikh s'yezda chetvertogo in ” vrachebny” :13 179:58:309 TsGAMOS, TsGAMOS, Yakovleva, Pirogova N.I. Moskve v pamyat' v Trudy vrachei russkikh s'yezda chetvertogo mployed in 1889 in mployed oyed for the examination of examination the for oyed ns admi 1892 179:58:30:176 Svod zakonov Rossiyskoy Imperii Imperii zakonovRossiyskoy Svod ), p. ),p. tted that the inspection of

184 , .

four physicians, four nurses, as well as the director and the the and director the as well as nurses, four physicians, four .

- 16; 16;

o te differ the for – - , p. p. , “loners” to “spare their sense of shame of sense their “spare to “loners” 16; 179:58:505:172. 16; the the long 184 ence between those medical degrees see “Ustav “Ustav see degrees medical those between ence - prostitutes was an extremely monotonous Doktor Meditsiny Doktor Fiveiskaya) and Ekaterina Vyshinskaya, Ekaterina and Fiveiskaya) (St. Petersrburg: 1892), pp. 255 pp. Petersrburg: 1892), (St. .

- awaited equalization of rights for the tration lekar' responsibility ofmen.

87 84 85

].

86 Yet, the plan encountered plan the Yet,

and, eventually, only two

In 1893, speaking at the ], while si while ],

(Moscow: Pechatnya (Moscow: Pechatnya - 256. x out of their of out x women,” he

.”

The The 110 88

CEU eTD Collection exa Every name. a without but photograph a with card own their bring and thegynecological toexclude possibilityof infection. instruments buy to advised were prostitutes all addition, In prostitutes. in the afternoon were reserved for loners to prevent them from mingling with the brothel instruments and linen, a washstand with a pedal and wooden couches for undressing. for cabinet a desks, two chairs, examination two has room Each windows. three with arshins, sq 65 the rooms, examination for the of hangers Each couches. wooden enough has arshin, square with furnished is arshin, square 130 windows, 51 seven with hall outerwear.waiting The windows, two with anteroom The d no suppuration of signs the hiding from prostitutes three rooms for patients’ examination, a room for a doorman hall, waiting a anteroom, an of consist premises Thestreet. the from access separate a of the Ekunina Maria examination. efficient organ internal The the ensured also and disease. venereal for hospital Myasnitskaya the from and to foot by access clients convenient potential its of most for reachable easily clinic the many housed and brothels prostitutes. city the of most had that area the district, Sretensky Women's The convenient. Mosc 90 89

Th inspect of To time assigned an had eachbrothel overcrowding, avoid o located are clinicsanitary municipal the of premisesThe the essence, in intrusive and obligatory still was inspection medical the Although Pirogova Moskve v bespl Ekunina M. str., Petrovka September, Drachevkain only to moved was which At firs At ow municipality took visible efforts to ease the atmosphere of it and render it more e Central Sanitary Bureau registered the prostitutes, giving each of them a medical ambulatoriya atnoy ambulatorii g. Moskvy” in in Moskvy” g. ambulatorii atnoy t, the loners were separated from the brothel prostitutes and had their own Kharitov clinic on on clinic Kharitov own their had and prostitutes brothel the from separated were loners the t, 89

T - his central location between the Boulevard and the Garden Rings made Rings Garden the and Boulevard the between location central his Fiveyskaya, “O meditsinskom osmotre prostitutok, proizvodimim v gorodskoy gorodskoy v proizvodimim prostitutok, osmotre meditsinskom “O Fiveyskaya, ization of the the of ization

(Moscow: Pechatnya(Moscow: Yakovleva,180 pp. 1892), at the Pirogov Congress:

ambulatoriya

ambulatoriya ambulatoriya Trudy chetvertogo s'yezda russkikh vrachei v pamyat' N.I. N.I. pamyat' v vrachei russkikh s'yezda chetvertogo Trudy - Fiveyskaya provided the following description following the provided Fiveyskaya

a lctd n Drachevka on located was

was meant to ensure the quick, safe and and safe quick, the ensure to meant was evices for washing are provided. provided. are washing for evices mination resulted in a mark on mark a in resulted mination 1889 and two toilets. To prevent - 181. n the first floor and have have and floor first the n .

is well illuminated well is ion; two hours hours two ion; Street

n the in 111 90

CEU eTD Collection wasprostitutes tothe similar Medical to inefficiency its in institution new the that admit to had and 1892 in small a Bureau Sanitary Central Moscow visited then 70000, of population a with town provincial Minsk, from Gratsianov Piotr doctor sanitary A tackle. to difficult 40 and 50women daily, forminutes every spending about only check three between examined physician Each prostitution. clandestine in suspicion on police the we women remaining The 500. about only “loners” while month), a 6300 (c. examinations of majority absolute the up made prostitutes brothel check 40 about in one just but month, prov givesdetails their of new them allthe patient. health brothel, one from tha card move sanitary the often prostitutes that situation this in doctor; known another by examined one, another doctor,to one by examined is It [...] blennorrhea. had had prostitute before the syphilis if sees immediately doctor the card, this at looking When doctor. then at least for system ofsanitary made theinspection albums more convenient The treatment. the of end the until retained being card her hospital, Myasnitskaya pro the 92 91

The problem of subjecting the loners to medical inspection prov operation year of first the but decades, The Women'sthree almost for existed clinic

stitutes) or a week (for loners). If found sick, she got a ticket for free service in the in service freefor ticket a got she sick, foundIf loners). (for week a or stitutes) clinical the of activity the eases greatly cards sanitary the of introduction [t]he TsGAMOS,310. 227,255, 179:58:43:191,202, Moskve in Moskvy” g. ambulatorii M. Ekunina card. If found healthy, a woman received a visum valid for four days (for brothel brothel (for days four for valid visum a received woman healthy,a found If card. ed to be the busiest. In 1889, its its 1889, In busiest. the be to ed (Moscow: Pechatnya Pechatnya (Moscow: Yakovleva, - Fiveyskaya, Fiveyskaya, “O meditsinskom osmotre prostitutok, proizvodimim v gorodskoi besplatnoi , in which form, how often she had relapses, when and how often she she often how and when relapses, had she often how form, which in ,

physicians. In words ofEkunina the physicians. t follows the prostitute from one doctor to another immediately another to doctor one from prostitute the follows t

rd cevroo 'ed rskk vahi pma' .. iooa v Pirogova N.I. pamyat' v vrachei russkikh s'yezda chetvertogo Trudy

- police Committee: Committee: police 1892 physician - ups revealed signs of venereal disease. The The disease. venereal of signs revealed ups

), pp. 178 s performed almost 7000 check 7000 almost performed s - 184 - 91 Fiveyskaya,

, quotation from p. from quotation p. ,

re brought for inspection by inspection for brought re

-

if notfor pr ed ed to be remarkably 182

control single control .

- up. ostitu 92 -

ups a ups

112 tes,

CEU eTD Collection 2071 different brought women suspected in the clandesti police the year, a throughout prostitution: in engaged those of part registers of theMedical the than less twice than moreloners, 532 and prostitutes 592 with brothels 68 counted retireme Serge of report the to not was inspection for comingwomen Medical the as syphilis against guarantee committees that are responsible for the supervision of prostitutes little in the rest of Russia. similarly provides week, a humanity) tha the this with treated arenowhere prostitutes brothel Therefore, (becausethe loners humanitytowards Minsk. in than less is which times, 4302 only inspected were police, du that reveals syphilis spread “freely says, he among the population prostitutes,” of Moscow, avoiding the single medical examination.” The same report and wondering of masses “the impossible, is Sanitary Bureau, by January 1, 1892 there were only 366 of them [loners]. This number Year 1905 1902 1899 1895 Clearly, similar to its predecessor, the Central Sanitary Bureau enlisted only a minor Source: TsGAMOS, Table 3.1. In the f Central the of activity the about Pospelov Professor of report the to [A]ccording Tipografiya MVD, 1893), Tipografiyap. 11.1893), MVD, 93

.A Gratsianov, P.A. t n 91 a te n o ta ya te it o te eta Sntr Bureau Sanitary Central the of lists the year that of end the at 1901, in nt ollowing ollowing years,fifteen the situation hardly changed as only one in every five Numberexam of 5000 5030 5260 5270 of number monthly womeninspected average Total

t allows them to bet allowsthem to inspected whenever they least wish,although at once and it is admitted to be so even by the respectable author of the report: report: the of author respectable the by even so be to admitted is it and ring the entire year of 1891 the loners, including those brought by the by brought those including loners, the 1891 of year entire the ring

179:58:309

y

raiasy nad Organizatsiya Molodenkov, who took over the position of Pospelov after his after Pospelov of position the over took Molodenkov,who - Police inations ;

179:58:392 Committee fifteenyearsCommittee earlier.

at the the Women’sat clinic

zora za prostitutsiyey v gorode Minske Minske gorode v prostitutsiyey za zora working in a brothel (see brothela Table workingin 3.1 ; 4590 4240 4530 4720 prostitutes Brothel 179:58:621 ne prostitution; 1334 of them had never been

.

by category. by 300 530 110 240 Loners

110 260 620 310 by brought Women

police

(St. ). ). According

Petersburg:

- police police 113 93

CEU eTD Collection loners. unregistered and registered of group carehospital received 600) about of (469 prostitutes brothel the of majority absolute the 1901, in the health of their wards for the sake of business, regularly sent them to the clinic. In who themselves were subjected to numerous adm some efficiency only with regard to the organized prostitution, when the brothel owners, with worked prevention disease venereal of system municipal The clinic. the to come agreedat toberegistered the CentralBu Sanitary in by thepolice. only 1.3; clandestine prostitutes were probably checked only once a year when brought underwent an average of 7.6 examinations in the ambulatoriya, while a re monthly prostitute brothel a 1902, of turn the inspection. At medical of rules the with compliance remarkable their to connected rather was treatment for sent those among indeed at a higher risk of contracting any venereal disease, yet their over 3.2). Table (see prostitutes brothel were foun those of Most cases. the of rest the for responsible were diseases venereal chancro gonorrhea, while syphilis, with diagnosed were them of half Only 1264 cases of disease in 959 women who were subsequently sent for hospital treatment. around the Khitrov market orinS and 417 at least thrice. Most of these women were caught by the police in the slum area previously registered in the Bureau. 847 out of these 2071 were brought in at least twice 95 94

Despiteefforts all the of loners aminority toencourage just examination, voluntary revealing examinations 61436 performed ambulatoriya of physicians the 1901 In TsGAMOS, 281. 179:58:387:277, TsGAMOS,179:58:387:277 -

and a of third themnot

- 281.

retensky district. once

Women from this category were probably probably were category this from Women - 95

compared toonlymuch larger 450from a

In fact, physicians noted that inspection that noted physicians fact, In inistrative inistrative requirements and interested reau and even those were reluctant to reluctantevenwerereau and to those 94

- re gistered loner presentation presentation id or non or id d sick sick d 114 -

CEU eTD Collection tryi was who bacteriologist the of curiosity idle the of object an into prostitute a none of the 11 tests for malaria) showed positive results venereal clinic. the of responsibility the beyond clearly was it although streptococci, and staphylococci malaria, tuberculosis, of agents the as checked 291 women for gonorrhea with 149 positive results. Interestingly, the bacteriologist also year the tested theCentral endBureauemployed whountil of Sanitary a bacteriologist gon the was microscope the with diagnosed be to pathogen venereal sole The examination. minute on the external signs of disease, incidences o brothels [ grubbiness” and “slovenliness their of because longer took and difficult more was loners the of 97 96 Brothel prostitutes Brothel category in the disease of Incidence thepolice by brought Women Loners

These numbers, however, had only an approximate correlation with the actual actual the with correlation approximate an only had however, numbers, These Source: TsIAM,179:58:387. Table 3.2 TsGAMOS,179:58:387:281 TsGAMOS,179:58:505:173.

.

96 the sputum and the blood of prostitutes for some other known pathogens, such checks helped diagnose a disease

. Incidence of disease Incidenceof . ococcus, the agent of gonorrhea, known since 1879. In October 1901, the the 1901, October In 1879. since known gonorrhea, of agent the ococcus, f venereal disease among women in profession.this The diagnostics relied eyslvs' nechist i neryashlivost'

19.24% 13.64% 26.56% Syphilis

-

282.

among

which 1.45% 1.35% 14.96% Gonorrhea

inspected women inspected

oplotnost' could have been absent or overlooked in a three

–

thus, 25 thus, of 32 tests for (whiletuberculosis 8.13% 2.25% 9.91% Chancroid ] compared to the women from the the from women the to compared ] 97

huh n oe ae tee non these cases some in Though

in 1901. in –

in a certain sense, they 0.65% 7.46% 13.56% diseases genital Non

- venereal venereal

25.20% 24.59% 65.10% diseased of Proportion

turned turned ng to to ng

115 - -

CEU eTD Collection its and manuals and journals medical foreign and Russian of library a possessed c twentieth Myasnitskaya hospital.” to go to agree would everyone “not that and disease with associated stigma social municipal and physicians Moscow working the to disease venereal from them. a preferentialbecause admittance any possess criterion togonoccocusgonorrhea. similar for not do we and ground, empiric purely unfortunately, but, firm on stand syphilol of field the shortly,in it put Toetc. continued, be should it whether or sufficient was case particular syphilitic each of treatment the whether the say cannot we process, of disappearance the identify cannot often we suffering, possibly syphilitic the be knowledge o nature the establish scientific precisely cannot still our we cases many In can sufficient? considered and verification; scientific any without and Myasnitskaya M.A.Chle hospital the of Women'ssyphilologist the of words the In syphilis. diagnosticsof the for help little generallyof were laboratorymethods popular otherwise bacteria,the in 1905 and the introduction of the serolog to the treatment of venereal disease. methods laboratory and knowledge expert his of applicability limited the compensate 99 98

Yet, in spite of this stigma and the contingent of the patients, by the turn of the of turn the by patients, the of contingent the and stigma this of spite in Yet, do we do, we that everything but syphilis, treat and identify less or more can [w]e Until the discovery of the syphilis spirochete by Eric Hoffmann and Fritz Schaudinn The prostitutes found sick were sent to the Myasnitskaya hospital, where they had had they where hospital, Myasnitskaya the to sent were sick found prostitutes The TsGAMOS,179:58:535 TsGAMOS,179:58:589:39.

Myasnitskaya hospital hospital Myasnitskaya entury it emerged as an important center of syphilology. The hospital hospital The syphilology. of center important an as emerged it entury

:38 99

-

39.

was established was

a special department ofthehospital was reserved for leaders repeatedly noted that the institution bore a bore institution the that noted repeatedly leaders

nov, - class population population class

ical Wassemann test for the antibodies to the 98 in

1861

to provide accessible treatment treatment accessible provide to [ chernorabochiye ambulatoriya ambulatoriya ]

of the city. the of ogy, we we ogy, 116 f

CEU eTD Collection academic Germany, tripsabroad, to Italy and Switzerland. the in worked also who Vyshinskaya, Belgium. and France in the prostitutes study of treatment to traveled and Paris in Veneroligists and Dermatologists of Congress of head the example, abroad. and Russia in both circles medical the in integrated well was personnel 102 101 100 191?) S.n., (Moscow: Upravleniyu Gorodskomu Moskovskomu prinadlezhashchikh zdaniy, Al'bomSource: Figure

A.I.Pospelov, TsGAMOS,179:58:484:43. TsGAMOS,7. 179:45:3639:1, .

3.1 . Myasnitskaya hospital . Myasnitskaya Sanitarny nadzor za prostitutsiyei v Parizhe I Brussele, prostitutsiyeiBrussele, za nadzor I Sanitarny Parizhe v

Myasnitskaya hospital Aleksey Pospelov in 1889 attended the attended 1889 in Pospelov Aleksey hospital Myasnitskaya

Women's 101 ambulatoriya,

h fml pyiin Ekaterina physician female The 102

(St.

Petersburg: 1890). made several long long several made 100

117 For

CEU eTD Collection 20 a 1902, in example, For the treatment. of duration protracted the confirm hospital Myastnitskaya of records medical disease. chronic for hospital Bakhrushin's the and clinics psychiatric for except institutions, medical city other all in than longer days 10 about or days, 34 was hospital Myasnitskaya the in patient a of stay average the 1894 unpleasant and long very a was syphilis of treatment hospital The traditional methodsoftreating notdisappear. did syphilis espe drug, imported the of availability safer and more effective treatment of the disease, although the high cost and the limited “medicine new “ma this of application the study Germanyto to sent immediately were Iordan, Artur and Chlenov Mikhail hospital, Myasnitskaya Salvarsan syphilis, against drug chemical efficient first the Institute decided tostartfor astudy laboratory theexperimentalapes. ofsyphilison Bacteriological Moscow the from Gabrichevsky Georgy microbiologist a Europe of centers the by inspired Thus, discovery of the syphilis spirochete in 1905 and population. willing “not to be behind the scientific urban the of groups outcast most the treating 105 104 103

The patient experience inthe Myasnitskaya difficult quite is hospital toreconstruct. winn Prize Nobel the 1910 in When was hospital The Gorodskaya tipografiya, tipografiya, Gorodskaya gorodskogo Moskovskogo uchrezhdeniya Vrachebnye to delivered be not could apparently, but, troubles. TsGAMOS,revolutionary ofthe because Moscow 179:58:589:39 Hamburg in bought were apes The support. financial TsGAMOS, 15 179:58:871: Surprisingly , , despite the Russian - 606” was first used first was 606” nd Russia,” the physicians of Myasnitskaya hospital together with with together hospital Myasnitskaya of physicians the Russia,” nd

ecie rte a a cetfc nttto ta a a lnc for clinic a as than institution scientific a as rather perceived 1896 - 20. ), p. p. ),

- Japanese Japanese War and the revolution, managedthe project to f 18 .

already er Paul Ehrlich and Sahachiro Hata presented presented Hata Sahachiro and Ehrlich Paul er ily n h cmn wr er, en that meant years, war coming the in cially - year old wet nurse Avdotya Ilyina was was Ilyina Avdotya nurse wet old year on on August gic bullet”. In Myasnitskaya hospital, the Inhospital, Myasnitskaya gic bullet”.

obshchestvennogo upravlaniya upravlaniya obshchestvennogo 105

3, 1910. It promised a quicker, a promised It 1910. 3,

104 h fw s few The

- 606, two physicians of of physicians two 606, - 41.

riig patients' urviving process. In 1890 In process.

103

(Moscow: (Moscow: ind ind some 118 -

CEU eTD Collection science.” by and practice by condemned was syphilis, against measure a as police, spre the against measures best the are care medical available and education public “the that saying resolution the passed it prostitutes, the of inspection police the of revival year of 190 revolutionary the in When 1880s. the in voiced opinions the to held that municipality Medical reform and t certainly,contributed to the prostitutes' of the avoidance medical care offered tothem. and fear some have them makes that respect. command and their physicians as and them administration recognize therefore hospital the encounter daily almost constantly, that decent fact relatively The the by [...] explained be canyears ten last the rudely in hospital the in prostitutes the of often behavior and disrespectfully behave they personnel physicians and th Molodenkov notedin Serge head hospital the Yet, infriction). with injections replace to asked particular, who patients stayshospital lasted three weeks. to spend as hospitalized for 33 days. In 1909, an 18 107 106 108

The central government made several attempts to reverse the course of the municipal protr The the towards attitude their patients, the of contingent the account into [t]aking the mentioned physicians hospital the of conferencesregular The IMGD, IMGD,

d f eeel ies” n ta “h cnrl n rgsrto o pottts by prostitutes of registration and control “the that and disease” venereal of ad TsGAMOS,179:58:484:5. TsGAMOS,179:46:19:2 - 107 oie committee police after the sanitary inspection was moved under the municipal authority, they authority, municipal the under moved was inspection sanitary the after 1905, no. 6, 36. 6, p. no. 1905,

5 the City Council discussed the project of the Ministry of Interior about the long o o bring the inspection of prostitutes back under the control of the reformed ce ad fe pifl treatment painful often and acted betd to objected

as 68 days in the hospital. Even after the introduction of Salvarsan, the e administration of the hospital is satisfactory; with the lower medical

1903 -

4, 6. 4,

, h lnt o length the –

h atmt ta ecutrd tog poiin f the of opposition strong encountered that attempts the

106

- year old syphilitic nursemaid Anna Ipat ter ty r h mto o tetet (in treatment of method the or stay their f and and the whole hospital experience, experience, hospital whole the complaints ova had

of the of 119 108 y

CEU eTD Collection

workload. of physici restrictions. and pressure growing to due business in decline a experienced they century twentieth early the in care. medical avoided brothel, the in working those of exception the with who, prostitutes the of control administrative proper the ensure to unable police the on blamed was prostit of treatment and inspection sanitary the in policy its that claimed municipality The 109 111 110 179:58:392: 179:58:505 179:58:387; 179:58:309; 179:58:185; 179:58:130; 179:58:58:43; TsGAMOS, Source: Figure Alt

109 hough Moscow brothels, in fact, provided the safest supply of commercial sex, sex, commercial of supply safest the provided fact, in brothels, Moscow hough utes fully lived up to the expectations, and all the shortcomings of the system the of shortcomings the all and expectations, the to up lived fully utes This data refers to the month of March of each year. ofeach month March the of to refers data 1912 for This data The

TsGAMOS,179:58:5o5:173. 34. p. Ibid., 3.2 ans inspecting the brothel prostitutes from six to four because of the decreased 111 . ; 179:58:621 E

xaminations of prostitutes at prostitutes at Women’s of xaminations amb nAgs 10, ocw iy oenr [ Governor City Moscow 1906, August In

; 179:58:800; ; 179:58:800; Already in Already

IMGD

1902 Molodenkov decided to reduce the number number the reduce to decided Molodenkov 1902 ; Vrachebno - sanitarnaya knronika sanitarnaya Moskvy. ulatoriya, 1889 ulatoriya, gradonachalnik - 1916. wasunavailable.

completely ] 110

120

CEU eTD Collection health. their to threat a felt they when or disease of signs the discovered they when next years some brothels reopened. Plausibly, women sought medical examination only six. examinations resulted in sending women to the hospital, in October it was one in every every60 of onlyone June in dramatically:if increasedclinic the of visitors amongthe so its staff was c 3.2). Figure y the of half second the in month, a examinations inspected. banned removed thebrothels any from and thus tobe pressure the prostitutes regularly 113 114 112 Vrachebno examinations,

The had inspectionneverit before of inthe women regained scale the 1906,though Source: 3.3. Figure This data refers to the month of March of each year.ofmontheach of March the to refers data This 113 IMGD, Vrachbe IMGD, IMGD, Vrachebno IMGD,

(S ee 112 TsGAMOS,

Figure - sanitarnaya knronika sanitarnaya Moskvy.

Late in 1906 less than 200 women were coming to the clinic voluntarily,clinic the to coming were women 200 than less 1906 in Late

Cases of disease among inspected prostitutes in relation to the total number of of number total the to relation in prostitutes inspected among disease of Cases If from January to July 1906, the 1906, July to January from If 1901 ut down to two physicians. Logically, the incidence of venereal disease b no

3.3 - - - sanitarny otdel. otdel. sanitarny 1911 sanitarny otdel, otdel, sanitarny

7:837 195:9: 179:58:505 179:58:392: 179:58:387; ) .

.

September 1906, p. 18. September1906, Janury 114

- December,1906.

ambulatoriya ear this number fell below 400 (see (see 400 below fell number this ear

179:58:621 ;

efre bu 4000 about performed ; 179:58:800; 179:58:800; ; IMGD 121 ;

CEU eTD Collection [ to compared staffed Women's poorly was disease venereal for clinic general the syphilis, working large the receiving.fact werein prostitutes the serve attention medicalto much meant Although how reveals clinics Women's the and general the between comparison The market. on apartment health of stage the supporters main its after already 1897, February years. for paper on remained Committee, the of plan the in role important an such played in already opened clinic access better syphilis. and of otherThe as dissemination measures,knowledge implementation such of prevention the for program broad the of part implemented consistently most the system of inspec tothreeclinic two performedchecks about hundred just prost of minority a only above, from pressure significant without and physicians Moscow the of efforts educating the all despite Otherwise, inspection. for coming prostitutes 1908 of years epidemic the Thus, 115 fel'dsher

T Clearly, themunicipalityfailed toachieve public health goals, promisedby the new TsGAMOS, 179:58:251:77 179:58:209:76; he municipal outpatient clinic for venereal disease eventually opened only in in only opened eventually disease venereal for clinic outpatient municipal he itutes was ready to endure a visit to a doctor. In the last years of the empire, the the empire, the of years last the Indoctor. a to visit a endure to ready was itutes

] . ambulatoriya The working hours were hours working The

to medical medical to Yauzsky Boulevard, not far from the poorest neighborhood of Khitrov Khitrov of neighborhood poorest the from far not YauzskyBoulevard, ting the prostitution. Yet, the reform of the prostitutes’ control was still - clas

oiis Te e cii ws oae i a etd seven rented a in located was clinic new The politics. s population of the city, which was believed to be the carrier of of carrier the be to believed city,was the which of population s i epoe ol to hscas n to paramedics two and physicians two only employed it : care 1889 , proved to be an even more difficult task. If the Women's difficultmoretask. even an be to proved , , the plan for general outpatient care for syphilitics, that syphilitics, for care outpatient general for plan the ,

- 1909 also coincided with an increased number of number increased an with coincided also 1909 also shorter than in the in than shorter also .

–

Alekseyev and Erismann Erismann and Alekseyev - ups a month. ambulatoriya

. 115 –

had Despite - room 122 left left

CEU eTD Collection ideals, “rational” and “progressive” their to according society the remake to capacity importantly favored ne expectations. statewithout coercion. community wouldhelp control of to both reorganization of society according to the scientific principles proposed by the medical the that belief optimistic the and policy urban of matters the in expertise medical of even needwilling when and ofit. in treatment was imposed on the prostitutes, other groupssocial often could receivenot it beds. of lack the of yearbecause a times 2000 than more admittance refu to had it 1890s, the in expanded, been had hospital Myasnitskaya of facilities surgeriesrare. very were m bandage, a putting in casesresulted treatmentyears. most clinic,in the war of the statistics the to According War I did their proportion fall to about two thirds and then even under 60 per cent during quarters three composed men adult day. That meant that each physician received 10 a patients 70 than more sometimes and average64, on treat managedto clinic the this, 117 116

Yet, The Moscow the problematic. Although also was syphilitics for treatment hospital to access The TsGAMOS,179:58:175:7. khronika sanitarnaya 179:58:209:115; TsGAMOS,

h ata ipeetto o te eom el hr o te nta cam and claims initial the of short fell reform the of implementation actual the ither the strong civil institutions, nor the rhetoric of individual freedom. , the conviction of the medical professionals in their own expertise and and expertise own their in professionals medical the of conviction the , I t had to be adjusted to the to adjusted be to had t municipal reform of venereal di

, 1913, 1914, 1915, 1916. 1915, 1914, 1913, ,

ost likely with some mercury some with likely ost 116

IMGD,

of the clinic's patients. Only on the eve of Worldof eve the on Only patients. clinic's the of

Vrachebno

the “ political practices of the Russian the of practices political

s - ocial aian otdel, sanitarny - sease sease control 12 12 people every hour. Until the 1910s, evils” - based medicine, over the sores; the over medicine, based -

prostitution and syphilis reveals an increasing role

1907, 1908; 1908; 1907, 117

While hospital While Vrachebno

state that state More More 123 se - -

CEU eTD Collection treatment free probably resulted in more efficient and diagnostics and therapy and softened the experience examination of reorganization The aim. intended the reached remainedlatter still theapproach important in disease. tovenereal the although social, the outweighed dimension gender the that shows realization upon prostituti of took reform the control that shape The general. in disease medical venereal of control the substituted the together; taken often were two the municipal practice the in phenomena, separate as syphilis and prostitution treated clearly 1880s the of debates the If transmitters. identifiable more and numerous less the as and hospital beds. Therefore, the prevention of syphilis had to concentrate on nor provide the adequate infrastructure for it in form the of sufficient outpatient clinics admin the to officials governmental “knowledgeable”professionals the workingpublic liberal for good. “incompetent” the from transferred was agency indiv an over control social less than rather more for opted They save. the and serve to trying were they lost people” “the of image the behind they individual medicine, community and good public of goals the to commitment “individual of notion the freedom”, Moscow reformers did not need this even as a through citizens their controlled model, Foucauldian the in that, West, the in regimes liberal the unlike Yet, expertise. professional their on wit it replace to strove reformers municipal Moscow the objects projects. oftheir reformist whe Yet, even wi even Yet, Seeing the police inspection of the body as the coercion of the authoritarian regime, Although Moscow reformers called for mass venereal inspection of the poor, their poor, the of inspection venereal mass for called reformers Moscow Although n embedded in social policy, interfered with the autonomy of those who became who those of autonomy the with policy,interfered social in embedded n istrative and financial capacities could not ensure the implementation of this plan, th the sanitary inspection of prostitutes the proposed measures hardly measures proposed the prostitutes of inspection sanitary the th

h disciplinary mechanisms based mechanisms disciplinary h

rhetorical figure. Despite their da, rvdd ht the that provided idual,

prostitutes prostitutes 124 on

CEU eTD Collection or hospital treatment necessary. when examination free receive to possibility a them gave still but control sanitary the elude to prostitutes the allowed facto de Moscow in developed that system The inspection. themse it claimed women the autonomy, bodily to right the them denied reformers medical Moscow the Although body. own their of inspection did eventually give prostitutes more freedom and more agency in the control executive disciplinary power its toestablish project. the lost municipality the rule, administrative the and police the of methods coercive restric the as soon as up it gave immediately municipality, the of project disciplinary the in part regularly undergo it voluntarily. Even the brothel prostitutes, who seemed to have taken for inspection of That said, the exclusion of police and d and police of exclusion the said, That tions of organized brothel prostitution were removed. Having rejected the the rejected Having removed. were prostitution brothel organized of tions women but this was insufficient to make the majority of prostitutes of majority the make to insufficient was this but women

irect coercion from the matters of medical medical of matters the from coercion irect lves through avoiding the medical medical the avoiding through lves

125

CEU eTD Collection of tool a and economy political of part a became form rationalized new this practice of meat consumption was made intelligible, explained and systematized and in was seen as the main source of physical strength and work productivity. The millennial the nineteenth century of postulates dietary key the of one voices Naumov, Alexander chemist a by nutrients significance.” great of matter a thus labor; recuperation and formation of strong muscles for the working class populatio hard with particularly muscles his of strength the exhausts constantly is who worker a for important Meat formed. are organs and tissues other and muscles the which

“Meat should play a vital role in the nutrition of the human body as the fo the as body human the of nutrition the in role vital a play should “Meat S. prigotovlen 1

Strugovshchik A.M. Naumov, Naumov, A.M. Moscow public abattoir and thereform abattoirMoscow public and meat production of y, brzeia okyia nk primesey nikh v otkrytiya i sberezheniya iya, ova, G. Pokhitonova, N. Vodova i Vodova N. Pokhitonova, G. ova,

O pitatel'nykh veshchestvakh i o vazhneyshikh sposobakh ratsional'nogo ikh ratsional'nogo sposobakh vazhneyshikh o i veshchestvakh pitatel'nykh O -

meet makes muscles. Identified as a rich source of protei Animal thehuman for good? bodies to look at what we do not wish to see, it will not exist. This is is This eat. to exist. not will it see, to wish especially the case when what not we do not wish to see do is what we wish we what at look to know this. We are not and ostriches, cannot believe that we if skinned. head the and bled animal, full of life, collapsed, its head and legs writhing while it was no and, star, strikerThe quickly took aim theat wherespot the hair like divides a graphically man.fella on that very blow that every of result direct the was animal something the on down rained that say; to so lin the demonstrated emblem, an like was scene little This […] might. his all with horse shaft the lashed coachman's neck. The coachman jolted forward, painf raised his whip, and a dealt and fist hugeright his raised whatsoever, word any without silently, and, up stood courier the horses, the start even could coachman the Before

CHAPTER

1

This quotation, taken from the 1859 study of of study 1859 the from taken quotation, This twithstanding the blood, found it, struck, and the fine the and struck, it, found blood, the twithstanding

K°, 1859), p. 145. p. 145. 1859), K°, k between the cause and its effect. Every blow blow Every effect. its and cause the between k FOUR ul blow straight down on the back of the the of back the on down straight blow ul

[…] […] (St. Fyodor Dostoevsky, Fyodor

Petersburg: Izdaniye Torg. Doma Doma Torg. Izdaniye Petersburg: We cannot pretend that we do not do we that pretend cannot We

Leo Tolstoy, Tolstoy, Leo

A Writer's Diary Diary AWriter's The First Step The

managing od from from od n, meat refuse refuse 126 n is

CEU eTD Collection thus abattoirs Public science. veterinary and equipment technological role of new questions a as appeared and reform slaughterhouse the in lead the took h second the In example. its followed cities Belgian centers. slaughterhouses urban opened in Paris in 1818, and in the following decades other French the and outside located establishments municipal mo be slaughtering that ordered government place transformed. had tobe that it implied. To mask this relation, the process of slaughter and the site where it took demanded hygiene the dissociation between the social healthy and nutritious of meat and the rhetoric the and order and morality civility, with preoccupation developing sanitary and medical sciences demanded strict centers pressed the traditional art of butchering to increase in scale and speed, while the urban the in population the of concentration The supplied. and produced was meat beshould consumed. meat better andmore and argued that resistance toepidemics andwith strength, health the population. 4 3 2

Centralized abattoirs were a product of Napoleonic era. In 1810, the French French the 1810, In era. Napoleonic of product a were abattoirs Centralized nineteenth The slaughtering. more meant inevitably meat More remark a saw cities European many time, same the At Sydney Watts, “Liberty, Equality and the Public Good: Parisian Butchers and Their Right to the the to M Right Their and Butchers Parisian Good: Public the and Equality “Liberty,Watts, Sydney 516 zavedeniy fabrichnykh issledovaniyam 1879 sanitarnym za gubernii Moskovskoy po svodka Obshchaya statistiki. sanitarnoy raboch dovol'stvo lecheniye Dobroslavin, A.P. Century Dorothee Brantz, “Animal Bodies, Human Health and the Reform of Slaughterhouses in Nineteenth arketplace during the French Revolution,” Revolution,” French the during arketplace .

Berlin”, Berlin”,

(St. 2

Following their Western colleagues, Russian scientists connected meat eesug Tipogr Petersburg: Food and History, and Food ikh” in in ikh” santlny tiot uuhhno psci arestant pishchi uluchshennoy stoimosti sravnitel'noy O

3

Sbornik statisticheskikh svedeniy po Moskovskoy gubernii. Otdel Otdel gubernii. Moskovskoy po svedeniy statisticheskikh Sbornik -

1885 gg., gg., 1885

fy Y. ry 18) p. 8 pp. 1884), Trey, Ya. afiya 3 , 2

( vol. 4, part 2 part 4, vol. 2005 Food and History, and Food ), p. ),p. 193 e fo piae aiiis o special to facilities private from ved

.

(Moscow: I.N. Kushnerev, 1893), pp. 464 pp. 1893), Kushnerev, I.N. (Moscow: alf of the century, German cities German century, the of alf 3 - er er control over the slaughter. , 11; able transformation in how in transformation able 2

( 2005 F.F. Erismann, “Pishchevoye “Pishchevoye Erismann, F.F. ), p. ), 4

v ztaai a ikh na zatratami s ov h frt public first The 117 .

act act of killing - oe in model - century 127 - -

CEU eTD Collection bemust non “slaughtering was required tobeindustrial, that is tosay large scale and anonymous; it prison, theclinicsewerage and the systems,we “civil” city. The public abattoirs, together with other products of modernity such as the foul disease, b death, that implored regimes hygiene new the and sensibilities modern The shops. butchers' the behind right slayed were some and herds of livestock intended for slaughter were regularly passing through the city streets a been had death animal Previously, sensibilities. Voronezh, Astrakhan', Saratov Tula, andKazan'. the followi in and initiative, the up take to quick were municipalities other capital, the of St. in 1882 in only appeared abattoir public necessity of thi as well as theneedfor inspection. meat trichinosis) (i.e. disease transferable of fear the later, and, concerns hygienic included became a typical feature of European cities; the immediate i 7 6 5

As the anthropologist Noelie Vialles put it in her study of French abattoirs, abattoirs, French of study her in it put Vialles Noelie anthropologist the As slaughterhouse the of transformation The the Although reform. slaughtering of questions the in latecomer a was Russia and History, and 83; Chris Otter, “Civilizing slaughter: The development of Patrick Joyce, Snigiryovoy,Pechatnya Poderni, S.A. Jahrhudert, 19. im Edition, Bauaufgabe oeffentliche Tholl, als Stefan 194; Schlachthof p. health,” human bodies, “Animal Brantz Paula Young Lee, “The Slaughterhouse and the City,” ng decade the new slaughterhouses were constructed in Moscow, Odessa, Kiev, 1995 - violent (ideally: painless); and it violent (ideally: it painless);and dr ad olto were pollution and odors 3, 2, (2005), p. p. 30. 2, (2005), 3, ). s reform the in big cities was discussed since at least the 1840s, the first The The Rule of Freedom: Liberalism and the Modern City

ehihsoe o Tekhnicheskoye

1896 ), p. iv. ),p.

iaie okvkk teta'yh oosih boyen gorodskikh tsentral'nykh Moskovskikh pisaniye

5

removed from the increasingly ordered and and ordered increasingly the from removed

Petersburg. After the pioneering example pioneering the After Petersburg.

must be (ideally:must invisible non elce a rfud hf in shift profound a reflected re the mechanisms of this transition. re mechanisms transition. ofthis the Food Food and History, lood and physical violence as well as well as violence physical and lood 6

daily experience of urban life. The The life. urban of experience daily British British public abattoir, 1850 rusn buie aen Der Mauern: blutige Preussens (Walsheim: Europaeische Food Food Europaeische (Walsheim: ncentives for their creation (London: (London: Verso, 2003), pp.

3, 3, 2, (2005), p. 13; Dorothee - 1910,” 1910,” - European European

existent). (Moscow: (Moscow: Food Food 128

76 7

-

CEU eTD Collection slau reforms. sanitary the in or not explored the field of human perceivab and scholarship Western the in animals of history the to interest growing the Despite butchers’ shops and became on the city's most successful large projects. infrastructural sma the replace to body. the 1886 and in Constructed violence physical cleanliness, of perceptions changing of context projects abattoirs. ofthe modern emphasized the intention for anonymity, invisibility and dissimulation embedded in the and world Westernthe across cities other in reform slaughtering the of meaning the years cultural historians took Vialles's formula “slaughterhouse” name its of euphemism l everyday the from excluded hidden, marginalized, culturally be to had it institution; new the of walls the within confined not.” were it if as be must It 10 9 8 11

The fo Press, Press, History, and Culture Russian in Human the Beyond Animals: ofB Development Slaughter: The Slaughterhouse Joyce, Freedom,of Vialles,see “abattoir” term the on discussion the For Noelie Vialles, ghtering reform in Moscow and its role in the public health campaign as well as the The rare book on animals in Russian context is Jane Costlow and Amy Nelson (eds.), (eds.), Nelson Amy and Costlow Jane is context Russian in animals on book rare The 2010 The Rule of Freedomof Rule The le “animal turn” in h in turn” “animal le llowing chapter studies the emergence of a modern abattoir in Moscow in the ).

p.77.

Animal to Edible to Animal ( - Durham: especially: of University Press, 2008), New Hampshire ll private slaughtering facilities located in the suburbs or behind the behind or suburbs the in located facilities slaughtering private ll

was was meant to disguise the violence of its purpose. -

1888, the centralized municipal slaughterhouse in Moscow came came Moscow in slaughterhouse municipal centralized the 1888, 11 , pp. 76 pp. , -

8 The next pages will explore the motivations behind the behind motivations the explore will pages next The

umanities and social sciences, social and umanities “abattoir” instead of French “tuerie” and English English and “tuerie” French of instead “abattoir” The slaughter was exiled to the outskirts, enclosed and and enclosed outskirts, the to exiled was slaughter The (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, Press, CambridgeUniversity (Cambridge: - ritish Public ritishPublic Abattoir,1850 animals relations, the place of animals in the urban life 10 - 77; 77;

PaulaYoung Lee(ed.), f ad und no “o lc” Ee the Even place”. “no a into turned and ife

of “a place that was no place” to explore Animal to Edible, Edible, to Animal - 1910”, pp. 89 pp. 1910”, (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh of University (Pittsburgh: Meat, Modernity Meat, historians of Russia have Russia of historians pp. 15 pp. - 1994 106. 9 -

In the last fifteen 26; 26;

and the Rise of the Rise the the of and ), ), p.

Otter, “Civilizing Joyce, 22

The Rule Rule The Other Other 129

CEU eTD Collection their statement of question while the materials, collected by the ten “the acknowledged, slaughterhouse newly abandoned. city did not produce any practical result on the ground, and after 1875 the question was the of undertaking the but completed” be will slaughterhouse the of construction the that “it can be confidently assumed that the work will start in 1869 a drove the of destination the and livestock for hub main the then was that gate Serpukhov purpose,this in1866the city ofMoscow, south bought aplotofland decided that the only way to improve the situation was to open municipal abattoirs. For and proposal this discussed Council City Moscow The condition”. “unsatisfactory thei of view in slaughterhouses private existing the reorganize Moscow military Governor animal and interhuman inthe city. relations mass to transition this of impact 14 13 12

A decade later, the City Council returned to the p the returnedto Council City the later, decadeA path Moscow's “Public versus good” profit: motivations “Doklad N 41 ob ustroystve gorodskogo skotoprigonnogo dvora i boyni”, i boyni”, dvora skotoprigonnogo ustroystve gorodskogo ob 41 N “Doklad 21 Gorbunov, D.G. “Za

significance - . -

routes. piska o rabotakh Komissii po ustroystvu boyen do 1885 1885 g.,” do ustroystvu boyen po Komissii rabotakh o piska created Commission for the organization of the municipal stockyard and and stockyard municipal the of organization the for Commission created 13

12

Moscow city mayor Prince Alexander Shcherbatov optimistically wrote .” Moskovskiye gorodskiye boyni gorodskiye Moskovskiye

14 otepbi luhehuews a was slaughterhouse public the to

- General Pavel Tuchkov proposed to the city government to

- scale and highly and scale - year break inevitably transformed the initial the transformed inevitably break year , (Moscow: Gorodskaya tipografiya, tipografiya, Gorodskaya (Moscow: ,

behind theslaughteringreformbehind - technological killing on the human the on killing technological roject. Yet, as the members of the the of members the as Yet, roject. very IMGD previous committees long one. Back in 1863, in Back one. long , 3

( IM 1885 nd within two years r dirt, stench and and stench dirt, r GD

in the area the in the of ), pp. ), pp. , 3

( 1885 1913 1 - 2 .

), p. ), , lost all ), pp. pp. ),

1 130 . 20

- -

CEU eTD Collection and economy entire the disrupting well the undermining cattle, among rates death high extremely caused disease viral this humans, to dangerous not Although animals. over control calamitiesyesterday. asor cattle theplague just plague tobe used suchwith quickly to deal possibilities the givesus already now havewe what still, but have not been i <...> Nodoubt,there is more work tobedone, because for some diseasesmicrobes the vaccination for material the produce to diseases certain of agents the influence to how whi by and where by the natural forces and the artificial conditions in which we have power to put it, how, qualities, where and in which form it can be located outside the body, how it is affected organization Valentin shift, Nagorsky described later this thestimulated professionalization of veterinary medicine. animal health became a matter of interest for state and local gove body. animal the over control stricter the for pressed and health animal and human of interdependence the revealed theory germ the of rise the as well an diseases of transferability the of awareness growing The shift. administrativefor resources large projects. infrastructural governm city the gave Statute Municipal 1860s, Moscow's hadpopulation 16 15

the difference with the prev As the prominent Russian veterinarian and founder of Moscow provincial veterinary a experiencing also was agenda health public entire years the theseIn late the to Compared changes. remarkable certain underwent itself city the Indeed, idret ctl pl (cattle Rinderpest MVD, MVD, Nagorsky,V.F. Brantz, 1904

“Animal Bodies, Human Health,” Human Health,” Bodies, “Animal ), p. ),p. dentified, for others the immunization attempts have not been successful, 6 Osnovnye printsipy i usloviya bor'by s epizootiyami epizootiyami s bor'by usloviya i printsipy Osnovnye ch means it can be destroyed until it turns harmless, we also know also we harmless, turns it until destroyed be can it means ch .

- being of the populat the of being ague) indeed played a remarkable role in the emergence of of emergence the in role remarkable a played indeed ague)

ious times is that we know what infection is, what are its almost pp. pp. doubled and exceeded 700 thousand. The new ent the motivation as well the financial and financial the well as motivation the ent 193 ion in the affected regions. In Russia at the the at Russia In regions. affected the in ion - 194 .

(St. rnment that, in its turn, 16

Petersburg: Tipografiya Petersburg: 15 d their etiology, as as etiology, their d

h qetos of questions The

paradigmatic 131

CEU eTD Collection be should cattle all that requested Interior of Ministry the 1882, In epizootics. for there on foot. popular very remained practice this railways, the of appearance the Despite Kyrgyzstan). Northern and Kazakhstan kilometers thousand three than more some and provinces, Ekaterinoslav and Stavropol Kuban, Host, Cossack Don the from kilometers thousand a than more walk to had Moscow in killed animals of majority the 1870s, the In Russia. Central of slaughterhouses the Empire Romanov the across distances longer even for cattle driving were “prasol” named colleagues iconic meat the to Midwest the of prairies the from and the meat consumption. cattle the of separation spatial growing the in resulted and husbandry animal increased for allowed Caspian the and Sea Black the of north regions frontier the of nineteenth inmostinstitutionalization provinces. ofthezemstvo animals plagued the exterminate to zemstvos obliged Interior of Ministry the epizootic, the against measure a as 1879, In year.a cattle of head million a claimed rinderpest of outbreaksthe 1880s, the of turn 21 20 19 18 17

The next step was the restriction of animal movement across the country. The The country. the across movement animal of restriction the was step next The K. K. A. Verner, rynok”, myasnoy i skotny “Moskovsky 213 Nature's Metropolis: the Great and Chicago West For the det 372 B. Veselovsky, Brokgauz in skota” rogatogo “Chuma Polferov], [YakovP.Ya. Naumov, - .

230 - . century expansion of the Russian Empire south and east and the coloniza rm h aes f eiaais ad eiehe (present Semirechye and Semipalatinsk of areas the from O pitatel'nykh veshchestvakh pitatel'nykh O i ailed ailed research on American cattle

21 Efron, 1903), vol. 39, pp. 52 pp. 39, vol. 1903), Efron,

These Istoriya Istoriya zemstva za 40 let

constant constant long -

from the steppes of Central Asia, Ciscaucasia and the Azov to to Azov the and Ciscaucasia Asia, Central of steppes the from 19

Similar Similar to the American cowboys moving herds of anima

–

in 1881, half of all cattle brought to Moscow came came Moscow to brought cattle all of half 1881, in - distance distance migrations of cattle were a perfect vehicle , pp. pp. , - (St. 54.

-

146

drives meat and drives Chicago industry see William Cronon, Petersburg: Izdatelstvo Popovoi, -

- plc ta pope te veterinary the prompted that policy a 147 (New (New York and London: W.W. Norton, - packing plants in Chicago, in plants packing . IMGD, IMGD,

Entsikloped 18

5 (1885) 5 icheskiy slovar' slovar' icheskiy , pp. pp. , 31 - 1909 36 .

), vol - (St. a Eastern day 20

Petersburg: their less their 2 1991 , pp. - raising ), ), pp. tion 361 132 17 ls -

CEU eTD Collection use. no formoney and energy more claim to them against fight the and further spread even being of instead stockyard driven through the of streets Moscow, as it the now, happens what allo to directly railway by transported was cattle the that so station, train the and stockyard the near slaughter) compulsory broughtfor animals, tallow against rinderpestand informed Imperial Moscow 1885, February cattle of inconveniences the from streets city the spare also but cattle milk only prevent the spread of epizootics from the imported animals to the local horses and slaughterhouse the of relocation the for terminals of the Kursk and Ryazan railways, located on the east of the city. This pressed the to coming now were animals of herds the Instead, slaughterhouse. intended its for significance, and so did the plot of land to the s drove old The arrangements. slaughtering Moscow of morphology in existing tariffs, and allowed animals to graze on the way, while the lack of proper fodder slower, the traditional cattle and convenien transported by railways to curb the spread of infection. 24 23 22

the train the utter necessity to organize in Moscow a centralized slaughterhouse together with spatial the to change important an brought cattle delivering of technology new The 37 mechanism to hinder the of spread epizootics, see Verner, “Moskovsky skotnyi myasnoy rynok”, p. (1885), 3 IMGD, g N g. za 61 1885 fevralya 22 ot Khozyaystva Sel'skogo Obshchestva Moskovskogo Imperatorskogo predlozheniya s “Kopiya See William it allowed them to save the expenses and reduced the muscular efforts and weight loss of the animals. 24 “Doklad “Doklad N p. 4.41,” American on cowboys, the contrary, railwaybecause preferred transportation, IMGD

. -

melting and leather , 11 allegedly

( 1884 ce, ce, this measure provoked little enthusiasm among the drovers. Although Cronon, ), pp. pp. ), p 1; iia ide similar 13; .

made themlose weight.made Nature'sMetropolis, 1 - 2

- - nu ispravlyayushchemu dolzhnost' Moskovskogo Gorodskogo Golovy,” Gorodskogo Moskovskogo dolzhnost' ispravlyayushchemu nu dressing factories (todecontaminate theskin - drives were cheaper than railway giventransportation, the

the city mayor of s bu te etaiain f luheig n ocw s a as Moscow in slaughtering of centralization the about as

oit fr giutr dsusd h measures the discussed Agriculture for Society

p. p.

eastward, close to the stations, that would not would that stations, the to close eastward, 223 . 23

outh of Moscow that the city had bought

22

Despite its seeming rationality ws the toepizootics - od ls their lost roads s of suspiciouss of - drives. In drives. 133

CEU eTD Collection pork eating advised, experts the otherwise, safety, its ensure to way only the as seen be could undercooked, especially al and reported incidents of trichinosis from Moscow, Saratov, Kharkov, Riga and other cities well. as Russia in present was disease the t of case a discovered Virchow, Rudolph of student a Rudnev, Mikhail pathologist the 1865 in when However, abroad. from reports of basis the on Danilevsky Alexander professor of contracting througheating thedisease pork. von Zenker, described the life cycle of practitioners, most notably German researchers Rudolph Virchow and Friedrich Albert secon the In 1835. in Paget James student medical but became a matter of scholarly awareness only after the parasite was discovered by a roundworm parasite by Caused inspection, it was trichinosis that connected meat producti Moscow meat amore process into market visible controlled thanbefore. butless ever inspection and slaughtering and promised to turn the trip fro 26 25

In animal and medicine veterinary of institutionalization the stimulated rinderpest If veterinary of centralization the for way the opened arrival of centralization The (St. Rudnev, M.M. predupreditel'nyena ukazaniyem bolezni etoy mery Virchow, Rudolf also see 199; p. Bodies”, “Animal Brantz.

Russia, the first detailed description of disease was given in 1862 by the Kazan Kazan the by 1862 in given was disease of description detailed first the Russia, erted the academic community and the wider public that consumption of pork, pork, of consumption that public wider the and community academic the erted

Petersburg: Tipografiya Ya. Treya, richinosis in a dissected female corpse in St. in corpse female dissected a in richinosis tihnk v osi Nrsene ops v soi tihno bolezni trikhinnoy istorii v vorposy Nereshennye Rossii: v trikhinakh O

trichina spiralis trichina

agru.Mcocpceaiaino et was meat of examination Microscopic dangerous. 1866 trichinella ), pp. 26 1

25 - (St. n h floig er, i colleagues his years, following the In 2

, , this disease had existed for centuries for existed had disease this , 24 and revealed that humans were at risk

Petersburg: Tipografiya Baksta, O.I. .

d half of the century, medical medical century, the of half d Petersburg, it became clear that clear became it Petersburg, Izlozheniye ucheniya o trikhinakh: S trikhinakh: o ucheniya Izlozheniye on to the scientific laboratory. m the steppe pasture to the 1864 134 ).

CEU eTD Collection the that necessary considered is it side of meatanimals. from sick sanitary the t meat of quality the for point controlling From a as serves slaughterhouse Russia. in rinderpest, combat raging to helps slaughterhouse the that required is it side veterinary the [ odors foul any produce not does and clean projectenterprise: ofthe a devising when with reckoned be should acknowledged, Commission slaughterhouse and livestock. This “veterinary turn” in meat production, as the members of the meat of safety the ensuring of mechanism a as seen be to came inspection veterinary important stepinpork an as examination microscopic introducing recommended also Ministry the practice, baninto use immediateputthis destruction.sale, and to any forage subject To other or concluded and trichinosis the discussion,warning thecityabout the hazards of dwellers trichinosis. rather should 30 29 28 27

kept is it that was slaughterhouse improved the for demand only the Previously, of system adequate an and laboratories with equipped abattoir centralized The of questions the discussed Interior of Ministry the of Council Medical the 1876, In “Doklad N “Doklad myase svinom sredigoroda zhivotnykh Khar'kova, v trikhinakh o voprosu po (St. komissii Osoboy sovetu Meditsinskomu Doneseniye 1 v Berline,” 11 (1883); “K voprosu o tri journal municipal the in articles following the instance for See TipogragiyaPravleniya, Gubernskogo Krivoshapki M.F. P.T. 1876); Zeyfman, tipografiya, 1875); V.P. Krylov, legch in Ryullinga” issledovan 1867); TipografiyaGolovachova, mikroskopicheskoye i raspoznavaniye Andreyevsky, otlichitel'noye V.stroyeniye, 1866); pol'za, Obshchestvennaya Yu.T.

( 1884

Petersburg: Tipografiya MVD, 1876); N. P. N. Petersburg: 1876); Tipografiya MVD, Petr yhm psb okyia rki v podozr v trikhin otkrytiya sposobe ayshem

Chudnovsky, ); “Po povody zarazheniya trikhinamy”, trikhinamy”, “Po ); povody zarazheniya

41 be completely avoided. completely be ”, pp. pp. ”, Moskovskaya meditsinskaya gazeta, gazeta, meditsinskaya Moskovskaya n, 1 Vorpos o trikhinakh i trikhnnoy bolezni v primenenii primenenii v bolezni trikhnnoy i Vorpostrikhinakh o

- Trikhiny i trikhinnaya bolezn' trikhinnaya i Trikhiny 2 Preduprezhdeniye zhiteley otnositel'no trikhin, finn i solitera solitera i finn trikhin, otnositel'no zhiteley Preduprezhdeniye production. .

that the meat of trichined animals was to be prohibited from from prohibited be to was animals trichined of meat the that 30

K istorii v trichinoza Rossii M.A. Belin, “Demonstrirovaniye trikhin, naydennykh v vetchine vetchine v naydennykh trikhin, “Demonstrirovaniye Belin, M.A. (St. 29 khinakh”, khinakh”,

1884

Petersburg: Tipografiya MVD, 27

In Moscow, the municipal journal soon joined soon journal municipal the Moscow, In ).

3 12 zlovoniye

(

1885 50 (1874), pp. 1694 pp. (1874), 50 (

1883 opavlovsky, (St. itelnom myase myase itelnom lsy tihn: k proiskhozhdeniye, Ikh trichiny: i Glisty ).

Petersburg: TipografiyaYa.Petersburg:1877); Treya, ); ); “Trikhinoznaya epidemiya v Germanii,”

(Moscow: Universitetskaya Universitetskaya tipografiya, (Moscow: ]. Now thi Now ].

IMGD K voprosu o rasprostrnenii trikhin rasprostrneniitrikhin voprosu o K : “Osmotr trikhinnogo myasa trikhinnogo “Osmotr : 1899 - (Moscow 1695; 1695; s is not enough. From enough. not is s k

), pp. pp. ), Rossii. o prevent the sale the prevent o iye, iye, V. Tikhomirov,A. : Universitetskya Universitetskya : 12 (St. 28 (St. - 14

. Petersburg: Petersburg: Petersburg:

Moscow Moscow (Kazan: (Kazan: 135 O

CEU eTD Collection of light “in that but water”, of abundance requires “cleanliness that and clean” Friedrich Erismann, concluded that “the slau including Commission, the of members the time, same the At production. meat of populated area downstream of the city, could not offer a sufficient reservoir for the offal In Moscow, on the contrary, sea.the shallow and sl the into away carried simply was that sewage, slaughterhouse of question in Europe - St. storage stockyard, facilities and fa a include to supposed also was complex The slaughter. the of Moscow's compass rose with prevailing western winds, spared the city from the odours cattle of routes main the to railway transportation. branch special a with it connect and city, the of southeast Gate, Spasskaya the behind location another to it move to proposed capitals” of theEmpire. “two the between rivalry traditional the account into taking reform, slaughtering the an illustration of how it could be achieved, but also included city pride in the agenda of only proved that such an institution could St. 31

as the Neva, despite its modest length, is am is length, modest its despite Neva, the as

Although the preliminary project was generally designed according to the model of model the accordingto generally designed wasproject preliminary the Although In May Finally, Petersburg successfully completed the centralized municipal slaughterhouse that not Petersburg, there was a crucial difference. The abundance of water in St. “Doklad N “Doklad – 1885, the Committee prepared a preliminary plan of the new Itabattoir. was

h eape f St. of example the and the proximity of the Baltic coast offered the city an easy solution to the 41 In addition to the infrastructural advantages, this location, considering considering location, this advantages, infrastructural the to addition In ctories to processctories and blood totallow. ”, pp. pp. ”, 37

- 38

, 80 .

eesug lyd t rl i te tr. n 1882, In story. the in role its played Petersburg

successfully function in Russia and provided ow Moskva River, going through a densely ghterhouse brings no harm only if it is kept ong the largest and most affluent rivers rivers affluent most and largest the ong 31

Petersburg Petersburg 136

CEU eTD Collection meat the on concentrate should resources and efforts the whether questionable was wa the of complex were estimated costs at 1.9 million rubles). (the undertaking expensive and complicated very a was imperatives new treatment systemwaste ofurban Russi in entirely an be would what for platform testing of kind a as serve to meant thus were members, Committee the of opinion the urban in slaughterhouse, the of fields filtration The in expert German influential most infrastructure James Hobrecht, who was invi the and system sewerage Berlin’s of author the by designed sewerage, Moscow's of project the in fields filtration of was of treatment the involved systemthat sewerage Empirea had city theRussian infact,anyMoscow, in other nor, impressive plan in view of the overall level of urban infrastructure. In the 1880s, neither ( Swamp Bitch's large the of area the in organizedbe to fields filtration the to refuse the bring would systemthat withou river, [ the into straight slaughterhouse the from waters waste the dischargeto allowed be cannot it knowledge, contemporary 35 34 33 32 obezvrezhivaniye

s scarce and when so many spheres of urban life required municipal intervention, it it intervention, municipal required life urban of manyspheres so when and scarce s

Yet, the construction of the central slaughterhouse according to the new scientific new the to according slaughterhouse central the of construction the Yet, It was thus proposed to connect every building of the complex to the sewerage sewerage the to complex the of building every connect to proposed thus was It “Doklad N “Doklad N “Doklad 1880 Darmstadt Stadt modernen der “Produktion” die und Nehverkehr oeffentliche Schott, i.e.see Dieter projects infrastructural Moskvy, Istoriya N “Doklad - 1918 1918 (Darmstadt: Wissentschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, (Darmstadt: WissentschaftlicheBuchgesellschaft, 41 41 41 ,” p. p. ,” pp. ,” pp. ”, ].” vol. IV (Moscow IV vol. 32 12 9 32

. -

10

- 14 , . 29

Sukino .

tes. The Bitch's Swamp was indicated as a possible site possible a as indicated was Swamp Bitch's The tes. : AN SSSR, 1954), p. 537. On James Hobrecht's role in German German in role Hobrecht's James On 537. p. 1954), SSSR, : AN boloto ), southeast of Moscow. This was indeed an indeed was This Moscow. of southeast ), Die VernetzungDie Energiepolitik, Kummunale Stadt: der ted by the Moscow City Council in 1880. 35 a.

34 In the situation when Moscow's budget

flrto o decontamination or filtration t 1999 ), pp. ), pp. 139 - 143 - , Mannheim 170 - 172 , - 184 Mainz, Mainz, 137 .

33

CEU eTD Collection crude the incomeenterprise. of lesser consequently, and, costs higher of of mean wastes upkeep of profits removal faster cleaner slaughterhouse, material control, the sanitary of and expense veterinary the better at Certainly, achieved production. be only can aim this that agree the of cleanliness upkeep the and supply meat uncontrolled sl the from arising harm, the from and well beyond and country centralization the of slaughtering in Moscow was driven primarily by the improving health across markets serving and profit for running were Omaha) and City Kansas Louis, St. Cincinatti, in also but Chicago, in notably cities p of the city,supply as waterand such sewage system. healthand infrastructure generalfor enterprisesnecessaryurgent,the and as important j is slaughterhouse The accomplishment. urban of matters the in shoes varnish than more no is slaughterhouse the opinion, my In shoes. varnish put and toes, only feet, his wash only will we him, treating and dressing cleaning, of hi “put told were and hungry and unkempt rags, in crippled, dirt, eternal from infected man, a given were we if following: the to compared be can public services [ anti awful the exacerbate not universal pollution of soil and ground waters, the existing [private] slaughterhouses did discussed in was project the when claimed Popov Fyodor deputy municipal the As production. 38 37 36 ublic good rhetoric was for the slaughterhouse construction. Similar to other European uhehue i te conditions the in aughterhouses

[i]f we admit warnedAs the members ofintheir theCommission the important how reveals quotation this project, the of supportive not Although anti the of light [i]n “Doklad N “Doklad William Cronon, in werepublished discussion Council City ofMinutes the –

and different from American experience, where large meat - being of a given urbanabeing community. of ,

as as well as to shield the city and its suburbs from the weepizootics, have to the City Council, 41 ”, p. p. ”,

blagoustroystvo that the aim is not in material profit but in the desire to protect the city Nat 19

ure'sMetropolis, .

- sanitary conditions, in which the urban population lives, the lives, population urban the which in conditions, sanitary

- sanitary state of Moscow. Consid Moscow. of state sanitary 38 ] ] in the city, the organization of the new slaughterhouse

pp. pp.

noptbe ih h eeetr ntos of notions elementary the with incompatible 207 - 259

.

IMGD, IMGD, 36

project, ust a detail and cannot be as as be cannot and detail a ust 7

( 1885 m to rights” to m

), quote from), quote p. - ering the absence of of absence the ering packing plants (most -

but instead but 37 775

– .

138 the the

CEU eTD Collection in abeautiful slaughterhouse. the because citydwellers the on burden additional an onlyplace will construction its that clear, is it city, the for profitable be to slaughterhouse the is want we what If wrong. be to construction slaughterhouse the of principle ground the be a profitable commercial enterprise, I am against this construction. <...> I Therefore, if the main motive for the construction of the slaughterhouses is that it would whose is perverted [ come to the municipality from the poor consumers, we need to admit that this principle further the critiquebusiness slaughterhouseas institution: withhis of a even went Kurrier,” “Russky newspaper the of publisher the and factory producing I good; essential the meat, of production believe that it the would be unfair from for the City come government to turn will it into a profit source of this that forget not should we meanwhile revenue; municipal of source the be will it because city, the against andAsthe deputywarned, notfor construction. Popov its argument an as used fact, in was, city, the to income bringing enterprise, profitable goal. municipally the that them, with agreed Council City the of majority the and concluded, thus Commission req it expenses less the is, slaughterhouse the dirtier “the that and rules” sanitary the avoid to and profit maximum gain to inclined always is entrepreneur “an Sumbul, Leonid project, the of authors the of one of words the priv a by slaughterhouse municipal the of management 41 40 39

If we see the see we If water and wine large a of owner the Lanin, Nikolay deputy, Council Another fo profitable be to slaughterhouse the of construction the believes Commission the can abattoir the that assumption mere the Furthermore, the also but facilities, butchering private the only not targeted argument This

IMGD IMGD, IMGD,

mission mission is to protect the interests of the majority that they are meant to represent. , 10 7 7

( (

1885 1885 protivoyestestvenny ( 1885 slaughterhouse as a profitable enterprise, the revenues of which will will which of revenues the enterprise, profitable a as slaughterhouse ), p. ),p. ),p. ), p. ), - 776 787 run slaughterhouse was the only way to reach the public health health public the reach to way only the was slaughterhouse run 1113 . .

.

41

], ], that it does not suit to the status of the city deputies, ate concessionaire, because, in in because, concessionaire, ate uires.” 39

potentially become a a become potentially animals will be killedbe will animals h mmes f the of members The

do not want

profit. 139 40 r

CEU eTD Collection circulati to death, making inaudibleand invisible, it concealed. life from transition their of awareness the also but animals, of circulation the only not the slaughter <...> should be cut to a minimum.” the unloading and the arrival to the stockyard, between exit fromthe the stockyard and animals should be confined to the most limited space, while all the time spans between the veterinarian Valentin Nagorsky as formulated it in his note to the project, “the abattoir, public new the In death. inevitable their of reminding animals, of city, exposing the population of adjacent neighborhoods to the sight, smells and sounds “scientific”. and “rational” was abattoir new the disorder, about all was slaughterhouse private medicin out the contaminated meat away to the filtration fields. Private slaughterhouse endangered city dwellers by letting clean and hygie wastes rotting of full fetid, dirty, were slaughterhouses existing running for money, the main rational for the municipal one was public good. While the and dispersed, the new existing businesses in the sphere of meat production. If the private facilities were small 42

Besides, the public abattoir was seen to be so irresistibly European. Although the the Although European. irresistibly so be to seen was abattoir public the Besides, To reach the private slaughterhouses, the cattle was driven through the streets o The new public abattoir was imagined not as a correction, but as an antipodes to the

“Doklad N “Doklad e and sanitary engineering to protect the health of the urban population. The The population. urban the of health the protect to engineering sanitary and e n f nweg ad rcie ad orwn fo frin oes a a was models foreign from borrowing and practices and knowledge of on

41 ,” ,” Appendix nically kept place, where pure and abundant water carried all the refuse

one one should be large and centralized. If the private enterprise was 5 , p. p. , -

the new abattoir theachievements mobilized of veterinary

15 .

42

The new abattoir th

-

the abattoir was a a was abattoir the us would enclose turnover of f the 140

CEU eTD Collection wh Thus, abroad. and Russia in both expertise, of spheres various from profited project This Sablin. R. engineer an and Ober Alexander architect an by prepared was design winning The projects. independent three commission to decided construction and priority over its infrastructural theconcerns. other St. Par London, as such cities, European of experience the to references The slaughterhousereform. for motivation and challenge a presented successfully opposed private banned London of butchers British City century nineteenth the throughout and 1927, the in only slaughterhouses that said be should it accuracy, historical yea 400 was Moscow that claim to cities the in slaughterhousesof organization the against 1486 of like it. Moscow imagination, their In one.” European a resembled it that so city the of accomplishment the towards step a “make to Council the upon call to poverty and disease infection, conditions”, Th cities. Western the to compared “backwardness” perceived Moscow's of narrative the in embedded common feature of the time, the entire discussion of the project in the City Council was 45 44 43

To ensurerationalityand the theproperscientificbasis ofth achievement European the Council, City the of most For Quite illustratively, the council deputy Prokhovshchikov mentioned the English law Petersburg, were thus used to emphasize the necessity and urgency of the abattoir abattoir the of urgency and necessity the emphasize to used thus were Petersburg, century London”, century Ian Maclachlan, “A bloody offal nuisance: The persistence of private slaughter IMGD, IMGD, IMGD 43

, 7 (1885), p. p. 781. (1885), 7 7

( rs behind in the resolution of the question the of resolution the in behind rs 1885 ), p. ),p. e speakers invoked Moscow's “universal pollution”, “anti pollution”, “universal Moscow's invoked speakers e Urban History, Urban 787

the introduction of public abattoirs. the

not only was not a European city, but also clearly did not look not did clearly also but city, European a not was only not -

788 ; 1885

34 , , 10 2

( ( 2007 1885 ), pp. ), pp. ),p. 1109 227 .

- 254 is, Berlin, Geneva and, ultimately, and, Geneva Berlin, is, .

44 45

–

in urban accomplishment urban in although, for the sake of sake the for although, e slaughterhouse it was e was slaughterhouse it

ile completing the the completing ile - houses houses in nineteenth - sanitary sanitary 141 -

CEU eTD Collection private the butc the over controlThe facilities. with competition and hindrance bureaucratic the of because start not profit. th of cause the to implementers project the and municipality the of commitment strong the for speak could overrun financial percent. init the exceeded which rubles, in Russia, was built in less than two years. The final cost of the abattoir was 2.3 million new was which of most infrastructure, complicated and buildings 50 of complex large Moscow City construction approved Council theproject andthe works began. int as such was chosen by the municipality for its detailed attention to the infrastructural solutions, abattoirsLondon. inBerlin,Hanover,Brussels, Parisand meat prominent Valentin Nagorsky and the municipal sanitary doctor Pyotr Dyakonov, as well as some veterinarian Erismann, Friedrich hygienist consulted Sablin and Ober assignment, 48 47 46

Although the abattoir was completed by early spring 1888, the actual operation could n the of process construction The theabattoir: operationThe of thepublic image and science, technology Although not the cheapest among the presented projects, the plan of Sablin and Ober h fnnil eot o cntuto wr apoe ol i 18 in only approved were construction Gorbunov,see explanations, of reports financial the Municipal the made rate) exchange in was that auditing the conclude construction “uneconomically”; of the committee abattoir conducted rubles thousand 193 of loss the [excluding overrun This Gorbunov, Poderni,

48

The efficiency and celerity of construction as well as the relatively low low relatively the as well as construction of celerity and efficiency The Tekhnicheskoye opisaniye, ra ras wse eoa ad itain ils O My 2, 86 the 1886, 27, May, On fields. filtration and removal waste roads, ernal Moskovskiye goroskiye boyni, goroskiye Moskovskiye boyni, - rdcr. n diin te md a td ti t vst t visit to trip study a made they addition, In producers.

Moskovskiye gorodskiye Moskovskiye boyni,

ial project budget of Ober and Sablin by about 6 6 about by Sablin and Ober of budget project ial pp. v, pp. her trade and the private producers was a challenge a producers privatewas the tradeandher ew public abattoir was in itself remarkable. The The remarkable. itself in was abattoir public ew p. 28. p. 4 .

e public good rather than personal material material personal than rather good public e pp. pp. 46 32

- 37 . 96 after several additional additional several after 96

he public public he 47

142

CEU eTD Collection whi stockyard effect. It was not until August 10 when the cattle was finally redirected to the municipal Ober slaughtering private ban to or stockyard former the close to power legal no had municipality the because idle, and empty almost remained however, complex, new The 22. June, on held was May, from stockyard and abattoir the of opening the for permission grant to Dolgorukov 1896). Snigiryovoy, Pechatnya Moscow: permission ofthe administration. the required and government municipal the of competence the beyond was needs, ev enterprises, industrial of opening the Legally, municipalities. Russian the of weakness legislative the by complicated cities, European many in abattoirs public the for 49

n pi 1, 88 te uiiaiy eiind h Governor the petitioned municipality the 1888, 14, April On opisanie Tekhnicheskoye Poderni. S.A. Source: abattoir Moscow the The complexof 4.1. Figure Dorothee Brantz, “Animal Bodies, Human Health,” pp. pp. Human Health,” Bodies, “Animal Brantz, Dorothee -

Polizmeister on the centralization of livestock trade and slaughter produced no no produced slaughter and trade livestock of centralization the on Polizmeister 1. Tho 1. se permissions came only in the middle of June and the official opening official the and June of middle the in only came permissions se ch gave the public abattoir a competitive advantage over the private private the over advantage competitive a abattoir public the gave ch . For three months the repeated petitions of the City Board to the the to Board City the of petitions repeated the months three For .

en those built on the city money and for the city the for and money city the on built those en

.

Moskovkikh tsentral’nykh gorodskikh boyen. boyen. gorodskikh tsentral’nykh Moskovkikh 49 208

but in Moscow the situation was situation the Moscow in but - 210 .

- General Vladimir Vladimir General 143

CEU eTD Collection building. separate a in performed was function each where system, French the to according constructed was It cities. European several of experience and expertise the absorbed direc and circulation knowledge experts facilitated foreign with consultation the and Britain and Belgium France, Germany, Study examples. its by inspired and Europe Western from borrowed was it of and machines. carcasses thensentsterilization which shredders and were to organs dangerous detect helped Microscopes refrigerators. and system heating central ven proper ensured a where sewers the to manure combination of flush tanks and ejectors carried it to the paunch filtration fields. Fans and filters the and blood the away washed system moved their bodi lifts and winches wagons, rails, transporters, Special abattoir. the to animals bring to built was line railwayseparate A engineeringstructures. and complicatedmechanisms industrial an into began.” abattoir, was how,” wrote D “This livestock. of head 5312 processed abattoir Moscow new the operation, proper its of days three first the In forbidden). officially never were (which slaughterhouses 51 50 52

The public abattoir was in many in was abattoir public The slaughter turn to done was Everything word. appropriate an indeed was “Factory” 1902), pp. 11 pp. 1902), Poderni, Gorbunov, .. Smolensky, P.O. 50 52

te atr [ factory “the

Tekhnicheskoy Its refrigerators were built on the model the on built were refrigerators Its Moskovskiye gorodskiye Moskovskiye boyni, - 12. 12. es and then their carcasses inside it. The water from a ground pumping

process. It became highly technological and heavily dependent on on dependent heavily and technological highly became It process.

mitry Gorbunov in his volume to the 25 Boyni i skotoprigonnye dvory dvory skotoprigonnye i Boyni tilation of the slaughterhouse, and steam engines were used in in used were engines steam and slaughterhouse, the of tilation

e opisaniye e fabrichnoye

, pp. pp. ,

pouto i te pee f nml slaughter animal of sphere the in production ] ways a Western product on Russian soil. The idea idea The soil. Russian on product Western a ways 19

- pp. pp. 83 .

33 - t transfers. Thus, the Moscow abattoir abattoir Moscow the Thus, transfers. t 36 (St. Peterburg: Tipografiya zhurnala “Stroitel”, “Stroitel”, zhurnala Tipografiya Peterburg: (St. , quote from quote , p.

of Hamburg slaughterhouses. The slaughterhouses. Hamburg of th

anniv 36 .

ersary of the Moscow 51

- trips to to trips 144

CEU eTD Collection prototypes. allege that slaughterhouse, the within used transporters and lifts of system the designed also that of the equipment was produced by Moscow industrial company the Dobrov&Nabholz, wer stockyard was prepared by local engineers. The filtration fields of the sewerage system and slaughterhouse the of project final The hands. Russian the in remained realization 1896). Snigiryovoy, Pechatnya Moscow: IsaacandBritish successfully usedcities. Shone inseveral slaughterh Moscow in implemented system, sewerage pneumatic hydro The engineer. Berlin a Henenberg, G. by developed and abattoir Antwerp Delacroix sterilization machines used in Moscow were invented by a veterinarian at the 54 53

It boyen. gorodskikh tsentral’nykh Moskovkikh opisanie Tekhnicheskoye Poderni. S.A. Source: cattle for Slaughterhouse 4.2. Figure e organized by the Professor of Moscow Agricultural Academy, A. Fadeyev. Most Fadeyev.Most Academy,A. Agricultural Moscow of by Professor the organized e Poderni, Poderni, Sewerage Poderni, was, however, mostly the ideas and plans that traveled from abroad, while the while abroad, from traveled that plans and ideas the mostly however, was, l md te iln poes hr fse ad air hn n t Western its in than easier and faster there process killing the made dly 54 Tekhnic Tekhnicheskoye opisaniye, Tekhnicheskoye (Liverpool: R (Liverpool:

t h sm tm, h nw uiia aati hd o dut o some to adjust to had abattoir municipal new the time, same the At h eskoye opisaniye, eskoye

ockliff borthers, ockliffborthers,

pp. pp.

pp. 25, 55, 126 55, 25, pp. .

34 1885 - 41 . ) pp. pp. )

39 - - 137; 137; 47 .

The Shone Hydro Shone The 53

ouse, was devised by devised was ouse, - Pneumatic System of of System Pneumatic 145

-

CEU eTD Collection the for arguments crucial the among was also which trichinosis of fear the was 4.2 Figureon 4.2 in Table traced canbe dynamicschange ofthis (The the caused they rejection ofornot. meat whether of regardless pathologies, the all of registration individual slaughter the th registrars, of registration and inspection products from every animal. When thorougher the paperwork was laid upon the specifically a invited permitted slaughtering new of introduction the fo devices 1891, autumn In organ. infected the of carcass the identify allowing the butchers to cut off or hide parts, damaged and often made it toimpossible slaught 1891 municipal exhibition in 1896, questioned the efficiency of the cattle inspection in 1889 diff a was control raising. everything that, from the sanitary point of view, could harm the population or the stock com of convenience of terms in both livestock, suspicious of masses the manage reasonably and quickly to possibility reported 1888, inSeptember operati its of part important an become to had inspection meat and animal the Therefore, abattoir. public a create to invoked municipality the organize h to had it abroad, institutions similar unlike particular,In realities. Russian specifically 56 55

The inspection of hogs and pork was set up more effectively. The key reason for that the of floor the on piled were animals killed the of organs the years, first the In quality meat proper the of organization the that testify accounts later the However, a gave which institution an as primarily city the to service its started abattoir the goals that and sanitation health meatbut production of notthe industrial Yet, was it .. aosy “eeian ndo n grdkk byyk g Msv s k okyia o 1 Veterinarny nadzor Moskovskikh po Gorod otkrytiya ikh s Moskvy in sentybrya”, g. boynyakh gorodskikh na nadzor “Veterinarny Nagorsky,V.F. :

er chamber which immensely complicated their inspection, at the same time time same the at inspection, their complicated immensely which chamber er 55

r hanging and numbering the organs and carcasses according to the order of of order the to according carcasses and organs the numbering and hanging r ousing itspersonnel. for ) .

e veterinarians could pay more attention to the inspection and started started and inspection the to attention more pay could veterinarians e IMGD, IMGD, icult task. Thus, the abattoir veterinarians, in their report for the the for report their in veterinarians, abattoir the Thus, task. icult

9

( 56 1888

), no ),

prehensive inspection and in terms of elimination of elimination of terms in and inspection prehensive 9 , p. , skikh skikh Boyen 2 .

;the fodevices (Moscow: Gorodskaya Tipografiya, r hanging the organs can be seen seen canbe organs the hanging r n sVlni Nagorsky Valentin As on. 1896 ), p. 146

6 - .

CEU eTD Collection 59 Gorbunov, 9 per c one out of 8 animals slayed at the Moscow abattoir Voronezh, Saratov and Penza hog the Although etc.). sausages, bacon, ham, of form and price lower its despite limited, quite remained pork of consumption the while beef by dominated fully was market meat the Europe, pork was facilitated by its small amounts. In Moscow, unlike many cities of continental parasites. pork other of detection better favored policy this rare, were trichinosis of cases actual Although laboratory. the microscopic to sent were hog every from samples meat beginning, very the from abattoir, b the and production meat of centralization 58 57

The data on Berlin was kindly given to me by Dorothee Brantz. It belongs to her unpublished book book unpublished her to belongs It Brantz. Dorothee by me to given kindly was Berlin on data The

Slaughterhouse City: Paris, Berlin and Chicago, 1780 Chicago, Berlin Paris, City:and Slaughterhouse Source: Source: 4.1 Table rdko. old oisi oesih eeiank vchy evm Mezhdunarodnomu p. Pervomu vrcahey g. 1908 v Parizhe veterinarnykh v delu kholodil'nomu po Kongressu boyenskikh Komissii Doklad produktov. Gorbunov, gorodskogoocherki blagoustroystva, 4 pp. boynyakh”, gorodskikh na nadzor “VeterinarnyNagorsky, Cattle piglets and Pigs Sheep Calves

3 ent of all the meat it produced allit themeatent of

.

Moskovskiye gorod Moskovskiye

ewlugeihe e Mgsrt z Bri; ttsice Jarhbuc Statistisches Berlin; zu Magistrats des Verwaltungberichte . Number of animals at the Moscow abattoir and Berlin livestock market,1890 livestock Berlin abattoir and the Moscow at animals Numberof . Mosk 23503 1 47177 153591 1890 782 ovskiye gorodskiye boyni, boyni, gorodskiye ovskiye

s kiye boyni boyni kiye 43215 41009 41925 221800 1900 Moscow -

were closer to Moscow than those of cattle

(Moscow: (Moscow: TipografiyaBlagushinoy, (Moscow: Gorodskaya tipografiya, 1913). 1913). tipografiya, (Moscow: Gorodskaya

58

(see Table 4.1 61249 20619 44780 256976 1910 p. 45; 45; p. an on private slaughtering. At the Moscow the At slaughtering. private on an

- 57 Moskva kak potrbitel'skiy tsentr myasnykh myasnykh tsentr potrbitel'skiy kak Moskva 1914.

(Moscow: Gorodskaya Tipografiya, 1908), 1908), Tipografiya, Gorodskaya (Moscow: was a pig; pork comprised just about

The more meticulous inspection of inspection meticulous more The better preservation potential (in the (in potential preservation better 660568 711929 135333 174714 1890 )

.

- - raising regions regions raising 5; V. F[idler], 5;

996439 591905 192136 256982 1900 1897 Berlin dr td Berlin; Stadt der h

). ). p.

Moskva, Kratkiye Kratkiye Moskva,

- 88 raising, only – .

1334192 633015 194915 243179 1910 Tambov,

147

59

CEU eTD Collection n was healthit unclear with which vague task of the abattoir's veterinary organization. Yet, the category of “unhealthy” remained The withdrawal from sale of dangerous or unhealthy animal products was seen as a key Moscow the at policy veterinary the formulating of process complicated the (cases): Morbidity animals Diseased animals Diseased Killed Rejected organs Rejected parts Rejected carcasses Rejected foot lungplague anthrax rinderpest actinomycosis tuberculosis bovine ot, with some rare exceptions, stipulate anystipulate disease rare exceptions, some with ot, (proportion) (number) 1896) Source: abattoir 4.2 Table reject of numbers the in volatility The The imperial medical was legislation oflittle help to Moscow veterinarians as did it

- and -

not only because the knowledge of many diseases was limited bu - mouthdisease

Veterinarny nadzor Moskovskikh Gorodskikh Boyen Boyen Gorodskikh Moskovskikh nadzor Veterinarny

. The morbidity of cattle cattle of morbidity The .

14 116 _ 6 448 776 1.80% 2647 147769 1889 2152 4 421

1890 4675 - 330 79 101 _ _ 596 1726 3.30% 5005 153591

–

animal or human animal or human

and the rejection of slaughter products at the Moscow Moscow the at products slaughter of rejection the and

1891 6428 - 948 65 80 _ 1 560 2978 4.30% 7376 171142 ed products (see Tables 4.2 and 4.3 and 4.2 Tables (see products ed

1892 17798 8 1359 114 124 3 _ 2419 6759 55.00 87190 158499

– -

specific measures, stating simply stating measures, specific

this categorythis operated. %

(Moscow: (Moscow:

1893 26172 100 1279 351 275 _ 2 9668 9038 70.70% 114470 161700

Gorodskaya Tipografiya, Tipografiya, Gorodskaya

1894 29165 418 612 203 319 3 _ 8798 12487 69.70% 119753 171829

t also because

) reflects )

abattoir. 1895 30321 785 526 17 186 1 _ 9640 15 73.20% 130174 177815

148

CEU eTD Collection economic interest. requirement sanitary the to unaccustomness from proceeded they control veterinary the with clashes their With here. methods old their bring to tried naturally owners the quality, product the of control of sign any have not [ [ discipline organization of the sanitary committee in1891, owners. As the abattoir veterinarian K.Z.Kleptsov wrote to the municipal Public health livestock the among resistance provoked it cases most in and business, slaughtering wereconfiscated. how the “healthiness” of the product was established and how the “unhealthy” products in ambiguity certain a created interpretations of discrepancy This humans. of health a narrower category, where animal health mattered only to the extent it could affect used meat of sale the on legislation municipal and imperial the of while such, as animals health the about was animals” “sick of category the veterinarians, For market. low preventing merely than rather diseases animal of knowledge fundamental the advancing to contribute to willingness their and science their to devotion own veterinarians' the reveal also could they other, the powerful a inspecti veterinary the with as abattoir public the of work necessity the of justification could numbers those hand, one the On “diseased”. labeled in the veterinary statistics of the 1890s about 70 percent of all slaughtered animals were the law would have meant the rejection of two food. for used be not should animals sick of meat that 61 60 prikazchik

Among the external circumstances that until now sub now until that circumstances external the Among phenomeno new a generally was products meat of confiscation The “Otnosheniye veterinarnogo vracha K.Z. Kleptsova v Komissiyu Obshchestvennogo Zdraviya,” Zdraviya,” Obshchestvennogo IMGD Komissiyu v Kleptsova K.Z. vracha veterinarnogo “Otnosheniye article “ Ustav Ustav vrachebny” in , 1265 5 ] ] Forced to come to the abattoir from the p

( nedistsiplinorovannost' 1892 , p. ), ), p. 271

61 .

15

Svod Svod zakonov Rossiyskoy Imperii .

- veterinarian business at the abattoir is the complete lack of

aog h cattle the among ] - quality meat products from entering th entering from products meat quality - thirds thirds of all the abattoir's output. I s and, on the other hand, from their their from hand, other the on and, s (St. rivate slaughterhouses, which did

Petersburg: 1892), vol. 13, Appendi 60

- The rigorous compliance with compliance rigorous The wes n ter managers. their and owners stantially hinder the correct correct the hinder stantially n in Moscow's Moscow's in n on. On On on. ndeed, ndeed, 149 x to the the e -

CEU eTD Collection would encourage insickanimals andattract thetrade to reimbursement, but the City Council rejected full it out of proposed fear that this compensation campaign, policy sanitation the of part a as meat unhealthy of confiscation o exploitation the on committee municipal the fact, In price. according to which the owners of the confiscated meat received 70 percent of its market policy, compensation generous a introduce to municipality the forced pressure This in economic the to goals sanitary its adjust to had it slaughtering, 62 Rejected organs Rejected parts Rejected carcasses Rejected Echinococci Cysticercosis Trichinosis fever) plague (swine Pig Tuberculosis (cases) Morbidity (proportion) animals Diseased (number) animals Diseased Killed

1896). As in the early years of its operation the abattoir did not have the monopoly on on monopoly the have not did abattoir the operation its of years early the in As Source: Table 4.3 Gorbunov,

Veterinarny nadzor Moskovskikh Gorodskikh Boyen Boyen Gorodskikh Moskovskikh nadzor Veterinarny

. . The

Moskovskiye gorodskiye Moskovskiye boyni,

morbidity :

of of pigs 1682 3 604 5884 826 15 676 248 68.30% 14020 20517 1 889

and and the rejection of slaughter products at the Moscow abattoir

1116 14 1102 276 75.50% 14960 19811 1890 5420 - 63 6764

2

pp. pp.

60

- 1061 18 475 354 53.80% 10044 18676 1891 3972 - 567 4366 61

.

1098 26 502 198 65.40% 8242 12529 1892 3325 - 418 4151

o many ofthem thecity. to (Moscow: Gorodskaya Tipografiya, Tipografiya, Gorodskaya (Moscow:

f the abattoir, seeing the the seeing abattoir, the f 1155 17 364 122 65.60% 9018 13736 1893 3529 - 404 4489

terests of its clients. its of terests

1209 14 577 608 61.50% 13627 22125 1894 5048 - 353 5657

980 12 575 1327 58.70% 17779 30301 1895 7902 21 426 6304

62 150

CEU eTD Collection compensations 1894. from May, livestock the of losses financial specific organs, and predicting the reduction in the amount of confiscated meat and the reje the involve not should processes pathological statement the Using years the reimbursements consumed about one raising started policy compensation abattoir's the Meanwhile, producers. livestock the with interactions its in advantage an receive and to abattoir Moscow the allowed it character, epidemic cholera raging the of fear in administration condition. Romanov ordered to close the private slaughterhouses in the view of their anti new the 1892 in slaughter, of centralization of the abattoir. can be identified in the early 1890s and is connected to certain changes in the operation or certain only cases, exceptional from apart on, later while carcass entire the of destruction the health. In the yearsfirst of the abattoir's operation, the detection of disease often meant no posed diseases animal the when cases the in least at meat, rejected of amounts the reducing of ways for look veterinarians its and municipality 63

lhuh h mncplt nvr eevd h rgt o eal ips the impose legally to right the received never municipality the Although the made products confiscated for compensate to necessity the time, same the At TsGAMOS, gans were withdrawn from sale (see Tables 4. Tables (see sale from withdrawn were gans 63

This measure was a part of the emergency sanitation campaign by Moscow 179:54:947:20

of the Medical society of Moscow University that the localized the that University Moscow of society Medical the .

- owners, the City Council eventually canceled all all canceled eventually Council City the owners, de facto de - ninth ninth of the enterprise's gross revenues. ocw Governor Moscow ction of the entire carcass, but only only but carcass, entire the of ction serious concerns serious

monopolize the animal slaughteranimal the monopolize in Russia. Despite its temporary its Despite Russia. in 2 and 4.3 and 2 known risk to human to risk known ). The turning point point turning The ). - -

General Sergey Sergey General in the first five first the in - sanitary 151

CEU eTD Collection any operation abattoir's the of years early the in If disease. that with animals from comple a in resulted tuberculosis bovine of reevaluation scholarly international the 1890s the in example, For change. constant to subject was health human to pose could they risks of perceptions the as animal of knowledgethe that meant decades saw the professionalization of veterinary science in Russia as elsewhere which turn the Indeed, year. every modification underwent and established faith new the to converted and controlled be to had who neglected, be could interest whose adversaries, as rather but livestock protecting the health of the urban popula like alooks reward toMoscow”. for unsoundcommodities bringing no reason to make e is “there that argued compensations of opponents the abattoir, Moscow the at animals diseased the of bodies the about Talking products. food other the with line in treated thei by slaughter animal market price. The confiscated bodies of the animals that were already meant for totwo ofup entitled tocompensations who were valuable owners totheir animals the of killing compulsory the and epizootics the on regulation a passed Council City the 1894 of animals meant for consumption and those meant for production. Thus, in the same year 64

h aati wt is eeiay raiain a pstoe a a id f shield, of kind a as positioned was organization veterinary its with abattoir The p in change This p. 11; p. Gorbunov, P. T. Yavorskiy, - owners. owners. The latter were seen not as partners in the task of the city food supply Gorodskoy veterin r owners, on the contrary, were regarded as a mere commodity and commodity mere a as regarded were contrary, the on owners, r Moskovskiye gorodskiye boyni, Moskovskiye xceptions xceptions for one type of comestibles and give a compensation that olicy also marked the difference in attitude towards the bodies of bodies the towards attitude in difference the marked also olicy

with glanders, lung plague or rabies. Their bodies were seen as as seen were bodies Their rabies. or plague lung glanders, with

arny arny nadzor v Moskve tely different approach towards the treatment of meat meat of treatment the towards approach different tely f ulc elh atog is otie a nt yet not was doctrine its although health, public of

diseases, their classification and treatment as well as treatment andclassification their diseases, tion tion from the “uncultured” and “undisciplined” pp. pp. 62 - 63 (Moscow: (Moscow: Gorodskaya Tipografiya, 1896), .

64

- of - - thirds of the of the thirds the - century 152

CEU eTD Collection cattleits toMoscow.” the of control the for veterinary “station a as emerged abattoir Moscow the veterinarian, regions, was free from tuberculosis and helped to localize its spread. In the words of its st the in particularly Russia, in cattle the countries, European Western in unlike that, opinion widespread the undermined abattoir Moscow the at animals tubercular the of apprehension frequent the Similarly, spot. the on epizootic dangerous this of the herds coming from that province, thus facilitating the early detection and prev veterinarians informed the local authorities of Kharkov about the cases of rinderpest in Moscow 1893, In Moscow. to livestock its sending were that Empire Russian the helped reveal the signs of epizootics in the vast southern and southeastern provinc far beyond the city it was meant to serve. The inspection of animal bodies at the abattoir animals. dropped to 113, despite thesubstantialincrease theabsolute numbers of in slaughtered number this century the of turn the by year, each rejected were carcasses 826 average ca rejected significant of reduction a for allowed control of rules and quality meat of norms precise more be destroyed, while the rest of the carcass was sanctioned for sale. prescribed that only the or 1895 of rules new the carcass, entire the of rejection the to led tubercles of detection 67 66 65

The VeterinarnyGorodskikh Moskovskikh nadzor Gorbunov, gorodskiye boyni, Meat?” Tuberculous Journal, Robert Koch, “An Address on the Transference of Bovine Tuberculosis to Man,” control and expertise of the abattoir's veterinary organization, in fact, reached fact, in organization, veterinary abattoir's the of expertise and control 66 - sanitary condition of the stock , 10 Dcme, 92, pp. 1902), (December, 2190 2, Moskovskie gorodskiye Moskovskie boyni, p. p.

62 The British Medical Journal, Journal, Medical British The 67 .

rcasses gans in which the pathological process was localized were to

–

if in the first five years of the abattoir's operation on on operation abattoir's the of years five first the in if p. p. 63 - 1885 Boyen, Boyen, raising in the vast region of Russia t .

- 1889; Thos. Whiteside Hide, “Shall We Eat Eat We “Shall Hide, Whiteside Thos. 1889; 1, 1528 (April 1890); Gorbunov, 1890); (April 1528 1, pp. 7 - 8 .

65

The elaboration of The The British Medical Moskovskiye Moskovskiye hat sends ention es of eppe eppe 153

CEU eTD Collection better addition, the systematic provided laboratory research of certain pathologies allowed the Moscow only not which livestock ground, scientific strictly guarantees to consumers regarding the on quality of meat of rejection veterinary of organization the Moscow abattoir the possibility tosetthe inspection and Zelenin wrote study inhis abattoir, of the Moscow Russia. of parts other the in organizations the to scie contributed museum the and laboratory the Both etc. rejection, morbidity, slaughter from exhibits parasites, and pathologies animal of examples preserved meat, of study museum whose holdings included “the only in Russia” collections a of waxworks for and research for laboratory a received abattoir The control. veterinary abattoir's the of organization and discussions project the in involved personally was Nagorsky be used neither norby byscientists. practitioners, scien cannot moment conductthe at that pathologies rare those all collect to to second the pathologies, one first the museum: a and and practice, that it would be very much desirable to organize scienceat to the knowledge abattoir valuable aso give laboratory could studies these although studies, scientific livestock steppe stock particularly of practice the for either lost be not would often quite revealed be should epizootics, of frequency the and driving that construction. Commenting in 1885 on its project, veterinarian Valentin Nagorsky wrote 69 68

the wide application of the laboratory resea laboratory the of application wide the The implementation of these recommendations was probably helped by the fa whic pathologies the that important highly is [i]t its shaped and determined fact, in abattoir, the of role scientific presumed The Sovremennoye khozyaistvo goroda Sovremennoyekhozyaistvo Moskvy, 179:54:992:92 TsGAMOS, N “Doklad ntific reputation of the institution and were used as models by the veterinary veterinary the by models as used were and institution the of reputation ntific - - owners from the unnecessary losses as it eliminated rejection on suspicion; in eae idsre a wl a saitcl aeil, as darm on diagrams maps, materials, statistical as well as industries related 41 ,” ,” Appendix

5 , p. p. , - 7 NV Zlnn Msosie oosie on” n .. Verner, I.A. in boyni” gorodskiye “Moskovskiye Zelenin N.V. 97; 22 –

. n is iess ha diseases its and

- asn o fr cec i gnrl Livestock general. in science for or raising pp. pp. 498 69 -

499 rch of the slaughter products gave the gave products slaughter the of rch

utemr, s eeiain Nikolai veterinarian as Furthermore, tific research in the field of animal animal of field the in research tific meat on the market, but also saved the 68 .

ve so rarely become a subject of of subject a become rarely so ve h, considering the scale of cattle of scale the considering h, ct that 154

the the – -

CEU eTD Collection employees in were sentcongresses to and trips study its while experts, byforeign visited was it 1896, in NovgorodNizhny in exhibition art St. in exhibition Hygiene the in and other experts in the field, both in Russia and abroad. Thus personnel abattoir's the between cooperation the encouraged municipality the chapter, which wasadoptedbyabattoirs later inthe o thepublic policy, into knowledge expertal their turn to and norms own their construct to power every pressing question gave the veterinarians of the Moscow abattoir more agency and medical imperial the with consult to impossibility the and regulations. general formulate in concrete animals or herds, the abattoir veterinarians used them as legal precedents to request initial the after months arrived sometimes Department Medical the of responses the Although existed. regulations Interior for instructions on how to deal with cases of disease for which no specific legal Department Medical the askedveterinarians municipal the field, the in opinion authoritative the for looking cases, some In legislation. elaborate and rules established studies, scientific of lack the and field the of newness the by stimulated diseases. animal in research of center a become to abattoir Moscow the of diseases,had eluded thatpreviously control. abattoir to become the first in Russia i 73 72 71 70

As in the case of the Myasnitskaya hospital, which I discussed in the previous previous the in discussed I which hospital, Myasnitskaya the of case the in As Indeed, the large quantities of empirical data empowered the veterinary organization TsGAMOS, TsGAMOS, Gorbunov, gorodskiyeboyni”, “Moskovskiye Zelenin Mo 179:54:961 179:54:992:109 skovskiye gorodskiye skovskiye boyni,

; 179:54:993 .

71

Arguably, the sluggishness of the bureaucratic system bureaucratic the of sluggishness Arguably,the Petersburg in 1893 and the All the and 1893 in Petersburg , 170:54:1012 n detecting cases of anthrax and dangerous other

pp. pp. p. p. 479 58 70 - . 60

; 179:54:1029 .

–

referred to th to referred GermanyFrance. and therempire. cities of the , 179:54:1125 bodies on the resolution of resolution the on bodies , the abattoir participated - Russian industrial and industrial Russian e cases of epizootics of cases e

of the Ministry of Ministrythe of of ; 179:54:1165

73 It was also also was It

–

72 which which .

155

CEU eTD Collection education and science promoting for center a into slaughterhouse as a technological and scien like”. the and universities galleries, art museums, as such note to its project, “joinshould the rows of the that institutions constitute the city pride towards becoming a “European city”. The abattoir, toway municipal commitment andtobeonMoscow's thegoalsa step ofpublic health a different path. life and transformation into a “no place”. In this respect, the Mosc everyday the from exclusion its itself, slaughterhouse the of marginalization cultural the to led also but anonymous, and invisible killing made only not abattoirs public s the France, and Britain in particularly cities, Western the in that sparedsight from also notonly ofslaughtering. but thesmell f filtration to system sewerage complex the through by The meal. bone or leather lard, meat, of form the in already out it let that slaughterhouse the from cattle the brought trains the dwellers, city turning killing a into scientific ans strictly process. controlled was meant to remove blood and death from the city and to confine them within its walls, public. On the one hand, similar to its West the of eyes the in image its defined and shaped enterprise sanitary a as role its and on 74

Already from the very beginning of its construction, it was meant to symbolize the symbolize to meant was it construction, its of beginning very the from Already out pointed have historians chapter, this to introduction the in discussed was it As based was it technology complicated the abattoir, the of importance scientific The Doklad N Doklad - products and wastes of that transition were sterilized, recycled or removed removed or recycled sterilized, were transition that of wastes and products 41 , , Appendix

5 , p. p. , 22 .

- tific masterpiece, the municipality turned it European prototype

– as Valentin Nagorsky argued in his

ields so that the urban public was public urban the that so ields

apart from the laboratory and the the and laboratory the from apart remote provinces straight to the to straight provinces remote 74 Avoidingeyes the ofthe

s, the Moscow abattoir ned rgrig the regarding Indeed,

ow abattoir followed hift towards new new towards hift 156

CEU eTD Collection urbanacknowledged. space had tobe and “modern” municipal institution, it deserved to be named and its presence within the successful a as thus, And progress. social and good public of sake the for liberalconceived by the self modernity: of archetype an was it public the of eyes the In place”. “no a become to simp was abattoir Moscow The slaughterhouse. the of marginalization the prevented metropolises, Western with up catch to striving was that city a in especially ofcattle national exhibitions three a got it museum, 75

Source: Figure project, the of innovativeness technological the and success scientific the Exactly p. p. “Moskovs Zelenin, 980; 54: 179: 179:54:1105; 1057, TsGAMOS,179:54: 500 . 4.

Vsya Moskva Moskva Vsya 3 . Abattoir on the the m on Abattoir

(Moscow: Suvorin, 1912). Suvorin, (Moscow: - hundred - - ap of Moscow, 1912. 1912. Moscow, of ap government body, it consolidated technology and science and technologyconsolidated government it body, raisingand

- seat auditorium for scholarly lectures and hosted hosted and lectures scholarly for auditorium seat

butchering.

75

kiye gorodskiye boyni”, boyni”, gorodskiye kiye ly too good too ly , profitable ,

157

CEU eTD Collection 77 76 adiscomfort. source pride than of of mechanized and sanitized transition from the living animal to the edible meat was rather rationalized, the where and landmarks city the of one became that site a constructed pla “no a into abattoir Moscow the turning of Instead and requirements”. scientific institutions” newest the city to according remarkable “built construction”, most “grandiose the of “one as it described guidebooks do devoted month each journal municipal The emphasized. Every city map clearly named the abattoir and many depicted it in details. but masked not was latter the city; the in slaughter of presence the about concerns d place, “European” and“civilized” morea into Moscow turning towards step a was abattoir new the whom for veterinarians, and violence. physical and killing of reminders the aBoulevard Meat(Myasnaya ploshad’) between the railway platform and the abattoir unambiguously continued with Gorodskiye Boyni (City Sl named was vicinity its in station railway the it: around emerged that toponyms new several in highlighted was abattoir the of function the Furthermore, complex”). “meat ti Soviet the in (only text euphemism of “abattoir”

Norbert Elias, Elias, Norbert Civilization, in the formulation of Norbeformulationof the in Civilization, Brit and France in If Putevoditel' Putevoditel' 79; okrestnosti eye i Moskva moskvicha: Sputnik -

the original Russian word “boynya” kept the most direct reference to slaughter slaughter to reference direct most the kept “boynya” word Russian original the Ill y ustr i The Civilizing ProcessCivilizing The rovanny (Moscow: Kushnerev i K (Moscow: Kushnerev

mes the name of the institution was changed to a more neutral neutral more a to changed was institution the of name the mes putevoditel' po Moskve Moskve po putevoditel' - i, h buaiy f luhe ws iiae b uig the using by mitigated was slaughter of brutality the ain,

and despite the fact that I was using this term throughout the aughterhouse) and Cattle -

Bul’varnayathat ledtothedowntown. ulitsa) (Oxford: Blakwell, Blakwell, (Oxford: o , 1915) ,

, (Moscow: Tipolotografiya Kushnerev i K i Kushnerev Tipolotografiya (Moscow: p. p. (Mosc moral or embarrassment any display not id rt Elias, advances by distancing itself from advancesfrom Elias, itself byrt distancing 260 zens of pages to its work while the city the while work its to pages of zens 76 .

ow: Dobrovolskiy, 1911) p. 104; 104; p. 1911) Dobrovolskiy, ow: 1994

Yet, Russian reformers, sanitarians reformers, Russian Yet, - Driving Square (Skotoprogonnaya ), pp. ), pp. ce”, science and technology technology and science ce”, 168 - 170 .

o , 1894) , Moskva. 158

77 p.

CEU eTD Collection activities such as poorrelief orwelfare. children middle growing United States. Animal protection was a fashionable occupation among socia the and Europe across appeared organizations similar decades following the in 1824; human moral those “who for duty cannot towards speak nineteenth the of argument it. prevent to responsibility an people, to closer them drew talk, and reason to recognition of the animal susceptibility to suffering, even if they were denied the ability “The question is not, Can they reason? nor, Can they but, talk? Can they suffer?” in many ways defined the human attitudes towards animals th civilized behavior and morale. In 1789 Jeremy Bentham asked the famous question that of sign a and value cultural important an became animals towards empathy societies humani a included also It knowledge. technological and scientific of promotion the and order public of maintenance rationalization, sanitation, 81 80 79 78

The first Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals was created in Britain in in Britain in created was Animals to Cruelty of Prevention the for Society first The The “civilizing mission” of the international abattoir reform was not defined only by Civilized slaugh Hopkins University Press, Press, HopkinsUniversity Mind Victorian the in Humanity and Pain, Animals, Beast: the with Reckoning of treatment humane the on discussions the For History,” Language, Theory, 52 issue Theme Animals, Minds: Speaking Bodies, “Speaking Pearson, Susan pp. animals with way“AShaw, Gary David Press, Clarendon Bentham, Jeremy 2 - 3 .

- classes and went along the lines of other humanitarian or charitable or humanitarian other of lines the along went and classes 1996 n nrdcin o h Picpe o Mrl ad Legislation and Morals of Principles the to Introduction An ter: violence ortorture?

), ), p. (December 1980 283 79 - century animal protection movement as a source of the the of source a as movement protection animal century In fact, the animal inability of speech became an integral an became speech of inabilityanimal the Infact, .

). ).

2013 ,” ,” ), pp. pp. ), History and Theory, Theme issue 52 52 issue Theme Theory, and History 91 -

92 nml i Vcoin rti se ae Turner, James see Britain Victorian in animals .

81

d prompted concerns about human about concerns prompted d themselves”. tarian aspect. In the modern modern the In aspect. tarian roughout the next century: 80

(December ( Baltimore: Johns Johns Baltimore:

( 1789 l elites and History and and History ; Oxford: Oxford: ; 78 2013

The 159 ),

CEU eTD Collection receivedcentral fromgovernment. the it assistance the and existence) its of months first very the in itself requested RSPA efforts Society's the of success the reveals, Nelson Amy historian As rubles. ten to up of fine domashnim zhivotnym mucheniy naprasnykh mirov the of 43 Article the in codified 1871, in narode,prostom sochuvstviya k zhivotnym common the among particularly animals, to compassion of “encouragement and medicine veterinary of promotion slaughterhouses, of improvement torture, of cases reporting measures, legislative and through petitioning the go animals of maltreatment and cruelty the prevent to was society the of goal the RSPA, the of charter the in stated was it As cities. other to expanded quickly then and 1865 Po Obshchestvo Rossiyskoye (RSPA, Animals of Protection the for Society Russia in first The attention. public stimulated civic activism and put the questions of humanity and legality in the focus of in concern of matter a 83 82

The main achievement of the RSPA was the criminalization of the cruelty to animals became animals surprisingly, Not process. this in exception no were elites Russian Sobraniye Zakonov RossiyskoyImperii Zakonov Sobraniye Culture and History (eds.), Nelson Amy and Costlow Jane in Russia”, of Body “The Nelson, Amy Tipografiya Suvorina, Ssee removed, 1 pp. 1865), Shneidera, zhivotnym pokrovitel'stva Obshchestva Rossiyskogo Ustav ymi sud'yami sud'yami ymi

derived from its close affiliation with the Ministry of Internal Affairs (which the Ustav Rossiyskogo Obshchestva pokrovitel'stva zhivotnym zhivotnym pokrovitel'stva Obshchestva Rossiyskogo Ustav as “causing wanton torment to domestic animals” [ animals” domestic to torment wanton “causing as (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2010), pp. 98

1888 - 2. In the later version of the Charter the clause about common people was people common about clause the Charter the of version later the In 2. h Rsin oit i te ie te ra Rfrs which Reforms, Great the times the in society Russian the vernment about the introduction of appropriate administrative ).

the Beast: Animal Protection and Anticruelty Legislation in Imperial Imperial in Legislation Anticruelty and Protection Animal Beast: the krovitel'stva Zhivotnym krovitel'stva

epe [ people , ser. , 83

2 , vol. , ].” ], for which the guiltywhich for the ], weretoa subjected 82 obzdnym pemsceten v preimushchestvenno vozbuzhdeniyem, 46

Other Animals: Beyond the Human in Russian Russian in Human the Beyond Animals: Other Ustav o nakazaniyakh, nalagayemykh nalagayemykh nakazaniyakh, o Ustav

( 1871 ) was founded in St. in founded was )

), part part ), (St.

Petersburg: Tipogr Petersburg: 2 , no. no. , 50208 - 106; 106; see also .

za prichineniye za

(St. Petersburg in Petersburg afiya Retgera i i Retgera afiya

Petersburg: Po lnoye lnoye 160

CEU eTD Collection cruelty and maltreatment of animals as overworking, failure to provide food and shelter, explained RSPA the of charter The encompass. could latter the what clear completely a among impossible is general and in coarseness animals the developed people'.civilized and to of cruelty sign people; correct given a a as serve of that ignorance vices few the of one is animals Alexander economist and scientist natural famous Society's report, annual the President ofthe VeterinaryMinistry ofthe Committee o included minority this but cent) per 5 (about RSPA the in minority in were zoologists and Veterinarians aristocracy. of representatives and officials civil and army high governor and governors two members of the family,royal four members of the State Council, five senators, six affiliates 751 its among counted RSPA the 1891, In government. imperial of spheres representa its have to Society the allowed it noteworthy; Fyodorovna. Maria Empress Dowager the Konstantinovich (the cousin of Alexander III), who in 1902 had to cede this position to royal Society's the 1891, in death his After III). Alexander emperor the of uncle the and II Alexander emperor the of brother (the It existed under the royal patronage of the Grand Duke Nicholas Nikolaevich the Elder 86 85 84

The aspirations of ci of aspirations The [t]he moral side in the task of animal protection is well described in the words of the the to editorial his in 1892 in wrote Nikiforov S. RSPA the of president the As suppo remarkable a enjoyed fact, in RSPA, The Otchet o deyatel'nosti Rossiyskogo Obs Rossiyskogo deyatel'nosti o Otchet god Pokrovitel'stva 1891 Obshchestva za Zhivotnym Rossiyskogo deyatel'nosti o Otchet god 1891 3 za Zhivotnym god 1901 Pokrovitel'stva za Pokrovitel'stva Zhivotnym Obshchestva Rossiyskogo (St. deyatel'nosti o Otchet - 4 .

Petersburg: Tipografiya Soykina, 1892) p. 5; 5; p. 1892) Soykina, Tipografiya Petersburg:

vilization demanded banning cruelty to animals, yet it was not not was it yet animals, to cruelty banning demanded vilization - generals, seven bishops and archb and bishops seven generals,

86

, (St. , hchestva Pokrovitel'stva Zhivotnym za 1891 god Pokrovitel'stva hchestva 1891 za Zhivotnym

Petersburg: skoropechatnya, Amerikanskaya 84

The membership of the RSPA was also was RSPA the of membership The patron became the Grand Duke Dmitry Duke Grand the became patron Otchet o deyatel'nosti Rossiysk deyatel'nosti o Otchet von Humboldt that 'cruelty towards towards 'cruelty that Humboldt von rt from the traditional social elites. social traditional the from rt tives in the most influential most the in tives ishops as well as numerous as well as ishops f Interior.f 85

ogo Obshchestva Obshchestva ogo , p. , pp. , 1902 3 .

44 ) pp. ) 161 - 55 . ,

CEU eTD Collection as society, Russian the in strength gaining were consumption animal against voices wast constantly beaten at jam transported were calves and piglets the animals, to pain wanton caused which stones torture wateroftena left food, without animal of cases numerous revealed [“ that abattoir the at investigation the humananimals attitudes towards and,eventually, humans towards themselves. that can reconstruct the perception of the slaughter by insiders and outsiders and reveal t officials abattoir the of responses the so, more evenand, RSPA the of the petition and protocols Theslaughter. at torture animal stop to Rukavishnikov Konstantin mayor city the petitioned obligations“civilized man”. ofa moral the and empathy cruelty, of understanding the into insights valuablerender thus nineteenththe in permissible as seen was what of nuances brutal inherently is slaughterhouse the of purpose obrashcheniye skotom vo vremya suboynym uboya torturing them on a 88 87 istyazaniya zhivotnykh”

Interestingly, the RSPA did not disapprove of act of slaying of act of disapprove not did RSPA the Interestingly, th 1896 spring In RSP the 1896 In entire the all, After chapter. this in me for interesting particularly is part last The TsGAMOS, Shneidera, zhivotnym pokrovitel'stva Obshchestva Rossiyskogo Ustav - packed,generally tied toofirmlyand treatedlikebags [“ 1865 179:54:992:128 ), pp. pp. ), whim and “cruel treatment of animals during slaughter” [ A became interested in the activities of the Moscow abattoir and and abattoir Moscow the of activities the in interested became A e members of the Moscow department of the RSPA conducted an conducted RSPA the of department Moscow the of members e

o the criticism present a fascinating source for historic for fascinatingsource a presentcriticism the o 1 - 2 .

he slaughter. ]. ]. The livestock, as the protocols of the RSPA described, was - 130

nd shelter for thestockyardnd shelter days, withsharp waspaved .

88

]. 87 –

(St.

it is killing. Investigating the the Investigating killing. is it

Petersburg: Tipografiya Retgera i i Retgera Tipografiya Petersburg: - century slaughterhouse can can slaughterhouse century kak tyuki per se per ”], and”], thecattle -

although the the although zhestokoye al

analysis

162

CEU eTD Collection later chapter. inthis of thetypeas coming torture death a of dese blood. of signs no had hands and clothes whose workers special by moved and walls high very with pens in kept be should t knowing from livestock the sparing at aimed also proposal their of part important An animals. injured of killing prompt re abattoir, the inside and to livestock lo some supply, water and food the to the Moscow mayor, were rather moderate. They called for the better of organization petition the in formulated proposals, its RSPA, the of members the by photographed) merciless with tortured and hits. horror with is seized which helpless, animal and poor strong the simultaneously remembers one when compassion with fills heart human tail of the bull and from the streams offresh bloodcoming from the there; striker squeezes and breaks the the sight quiteshocking: ofslaughter the emotionality of the description reveals that the RSPA investi or old animals) killing was seen as a humanitarian deed, a kind of injured (with cases certain in fact, in RSPA; the by granted for taken was life their of Tolstoy's epigraph to this chapter demonstrates. The right of humans to de 91 90 89

ept te stun the Despite vapors the with slaughterhouse dark the of doors the in go to refuses jibs, bull The TsGAMOS. See slaughter. for horses old of pokrovitel'stva zhivotnym Obshchestva purchase intentional and abattoirs horse activitie general The 179:54:992:130. TsGAMOS. 90 TsGAMOS.179:54:992:

179:54:992:134 severely hits its sacrum, sides and legs with a heavy cudgel <...> The

ig xmls f nml bs, ouetd ad even (and documented abuse, animal of examples ning 130 - . 135

.

(St.

itcl mrvmns n h tasotto of transportation the in improvements gistical heir destiny: the RSPA suggested that animals animals that suggested RSPA the destiny: heir - paving of the stockyard and provisions for the the for provisions and stockyard the of paving

Petersburg: Tipografiya Suvorina, 91

This interpretation of the animal awarenessanimal the interpretationof This rves closer attention, and I return attention, closer andrves toit will s of the RSPA also included the creation of the the of creation the included RSPA also the of s gators must have found coup de grâce 1888 Ustav Rossiyskogo Rossiyskogo Ustav ), pp. ), pp. prive prive animals 2 . - 89 3 .

Only 163

CEU eTD Collection trembling the over violence for right the defeat Claiming a weakness. of as acknowledgement but empathy, human of victory a as not superiority ofthe mankind,when rational theabstention from violence was interpreted the defending of means a as presented was animals over violence exercising so, more unquestionabl the of source the also and animals considered oftheir because theabsence utility torture tomenevil and will. ofhuman of types many are human violence towards animals, oftenthere very crue Obviously, will. animal the to will rational his subordinate to have will he violence, this from abstains man the if because necessary, is violence human the from proceed not does violence this because not, Clearly torture? be violence this Will resistance. the on depending cruel, less or more violence, commit to needs one this for and resist, to ability the of animal voluntarily convenient condition a not in it put does to needs one which it, allow animal, an kill to But meat. animal necessary the use to vio this [ Should killing. through life, its taking through violence brutal most the and violence, through animal the of body the using of wish his achieve only can he so man, the to body its give voluntarily not does animal The entire concept of torture: the questioning with eloquence) and length its in striking (quite response his started the of abattoir's organizat veterinary behalf on Gurin Gavriil veterinarian senior the from another and creation, its since director managing abattoir's the as worked who Verderevsky D. from one authorities. abattoir the from explanation an demanded Board City Moscow the therefore, response; a 92 istyazaniye

For Verderevsky, the ability to reason was the border line between humans and and humans between line border the was reason to ability the Verderevsky, For t only reason, with gifted not animal, an subdues man A Verderevsky torture, animal of claims the around petition its framed RSPA the As Considering the overall influence of the RSPA, its petition could not remain without TsGAMOS. ]? Obviously not, because this violence is needed to satisfy the man's wish man'swish satisfyneeded to the violenceis becauseObviously this not, ]? 179:54:992:137 The Central State Archive of Moscow preserved two responses responses two preserved Moscow of Archive State Central The

.

ion.

l, l, which, despite its cruelty, cannot be

e human privilege and power. Even Even power. and privilege human e evil will, but from necessity. This This necessity. from but will, evil for the slaughter, to deprive the deprive to slaughter, the for ec b cutd s torture as counted be lence of human reason and the the and reason human of hrough violence [ violence hrough nasiliye 164 92 ]. – –

CEU eTD Collection proposal RSPA the death, coming the of fear animal and human the likening Through ( terrible” more world the in torture no is “there and suffering de inevitable and approaching the of knowledge the execution, the of description powerful his in suggested experience, own his on relying Dostoevsky, As anthropomorphic. very course, of was, imagination, for capacity the anticipation of torture,killing as that projected on animal the of interpretation RSPA The slaughter. coming the of awareness animal healthy,a partially and alive it keep to necessary is it extent the to only fed is livestock working Non owners. its of goals the for necessary is it extent the to only fed is it purposes, [“ committee would have been right if men reared livestock only to please with it feeding “The wrote: Verderevsky committee, investigating RSPA the of criticism respective satisfie be to were food, as such animals, of needs basic most the even Verderevsky, to According not. waswhether whether not something was cruel ornot,but this was necessarytomen or r or, irrational,the of bringingservice natureto the ofmankind. encourageit to andjustify to both served slaughter at violence of men's of utilit the explanation, rationalist In this world. natural the dominancein sign a became dilemma, famous Dostoevsky's paraphrase to creatures, 93 dostavlyat' yemu u yemu dostavlyat'

h (naiiy o esn und atclry motn i te usin bu the about question the in important particularly turned reason to (in)ability The Its usefulness distinguished the good violence from the bad one, the rational from from rational the one, bad the from violence good the distinguished usefulness Its TsGAMOS. nd not to the extent ofappetite.” theextent its nd notto 179:54:992:141 ather, violence from torture. From that point of view, what mattered whatview, of point that From torture. violencefrom ather, d only to the extent useful to the rational men. Responding to the the to Responding men. rational the to useful extent the to only d dovolstviye kormleniyem” dovolstviye

.

93

], but since livestock is raised for other other for raised is livestock since but ], animals the human fear of death and ath is the worst and most painful most and worst the is ath The Idiot The –

as one of the ways the of one as arian character ariancharacter , Chapter 2). Chapter , 165 -

CEU eTD Collection beastly irrational,andanimal lazyHe stubborn resistance agency connectsandtotheir experien animal dismiss completely process more humane th on seriously perception animal the Taking facilities. slaughtering the within unavoidable almost are that worlds auditory and becaus death approaching suggestslaughter. resistsbecause Somecattle recentnot the studies thatthesense they death; coming here. t and, bull in its mind [ the sees it when therefore, organs of the have, killed livestock, blood, skins and so on, it, not unable to reason, can't connect does bull the which reason, have to needs one it Can is? the to show we If reason. with gifted following statement: Verderev emphatic. strikingly but implicitly, becomes 95 94

edrvk, oee, sd h aia iaiiy o eeaie s peet to pretext a as generalize to inability animal the used however, Verderevsky, the feel can animals whether question the to answer definite no is there today Even was bull the if undoubted be would committee, the by presented arguments, The Pigs, and Sheep,” Sheep,” and Pigs, 18 pp. 2013), (December men'sbeasts”, other “Milking Fudge, Erica See: success. huge with did she which animals, ofthe theexperience improve to facilities handling livestock other and claims that her own autism allows her to who scientist animal American an Grandin, Templeof arguments the on relies interpretation This TsGAMOS. em 94 e they are upset and scared by the specific disruptions of their visual, olfactory visual, their of disruptions specific the by scared and upset are they e

–

herefore, to understand that its that understand herefore,to

form an idea of the whole the of idea an form can make their experience of slaughter less frightening and thus the entire entire the thus and frightening less slaughter of experience their make can predstavlenii 179:54:992:144

it is still impossible to fully retrieve their sensory experiences at the the at experiences sensory their retrieve fully to impossible still is it Annual Review of Animal Biosciences Review of Animal Annual –

which indeed requires certain engagement with the abstract the with engagement certain requires indeed which -

at least allow. at asmuch purposes its - ] ] th 19; Temple Grandin, “Making Slaughterhouses More Humane for Cattle, for Humane More 19; TempleSlaughterhouses “Making Grandin, .

e impressions from these objects to the image of the living

ces and thus remove any grounds for compassion. for grounds any remove thus and ces better better understand animals and thus redesign slaughterhouses from a part of the whole? Clearly, not not Clearly, whole? the of part a from bull the cut bull's leg, will it understand what it it what understand it will leg, bull's cut the bull –

comrade was killed and lacerated [ laceratedand killed was comrade

rather than projecting human understanding understanding human projecting than rather , vol. , 1 , (January , History and Theory,5 and issue History Theme k' rpid o t ih the with it to replied sky's 95

2013 ), pp. pp. ), 491 rasterzan - – 512

for this for .

-

166 but 2 ]

CEU eTD Collection since their despite and, livestock slaughtered the cruelyoungyears and the towards violence usedslovenliness from theytodirt, theare the municipal abattoir from the private slaughterhouses. At the private slaughterhouses, of education amongworkers:abattoir'scivilization and the torture could be seen at the abattoir in the former years, but connects it to the initial lack and rational a of unworthy it thus and above mentioned Article 43 with its “wanton torture”); torture is an unreasonable action the to refers implicitly he (here purpose utilitarian any without violence, unnecessary n is result, useful a produces and motivated byis shown ofKhodynka.” thecatastrophe among even situation this in happen can what hampers; movementwhose it behind livestock the among injuries prevent thus and ahead bull abattoir. In the case when a bull stops and bulks, he writes, a worker “needs to force the sl and resistance. lazy, balky, untamed animals resist. Tamed animals go to the slaughter without any fear o but resistance the provoke slaughterhouse the inside them bringing when violence exercise to forced is one animals these with households: human in work for used never were that animals of case the in particularly nature, 97 96 aughter, become necessary and useful as they facilitate the animal move within the within move animal the facilitate they as useful and necessary become aughter,

At first, it was very difficult to harness[ to difficult very was it first, At rationally is that necessary, considered is that cruelty view, of point that From theto bringanimals to used tails, beatingsqueezing and interpretation,force, In his This animal does not kno occurred on Khodynka Field in Moscow during the festivities connected to the coronation of of coronation the to connected festivities the during in II Nicholas Moscow in Field Khodynka on occurred catastrophe The 179:54:992:142. TsGAMOS. TsGAMOS.

179:54:992:145 96 1896 –

it once again proves that not the circumstances of the slaughter slaughter the of circumstances the not that proves again once it and that caused numerous deaths. numerous that and caused

.

w what rein is, it equally resists wherever man takes it, and nly their obstinate, untamed will <...> Only the untaught, the Only <...> will untamed obstinate, their nly

civilized man. He acknowledges that animal animal that acknowledges He man. civilized 97 obuzdat' f hdna ees o h hmn tmee that stampede human the to refers Khodynka of

ot torture. For Verderevsky, torture was was torture Verderevsky, For torture. ot

re willingness, could not understand understand not could willingness, re ] the ]

people who are able to reason to able are who people workers all of whom came to cameto whom of all workers

167 it

CEU eTD Collection moral their soften themselves, educate slaughterhouse reform in Moscow, the workers and butchers managed to cardinally re throughestablishment of rational the rules: civil to potential its as well as control and organization its of efficiency the about point Verderevsky's challenges he slaughterhouses, private the at that to character” [ of “because abattoir municipal the that Verderevsky with agreed generally he Although situation. entire the of opinion different very a however, had, criticism, and enhances ofhuman theposition culture versu also as an establishment that turns its employees into more civilized and humane people more, is what but, rational, and scientific modern, asabattoir the portrays He workers. h fact, in is, but control his of limits the or unawareness well is institution his that emphasizes also Verderevsky chapter. this in earlier discussed s private the to compared abattoir public the of advantages the of rhetoric the hear certainly can one argumentation his In civilized. men and behavior the unnecessary many against animals things. violence andtodo other re to situa current the reach to spent was effort and time Much abattoir. civilized the to conform not did that workers the of actions many them, instigated by thebanned oldslaughterhouses, we were forced oureyes toshut to strike the prevent and workers the of discontent the avoid to Trying animals. over violence unnecessary the stopping and cleanliness sanitation, about requirements imposed the 98

[I]t would be too much to claim that, in such a short period of time since the the since time of period short a such in that, claim to much too be would [I]t The abattoir Gavriil veterinarianof another Gurin,theauthorresponse RSPA tothe a presented thus are violence excessive and Torture

TsGAMOS. - - organized and well and organized educate the workers, to train them to orderliness, sanitation, cleanliness, to stop to cleanliness, sanitation, orderliness, to them train to workers, the educate

[ stachku rabochikh i zabastovku boytsov –

human human or animal blagodarya publichnosti 179:54:992:138

- supervised; whatever disorder exists there does not reveal his revealhis not theredoes exists disorder whatever supervised; .

–

that would be absent in a model where animals are tamed ] ] encourages better treatment of animals compared ad bno ter og ais f h cruel the of habits long their abandon and e

tion with the slaughter; it was necessary was it slaughter; the with tion ] ] th s nature. at was several times prepared among is conscious concession to the to concession conscious is s a product of undisciplined undisciplined of product a s

agtross hc I which laughterhouses 98

z people ize its public its 168 -

CEU eTD Collection welfare. animal the to approaches important two reveal they but discussion, Dos Fyodor Clearly, chapter. this to epigraphs two the with indicate to tried I which protection, animal the in the memories. better, the cruel treatmentofanimals at the to changed are conditions these When work. of conditions their by supported and caused are but workers the of will evil the of result the of not are cases most in cruelties opinion the In <...> measure cruel some use to thus and chamber the inside bull the bringing with up hurry to workers dressed lightly forces Frost it. notice would nobody that believe they because cruelly animals winter. in especially slaughter, evening (9 slaughter hasty very 1) cruelly: animals treat behavior:this abattoir. According to him, the entire organization of the modern the of rules humane and rational the absorb to able not were who workers the among discipline and civilization of lack and ignorance the from only proceeded t think not did Gurin Verderevsky, unlike However, which, he claimed, was used habitually, even to the obedient and non beating, excessive as well as tendons) leg hind cutting faster, move it make to tail a animal's the in sticks putting eyelid, the by animal (pulling abuse animals of examples blatant more some provided and abattoir Moscow allo surethem, still thatnobody can see are they when evening, the in continues slaughter the when or pressing, is workload treatment ofanimals. Hardly concerned that, being the workers, about especially when 101 100 99

Here Gurina very touches upon ofcontroversy important point on inthe discussion often more workers which under circumstances two here mention to necessary is It the at occurred indeed RSPA, the by reported torture, the that admitted Gurin TsGAMOS. TsGAMOS.1 TsGAMOS.

179:54:992:152 179:54:992:150 79:54:992:151 101

ovk ad e Tlty ee o te ny ocs n that in voices only the not were Tolstoy Leo and toevsky - - .

153 152

. .

w the undesirable treatment animals. of the Moscow abattoir and willstop remain only In the darkness workers more often treat treat often more workers darkness the In

the Veterinary Organization, all those those all Organization, Veterinary the - 10 bulls in one chamber per hour); 2) 2) hour); per chamber one in bulls 10 nus or squeezing and breaking its its breaking and squeezing or nus a alteentros cruelties notorious these all hat

abattoir sometimes stimulated - resisting bulls. 99

169 100

CEU eTD Collection staff permanent its 1910 In people. hundred six and three between simultaneously demonstrate,a issue. was questionable will pages further the as which, employment, humane of also but slaughter, humane of place a only not be should abattoir the that insisted They humans. of treatment the was animals of treatment better the promote to point first the municipality the to proposal own their In first. came that welfare human was it them for welfare, anti human improvement, regardless context. ofthesocial abstention from meat and from the violence towards animal was the precondition of the the on depended largely animals of treatment mankind. of development spiritual and moral any towards step first the was consumption meat of rejection the view, his in beefsteak”; with believ vegetarianism, of supporter to promote humane behavior towards people. imperative urgent more the shadow not should animals to cruelty thwart effortsto that Animals, expressed his solidarity Dostoevsky, in the essay to the anniversary of the Russian Society for the Protection of 103 102

In the three decades of its operation, the Moscow municipal abattoir employed employed abattoir municipal Moscow the operation, its of decades three the In limitsThe good”: “public of Abattoir asan Although Gurin and the abattoir's Veterinary Organization generally agreed wi Press, Press, (eds.), ToomreJoyce and “Tolstoy's Way of No Flesh: Abstinence, Vegetarianism Christian in Glants Physiology" Musya and pp. Beast”, ofBodythe “The Nelson, - LevTolstoy, Dostoevsky, Fyodor torture measures put forward by the RSPA and supported their concern of animal animal of concern their supported and RSPA the by forward put measures torture 1997 ) pp. pp. ) Pervaya stupen' stupen' Pervaya 81 - 102

Dnevnik pisatelya, pisatelya, Dnevnik .

Food in Russian History and Culture and History Russian in Food (1893). For the study ofTolsstudy the For (1893).

with the cause of the organization, but was concerned ed that “Christianity and morality are incompatible incompatible are morality and “Christianity that ed 95 - (1876, Chapter 3, 3, partChapter 1) (1876, 96

.

102

treatment of humans; for Tolstoy, the the Tolstoy, for humans; of treatment Leo Tolstoy, the most famous Russian

employer toy's vegetarianism see Ronald LeBanc, LeBanc, Ronald see vegetarianism toy's

(Bloomington: Indiana University University Indiana (Bloomington: . The text is also analyzed in textanalyzed isalso The Amy

103

o Dsovk, the Dostoevsky, For better better th the 170

CEU eTD Collection sanitary rules. res was organization veterinary the while production, meat and process slaughtering the controlled director managing the infrastructure, abattoir's the of maintenance the provided engineers The Verderevsky and Gurin of could documents they demonstrate, the as (and, other each with competing directly to the municipal board, their tasks were independent from and sometimes even standi equal wereof who veterinarian,senior the engineerseniorand the director, managingby the economic, (3) technical veterinarian.branchesheaded These respectively (2) and were high the for recruited season. additionally were more 80 and people 450 about counted 105 104

Gorbunov, D.G. Source: 4.4 Table TsGAMOS,179:54: employment at the industrial plants located at the abattoir, but not belonging to the municipal control. Zelenin “Moskovskiye gorodskiye boyni”, pp. pp. boyni”, gorodskiye “Moskovskiye Zelenin 104 on profession)on Veterinarians Deputyengineer managing Deputy veterinarian Senior engineer Senior Position Microscopists Microscopists Workers (depending Officeclerks Managing director Managing director (women)

The management of the abattoir was divided into three branches branches three into divided was abattoir the of management The . Income of the abattoir's personnel in 1890 in 1890 personnel abattoir's the Income . of g atog te aay f h sno vtrnra ws oe) reported lower), was veterinarian senior the of salary the (although ng 105

9

ponsible for the safety of that meat and the compliance with with compliance the and meat that of safety the for ponsible 82:1

Moskovskiye gorodskiye boyni boyni gorodskiye Moskovskiye have a very different opinion of the abattoir's organization). organization). abattoir's the of opinion different very a have .

Monthly income (ruble Monthly

30 25 50 100 100 100 125 200 200

- 40

498 s) - (Moscow: Gorodskaya tipografiya, 1913). tipografiya, (Moscow: Gorodskaya

499 . These numbers do not include the the include not do numbers These . No housing or compensation provided compensation or housing No in thedormitory abattoir's bed Free apartment Free 25 extra or apartment Free apartment Free apartment Free apartment Free apartment Free apartment Free Bonus

rubles ofcompensation rubles

-

171 (1)

CEU eTD Collection “was intensity”,Gorbunov, wrote labor consequencesuchdays “The of off.additional laborforce deficit, its managers were more eager to compensa reduced, forced ofunpaid workerswere totakemonth leave. the one (30 min). They were paid for el tea and min) (90 lunch for breaks two with p.m. 9 until worked and a.m. 7:30 at day 12 roun the required that jobs The season. and six a had blue the Normally, evening. late until lasted slaughter in especially overloaded, were they that slaughter. of intensity the on but veterinarians the of capacities the on not depended inspection slaug 160 least at of products the inspect to had abattoir 7 only was output in difference the (while people 300 than more by performed were tasks same the abattoir Berlin the at staff maximum a involved abattoir Moscow the of inspection rush”. constant of “atmosphere the in and pressure under work to had professionals the Evenunderstaffed. was it that fact the to and year 108 107 106 -

Overtime work was frequent at the Moscow abattoir and, considering the general the considering and, abattoir Moscow the at frequent was work Overtime The pressure was particularly high for workers, and even the administration admitted The workload at the abattoir was heavy due to the volatil hour day and night shifts with four days off per month. The slaughterers started their boyni”, gorodskiye “Moskovskiye Zelenin, Gorbunov, 212; p. Health,” Human Bodies, “Animal Brantz, boy gorodskiye “Moskovskiye Zelenin, TsGAMOS, 179:54:1054:3 179:54:995:6; - day working week and a 10 a and week working day 107

e ven months - 8 times). As a result, a veterinarian at the Moscow Moscow the at veterinarian a result, a As times). 8 ni”, p. p. ni”, - 12 - 5; 5; pp. -

IMGD, IMGD, hour working day, depending on profession profession on depending day, working hour 478. arrivals cattle mass of days the 478

per year; in winter, when the cattle arrivals d -

the - 479 June - clock maintenance of machines had had machines of maintenance clock .

- Jul - 106 collar employees of the abattoir abattoir the employeesof collar Moskovskiye gorodksiye boyni; gorodksiyeboyni; Moskovskiye y

htered animals per shift per animals htered 1905 n h 19s h veterinary the 1890s the In ity of output throughout the te it with money than with , pp. pp. , of 20 all together, while together, all 20 of 25 - 26 108 .

when – p.

172

the the 71; 71;

CEU eTD Collection als but workers, the among only not common was site industrial the at housing Furthermore, cities. big the in and countryside the in both factories, Russian of feature typical a accommodationwas abattoir Moscow the traditions, factory Russian with line in much very but models, Western factor important an was housing free day was no diversified demand. more a had and slaughter to related directly not were that professions in volatility was connected to animal slaught profession whose those for city the in opportunity employment only the was basically and business its on monopoly a held abattoir Moscow the that fact the be can loyalty month first very the from means years 18 than more for 51 years,and 15 than more for abattoir Moscow the at 10 worked there for less than 5 years. Furthermore, one half of the slaughterers worked employer. Thus, among the 138 wor its to loyal and stable remarkably was abattoir the of laborforce the hours, working right refuse work. to theovertime technical some In overtime”. work to refusals caused sometimes even and work of quality the affected badly that workers of exhaustion utmost the 111 110 109

The other reason was that the Moscow abattoir with its long and exhausting working long and labor demanding psychologically and physically hard the despite Yet,

TsGAMOS, TsGAMOS, TsGAMOS,179:5

rvdd comdto fr t personnel. its for accommodation provided t very different from the other employers on the city job market. Finally, the 179:54:1112:36 179:54:1112:34 4:1068:3 111

- 7;Gorbunov, o among the white the among o - - 37 37

, .

87 er. er. In favor of this assumption speaks higher personnel s of its operation. its of s - 109 89 kers employedkers at the cattle slaughter 1906, in only .

that Moskovskiye gorodskiye Moskovskiye

tied the workers to the abattoir. Unlike its Unlike abattoir. the to workers the tied - collar employees and even the factory factory the even and employees collar 110

One plausible explanation of thisof explanation plausible One boyni

, p. ,

jobs, workers had no no had workers jobs, Employer 79 .

- provided provided -

which which 173

CEU eTD Collection simp and middle the for buildings the stood them Behind bathrooms. and kitchens private and parquetry oak water, running slau the from remote most complex, the of edge northern the on located were employees to the railway platforms. The buildings for the abattoir's administration and white social inequalities and clearly delineatedthe middle abatto the of personnel lower and upper the between difference income the Although pyramid. employment need or the equal not nearwas housing to entitlement The decline. to accommodation difficult offer an was workplace free the Moscow, in shortage housing general the and account the abattoir's location in the city into outskirts, poor development of Taking pub view. of points infrastructural and architectural institutional, the from project, abattoir's the of partintegral an as implemented and devised Itwas beginning. affected the policy housing as well. be acting on behalf and for the benefit of the city was not a private, but a public of instead enterprises their relocating to quieter and to greener areas. next stay to chose often who themselves, owners 112

The si The ve the from planned was personnel the for accommodation Constructing Izd. Izd. T 287 Bater, J. ghtering facilities. They provided spacious apartments, with central heating and and heating central with apartments, spacious provided They facilities. ghtering – 95; E.M. Dement’yev, E.M. 95; - - ae; t eedd tity n h psto oe cuid n h abattoir the in occupied one position the on strictly depended it based; vaSytina, te of the abattoir was a rectangle stretched from north to south, from the city the from south, to north from stretched rectangle a was abattoir the of te le apartments and shared kitchens and toilets. The so The toilets. and kitchens shared and apartments le St Petersburg: Industrialization and Change and Industrialization Petersburg: St

1897), pp. pp. 1897),

ir was rather moderate, the spat the moderate, rather was ir 36 Fabr - - rank personnel, such as foremen and guards, with small with guards, and foremen as such personnel, rank 43.

institution, institution, organized by governmentthe that claimed to ika: chto ona dayet naseleniyu i chto ona u nego beret nego u ona chto i naseleniyu dayet ona chto ika:

112

The important difference was that the abattoir residents residents

(Montreal: McGill University Press, 1976), 1976), Press, University McGill (Montreal: - classes theworkers. from ial arrangements reinforced the the reinforced arrangements ial -

the position that could have - called family barrack, barrack, family called lic transport

(Moscow,

- collar 174 ry ry 's

CEU eTD Collection its most transitory aspect as its purpose was to confront life and death. The abattoir was that had to restricted be to the It“other space”. was a place where wastime behavior deviant a into turned indeed butchering and slaughter animal respect, this In became the display of animal death and the explicit violence to animals in public spaces. bourgeois societies distanced themselves from killing and blood, the more unacceptabl where individuals with behavior deviant from the required norm were placed. The more The spaces. seeminglyincompatible several place single a in juxtaposing of capable and culture; they are isolated but penetrable, linked to a break in the traditional human time interpretation, for closet a and blanket a mattress, a belongings. bed, a got one where people (!) twenty dor modern those in receive could worker a What staircase. marble a even and toilets heated windows, big painted, warm, dry and well working slaughterhouses for pigs and calves. Compared to the average dwellings of the Moscow [ barracks had elite working the of families twenty These (mechanicians). workers qualified highly located in between the margarine and the albumin factories, provided twenty rooms for 114 113

The nineteenth century abattoir was undoubtedly a heterotopic space. In Foucault's In space. heterotopic a undoubtedly was abattoir century nineteenth The

TsGAMOS, http://web.mit.edu/allanmc/www/foucault1.pdf Heterotopias”, and Utopias Spaces: “OfOther MichelFoucault, abattoir, borrowing the formulation of Foucault, was the “heterotopia of deviation”, -

lse, t classes, to share two kitchens and two toilets. All the other workers lived in the the in lived workers other the All toilets. two and kitchens two share to kazarmy 113

heterotopias heterotopias are the counter 179:54:1054:7 oe arcs okd ut good quite looked barracks hose i te etr f h aati' cmlx rgt et o the to next right complex, abattoir's the of center the in ] mitories of the abattoir was, however, only a place in a room for for room a in place a only however, was, abattoir the of mitories

- 8 - lit, lit, connected to the sewerage system and water ; Poderni, pp. ;pp. Poderni,

83 - - sites that mirror, expose and invert the given 99 , accessed on March 23, 2015. 23, March on accessed .

–

solid brick buildings, freshly freshly buildings, brick solid

revealed in revealed in - pipe, with - class class 175 114 e

CEU eTD Collection restric to conceived was and theirand toconstant life subjected control. regulation was crude at least to the extent the abattoir's circumstances allowed. The workers, associated with privacy, and comfortTheyenjoy economicproduction.could technologyefficientand with trees provided. was compensation) no (and housing no whom for personnel only the were and groups - professions two Although it. from least those who were not family members of the higher ranks, were practically excluded hierarch society,exposing inequalities its and power relations. Russian the of microcosm the represented such as and employees its of hundreds a also but slaughtering, animal of space a only not was West its than system. perfectly a by slaying street everyday the of messiness and horror the replace to invented was it as compensation”, of “heterotopia the also 116 115

were

The abattoir was a disciplining project in many respects. As I discussed above, it it above, discussed I As respects. many in project disciplining a was abattoir The theenactmentof spatial a was arrangements housingabattoir's the geometry The of heterotopic more some respect, version in Russian was, its in abattoir However, the TsGAMOS Modernity discussed in Paula Young Lee, “Introduction: Housing the sl The The application of the Foucauldian terms of “hetorotopia of compensation” to the slaughterhouse is ness and violence, lack of reason and civilization, were placed closer to animals, to closer placed were civilization, and reason of lack violence, and ness reserved for women only, they received the lowest salary in their employment their in salary lowest the received they only, women for reserved 115 ies within the abattoir's population. It remained a male world and women, at women, and world male a remained It population. abattoir's the within ies 116

and flowerbeds, accommodated the elites responsible for the modern science,

The cleanest, best and the Rise of the Slaughterhouse, the Slaughterhouse, the of Rise and , 179:54:1112:27, , 90 - European prototypes (if comparatives can be used with this concept). It concept). this with used be can comparatives (if prototypes European

t and impose scientific rules on the “undisciplined” livestock “undisciplined” the on rules scientific impose and t

- A looking and the most representative edge of the abattoir, ; 179:54:1069:12. –

laundresses and microscopists (“ microscopists and laundresses p.6.

aughter” aughter” in

- organized,

space of home and leisure to leisure and home of space Paula Paula Young Lee (ed.),

clean and scientific and clean mikroskopistki Meat, 176 ”) ”) -

CEU eTD Collection municipality' the contradict to family seem not did and and workers for appropriate housing as seen was working, organization of type this that suggests latter The municipality. thought well preconceived, a but problem, housing the to solution temporary a nor premises, empty of use the on decision accidental days. 10 than longer last not could stays workers' whose wives”, of visits “thebrief roomsfor four included (housing men) 300 form restricted temporarily and spatially a into channelled was it life, sexual from abstain to expected not were workers Although prisoners. or soldiers of those resembled rather arrangement living whose workers, the to denied middle the to only family life as such. The possibility to live together with a spouse and children was given the was provided inside. leisure of forms some even but housing, only not as abattoir, the of walls the leaving o 20, for room dormitory a in or work, at either supervision, constant under be to supposed were groups, other the unlike and, walls abattoir's the within days entire their spent latter The workers. practic unhealthy and the abandon them for good is meat of kind what learn them make to consumers, meat the discipline to meant also was It meat. improper supplying from them prevent to raisers 118 117

The spatial arrangements of the abattoir exposed not only the social differences in in differences social the only not exposed abattoir the of arrangements spatial The p. boyni,” right for comfort, but also the difference in the right for privacy, domesticity and and domesticity privacy, for right the in difference the also but comfort, for right TsGAMOS 179:54:1106:1; TsGAMOS, 500 s vision of public good. public of s vision , 179:54:631:63; Poderni, 179:54:631:63; , .

- lse (n t a ey iie gop f working of group limited very a to (and classes 117

r in a canteen for 150. The workers were discouraged from from discouraged were workers The 150. for canteen a in r 179:54:1068:4; 179:54:1054:7; 179:54:1054:7; 179:54:1068:4;

es. Similarly, it was also a disciplining project for its its for project disciplining a also was it Similarly, es. Tekhnicheskoyeopisaniye

118

Remarkably, it was not an opportunistic or opportunistic an not was it Remarkably, - out project, approved by the the by approved project, out eei, “ Zelenin, , p. p. 95 -

the workers dormitorie workers the .

Moskovskiye gorodskiye gorodskiye Moskovskiye - ls elite) class 177 and s

CEU eTD Collection agreed with most of the demands and ordered to buy new stoves remained the same for 17 years, from the very opening of the wagesabattoir. The municipality in increase general a for and visits family for rooms more for month employment with two weeks of paid vacation, for the re 12 for municipality the petitioned they 1905, April early In rights. their for fight and workers were infact among the first thelargegroup ofmunicipal employees toprotest reluctant to make actual concessions to the growing workers' movem creating basis ofthe aequal, universal, onthe parliament secret vote. order state the of improvement the on proposals adopted Council City the 1905 June in meetings; and unions strikes, of freedom the of favor stated that the workers should have all legal ways to protect their interests and spoke in in the political sphere scalereforms, especially enterprises. measures all take should municipal the influencenegatively to enterprises other the from Government workers of possibility city the City to the damage addition, enormous bring In could residents. workers those of strike the because etc. spread of those strikes to the municipal enterprises such as water pipe, sewerage system, Government to take all possible measures without losing a single minut to discussthe measures couldpreventescalationMoscow: ofthe that conflict the in rest the to proposed deputies municipal Moscow 60 protest, mass the of beginning the after days several just 1905, 13, January On improved. abattoir 120 119

Yet, in the sphere that directly concerned the city budget, the municipality was more City the force factories Moscow many at now started that workers of strikes The the at conditions working the that 1905 of year revolutionary the until not was It h Mso mncplt gnrly hrd h rvltoay ead for demand revolutionary the shared generally municipality Moscow The TsGAMOS, TsGAMOS, 179:54:631:2; 119

179:54:631:1

.

IMGD,

June - July July 1905 , pp. pp. , -

on Januaryon 13 - 23 .

in Russia, which called for called which Russia, in 14, 1905 the City Council Council theCity 14, 1905 organization organization of kitchens,

and to create 20 rooms

of the City Council Council City the of ent. The abattoir's 120 e to prevent the

–

gis the against which had had which

large 178

- -

CEU eTD Collection compensation a offered and considered be should familyworkers the of needs the that (which meant a substantial increase for many of the abattoir's City Council introduced long Moscow the October, In yield. to had January, in voiced movement, workers' the and rightafter use to their and insurance against death and disability, improvement of housing conditions and their overtime work, eight for limits service, long for awards rubles, 25 employees, of wages municipal monthly minimal demanded of strike general a with city the threatening organization, t from those including employed technicalabattoir's inthe maintenance. eight three introduced and municipality approved the increase of staff, the two the summer, In increase. 15% a on agreed sides the negotiations, the after and, wages, in increase 20% a on insisted workers abattoir the May, In demands. no revolutionary were pants and boots and municipality the of side the on not was initiative strategic the 1905 in However, barracks.” workers' the in conditions hygienic necessary the maintain to difficult is “it otherwise and rancid” and dirty expense city because, the in the words of the abattoir's managing director, on their boots and clothes with workers the provide to proposed was Instead,it unreasonable. found was increase wage for request yetthe visits; familyfor 122 121

The municipality, facing the general strike and bound by its s enterprises, municipal various the in employed workers Moscow all Meanwhile,

TsGAMOS, 63 179:54:631: IMGD, IMGD, October October 1905 -

hour hour working day a - , pp. , pp. work hours atwork their discretion. e btor fre a on Wres raiain This organization. Workers joint a formed abattoir, he 47 - - 74; IMGD, IMGD, 74; - or hfs nta o to twelve two of instead shifts hour - 48 service service awards of up to 40% for all municipal employees

.

June nd nd one month of paid vacation for all, pensions - July July 1905 121 , pp. pp. , -

week paid va 122 25

- 27 .

workers). workers). The city stated

clothes were “extremely upport to the revolution - or hfs o those for shifts hour cation cation for all workers t able to satisfy the the satisfy to able t 179

CEU eTD Collection common city ofremained vision it residents, Even quite their limited. in the institution and people the to socially a be responsible employer. Although the municipal deputies shared the discourse of to service failed abattoir the costs, operating the cut to Willing prevailed. “publ prioritize to claimed and profit, on focus their condemning entrepreneurs, private the from itself distinguish to wanted municipality The plants. industrial private the to similarly very finances. city with circumstances narrow the of because partially city, the to unprofitable first at were <...> enterprises municipal the because partially systematically, done not was s to implemented was thought this Although and because the Municipality should give an example of a particular care of its workers. profit but the improvement of life of the city populations, to which the workers belong, pri the because,unlike conditions best the workersin November in periodical putit 1905, diplomatically good” “public its all despite that, and enough good been not had enterprises municipal the at conditions year.the abattoir14days 10to increased from per of duration maximum the and vacations, take to want they when decide personally to right the granted were workers the wage; the of 150% to 100% from decrease the workload at the abattoir; the compensation for per the overtime work increased Additional dormitories. the in not and apartments private in live to choose would who workers abattoir's the of those for money”) (“apartment 124 123

Despite being a public it has been frequently said in the Duma that the municipal government should put its the that admitted Council City the that meant also workers the to concession The gorodskiye Moskovskiye boyni, sAO, 179 TsGAMOS, IMGD, IMGD, 124 November November

ic good” over economic success, yet in practice financial concerns concerns financial practice in yet success, economic over good” ic 5:3:3; 179:54:632:16 :54:631:133; htrc te iy ald o e fi epoe. s h municipal the As employer. fair a be to failed city the rhetoric, – 1905

rbby ut sincerely quite probably , p. , project, the Moscow abattoir, in its role as an employer, acted 39

p. p. 47 .

- 17; ome extent, it is necessary to admit that it that admit to necessary is it extent, ome IMGD, IMGD, –

wanted to act for the benefit of the the of benefit the for act to wanted 123

oebr 95 p. 38 pp. 1905, November vate entrepreneurs, its goal is not goalis its entrepreneurs, vate

sonnel was hired to to hired was sonnel

wife visits to visits wife - 8 Gorbunov, 48; 180 -

CEU eTD Collection the revolution. to response a as only changed was and disciplining social and rationalization stro municipality the that welfare urban of model a as serve could thus and city the to belonged that

e o rmt, h “ulc od reoi gt arwd on to down narrowed got rhetoric good” “public the promote, to ve 181

CEU eTD Collection in Russia as elsewhere, emerged as a topic for scholarly attention, both from the standpoint bacteriology. contagion of source a as sci industry and population growing the by produced wastes the for depository perfect a sink”, “ultimate self cultures. human in concepts fundamental sense symbolic a environme unhealthy and 3 2 1

ence added a different dimension to the understanding of water, defining its reservoirs its defining water, of understanding the to dimension different a added ence In the last decades, the relations between humans and water Water plays an essential role in our perception of cleanliness and pollution, of a healthy - Colonial TimesColonial Present the to 1989); Press, University Jean of University AkronPress, Tarr, Joel New York:Routled Between cesspools and Between cesspools and police stations:campaign agianst the water and pollution Mary cleans - Pierre Goubert, Goubert, Pierre Douglas, Douglas, ing capacities of water provided justification for its streams to be used as an as used be to streams its for justification provided water of capacities ing The Search for the Ultimate Sink: Urban Pollution in Historical Perspective Perspective Historical in Pollution Urban Sink: Ultimate the for Search The 3 -

n h nntet cnuy oe hn vr before. ever than more century nineteenth the in Purity and Danger: An Analysis of the Concepts of Pollution and Taboo and Pollution of Concepts the of Analysis An Danger: and Purity –

ge, 1996), ge,1996), and as such it is strongly associated with purity, which is one of the the of one is which purity, with associated strongly is it such as and

The Conquest of Water: The Advent of Health in the Industrial Age Industrial the in Health of Advent The Water: of Conquest The - nt. Water is the main cleansing agent agent cleansing main the is Water nt. Martin Melosi, Melosi, Martin

1996 first through the language of miasmatic theory and later that of that later and theory miasmatic of language the through first pp (Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000). Press, University London: and JohnsHopkins (Baltimore The

). ). . 2 Mo

- 3, 3, 36 scow seweragescow system CHAPTERFIVE - 37. h Sntr Ct: ra Ifatutr i Aeia from America in Infrastructure Urban City: Sanitary The A Russian mind is a is EuropeanA Russianmind between lost mind

1

Yet, precisely this belief in the purifying and and purifying the in belief this precisely Yet, VictorPelevin,

cesspools and police stations... in the context of modernity, -

both in a physical and in and physicala in both 2 Batman Batman Apollo

Furthermore, modern modern Furthermore, (Akron, OH: OH: (Akron, (London and and (London (Pri (2013) nceton 182

CEU eTD Collection flows were used to move and sometimes to deposit the refuse. Sewers also transformed the water the because circulation water natural the altered it cycle; nutrient the interrupted sew the settlements, human from away excrement the carrying Through task. this to During the nineteenth century, the sewerage system came to be regarded as the best answer soc urban the fertilizer, a as it seeing of Instead different. very were excrement human of relations. As historian Verena Winiwarter has noted, the agricultural and urban perceptions andground morewas piped watereconomy. tosatisfy theneeds ofpopulation and more refuse, industrial and human the by polluted increasingly became waters surfacethe ri the changed, were flows water of locations and velocity The waters. surface the to precipitation the convey to constructed were gutters of networks the and soil, the into permeating from rainwater from and to moved be to goods more and routes transportation reliable more energy, freshwater,more more required it as demographic and industrial growth exerted an unprecedented pressure on water resources, in which societies, particularly, urban, in history. environmental and cultural of The introduction iety perceived and dealt with it only as waste that needed to be hidden and removed. removed. and hidden be to needed that waste as only it with dealt and perceived iety (Frankfurt am Main: Campus, 2009); Constantin Iordachi and Kristof Van Assche (eds.), (eds.), Assche Van Kristof Delta and Danube the of Politics Iordachi Constantin 2009); Campus, Main: am (Frankfurt Hausmann, America North and Europe in Waterways (eds.), Zeller Thomas Mauch, Christof 2002); Press, Washington Cioc, Marc 1999); 1840 East, Far in the Russian Expansion Geographical Bassin, Mark 1992); Press, University Oxford York: 4

Donald Worster, Worster, Donald ütrhn og: i Fus l Einrnsr vm 6 bs n füe 0 Jahrhundert 20. frühe ins bis 16. vom Erinnerungsort als Fluss ein Wolga: Mütterchen

of sewerage systems in cities marked yet another shift in socio vers were regulated to prevent flooding and facilitate navigation. As navigation. facilitate and flooding prevent to regulated were vers h Rhi The

Rivers of Empire: Water, Aridity, and and Aridity, Water, Empire: of Rivers e A Eco An ne: (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 201 Books, Lexington (Lanham, MD:

cities. Cities were paved and asphalted, preventing the the preventing asphalted, and paved were Cities cities. 4 - igah, 1815 Biography,

The industrial age substantially reshaped the ways the reshaped substantially age industrial The

teracted teracted with water and waterways. Urbanization, Ptsug: nvriy f itbrh rs, 08; G 2008); Press, Pittsburgh of University (Pittsburgh: - meil iin: ainls Iaiain and Imagination Nationalist Visions: Imperial 1865 - 2000

(New York: Cambridge University Press, Press, CambridgeUniversity (New York: the Growth of the American West American the of Growth the (Seattle and London: University of of University London: and (Seattle 4). Rivers in History: Perspectives on on Perspectives History: in Rivers

- h Bio The

natural natural erage (New 183 uido uido -

CEU eTD Collection system St. infrastructure. sanitary causes todevelop commitment wastewater ofdisease, butthe infrastructure per the as germs the with odors foul and miasma filth, replaced revolution” “bacteriological on theirexpand sewers or build to America and Europe across manycities stimulated wastes household the away 1870s, bel environmental sanitation were thus seen as essential for fighting Inepidemics. the 1850s removal of the decaying organic materials, preventing the spread of their rotting smells and or including dumps “filth”, cesspools, of depositories The emanation. their through spread is and wastes theory thatdiseaseassumption fromwas organic ontheoriginates the based decomposing rational and background the provided that theory miasmatic the was it century nineteenth the of most Throughout practices hygiene,private and of both public. reconfigured and houses, and cities of architecture and infrastructure 6 5

- h Rsin mie a, oee, eakby ae n nrdcn tee ye of types these introducing in late remarkably however, was, Empire Russian The systems. sewerage of construction the for crucial indeed were concerns Sanitary Main in 1876, Berlin in 1875 in Berlin 1876, in Main City, Moskvy,” kanalizatsii o vorposu po 55 N “Doklad Sewage of History Legal (Muenster: Waxmann, 2004), p. 108; (ed.), inBernhardt Christoph Verena - p. 93. p.

it was constructed only in the Soviet times. The Moscow sewerage syste sewerage Moscow The times. Soviet the in only constructed was it Winiwarter, ief in the connection between disease and filth and in the health value of flushing

“Where Did Did “Where Allsettlements,” the Waters Urban in Sewage of Introduction Go? The –

Chicago in 1859, London in 1865, Hamburg in1862 London 1865,Hamburg in in1859, Chicago waterways, were seen as sources of contamination. The prompt prompt The contamination. of sources as seen were waterways,

(Vancouver: 2007), Press, Columbia British of University e for developing the technologies of sanitation. The miasmatic The sanitation. of technologies the developing for e

Petersburg, the imperial capital, never received a sewerage sewerage a received never capital, imperial the Petersburg, Environmental ProblemsEuropean in 19 Citiesthe in

- 1878.

see also Jami 6

In the last decades of the nineteenth century the century nineteenth the of decades last the In 5 e Benidickson, e Benidickson,

IMGD, IMGD, 10 (187 10 The The Culture of Flushing: A Social and 9) , pp.

4 - 12; 12; Melosi,

th

h ntos and notions the

and 20 - 69, Frankfurt The Sanitary Sanitary The sisted. sisted. th

Centuries Centuries m was was m 184

– -

CEU eTD Collection Moskva the of riverbed ( Canal Vodootvodny the shipsneeded high twoweeks in water and monthswhen uptotwo the water was low. to cover the 180 k current theinstabilityits general of and shallowness hindered river's by the however, was, navigation commercial reliable The city. the from and to transportation of railway of construction the to Up the Smolensk inrisesRiver, whichMoskva the fromname derivedits also and of banks the emergedon which meanings were byvarious attachedprocess tothis social actors. o problems the approached experts and bein authorities into came system sewerage Moscow the why and how explore pages following The treatment. waste and discharge industrial concerning policies and The construction of the sewerage system, in its turn, stimulated a range of new discussions wer environment city the of deterioration sanitary the and pollution river which in committees municipal various and papers scholarly citypress, the in discussions and work preparatory of years 25 by preceded was launching its but 1898, in completed 7

ept te rjcs n h rvr regulation river the in projects the Despite c a played rivers cities, many with As Rivers, waste Istoriya uluchsheniya Moskvy uluchsheniya Istoriya Poyasnit lny zpsa o hyzvny Moskvy shlyuzovaniyu po zapiska el'naya - Moscow Upland and flows 500 km to the Oka River, a tributary of the Volga. s m distance between Moscow and Kolomna (the town in the river mouth)

and theimages pollution and of

“Water bypass channel”) was constructed in 1783 in constructed was channel”) bypass “Water –

spring floods remained the norm throughout the nineteenth nineteenth the throughout norm the remained floods spring - reki

(St. s, the Moskva River remained the most important means important most the remained River Moskva the s,

Petersburg: Tipografiya Goldberg, I. rucial role in the history of Moscow. The city The Moscow. of history the in role rucial - reki

– Mso: .. 82, . ; N.V. 1; p. 1882), S.n. (Moscow:

pluin n wse ramn and treatment waste and pollution f o eape a four a example, for 1902

), p. ), e key arguments. keye - g, 1786 on the old old the on 1786 - ioee long kilometer

4 - . o te city the how

in the 1870s, in the

Gerasimov, 185 7

CEU eTD Collection waters waste and snow rain, the from city the deliver for the deficit ofdrinking water becamegrowing a issue inthecity. rapidly pressing b and almost universally used not only for laundry and bath houses, but also for drinking, cooking was quality, appalling its despite water, well and river the that confirm doctors sanitary t of needs the below urban Indwellers. 1879, the pipes provided 635, 000 buckets of water daily which was far of Mytishchi, north 1804 thecity a water had since Although Muscovites. for water of sources important the remained one, biggest the theriver andm3/s; spills floods1/7ofthe city t 2600 reaches sometimes thevolume evenand 3m/s, 1600m3/s speed or its increases to2 becomes unrecognizable: it rises its waters rapidly, sometimes 8 m above its normal level, comes, spring the then but year; a months eleven looks Moskva streamflow of 30 m3/s when entering the city and 50 m3/s when leaving it. This is how the engineer the 1882, Vsevolod Kastalsky descr In 1879. in occurring one disastrous particularly a with century, 9 8

The network River ofthe and tributaries Moskva its also served as an excretory system In the nineteenth century, the Moskva River and its inflows, with the 48 a and m/s 0.15 below speed a with drop, vertical minimal a with current weak a the city. The vital metabolic function of Moscow's five rivers and 22 streams was to was streams 22 and rivers five Moscow's of function metabolic vital The city. the Zimin, “K voprosu o vodosnabzhenii Moskvy,”vodosnabzhenii o voprosu “K Zimin, 13 pp. 16, chasti,” chasti,” Prechistenskoy vracha blagoustroystva Kastalsky, V.D. A. Petunnikov, “Sostav i svoystva Moskovskikh vod” in vod” Moskovskikh svoystva i “Sostav Petunnikov,A. read baking. Although additional smaller water smaller additional Although baking. read

IMGD, IMGD, - 1 “tht aiang vah Mscaco chasti,” Meshchanckoy vracha sanitarnogo “Otchet 21; 16 ( 16 (Moscow: Tipografiya Klein, oka sovremennom v Moskva - east east of Moscow, its supply was not sufficient to cover the needs of the 1878 he city with the 700 the with city he

) - , pp. 34 pp. , ibed the MoskvaRiver as pipe that bro

IMGD, IMGD, - 44; “Otchet sanitarnogo vracha vracha chasti,” Arbatskoy sanitarnogo “Otchet 44; ( 4 ught the water from the artesian inthevillage wells 1878

- 1883 thousand population. The reports of municipal of reports The population. thousand sostoyanii sostoyanii IMGD, IMGD, ) n. 4 p. 44 pp. 14, no. , ), p. ),p. erritory, causing numerous calamities.erritory, causing numerous 7 9 .

( IMGD i 1879

- - pipes were organized, by the 1870s the by organized, were pipes ho y rdti sea' v sdelat' predstoit ey chto

and solid wastes to some extent as extent some to wastes solid and ) , pp. , - 3 ( 3 55; 55; 1879 IMGD, IMGD, 26 “ - Sanitarny otchet po po otchet Sanitarny 33 ice breaks, and the river river the and breaks, ice ) , p. 15; 15; p. , .

7 ( 17 1878 “ - km Yauza being Otchet sanitarnogo sanitarnogo Otchet IMGD, IMGD, ) p. 10 pp. ,

9 otnoshenii

1878 , no. , 1878 Yauzskoy - 1 N. 31; 8 186

CEU eTD Collection each household was disposed. be to tons) 7.9 (almost puds 480 left this evaporation, after even and annually, waste of tons) (11.5 puds 700 produced person each estimations, contemporary the to According challenge. thousand workers. 120 employed which factories, 500 almost had Moscow 1870s, the of end the By 1882. thousand in and 750 thousand in1871 reached 600 and bycity'shalf populationincreased se of abolition the after decade Inthe growth. industrial and city'sdemographic theform in the problem of requireda a sewerage system. solution w it soon and debate public a as emerged pollution their 1870s the in wastes, theurban for used ascenturies werefor deposit Although waterways Moscow's St. in Neva the than less times seventy and Lyon in Rhone the or Rome less times four Paris, in Seine the than affluent less twice about was it hydraulic estimations of V.I. the to According River. Moskva the of flow stream and depth speed, moderate very the compli was situation Moscow's but rivers, urban many of task the was This well. 13 12 11 10

The disposal of wastes left by the increasing populati increasing the by left wastes of disposal The The change objectivethis was behind inthe reality perception of metabolism urban IMGD, IMGD, inzhener proyektu po Moskvy: goroda “Kanalizatsiya Popov, M.A. tipografiya, gorodskaya Moskovskaya otdela. statisticheskogo Ostroglazov, kanalizatsii Moskvy,”vorposu o po 55 N “Doklad V.I. Astrakov,vody,kolichestve “O Moskve,” vreke protekayushchey 8 ( 8 1880 Smertnost' v Moskve Moskve v Smertnost' ) , , p. 12

supposed supposed to accumulate its wastes 6 13

.

Moscow relied on the cesspool s cesspool the on relied Moscow Vol. 2

Astrakov Astrakov in 1878, with its maximum stream flow of 55 m3/s,

Promyshlennye Mso: .. 18) p 1; p. 1887), S.n., (Moscow: 1882 ), pp. ), pp. i

torgovye zavedeniya Moskvy za 1879 god 1879 za Moskvy zavedeniya torgovye 68 IMGD, IMGD, - 69 .

10 ( 10

in a cesspool, the contents of which 18 ystem to reach this goal. Legally, goal. this reach to ystem 79) on of Moscow indeed posed a a posed indeed Moscow of on

rd Msosoo gorodkoskogo Moskovskogo Trudy , , p. - gidrotekh IMGD, IMGD, 22 11 , 37

as acknowledged that that acknowledged as . 8 ( 8

ia .. ooa, in Popova”, M.A. nika 1878

than the Tiber in in Tiber the than )

, , pp. Petersburg. rfdom, the the rfdom,

39

cated by by cated (Moscow: (Moscow: - 41 .

187 10

CEU eTD Collection while the waste disposal sites did not prevent the refuse from draining into the river workers cart cleaning in our houses.” that “ m take to mayor city the petitioned Pole would not end up in the rivers. Thus, in 1874 the residents of Moscow's suburb Shiryayevo (and, especially,when nights) thestreams ofstormwate days rainy on ditches street the in garbage the throw to was however, solution, simplest The pipes. underground through or directly either refuse, the drain to streams natural estate private through went brooks and rivers small the of most As case. the frequently was opposite the that testify accounts numerous drains, rain city natural streams should be kept clean and strictly forbade dumping human excrement in the pr decrees governmental and municipal the Although wastes. of rid get to means cheaper) (and alternative invented and carts cleaning cesspool the calling avoided and odors ofwate thepollution noxious had to be regularly removed to the city dumps by special cesspool cleaning carts to prevent 15 16 14

In fact, even regular the calling of the cesspool cleaning carts did not ensure that refuse or delayed landlords Moscow different. quite happens, often as was, practice The TsGAMOS, 33:4: 179: Gorodskay Verner,I.A. in Moskvy” goroda “Kanalizatsiya Moskvy goroda Kanalizatsiya 10 pp. chasti,” 13 pp. chasti,” Arbatskoy vracha sanitarnogo “Otchet 44 pp. chasti Prechistenskoy vracha sanitarnogo 7 l, : 16:130:240 TsGAMOS, postanovlenii gorodov drugikh 30 pp. 1879), PechatnyaYakovleva, chastiyu i Moskvy g. zhiteley dlya obyazatel’nyh Sbornik produces such a stench [ a tipografiya, tipografiya, a 16 -

31; Kastalsky, 31; The river water, according to them, was deteriorating because the cesspool

simply dumped its contents on the way to the assigned garbage lots garbage assigned the wayto the on contents its dumped simply 4.

1913 ), p. p. ), Mosk - zlovoniye

8; 8; 287 Moskv g. zhitelei dla obyazatel’nyh Sbornik (Moscow: Gorodskaya tipografiya, 1896), p.1; A.A. Nikitin, Nikitin, A.A. p.1; 1896), tipografiya, Gorodskaya (Moscow: va v sovremennovsostoyanii v va - 31. .

] ] that it has become dangerous for our health to live r and soil. easures against the pollution of the Yauza River River Yauza the of pollution the against easures - Sovremennoye khozyaystvo goroda Moskvy Moskvy goroda khozyaystvo Sovremennoye 55; 55; “ - Sanitarny otchet po Yauzskoy chasti,”pp. 34 Yauzskoy po chasti,”pp. otchet Sanitarny 14 21; “Otchet sanitarnogo vracha Meshchanckoy Meshchanckoy vracha sanitarnogo “Otchet 21;

r carried it away to theriver.r carried itawayto , pp. 8, 14, 18 14, 8, pp. , s, their owners used the the used owners their s, - 19; E.N. Kamenetskaya, Kamenetskaya, E.N. 19; y, pp. 31, 53; 53; 31, pp. escribed that that escribed

(Moscow: (Moscow: (Moscow: (Moscow: – “

which 15 Otchet Otchet

188

- 44;

CEU eTD Collection the away carry to necessary be would system sewerage the and grow, would usage sources in the city. On the other hand, should the new water supply be developed, the water improve to way a as hand, seen was one sewers the the constructing On lines. same the along developed thus supply water on and system sewerage the on discussions The drinking. for unfit and polluted too became rivers and th in freshwater the in deficiency the and tuberculosis) even and typhus as(such diseasesof spread the mortalityrates, city,high the of condition various wastesdrained are being i that doubt no is There available. is better nothing because only drinking for used be can River, one can note that although its water, because of its larger volume, is less polluted, it doing for even suitable not is Yauza the in water the that clear is It <...> it in discharged is whatever on depending change sometimes can that Muscovite knows that in summer the Yauza has the fetid and feculent liquid of brown color I.Neiding:the wordsYauza ofsanitary the district themunicipal doctor of Moscow, where th of city entire the for but areas, nearby the of residents the for only not infection of source river threatensintothe this against of <...>tosoonturn theriver. This such contamination use. any for unsuitable liquid fetid dirty a into river this in water the turned ago long have stream, its along located factories, polic investigation. municipal a by confirmed was then 19 18 17

h asne f poe sse o wse ipsl a bae fr h anti the for blamed was disposal waste of system proper a of absence The water the of quality the describe to necessary is it think not do I This opinion was echoed in many contemporary accounts, which can be summarized in houses and the from theYauza are into constantly discharged that The wastes different “Sanitarny otchet po po “Sanitarnyotchet Yauzskoy p. chasti,” p. Kastalsky,by given was account similar 179:33:4:11;TsGAMOS, TsGAMOS, e, board theMoscow wrote: municipal 19 .

179:33:4:4 e brings Yauza wastes. its

.

nto the Moskva River. nto the Moskva Despite this, no serious measures have been taken taken been have measures serious no this, Despite 35 .

18

17

In its letter to the Chief of the city the of Chief the to letter its In the laundry <...> As for the Moskva the for As <...> laundry the e city e 19

the quality of the natural water water natural the of quality the

Moskva v sovremennom sostoyanii sovremennom v Moskva -

because the water in wells in water the because

in the Yauza: every Yauza: the in

- sanitary 189 ,

CEU eTD Collection death. early the to spirits low the from ranging changes, difficult most experience can it influence their under way; pernicious most the in organism living the affect can waste comp their study to organized wrote Popov author ofMoscowin1875, of sewers Mikhail thefirst project of understanding Pasteur, of research the and theory environment. a waterways Moscow the of pollution the of awareness raised engineers and hygienists chemists, Physicians, dwellers. city the for “cloaca” and cesspool” bottomless “the as serving were they that scholarly research, and scien public. the about among ideas disease scientific and sanitation of spread the and Russia in hygiene and chemistry medicine, scientific was this of aspect One pollution. their perceived society Moscow way the but themselves waterways cargo inthe pipe. woul turn in which waters waste of volume increased 22 21 20

[w]astes produced by humans create an extremely harmful environment; the research the environment; harmful extremely an create humans by produced [w]astes germ the of aware clearly were circles medical Russian the although 1870s, the In not only the decadesthenineteenth century,was changedWhat of however, last by the “ 161 pp. Moskvy sistematicheski in sostoyanii” IMGD, Moskvy”, eya ocherk “Gidrografischeskiy sovremennom v Moskvy izucheniya dlya Petunnikov,“Sostav A. g.Moskvy,” kanalizatsii o voprosu p. inzhener proyektu po vrac sanitarnogo “Otchet Parazitizm i anti Parazitizm - - 162. reki za 1887 21

nbyei nd oeaie kiihsoo bkeilgcekg ssaa vody sostava bakteriologicheskogo i khimicheskogo kolebaniyem nad nablydenii h

20 pollution and the discussion about waste treatments in Moscow. As the the As Moscow. in treatments waste about discussion the and pollution - parazitizm” in parazitizm”

-

1888 g. - d lre Rsin ulc bu te agr o te unwholesome the of dangers the about public Russian alerted nd – gidrotekhnika M.A. Popova,” in Popova,” M.A. gidrotekhnika

i

ha Prechistenskoy chasti,” p. 46; M.A. Popov, “Kanalizatsiya goroda Moskvy: M.A.Popov, Moskvy: 46; p. goroda chasti,” “Kanalizatsiya haPrechistenskoy it svoystva Mosko svoystva

was connected to the development and institutionalization of institutionalization and development the to connected was (Moscow: Tipografiya Bonch tific demonstrations were used to confirm laythe conclusions

osition revealed that the gases and vapors emitted by the by emitted vapors and gases the that revealed osition Moskovskaya meditsinskaya ga meditsinskaya Moskovskaya 3 , 59 22 vskikh vod” in in vod” vskikh .

t a te isai ter ta fae the framed that theory miasmatic the was it The rivers of Moscow became an object of of object an became Moscow of rivers The ( 7 1882 ) IMGD, IMGD, p. 70 pp. , IMGD - Bruyevicha, Bruyevicha, 1889), pp. d facilitate the moving of the sewer the of moving the facilitate d , zeta, zeta, ( 8 3 ( 3 - IMGD, IMGD, 74; 74; 1880 1879 52 ( 52 quotes from M.B. Kotsyn, Kotsyn, M.B. from quotes ), pp. pp. ), ) 1874), pp. 1725 pp. 1874), , pp. 15 pp. , ( 1 1882 26 - -

32 31; 31; 157 ) p. 46 pp. , ; “Doklad N “Doklad ;

- idem 163, 163, particularly - 1734. , “Materialy “Materialy , - 54; 54;

55 idem Opyt 190

po - ,

CEU eTD Collection putrefact of products volatile fetid the with air the and elements rotting the emphasis is its onsmell, telling: between pollution and disease. Not o connection natural some assuming factors, two the between link exact the for look to [ fever relapsing and typhoid typhus, re these connected He polluted. utterly was of his quantitative bacteriological and chemical analysis, Sokolov concluded that the Yauza basis the On model. explanatory same the within coexist could fact, in and, contradictory bacteriolog and miasmatic the that reveals Sokolov, Andrei students, Erismann’s the of one by Yauza the on Research methods. laboratory its and bacteriology of introduction the after persisted pollution water of understanding sanitary medic Moscow the Among approach. miasmatic the of disappearance human feces the embryos and, infectiousdisease. inthem, of pathogenic processes or because their pres directlycancausedecomposition of products becauseeither the consideredsuspicious, be should rotting to liable organicmaterial of quantities substantial contains which water the <...> question complicated and difficult very a is disease, of in the opinion of many, water plays as an etiological moment in the development and spread Erismann lectures inhis explained ea onhygiene inthe areexclusively vapors. caused by the noxious Typhus, cholera, sma 24 23

The Yauza The the mean however, not, did discoveries bacteriological the of acceptance The the question of the sanitary or, rather, the pathogenic meaning of water, of the role that, t By F.F. Erisman, M.A.Popov, e 80 te em theory germ the 1880s he - river, receiving all possible wastes, infects the banks and the bottom with bottom the and banks the infects wastes, possible all receiving river, Domovye Domovye Kursgigiyeny,

llpox, llpox, measles, scarlet fever and many other illnesses of various kinds i

dvorovye stoki vol. vol.

1 ,

1887

hlegd h mamtc xlnto. s Friedrich As explanation. miasmatic the challenged nly his reasoning, but also his specific language, with (St. tify , pp. pp. ,

Petersburg: Tipografiya Goppe, ] in Moscow districts along the Yauza, but failed but Yauza, the along districts Moscow in ] ence in water suggests that the latter may contain 192 , 23 sults to the relatively high mortality from from mortality high relatively the to sults 199

.

rly 1880s, ical theories were not seen as as seen not were theories ical

24 It is generally accepted that accepted generally is It

1885 al professionals, the professionals, al ), ), p. 1 .

o and ion 191

CEU eTD Collection whe was Europeanness. Moscow's and Russia's asserting of way a as and modernization towards step symbolic infrastructural project underdevelopment. Moscow’s symbolized and disorder and dirt for and, metaphorically, the polluted and fetid city waterways, were asseen causes of disease, demands and backwardness Moscow's “ The reforms. of and modernization feeling growing the to connected construction. it played 1890s and 1880s the throughout disease of theories two the of coexistence the below, demonstrate will I As plausible. very least at or convincing fa argumentation the that indicates Medicine of more stinking, unbearably becomes and contamination resembling theriver refuse than the water. its of maximum the reaches next downstream, afar; from felt smell unpleasant gets and and dirty becomes appearance its in changes rapidly it city, the entering the After on <…> effectarea. surrounding unhealthy an has conditions, other the with combination in consequently, 26

Yet, although the idea of the sewerage system was borrowed from the West and this this and West the from borrowed was system sewerage the of idea the although Yet, political, be could Moscow in pollution to sensitivity growing the in aspect other The Department the of medal gold the Sokolov awarded University Moscow that fact The Blagushinoy, 162; Moskvy,” kanalizatsii Lopasheva,” A.D. glasnogo “Zayavlenie bednykh, maloletnikh prizreniya un Mosk. fak. Med. udost. raboty, iz Izvlecheniya 25

A.D. Sokolov, A.D. re the city reformers were looking to, it would be incorrect to see it only as the as only it see to incorrect be would it to, looking were reformers city the re V.F[idler],

26 1897

oka Kaky ohri oosoo blagoustroystva gorodskogo ocherki Kratkiye Moskva. ), pp. ), pp. 1

. – IMGD, IMGD, Rezultaty analizov vody reki Yauzy. 2. Sutochnye kolebani Sutochnye Yauzy. 2. reki vody analizov Rezultaty

the the public abattoir 89 - 90 . 10 (1879), 10

1892 cesspools” of Moscow, meaning both the backyard pits pits backyard the both meaning Moscow, of cesspools” ), pp.

culty committee considered such analysis and and analysis such considered committee culty p p I 8 . 1, 22; 22; 1, . MGD - s role in the discussions on the sewerage system seweragesystem the on discussions the in role s 11 25 -

the sewerage system was seen as an important , quote from pp. pp. , from quote - , - ta zolotoi medali medali zolotoi ta

( 4 Kotsyn, the miasmatic and the bacteriological bacteriological the and miasmatic the 1879 ) Opyt sistematicheskih nablydenii, nablydenii, sistematicheskih Opyt p. 1 pp. , 10 - 11 (St. - 2; “Doklad N 55 po vorposu o o vorposu po 55 N “Doklad 2; .

Petersburg: Tipografiya Doma Doma Tipografiya Petersburg:

Similar to the other big other the to Similar Mso: Tipografiya (Moscow: ya kisloroda v vode: vode: v kisloroda ya to its mouth, it mouth, its to pp.

161 192 – -

CEU eTD Collection of presence the time same the at but achieve, to impossible almost seemed it that long so “mirage” yearsa for was seweragesystem the reformers, city the of al but municipalityMoscow the course, withthe only sewerage system.” S city, healthier a Moscow make to how question the for still, And yards. and gardens private vast and houses small streets, narrow curvy what regarded the westernizers as a ofprovincialism sign healt human for harmful are houses multistory terraced streets, straight and wide that believed He Paris. Haussmann's by epitomized city” “modern the anti generally his despite to close was who Solovyov different. were nuances the just alike, sides both by shared was cities Russian of “healthification” of rhetoric condition” extremelydeplorable an in countryour is in sanitation “the agreedthat post the In Russia. in project westernizers' 28 27

The construction of sewers was not only the largest and the most expensive project of of project expensive most the and largest the only not was sewers of construction The thesewerageChoosing system explanation thescientific and pp. pp. Solovyov, N.I. see press, slavophile theby discussed Quot 4 e from the the slavophile newspaper newspaper slavophile the the from e - 39 ,from quote p. Moskva Moskva

39 27 i

Peterburg v sanitarnom otnoshenii otnoshenii sanitarnom v Peterburg

. -

For example, the literary critic and medical journalist Nikolay journalist medical and critic literary the example, For modernist and modernist pochvennich

so the one that took the longest to complete. In the words words the In complete. to longest the took that one the so Rus', Rus', Rus' 4 ( 4 28 e Slavophile 1880 stvo

, 26 (1881), no. 26; the sewerage system was positively positively was system sewerage the 26; no. (1881), 26 , - reform era the opponents of “westernization” of opponents the era reform , also called for the sewer the for called also , ), ), 26

( 1881

olovyov had a definite answer: “Of “Of answer: definite a had olovyov positions. Solovyov clearly disliked disliked clearly Solovyov positions. (Moscow: Tipografiya M Tipografiya (Moscow: ), ), 57 -

for the loose settlement, for its for theloose settlement,

( 1881 h and praised Moscow for Moscow praised and h ). ).

-

it was discussed for for discussed was it age construction, construction, age yshkina,

and the and 1874 193 ),

CEU eTD Collection and population of density the estimated quarters, and streets measured plan, leveling the commissioned city The it. complete to years eight took it that vast so research necessary riverscape, climate, metabol soil, terrain, city the of knowledge The project. detailed a prepare to study topographical considered it later, received the idea positively and agreed on the necessity of an extensive then be used the ofdrinking tocompensate deficit water inMoscow. of the sewerage system would improve the quality of water in rivers and wells which could general urban sanitation and the increase o advantages ofthe sewerage system,as by advertised were Popov, thedecline ofmortality, main The rubles. silver million 16 at estimated was execution project the of price The volum daily a with moment) that at population Moscow actual the than more (twice million 1.4 of population a for calculated was system the of capacity maximum The Kolomenskoye. of village the near River, Moskva the of bank and remove waters storm the and thefiltr waste together to areas, populated scarcely the excluding territory, city entire the cover would that system sewerage a proposed project The expense. own his at and initiative own his on devised engineer Mikhail Popov submitted to the Moscow City Council a projec implementation ofother endeavors. large a such 30 29

Moscow authorities as well as the technical co technical the as well as authorities Moscow an 1874 In circles. governmental the outside from came project this of idea initial The IMGD, IMGD, inzhener proyektu po Moskvy: goroda “Kanalizatsiya Popov, M.A. A.Petunnikov, “Moskva 8 ( 8 1880 - sca ) , no. no. , le and costly project on the agenda of the city slowed down the the down slowed city the of agenda the on project costly and le

8 , pp. pp. , i

eye budushchnost eye 5 - ism ism and population was, in fact, so limited and the program of 32

.

29

' ” in in ” f water supply IMGD mmittee of the Ministry of Interior, that Interior, of Ministry the of mmittee , 1 ( 1 1881 – e of 86 liter of refuse per person. person. per refuse of liter 86 of e

) he believed that the construction , p. , ation fields located onthe right 9 - irtknk MA Ppv” in Popova”, M.A. gidrotekhnika .

30

t of sewers that he 194

CEU eTD Collection dirtiness[ and pollution its from results this andhigh We city isvery construction. issue? we this know that have What inthe mortality done on reach the level that Hob to chance the refuse not should we So solutions. their relyon to us for experience enough issuebuttheyhave a onthis didnot our technicians, lot had including Popov, worked Mr. done isgood orwho can bad and grade us need tobechecked by theEuropean inviting authoritywho can say whatwhether we have to Moscow withthe sewerage come syste to supposed was that “progress” European the symbolized fame” European Hobrecht results”. wrong the to lead can and criticism any endure not do calculations for assumptions fundamental ha Popov's to Hobrecht, the author of Berlin's sewerage system, to comment on the project. Giving credit municipality decided to also hear an opinion of a foreign expert and in 1880 invited James emper the of permission Governor Municipal Moscow supply, Interior, water for the Commission of Ministry the of committee engineering and Construction a testirrigationfarming inMoscow fieldtry to outhowsewageclimate. works and studied the depth of soil freezing in winter. Petrovskaya Agricultural Academy created industria the 34 33 32 31

although we have our local, homely authorities, we came to the conclusion that they that conclusion the to came we authorities, homely local, our have we although with authority “the called was who Hobrecht, deputies, municipal the of many For huh s Though Ozr ogtvtlyh ao k otvenm izeeo Gbeho poet kanalizatsii proyektu Gobrechtom inzhenerom sostavlennomu Moskvy,” k rabot podgotovitelnykh “Obzor 290. p. “Kanalizatsiya”, Nikitin, IMGD Nikitin, , and in 1881 commissioned him to develop himto commissioned an alternativeand in1881 project. 4 (1880), (1880), 4 “ Kanalizatsiya IMGD l water consumption, collected meteorological data, inspected the riverbeds the inspected data, meteorological collected consumption, water l vrl iy n sae xet omtes Cmiso fr ulc health, public for (Commission committees expert state and city everal rd work, Hobrecht, however, castigated the project, concluding that “the “the that concluding project, the castigated however, Hobrecht, work, rd 33

, pp h mncplt tre ot o e ey eetv t te oiin of position the to receptive very be to out turned municipality The 8 ( 8 . . 15

1882

goroda Moskvy”, pp. pp. Moskvy”, goroda - recht shows to us as this will be the first step towards the sewerage 20. ) r lxne I himself II Alexander or , pp. ,

x ii - m. As the deputy N.N. Mamontovexpressed it, deputy m. Asthe xiii.

288 . Mr.Hobrecht, arecognized authority, said that - 289 .

32 - fud oo' pa acpal, the acceptable, plan Popov's found ) eea' Cmite rae o the on created Committee General's nechistoty i neopryatnosti i nechistoty 34

31 ]. We need We ].

195

CEU eTD Collection density in the rapidly developing city was more accurate. More importantly, unlike Popov, and growth population the on information His 1870s. early the in Popov to unavailable tha studies topographical the all of results the and plan leveling city the use could years. f one still remarkable that the municipality was so eager and so quick to prioritize the opinion of that b nothing to do with the matter. What we need to do is to possibly create such conditions for have nationality to references the questions such in that believe I Russian. of French was introduce to wanted them secondary to me whether the engineer will be Russian of or non one with say to is that life, healthy for conditions patriotism of type when commissioned be thepossible, then should engineers Russian that suggested who deputies few the of one to Answering pride. national of questions the outweigh to seemed experience and knowledge expertise, foreign the of power the in belief The it. implement celebrityto o eyes towardspoint that children good Moscowbenefit. fromprobably for our will which to 36 35

start doing something for urban sanitation. The plan of Hobrecht will be the departure the be will Hobrecht of plan The sanitation. urban for something doing start From the very beginning Hobrecht worked in much better conditions than Popov. He He Popov. than conditions better much in worked Hobrecht beginning very the From is it design, and engineering sewer the in name big a indeed was Hobrecht Although I admit that I do not understand such patriotism. In the given case I understand only one the in “Europeannes”, of mark a as system sewerage Moscow the of symbolism The IMGD IMGD rin xet vr h cnlsos f ay oa seilss ece oe several over reached specialists local many of conclusions the over expert oreign usiness that wouldguarantee success its reasonable and implementation.

f many of the Council deputies, could be enhanced through inviting a European a inviting through enhanced be could deputies, Council the of many f , , 9 ( 9 ( 9 1881 1881 ) ) , , - former mayor said:former Shcherbatov Prince p p – . .

1005 993 new illumination, they asked Yablochkov without asking whether he whether asking without Yablochkov asked they illumination, new to provide to

.

.

the city of Moscow, to which we ought to serve, with the the with serve, to ought we which to Moscow, of city the

- – Russian. InRussian. Paris, when they

the sewerage system. It is It system. sewerage the 36

35 t were t

196

CEU eTD Collection system. sewerage the of project new the for Society found serious faults in both projects but proposed to take Popov's plan as the basis The construction. sewer the for basis scientific the as theory miasmatic the in belief the demonst refuse) the of dilution ventilation, waters, ground were of danger (the that addressed questions sanitary the but aspects technical the on focused mostly Society S implement the project. existing street level which meant that significant ground elevation works had to be done to In flooding. spring the during inundated were that areas city the in system the locating proposed he that was project Hobrecht's the of aspect controversial most The sewers. had that cities the for norm a nor treatment waste of type some implied projects Hobrecht's and Popov's both that noteworthy is It rubles. million 23 at with a daily volume of 100 liters of refuse per person. The cost of the project was estimated southeast of the city. The capacity of the system was calculat River, Moskva the of bank left the on located he that fields filtration the to water storm and waste the of removal combined the offered Popov, to similar Hobrecht, project, his Hobrecht knew he would be paid 38 37 ociety which included famous engineers and hygienists. The two The hygienists. and engineers famous included whichociety

n eebr 82 oh rjcs ee et o eauto t te usa Technical Russian the to evaluation for sent were projects both 1882 December In uso Tchihso oscete o asorny vpoo o ohsk gorodov ochistke ob voprosov rassmotreniyu Okr. tipogrfiya Shtaba, po obshchestve Teckhnicheskom Russkom Gorechtom i Moskvy kanalizatsii proyektov rassmotreniyu po Komissii zasedaniya “Zhurnaly 1880 obshchestva, gg. Gobrechtom sostavlennykh Moskvy, kanalizatsii proyektov rassmotreniyu po Komissii zasedaniya “Zhurnaly

Popovym,” Popovym,” pp. 131 i

Popovym” in Popovym” - 1884

37 1885

(St.Pe ), pp. ), pp. Trudy III (Stroitel'nogo) otdela Imperatorskogo Russkogo tekhnucheskogo tekhnucheskogo Russkogo Imperatorskogo otdela (Stroitel'nogo) TrudyIII tersburg: Tipografiya Panteleyevykh,

– -

153, 153, 193

i dsg, h pplns et atal aoe h then the above partially went pipelines the design, his which was which 4 - – 15

according to his contract, he received 3 .

- 231, 231, 273

still not a universally acknowledged necessity necessity acknowledged universally a not still 38

- decid however, Popov, 280; 280; E.S. Fyodorov, ed for a population of 3 million 1884 Po Po povodu trudov Komissii pri ), pp. pp. ), - year discussions in the in year discussions ed to go further and further go to ed 51 - 68 , sostavlennykh gg. gg. sostavlennykh , 0,000 marks. In .

(Kazan: rated 197 -

CEU eTD Collection o experience and practice existing the contradicted plan USA Memphis, in constructed was treatment waste of system such 1880s early the (in own Kastalsky's not although idea, daring and innovative an was it century storm water, can left asthefuture.” be to lessdangerous, street the for care The system. separate a with replaced be can side economic the from system without any noticeable disadvantage f the surface waters. “In the cities with limited budget”, concluded Kastalsky, “the combined to directly run precipitation the let and only wastes anthropogenic with dealt that system and construction of wet costs high the particularly, and, in weather, overflowing maintenance, of difficulties the for it criticized Kastalsky fields. Europeancities single combined the devised had Hobrecht and Popov Both sewers. of type new a proposed Kastalsky Vsevolod engineer city the Knowledge(SDSK), Scientific of Diffusion the for SocietyMoscow the meetingof the at affairswhenelected was mayor Nikolay Alekseyev of the Moscow. and had to undergo another round of discussions in municipal bodies. This was the state of would mean a break with the initial plan of municipaliza agreement concession of principle the on it implementing with also but in 1885 asked the City Council to not only commission him with designing the final project 40 39

Today the separate treatment of wastes and waterstorm is a n Meanwhile a new development occurred in the approaches to the sewer Erismann, 3 pp. 1889), V.D. Kastalsky, Kursgigieny, - 15, 30 15, -

O razdel'noy sisteme splavnoy kanalizatsii sistemegorodovO kanalizatsii razdel'noy splavnoy that carried the rainwater and the human wastes together to the filtration the to together wastes human the andrainwater the carried that - 32,

quote from page quote vol. 2, p. 397. p. 2, vol.

32 .

rom the sanitary side and with a big advantage - ie systems pipe tion tion of public services in Moscow 39 te eae ipsl n major in disposal sewage the f

(Moscow: Gorodskaya (Moscow: Gorodskaya Tipografiya, –

instead proposed a separate separate a proposed instead hn functio then orm, but in the nineteenth

–

a scheme which schemewhich a design. design. In 1886, 40 ig n many in ning ). Kastalsky's ). 198

CEU eTD Collection case tothewastes mostly carry butis connected thatrains totheriver: down question was whether stormwater pollutes the river. Kastalsksy thought that it could be the form ofwastenone at treatment all. than some and system sewerage of sort some have to better was it but fields, filtration to sent sanit the “lowering mean would system for not thesanitary, butforIn theeconomic view, benefits. his theseparate system the praised himself Kastalsky opinion. opposite the had experts Moscow the 1880s, the posin waters,surface into directlystreams waste untreated releases and overloaded becomes system the when snowmelt, or rains strong of times the in overflows sewer combined of frequency the to due one, combined andtherisks ofpollution lines ofinteractionenvironment. between humansand and hazards health the system, sewerage the of tasks the imagined leaders municipal and insi valuable provide Council City the in and,later, commission this systemin combined and sewerage separate The onthe debates system. sewerage separate the of permissibility the consider to sanitation in experts and Erismann who attended the meeting, created a special Friedrich of suggestion the on it, that SDSK, the of members the with resonance such European cities 43 42 41

o te ebr o te DK omsin te ot motn ad c and important most the commission, SDSK the of members the For to believed is system separate the Today Kastalsky, Bu David Kastalsky,V.D. to gorodovkanalizatsii appendix splavnoy an as published are meeting the of protocols The tler and John Davies, Davies, John and tler O razdel'noy sisteme splavnoy kanalizatsii gorodovkanalizatsii splavnoy sisteme razdel'noy O –

the the models which Moscow lookingwas up to. The talk Kastalskyof had

(Moscow: Gorodskaya Gorodskaya Tipografiya,(Moscow: Urban Drainage Drainage Urban

ary requirements” because the precipitation would not be be not would precipitation the because requirements” ary ghts into how the Moscow engineers, sanitarians sanitarians engineers, Moscow the how into ghts 43 g environmental and health risks. healthand genvironmental

(New York:2011) Press, Spon

have a general sanitary advantage over the the over advantage sanitary general a have commission commission of engineers, physicians , p. p. , 15 1889 .

), pp. 33 , - pp. 20 pp. 106 rze'o sisteme razdel'noy O .

42 - 26.

However, inHowever, ontroversial ontroversial

199 41

CEU eTD Collection notbetaken should it care of. definitely that the rain water polluted with the street rubbish is not at all dangerous a personal to and saypossible isclearlyit that thinkdon'tI still circumstances;but up with the put to My once. not hygienists of s one congresses that is opinion the at discussed was removal, waste water we or,onshould thecontrary, consider rivers tobe,degree, tosome naturalways of question The water. river the of ambiguous: to explain how exactly the rainwater can harm the river, Erismann remained unspecific and former, than to the latter”. Although the members of the the to consent rather would I rivers; into drained be will rainwater dirty quite all system separate the with while rarely, happen [overflows] “They overflows: possible the despite opponent influential river. inthe are discharged wastes that allthe becan said system,it thesewerage the creation of of the river and the quality of the rainwater draining into it will undoubtedly improve and surveys onlywhen started excrem theslopsandthen the horse severalthousand of machines the with fieldsfiltration to pumped collectedand berainwater should that think to inappropriateor 46 45 44

I am not a principal enemy of the separate system or the defender of the absolute purity an but one, only had and members commission the of most by shared was view This with the creation of the sewers, even of the separate system, both the sanitary condition Inwordscity ofthe the desinfector Makovsky, c to dared nobody alone, river the to going was rainwater city the When Drainage, Drainage, Davies, and Butler see system, sewerage combined the of disadvantages and advantages the of willreappear form,different gorodov kanalizatsii Kastalsky, in published 1887, 11, February on meeting the of Protocol Kastalsky, in gorodov 1886 12, May of meeting the of Protocol p. Ibid., 45

, p. 15 p.22. .

44 .

hould not be too rigorous and pedantic in practical questions and has and questions practical in pedantic and rigorous too be not hould

p. 68 pp. , –

rerc Eimn. rsan to fr th for stood Erismann Erismann. Friedrich

in the last decades of the twentieth century and lead to the reconsideration reconsideration the to lead and century twentieth the of decades last thein - 69; 69; 46

whether we should strive for the ideal cleanliness of river river of cleanliness ideal the for strive should we whether the concerns about the pollution of the rainwater, although in the the in although rainwater, the of pollution the about concerns the - powers. Complaints, controversies,concerns Complaints, powers.

rze'o ssee pany kana splavnoy sisteme razdel'noy O

commission commission repeatedly asked him ent got thatwater.ent added to O razdel'noy sisteme splavnoy splavnoy sisteme razdel'noy O cmie system, combined e laim that it is it that laim nd that ; until lizatsii Urban Urban 200 44

CEU eTD Collection systemorganization of thecombined reason forimpossible.” is some e that in “only Moscow in and system” combined for necessary a compromise “as for the cities with limited budget and impossibility permitted to find the irrigation fields be only could and water” river the of pollution “severe the for allow one combined the over advantage sanitary no had system separate the that stated resolution The views. own his to according resolution final the tailor to managed he so with, reckoned be to authority an was minority, in although Erismann, but system, inevitably unspecific possible broadest the give to chose support, not did he that diseases waterborne d SDSK the in that plausible von is It disease. Max of spread teacherthe in pollution his soil of importance of the emphasizing Pettenkofer, explanations the towards leaned cholera, of case the with skeptical very was but microbes, pathogenic of existence the acknowledged He them. by convinced always not was he ofbacteriologists theworks familiar and with clearlyspecificcauses ofdisease demons discussion, SDSK the of time the exactly in in1887, and published preparedin1886 hygiene, His universitylectures on 48 47

The engineers in the committee, including the chairman, were in favor of the se the of favor in were chairman, the including committee, the in engineers The remarkable. quite is explanation specific anyprovide not could Erismann that fact The 75 Kastalsky,in published is resolution final The Years Cholera the disease, particularly, F.F. Erisman, - 82 .

Kurs gigiyeny, (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987 Press, Clarendon (Oxford:

cholera cholera are discussed in –

answer. vol. 1, 1887, pp. 192 1, pp. 1887, vol.

iscussion Erismann, unwilling to advertise the theory of of theory the advertise to unwilling Erismann, iscussion 47

about the possibility of their spread through water and, and, water through spread their of possibility the about trate that Erismann was committed to looking for looking to committed was Erismann that trate Richard Evans, Richard O razdel'noy sisteme splavnoy kanalizatsii gorodov kanalizatsii splavnoy sisteme razdel'noy O - 213, 213, ), pp. pp. ), vol. 238 2, 2, 18 - 242. Death inDeath Hamburg: Society and Politics in 92, pp. 92, 371 pp.

xtreme case if the prompt prompt the if case xtreme - 400; 400; Pettenkofer 48

, that it would it that , -

although ’ s ideas s of ideas parate parate -

2 , pp. pp. , and 01

CEU eTD Collection be consensual. to seemed wastes of dilution of power magic the in belief the while transmission, Nobody attempted to design. sewer the of choice the on impact possible their and discoveries bacteriological the to reference any without proceeded which discussion those from absent completely specif some of idea an give to and health. affects waterways wastes The ofexplanation human howpreciselyinthe dumping disease and filth between links the of understanding lay the beyond several by attended were commission SDSK the of meetings The way. what in revealed nobody dangerous, due tothe overflowsthe latter. of comb and the to inferioritysanitary its that admittingfeasibility, costs lower its for system separate the supported he unexpectedly, Quite Popov. project Mikhail author first by of sewer submitted the Another was “separatethe opinion” of possibilities poor the for and maintenance, and construction of costs high inundation, of risks the and water storm of removal incomplete the for air, city the contaminating thus and weather dry in pipes the in wastes solid of sediment a leaving sys combined the criticizing opinions”, “separate with notes additional submitted 50 49

Notably, though all the participants of the debate agreed that filth and pollution are pollution and filth that agreed debate the of participants the all though Notably, and formulations such with dissatisfied were Committee the of members other The Ibid, p. Ibid, Kastalsky, 106

O razdel'noy sisteme splavnoy kanalizatsii gorodovkanalizatsii splavnoy sisteme razdel'noy O .

medical experts, but none of them, including Erismann, tried to go to tried Erismann, including them, of none but experts, medical

c gn o dsae r xc mcaim f t tasiso was transmission its of mechanism exact or disease of agent ic criticize the combined system overflows from the positions of disease

50

, pp. pp. , 83 ined system is rather doubtful ratherdoubtful is system ined - 89 .

eae farming. sewage tem for for tem 202 49

CEU eTD Collection autho municipal of sphere the expand to wanted he city, the in services of municipalizationfor goals. Alekseyev stood alwayspolitical also but environmental,their only not suited best that project sewerage the choose could authorities city the view, of point scientific the from better was system sewerage which agree unanimously not could experts the Since advantage. own their to discussion scientific the turn to them allowed scientific pres to tried Alekseyev of times the in municipalitythe Although Alekseyev. Nikolay mayor Moscow the of agenda sick withtyphuswith excrement ofcontagious those and other disease. polluted water the through but Hygiene sick, the of laundry the recent from much so not the air, the through At not. does it that proves doc Austria in Congress example, for Pasteur, question. the is bacteria? the eliminate really dilution the Does wastes. of dilution the in is question syste those compared I <...> disaster. of people sick cholera withtyphus, getIt and theriver.inevitably soondonot in a be will excrement of thesick: can contaminate andcalledof dilution thecombined system “the perfect laboratoryfor bacteria” it because Sh Square. Red on Museum Historical Russian the an for building the but of author engineer, the architect, sanitary a or physician a not was who Sherwood, Vladimir deputy the 51

erwood spoke about it in the light of bacteriological discoveries, questioned the power the questioned discoveries, bacteriological of light the in it about spoke erwood Sherwood's argument could argument Sherwood's considered be should that question hygienic serious one is There The bacteriological aspect appeared when only the Moscow City Council came back to discussion discussion of the sewerage system in October 1887. It was brought up by the municipal Protocol of the of Counci City Protocol

theories and projects in this matter gave a trump to the Moscow authorities and authorities Moscow the to trump a gave matter this in projects and theories

waterways and spread infectious

tor Brouardel argued that the infection is transmitted not so much so not transmitted is infection the that arguedBrouardel tor ent itself as a follower of of follower a as itself ent l meeting is published in published meetingis l

have been lost if it had not fitted so well in the political the in well so fitted not had it if lost been have ms several times but I have to repeat that the main the that repeat to have I but times several ms IMGD, IMGD,

disease through letting out scientists, the existence of conflicting conflicting of existence the scientists, 10 ( 10 1887 ), ), p. 864 , pp. , pp. –

that the excrement the that 51 867

- rity and bring bring and rity 868 the untreated .

-

203 this

CEU eTD Collection once,” at city entire the for enterprise grandiose a such of implementation the start to for sewers planned Hobrecht and Popov both although only, Ring Garden the (within city the of part central the for only designed project the have to idea Alekseyev's also was It agreement. concession for push to want a the avoid and construction the over control full retain to wanted Alekseyev engineers, municipal only commissioning with Plausibly, engineers. municipal the to given be also should implementation its project, draft the insi explicitly Alekseyev Furthermore, meeting. same system sewerage separate the of project draft a with engineers municipal the commission to urged immediately and t Council City the Alekseyevpressed system, combined the sewerage choice. Using the arguments of Sherwood about the obsolescence and dangers of likely most the then until been had that Popov of plan concession the reject irreversibly the other municipal enterprises, for example,by thewater brought by profit absorb money the and city becreated onthe enterprise<...> should This house the to expect profit; it brings losses to the city but budget at the same time brings advantage to the demands of the city? Sewerage system is such an enterprise the with which of it is example unthinkable one least at sewerage system being subject of concession, the of bringing it there still income sa and Is concession. of subject a be can system sewerage a cases one plan. AsAlekseyev this not fit said atthediscussion, more enterprises and tasks under its control. The concession proposal of Popov clearly did 52

previous the all in concession; of harm the about spoke times many Council City the The recognition of the hygienic advantage of the separate system a Ibid., p. Ibid., - could contest it and have a different opinion but it is hardly possible to think that owners in the financial aspect and to the city res city the to and aspect financial the in owners 860 .

–

which was unanimously approved by the Council at the very the at Council the by approved unanimously was which

the entire city). Saying that “it is hardly possible possible hardly is “it that Saying city). entire the ppearance of another “Popov” who would would who “Popov” another of ppearance

sted that, when the Council accepts Council the when that, sted - pipe. o reject the proposal of Popov Popov of proposal the reject o idents in the sanitary aspect. aspect. sanitary the in idents 52

llowed to finally and tisfying 204

CEU eTD Collection adv to asked were who later work on the sewerage system, and it was Max von Pettenkofer and Friedrich Erismann the during important particularly was stench of prevention the on discussion The hazards. unple the and bacteria both sanitary a but alone, bacteriology not was construction municipality closely wascooperating. otherwise wi Erismann of conclusion the against went Alekseyev system the sewerage of choice his with though even environmentalists, over bacteriologists of victory a or bacteriology for municipality Moscow the of support particular any however, mean, acknowledg ago long been had which of necessity the system, sewerage the of construction cheaper and quicker the for press to and Popov of project concession the was convincing, handy and It timely argument that system. allowed Alekseyev separate to reach his the goals of feasibility higher the and costs lower the to addition advantage only inthe city entirecoverthe to expanded was system decadesseweragefor (theamenities without outskirts the leaving city, the of part central the for only constructed was system the of decision. Although meant as a temporary s that with feasible more and cheaper project the make to wanted Alekseyev 53

h ltr ok n h swrg sses eel ta te cetfc ai fr its for basis scientific the that reveals systems sewerage the on work later The important an became thus argumentation bacteriological the of employment The Ibid., pp. pp. Ibid.,

of the opponents of Popov's project in the course of municipal discussions, in discussions, municipal of course the in project Popov's of opponents the of 1920s). 868 - 874 53 , quote from p. from p. quote ,

ise on this matter this on ise asant odors of human excrement were perceived as health health as perceived were excrement human of odors asant

870 olution, olution, this decision resulted in the fact that the first line .

-

both of whom were whom of both

- bacteoriological synthesis when when synthesis bacteoriological

not rigorous bacteriologist rigorous not h hm the whom th ed. It did not not did It ed. -

to reject 205

a

CEU eTD Collection be spent on the construction of the pipes of the first line (later these costs rose). This project entire sewerage system was estimated at 17,450,000, out of which 5,250,000 ru a population of 400,000 (with a potential increase to 730,000 in 50 years). The price of the was system sewerage the of line first the city, entire the for implemented potentially be could then constructed at the Moscow public abattoir. Although the project was drafted so that it pumped. This meant be to have would city the of parts southern low the from wastes the only and suburb, southeastern the in fields filtration the to gravity by pipes the in moved be would refuse relief the maximallyuse to the preliminary projectofthe cityabattoir. V including engineers, Kastalsky, municipal the first advocate of the separate of system, and N[ikolay] Levachev, who prepared group a to commissioned was system the of design The launched. be could system the before pass to had decade another 1887, favor of the system. separate in argument an as served that disease waterborne the of theory the opposed openly and 54

country Constructing thesewerage system therelations and between thecity an The project of the new separate sewerage system was ready by 1890. It was proposed proposed was It 1890. by ready was system sewerage separate new the of project The in made was system sewerage separate the of favor in decision crucial the Although (S.l: S.n. 1894), pp. 50, 139 50, pp. 1894), S.n. (S.l: Zhurnaly Komissii po nadzoru za ustroystvom novogo vodoprovoda designed only for the central area of about 17 sq. km or for 6785 housing estates and and estates housing 6785 for or km sq. 17 about of area central the for only designed

the rejection of the Shone pneumatic sewerage system, which was by -

144 of Moscow and construct the system in a way that most of the of most that waya systemin the construct and Moscow of 54

.

i

kanalizatsii kanalizatsii v Moskve d the d bles should [1892 sevolod - 1893] 1893] 206

CEU eTD Collection government. problematic municipality authorities was actually of big help to the large Academy but was fina of Ministry the from Agricultural and University, MoscowBoard, MedicalProvincial Transportation,Moscow health public and engineering in experts included committee in Moscow, as the real and the Ministry of Transportation, it was also made responsible for sewerage construction III Alexander emperor the of approval the and municipality the of request the on 1891, in kanalizatsii ( Moscow in system water sewerage the of creation the supervising Committee the through development from sanction a required the beginning ofimplementation. andstage discussion the of end the marked which Department Sewerage special a created 7 the approved III Alexander emperor the 1892, In Transportation. of Ministry the by sanctioned was 56 55

Although the sanitary amenities was a local Moscow initiative, their construction construction their initiative, Moscow local a was amenities sanitary the Although Upravy o zaime na sooruzheniye v Moskve kanalizatsii,” pp. pp. kanalizatsii,” v Moskve nasooruzheniye zaime Upravyo god”, 1891 za i rfnflizatsii vodoprovoda vysochaych “Otchet kanalizatsii,” pp. zapiska k Poyasnitel'naya proyektu kanalizatsii Moskvy

294 - 296, 299; “Doklad N38 Moskovskoy Gorodskoy Upravy o zaime na sooruzheniye v Moskve Moskve v sooruzheniye na zaime o Upravy Gorodskoy Moskovskoy N38 “Doklad 299; 296, ). This Committee was f was Committee This ).

questions especially if they were beyond the competence of the city city the of competence the beyond were they if especially questions -

- IMGD, IMGD, million obligation loan for its construction construction its for loan obligation million because it allowed to use the administrative resource to resolve the the resolve to resource administrative the use to allowed it because

e uchrezhdennoy Komissii po nadzory za ustroystvom v g. Moskve novogo novogo Moskve g. v ustroystvom za nadzory po Komissii uchrezhdennoy e 3 ( 3 nced nced from the Moscow city budget. ization ization of the two projects went together and was closely linked. The 1892

St. ) , p.

Petersburg. The central authorities were involved in its its in involved were authorities central The Petersburg. 10 omsia o azr z utosvm oorvd i vodoprovoda ustroystvom za nadzoru po Kommissiya 55 .

ormed in 1889 to supervise the water the supervise to 1889 in ormed IMGD , 2 ( 2 1892 - scale scale project

(Moscow: (Moscow: ) , p. p. , 77 5 - ; “Doklad N ; “Doklad 6 56 .

S.n., S.n., The involvement of the central and the Moscow municipality Moscow the and –

and was seen as such by the 1890); Nikitin,1890); 38

Moskovskoy Gorodskoy Gorodskoy Moskovskoy - pipe works, but but works, pipe “Kanalizatsiya”, “Kanalizatsiya”, - pipe and and pipe 207

CEU eTD Collection Moscow sewerage started onAugust 1898. system 1, the of exploitation The away. it carried and sewerage the all collected which channel, low the from wastes the pumped which River, Moskva Novospassky the near station pumping the district, central the within laid. were pipes the where and how in adjustments some aquifers demanded and process construction or rocks solid quicksands, with encounters unexpected frequent The research. conducted the all despite insufficient, be to proved ground the summer of 1894nosubstantial before progressFinally, was made knowledge 1895. the of b Russia; in season construction short the and excavations of amount the considering factors, essential the among was which weather the with unlucky was (which saved almost 80,000 rubles from the municipal budget). Secondly, the municipality t from exempted even was decision emperor's the on abroad from pipes Moscow municipality order them from the a Muensterberg plant in Silesia; the import made of those producers Russian from them buy to impossibility The pipes. ceramic with with brick unprepared to supply the necessary construction materials for the sewers. This was the case qu and smoothly as go would construction the that hopes the destroyed and arose problems 58 57

ickly as it did with the abattoir. Firstly, it turned out that the regional market was was market regional the that out turned it Firstly, abattoir. the with did it as ickly pipes of network the completed: were system the of elements most 1898 summer By several but years, three in completed be could works the that planned was it Initially, Ibid. “ Nikitin, 57

, , p. - 309

Kanalizatsiya some elements of the sewers had to be built of concrete instead .

”, ”, pp. pp. 301

- 304 .

58

- land areas, and the and areas, land

ecause of the rainy rainy the of ecause lwd on the down slowed Bridge - he custom fees custom he

and especially

big suburban suburban big

across the the across 208

CEU eTD Collection Ri Moskva the of bank the along stretch to also were fields filtration The of 666 peasant allotments, or more than 11% of land belonging to the 24 affected villages. which the equaled size expropriation of8,5sq.km, mean the the municipal would experts zemstvo Moscow the to According province. Moscow the of communities peasant the to but city conversi the required farm sewage a such of construction the that was however, problem, The wastes. human urban the of decontamination the of chain the in link last the be to supposed were Moscow of southeast 59

1913). h fnl etnto o te ee lqi ws h ae na te ilg o Lyublino, of village the near area the was liquid sewer the of destination final The Verner, I.A. Source: Figure 1896 Uyezdnogo Moskovskogo in khodotaystvu po upravy gorodskoy Zemstva vyzyvayemykh kanalizatsiyey,” povodypo naseleniya, posledstviy uyezdnogo dlya Zemskoy Gudernskoy Moskovskoy “Doklad Zhurnaly Zhurnaly zasedaniy Komissii po nadzory -

1897 1897

evaluations in 1896, the construction of the filtration fields in the place chosen by 5.1

on of a large area of agricultural lands or meadows that did not belong to the the to belong not did that meadows or lands agricultural of area large a of on The pumping station of the Moscow sewerage sewerage system. the Moscow of station Thepumping (Moscow:

Sovremennoye khozyaystvo goroda Moskvy Moskvy goroda khozyaystvo Sovremennoye

, with a system of filtration fields and sewage farms. These fields These farms. sewage and fields filtration of system a with , S.n.,

1899

), pp. ), pp. 34 - 36

za za ustroystvom novogo vodoprovoda .

Mso: oosaa Tipog Gorodskaya (Moscow:

i

kanalizatsii kanalizatsii v Moskve, ver cutting the the cutting ver rafiya, rafiya, 209 59

CEU eTD Collection “without claimed, Williams stable, In time. the all stabled it keep rather and such as int towards step easy an “make to peasants the advised Williams Moreover, treatment. waste of system entire the ruin only would they that outdated so were communities peasant the in peasants the involve to enterprises complicated too were farm sewage the and fields filtration the the of concerns the to respond to commissioned Williams, Vassily Mosco the of professor logistical and legal obvious shortcomings several that the municipal experts did not fail to point out. The famous soil scientist, had but peasants, the of practices agricultural pastures. plantried This toreconcile the for used be it let and property peasant the in fields filtration the under land the preserve sub yourbe a scale to evaluate the material loss and because mora of basis the cannot notand thereis reimbursedbecause residencebe cannot place of or the wayoflife of change involuntarily to destruction you forces that agriculture, from the living continue to impossibility by induced damage The <...> compensation monetary any by reimbursed be cannot them,” “subsist to able longer of their existence. That whyis depriving them of land or a part of it, without which it is no the performance of their responsibilities in front of the Government” is the mai not besufficient thevillage tosubsist population: area, the land of rural major off water communities artery the area. Given inthe thealready severe scarcity 60

ensification and ideal suburban economy” and completely abandon grazing of the cattle The and subsistence their “for peasants to given land the that is matter this of meaning The Ibid., pp. pp. Ibid., zemstvo -

zemstvo especially pastures pastures especially

43 any way. In his view, the practices of grazing and haymaking that existed in existed that haymaking and grazing of practices the view, his In way. any - 44

. proposed to either move the sewage farm to a less populated area or to or area populated less a to farm sewage the move either to proposed

argued, would threaten their existence

w Agricultural Institute and the future director of the sewage farm farm sewage the of director future the and Institute Agricultural w -

in the peasant communities, the loss of such a considerable a such of loss the communities, peasant the in

interests of bothsidesandinterests toretain of the traditional

because the remaining land would l interests are also affected here. zemstvo sistence, by the the by sistence, , claimed that that claimed n condition 210 60

CEU eTD Collection sewage the of line first the year next the and system, sewerage Moscow the of needs the agriculture. functioning a organize to unable otherwise and inert as presented were who peasants the among same the do to supposed was farm sewage the owners, cattle “undisciplined” the province.” peasants but will also be a vehicle of the proper culture among the peasants of the Moscow t by fields filtration the on organized correctly farming, sewage “the issue, this on system sewerage water the of creation the supervising Committee the of resolution the in stated modernity bring would it as peasants the for beneficial as presented was process this more, Even city. modern growing the of demands environmental the meet to order in destroyed easily be could r The animals). the mention to (not communities peasant the of interests the than important more far was urbanites walking insearch food”. through themeadows of energy and power “wasting of instead grass” luxurious the receive would it moving, 62 61

In April 1897, the Emperor Alexander III decree thealien Alexander a Emperor In on April signed 1897,the For Williams as well as for the other municipal and state experts, the public good of the 1896 Komi zasedaniy Zhurnaly vodoprovoda 1896 Moskve, novogo v kanalizatsii I in otnositel naseleniya,” okrestnogo dlya orosheniya Upravy Zemskoy Uyezdnoy “Zaklyucheniye professora Moskovskogo sel'skho - 1897, 1897, he Moscow municipality, will not only improve the economic condition of the the of condition economic the improve only not will municipality, Moscow he 62

If the public abattoir was to promote the scientific and sanitary norms amongnorms sanitarypromote the andscientific to was If abattoir public the p. p. 25 .

, progress, and reason in the “backward” peasant world. As it was it As world. peasant “backward” the in reason and progress, , ssii po nadzory za ustroystvom novogo vodoprovoda novogo ustroystvom za nadzory po ssii ural environments and the centuries the and environments ural

'no neblagopriyatnykh usloviy, sozdavayemykh polyami polyami sozdavayemykh usloviy, neblagopriyatnykh 'no Zhurnaly zasedaniy Komissii po nadzory za ustroystvom za nadzory po Komissii zasedaniy Zhurnaly - khzyaystvennogo khzyaystvennogo instituta V.R. Vilyamsa po dokladu - 1897 1897 61

(Moscow: 1899 - ), pp. pp. ), old agricultural practices agricultural old 53 i

kanalizatsii v Moskve, Moskve, v kanalizatsii - 56 ation of lands for ation .

- pipe and and pipe 211 on on

CEU eTD Collection about while farm, sewage the of cattle the feed to used and workers municipal the by cut also left under the meadows, and, as Williams stated in his report of 1900, the best hay was mostly consumed in the municipal hospitals. were that onions, and potatoes, cucumbers, beetroot, cabbage, as such vegetables, and crops forage on concentrated therefore, farm, Moscow The unprofitable. be to out turned t salad, of production the that showed experience The liquid. production agricultural depended not on the market demands but rather the on how the plants could tolerate the sewer that was factor Another wastes. human by fertilized soil pasture, the sewage farm management had a severe problem with weeds as used been previously had fields filtration the under land the of most since addition, In 1910). in 200 and 1900 in hectares 75 (about agriculture for used be could territory small a only that meant fields filtration the to coming wastes human of volume by the need for numerous complicated works, not related to the agriculture expe profits. some bring even but wastes human the of decontamination the of expenses the cover only not would gradually, accordingin the volume ofthe sewerliquid. tothe increase happened fields filtration the to land of conversion The opened. was farm 65 64 63

A Nikitin, “Kanalizati Nikitin, V.R.Vilyams, in g.,” 1900 18 pp. 1901), (Moscow: obezvrezhivaniya osnovaniya “Obshchiye V.R.Vilyams, proyetkuk zapiska goroda kanalizatsii Moskvy Poyasnitel'naya Nikitin, ctations were quite naïve. As Williams explained, the lack of profits was determined was profits of lack the explained, Williams As naïve. quite were ctations t first, the municipal experts hoped that the agricultural output of the sewage farm farm sewage the of output agricultural the that hoped experts municipal the first, t “Kanalizatsiya”, “Kanalizatsiya”, 64 sya”, p. 318. sya”,p.

hn h swg fr ws pnd i bcm cer ht those that clear became it opened, was farm sewage the When - p. p. 27; idem. “Deyatel'nost' poley orosheniya Moskovskoy gorodskoy upravy v v upravy gorodskoy Moskovskoy orosheniya poley “Deyatel'nost' idem. 27; 305 orny sochineniy, Sobraniye

.

65

A substant o. (ocw Slhzi, 98, p 167 pp. 1948), Selkhozgiz, (Moscow: 2 vol.

nechistot,” in in nechistot,” , p. p. , ial part of the filtration fields was 63 142

omatoes, beans, and celery celery and beans, omatoes, .

Kanalizatsiya goroda Moskvy Moskvy goroda Kanalizatsiya

that that thrived on the per per se . The high part of its of part - 212 173;

CEU eTD Collection on hierarchies society of theRussian inspatial forms. workers the white the forbuilding apartment director,the forhouse separate a personnel: its for facilities living the and barnyards, workshops, offices, with wa there wastes, urban the all brought that channel suburban north the At fields. filtration the factories in Russia, all the personnel lived on site, which in that case meant right on the no relation to the land they were working had on. Similar to the municipal abattoir and, g who people hired by performed was there work agricultural The department. technical or agricultural the in task specialized narrowly a having them of each people, Managed by enterprises. a small number of industrial experts and administrative staff, of it employed more than that 2 with line in organized also was farm sewage the on life as well as t complicated technological and scientific infrastructure that included wells, pipes and drains harvest. mowe was hay” bad “with hectares 140 66

ly on the construction of the sewerage system sewerage the of construction the on ly The realization of the environmental goals of the Moscow municipality depended not not depended municipality Moscow the of goals environmental the of realization The thesewerageUsing theproblem systemand discharge industrial of a on based project a was farm sewage the with fields filtration the abattoir, the Like 67 V.R. Vilyams

Nikitin, “Kanalizatsiya”, pp. pp. “Kanalizatsiya”, Nikitin, 66

wo scientific laboratories -

that (again, like it was at was it like (again, that , “Deyatel'nost' poley orosheniya Moskovskoy gorodskoy upravy v 1900 g.”, p.171. v1900 upravy gorodskoy Moskovskoy orosheniya poley “Deyatel'nost'

- western edge of the sewage farm, near the end of the main main the of end the near farm, sewage the of edge western 306

- 307 – .

the the chemical and the biological d by the local peasants for a half or a third of the the of third a or half a for peasants local the by d the abattoir) embodied and reinforced the social social the reinforced and embodied abattoir) the – 67

which proved to be a hard task hard a be to proved which - collar employees and barracks forbarracks and employeescollar s a so a s - called estate [ estate called - bacteriological. The

enerally, enerally, usad'ba

–

213 but 00 ]

CEU eTD Collection the connection sewerscompulsory. tothe city make to empowered were Russia in municipalities the that 1912 until not Itwas declined. owners the tojoin sewerage appeal system;its for this property the force to authority legal no had municipality The mandatory. not was sewers 5.1 sewers, and after the yearspeak of 1899 municipal the using were them of thirds two than less exploitation its of years 10 the in but districts, central the of estateshousing serve 6785 to meant was project Generally,the connected got estates housing 219 only launched, was system sewerage the of line also on whether and how this system was used. By the end of 1898, the year when the first 68 Total Sokolniki 2 1 linedistrict sewerage (center) district line sewerage nd st

Mosvky Mosvky Moskvy” I.A.Verner, in goroda “Kanalizatsiya A.A.Nikitin, Source:

There were several explanations for these dynamics. First of all, the connection to the to connection the all, of First dynamics. these for explanations several were There 5.1 Table ) see also also see N rasporyazheniy ii uzakoneniy Sobraniye .

ikitin, p. 328; 328; p. ikitin,

(Moscow: Gorodskaya tipografiya,1913). Gorodskaya (Moscow: IMGD, IMGD, . Number of housing estates connected to the Moscow sewerage system. sewerage the Moscow to connected estates housing Numberof .

219 - 1 218 1898

for the municipal discuasions about the mandatory connection to the sewerage system system sewerage the to connection mandatory the about discuasions municipal the for 4 (1906), pp.7 (1906), 4 849 - 9 840 1899

902 1 10 891 1900

-

10. 10. 1901 501 8 8 485

pravitel'stva, 1912, part 1, no. 97, June 5, 842, pp. 1709 pp. 842, 5, June 97, no. 1, part 1912, pravitel'stva, 1902 451 3 14 434 -

1900 the speed of connect

68 1903 4 - 24 407

31

1904 329 1 40 288

right thecentral to government was

1905 296 3 7 286

Sovremennoye khozyaystvo goroda khozyaystvo Sovremennoye

1906 191 1 36 154 ion declined (s

1907 203 - 29 174

1908 202 2 30 170

ee Table ee Table

- to it. it. to 1711; 214

CEU eTD Collection which 5%, to eventually allowed ofthe tobringthebudget sewers the of usage the for fee maximum the increase to government state such with up put to ready sanitation and health were goals its and business profitable a be not could system sewerage the that back Although budget. the in deficit significant a and exploitation of the sewerage system, and until 1906 the enterprise ended each year with of the Interior. However, the fees were not sufficient to cover the expenses of maintenance feewas this of limit upperThe exploitation. its forannually 4% and municipalsewer the connectionto the property their for of net profit the payof to had3% increased fee, hadthe municipal their closedaccording drains to one a received 50 system, sewerage the propertiesjoined such of 450 than more 1900 of end the by result, a sew the using for that of level the to raised was 1900 July from channels water city the using for fee the Moreover, system. sewerage the to connect to advised household their channels those using were who owners, estate real The constructed. was system thesewerage where area the channels in water of city and drains usage January, the 1901) (from forbid to decided Council City the 1898 In system. sewerage the join to residents 70 69

undertaking expensive rather a was sewers the to connection The city the force to ways indirect employed municipality the directly, it do to Unable IMGD, IMGD, TsGAMOS, 4 ( 4 –

and not financial gains, in the early twentieth century the municipality was not 1906 16:132:40:38 - , bath , ) , no. no. , - year extension, while 35 estates, whose owners refused to pay the the pay to refused owners whose estates, 35 while extension, year

4 - , pp. ,

or ground waters according to municipal permissions, were then then were permissions, municipal to according waters ground or - 39 1 - 10 .

.

f affairs. of 70 enterprise

n 96 h mncplt pttoe the petitioned municipality the 1906 In

in the 1885 Alekseyev clearly admitted clearly Alekseyev 1885 the in

to profitability

decree. fixed by the Ministry Ministry bythe fixed – (s

the house owners owners house the 69 erage system. As As system. erage ee Tableee 5.2

to drain drain to ) . 215

CEU eTD Collection h estates planned the of half evident thatthecapacityof the filtration fields was reaching limits,despite its thefact that the area beyond the Garden Ring were at first allowed to join the system. By 1903 it became Since theconnection tothe sewers was proceeding rat located right next to the sewer pipes, it was not so easy to get access to this modern amenity. sanitary the to access while infrastructure could theprofit increase sewers the join to likely more were estates profitable estate housing the of profitability the and area. the in estates housing the all of profits the of 4/5 produced half this but system, sewerage the to connectedwere districts line first the in located estates of half only 1905, of beginning area inthis was andusage its strongldevised thecentral for districts, 71

Mosvky Mosvky At the same time, for the house owners from the outskirts, even if their estates were estates their if even outskirts, the from owners house the for time, same the At There were also obvious territorial disparities. The first line of the sewerage system was A.A. Source: Moskvy” goroda Nikitin,“Kanalizatsiya in I.A.Verner, 5.2 Table IMGD, IMGD, 1904 1903 1902 1901 1900 1899 71 (Moscow: Gorodskaya tipografiya,1913) Gorodskaya (Moscow:

4 ( 4 There clearly was a correlation betwe correlationa was Thereclearly . Financial year result year Financial .

1906 ) , , p. 3

.

------211000 125000 112000 71000 329000 371000 ad not yet joined the system; in this situation the non the situation this in system; the joined yet not ad

s of the Moscow sewerage system (in rubles) system sewerage (in the Moscow sof

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1910 1909 1908 1907 1906 1905 en the connection to the seweragesystem the connectionto the en

her slowly,her thehousing estates from

Sovremennoye khozyaystvo goroda Sovremennoye 377000 293000 187000 158000 - - 267000 162000

y encouraged.By the

- central central 216

CEU eTD Collection regulation greater towards policy governmental in shift general the produced; it wastes of Several factors amalgamated to help this transition: the growth of industry and the volume its over control greater for demand the and impact sanitary and environmental of the sanitaryat that moment. agenda rotting the but discharge industrial the concern. municipal of matter a be not should decontamination its of task the that concluded and dangerous very so fact, in was, discharge factory the whether doubted questi the across came and system sewerage the rivers. city the into waters waste of buckets million 5 daily discharged Ring) Garden the within located was sanitation or a matter concern ofimmediate for authorities inthe the city. urban to threat primary the as seen not was it 1880s the in pollution, industrial the noted Alt century. nineteenth the of decades last the treatment systemwouldbeexpanded. of the ind refuse was clearly underestimated in the sewerage project, but it was also the prioritization of volume potential The sewer. municipal the use to possibility the denied were estates 74 73 72

factor 240 the 1881, of estimate the to According in evolution certain a underwent Moscow in wastes industrial treating of question The In the 1890s this attitude changed towards a more negative assessment of the industry's rtcl f h meig f a 1, 86 n Kastalsky, in gorodov 1886 12, May of meeting the of Protocol pp. A. IMGD

Petunnikov “Materialy dlya izucheniya Moskvy Moskvy izucheniya dlya “Materialy Petunnikov 50 - , ustrial waste that left the private houses without sanitary amenities until the waste 52 5 ( 5 , p. .

1905 42 .

) , pp. , pp. 73

52 Yet, when the SDSK commission discussed the potential design of design potential the discussed commission SDSK the when Yet, - 56 .

72

and malodorous human wastes that were at the top top the at were that wastes human malodorous and

v sovremennom eya sostoyanii,” sostoyanii,” eya sovremennom v hough numerous contemporary accounts accounts contemporary numerous hough n f nutil ats is members its wastes, industrial of on ies of Moscow (of which every fifth fifth every which (of Moscow of ies O razdel'noy sisteme splavnoy kanalizatsii kanalizatsii splavnoy sisteme razdel'noy O

IMGD 74

It was not was It , 1 ( 1 wastes. 1882 217 ) ,

CEU eTD Collection inspectors, it was prescribed, were to forbid and prevent any discharge of untreated waste. police The matters. organic with dealing factories the from especially waterways, city the Yauz the and River Moskva the of banks the along located factories the all inspect to decided municipality Moscow the 1892 June in circular, that to response In contamination. from resources water protect the against governments local the Medical state the cholera, approaching mobilize to Trying authorities. Moscow the of No ptomaines orpathogenicbacilli have been the danger of others is seen in their ability to rot and ferment under certain conditions <...> while compounds, toxic other or metalloids or metals poisonous containing composition, dangerou are them of Some respect. sanitary the in dangerous September Miller 1892,gave Oswald ofitsrisks: thefollowing description f Society the at delivered waters, waste factories' of treatment the on lecture his in Thus, health. human to risks epidemiological direct and specific than rather approach environmentalist broad the by framed was year, cholera the epidemic extremely of health into 1892, thatturned and sanitation inRussia. hottopics Governor the Romanov Sergey industry; of 77 76 75

Still, Still, it was the cholera epidemic that put the industrial pollution in the focus of interest also but dirty only not being of reputation a have reason, a without not waters, These indus the decontaminating of discourse whole the Interestingly, IMGD, IMGD, TsGAMOS, http://www.hist.msu.ru/Labour/Article/Kupriyanova.htm Kupriyanova, L.V. 7 - 75 8 (1892) 8

the change in the local politics of Moscow after the after Moscow of politics local the in change the 16:132:40:81 , p. 17 ,

Rbci vopros “Rabochiy 0 . .

a and to take measures against draining industrial refuse into refuse industrial draining against measures take to and a

- General and the murder of Alekseyev; and the cholera cholera the and Alekseyev; of murder the and General v osi o try ooie XIX polovine vtoroy vo Rossii v ”

Department issued a circular letter urging them to to them urging letter circular a issued Department

discovered in the factory waters sofar. discovered inthe factory waters , accessed on March 21, 2015. 21, March on accessed , or the Development of Industry in in Industry of Development the or s directly, because of their their of because directly, s

trial discharge, even in in even discharge, trial appointment of Prince of appointment –

ahl X veka, XX nachale

76 218

77

CEU eTD Collection was known. its formulation was very vague and that no reasonable technological solution to the problem governmen industrialists among its mem city The pollution. industrial with problems several months later this then decision was removed because all other factories had but very similar closed, were factories leather Bakhrushin the of drains the board, municipal Accord discharge. industrial the against do could municipality the much not therewas Insituation this found. beenhad satisfactory solution no anddecades, for world the over all discussed been had question this that out pointed police Moscow inq the to response in that Manufacturing, and Trade of Council the could Neither answer. definite any give not could latter the of experts the but constructed, be to consultthemunicipal engineers of theproper onthefil question violations meant that nobody could be punished, and the factory owners were only advised pollution. air and water forbade that law the breaking decontamination. From the legal point of view, it meant that all the Moscow facto thecityinto rivers nocase in and that were theexisting filters fulfillingtask ofwaste their 80 79 78

Some factories indeed inquired with the municipal board how the proper filters should filters proper the how board municipal the with inquired indeed factories Some insp This reformygorodskaya duma i Moskovskaya Ibid TsGAMOS mirovymi sud'yami (St. stroitel'ny Ustav

.; for the background of the City Council deputies in the 1890s, see L.F. Pisar'kova, Pisar'kova, L.F. see 1890s, the in deputies Council City the of background the for .; Petersburg: Gosudarstvennaya tipografiya, 1905), p. 124; 124; p. 1905), tipografiya, Gosudarstvennaya Petersburg: 80 ection discovered that every single factory was discharging its waste waters waste its discharging was factory single every that discovered ection , 16:133:250:11 ,

(St. (St.

Petersburg: Gosudarstvennaya tipogra Petersburg: Gosudarstvennaya Petersburg: Gosudarstvennaya tipografiya, 1900), p. 37; 37; p. 1900), tipografiya, Gosudarstvennaya Petersburg: - 13. bers, was not particularly eager to enforce the law, aware that

(Moscow: Novy Khronograph, 2000), pp. 2000), Khronograph, Novy(Moscow: 78 fiya, 1914), pp. 44 pp. fiya,1914),

However, the universality of the of universality the However, Ustav o nakazaniyakh, nalagayemykh nalagayemykh nakazaniyakh, o Ustav , ht one numero counted that t, ters. ing to the order of the of order the to ing - 79 45. 45.

549

Ustav vrachebny vrachebny Ustav - 587. uiry of the the of uiry Gorodskiye ries were

219 us

CEU eTD Collection the on consequences: serious extremely have can basis legal exclusively on persecution conditions astheGuebner fac of the factory.It kn is legal decision can be to close the discharge that in most cases practically equals the closure law, that is to say, to send the police and medical protocols to the District Court whose only Trepov's case in1898, Governor the As River. Moskva the polluted Board, textile Khamovniki brewery Guebner Albert the on decision pending the was matter that Governor Moscow the to reports his in in cesspools. Soon after assuming his position, Trepov brought up the question of pollution youryoufollow reason end will up...inthe cesspool. you If freemasons. and Jews intelligentsia, by invented was this all complicated, nothing the and revolutionary, police the become to need you freely too beat talk rebel, and think theythey if if them; simple: very is everything that first at thought he ignoramus, any As was he when Ober time Moscow the firstappointed the for life political the encountered He meetings<...> officers' of Finance Se and military Inorder. his, admittedly, very biased account of Trepov, the Russian Minister undecided. This state of affairs, apparently, did not suit Trepov, with his love for discipline dea to how of question the 1896, Ober acting the appointed was Trepov When discharge. industrial from chief Dmitry Trepov who took a remarkably keen interest in protecting the Moscow rivers 81

There can of course be no other decision on t on decision other no be course of can There clearlyve was he but him, described Witte as primitive as not was Trepov horse the of barracks the in happened upbringing and education his All there ended have might matter The S . Yu . Vitte , rgey Witte wrote: Witte rgey Vospominaniya

own, however, that the absolute majorityare offactories inthe same -

both of which, according the to expertise of the Provincial Medical (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo sotsial'no (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo - tory tory Polizmeister and he approached it as it approached he and Polizmeister

and the Khamovniki breweryKhamovniki andand the wt te atre ta plue h rvr ws still was rivers the pollute that factories the with l , if it had not been for the Moscow police and its its and police Moscow the for been not had it if , – -

General Prince Sergey Romanov. The pretext in pretext The Romanov. Sergey Prince General discipline them. Workers turn to revolution to turn Workers them. discipline hese reports than to act according to the the to according act to than reports hese 81 - workers will go after you. There is is There you. after go will workers ekonomicheskoy literatury, ekonomicheskoy - General's chancellery presented presented chancellery General's

an Ober an this

is why legal their factory and the the and factory - - Polizmeister in Polizmeister guards and the the and guards - Polizmeister. ry interested interested ry 1960 ), p. ), – 220 351

so

CEU eTD Collection Witte. un Finance of Ministry the of position the example, for from, differed principally industrialists the towards stand restrictive and interventionist the and di From administration. Moscow the of policy the in together came they century twentieth the of industrialists. i them support and workers the with side to needed state the protest, political and propaganda revolutionary the resist to order Governor Moscow the to presented soon Trepov that leg creating of plan a Trepov Dmitry before [ Bureau Security Moscow the of director the that 1898 in was It force. labor proletarian of concentration high their with factories the from coming orde in life industrial the in intervention unprecedented advocated administration Moscow the when time the was it workers; the and industry the authorities, Moscow the between relations the in period special a marked century ver The police. and administration imperial the of interests workers without their wages. one hand, the 84 83 82

Although the questions of revolution and pollution might seem quite atdistant, the turn On the background of the growing workers' movement, the latter was clearly against the izdatel'st Gosudarstvennoye Leningrad: and B.P. Koz'min, TsGAMOS, Kupriyanova, Kupriyanova, 84

fferent angles they reflected the patronizing attitudes towards the working people people working the towards attitudes patronizing the reflected they angles fferent In the sphere of control of the Moscow Governor Moscow the of control of sphere the In

83 bankruptcy bankruptcy of the factory 16:132:40:1

Zubatov i Zubatov yego korrespondenty: Sredi okhrannikov, i zhandarmov provokatorov

Rabochiy vopros. Rabochiy

.

82

n their economic struggle against the capital and the the and capital the against struggle economic their n - owners, owners, on the other, leaving completely innocent vo, vo, 1928 al pro al ), ), p. 61 - governmental workers' organizations workers' governmental

- General. In Zubatov's proposal, in in proposal, Zubatov's In General. r to curb the revolutionary threat revolutionary the curb to r - okhranka General, the relations between relations the General, y last years of the nineteenth the of years last y ] Sergey Zubatov laid Zubatov Sergey ] -

the course that that course the (Moscow (Moscow 221 der der

CEU eTD Collection line first the of district the in located factories, the to respect in that concluded committee and mandatory appealsfactories their intherivers discharging wastes ofthe and breaking thelaw. thus prev to measures general elaborate to tried only not committee this years following the In industrialists. of representatives and engineers prosecutor, court the inspector, factory senior the Board, Ober created in 1898, was chaired by the Moscow governor Alexander Bulygin and included the the for grounds a new and the soil elaborate to and considerations. necessary water is of it decontamination therefore, goals; their reach t filter no is there while production involves more a correspond to the changed life conditions. Factories exist on the basis of legal permissions, sposobom zakonnym solelyaccording act cannot we on theother, factories; new permitting them, pollute to continue worse, even is what and, state current Prince repeating Sergeyformulated it, t rivers by the industrial refuse because the existing laws on the matter became obsolete. As Moscow of pollution against measures elaborate should that institutions governmental sakeand ofstability sustainability. the for change and control to subjected were environment the and society industrialism, 85

The main structural solution that the members of the committee could offer was the the was offer could committee the of members the that solution structural main The Yauza, the and River Moskva the of pollution industrial the against committee This their in waterways other the and River Moskva the leave cannot we hand, one the on t a, hrfr, rpsd o create to proposed therefore, was, It TsGAMOS, - Polizemeister Polizemeister Trepov, th 16:132:40:3 85

urgent connection of the factories to the sewerage system. In 1899 the the 1899 In system. sewerage the to factories the of connection urgent

ent river pollution in Moscow but also dealt with specific cases and and cases specific with dealt also but Moscow in pollution river ent hat can decontaminate these products these decontaminate can hat ], because in this case the law, without any doubts, does not fully fully not does doubts, any without law, the case this in because ],

.

e Moscow mayor Vladimir Golitsyn, the head of the Medical nd more chemical processes with poisonous

he argumentation ofhischancellery, he argumentation

to the law [ to the a special committee from the concerned concerned the from committee special a js te t mn iprat practical important many to them djust edinstvenno sushchestvuyushchim , while sumps do not in practice in not do sumps while ,

by - products 222

;

CEU eTD Collection the in industrialists the put not “would argued, Trepov serious,” although measures, “Such chemists. by polluting considered be would effluents their if outlets existing the the as well as Yauza the and River Moskva the in discharge industrial for permits new any giving forbidcompletely to well as the city drains”. As for the factories, located upstream of the city, Trepov proposed the Municipal Board to issue any permits for th be later could that sewerage industrial incorporated in the second line of the municipal “withsystem unconditional prohibition to specific a create promptly to proposed he to the sewerage system. expansion of production that can induce the increase of waste waters until their connection outlets, these themse have already that factories the for enterprises industrial the of closurethe equals closuretheir that acknowledges Committee As channels. city and rivers the into sewerage system <...>, city. resolution, its committee itin formulated Asthe the of upstream located those even and enterprises) industrial Moscow of majority (the the process. in were five and it to connected already were 17 district, this in located factories municipal the join to sewer refusing for excuse no be can “there system, sewerage the of 88 87 86

Trepov's own position was even stricter. In his rep municipal the of expansion the is way desirable a in it resolve to means only the However, the more tricky question concerned the factories outside the Garden R TsGAMOS, TsGAMOS, TsGAMOS, age” and this “should be implemented immediately.” implemented be “should this and age” lves and has to recognize their right to existence under condition of prohibiting any 87

16:133:250:32 16:133:250:40 16:133:250:32

and and until then the suspension of issuing new permits for the outlets 88

. - .

41

. other natural waterways upstream of the city and to close all close to and city the of upstream waterways natural other

e discharge in rivers and natural streams as ort ort to the Moscow Governor

86

By January 1901, out of 30 of out 1901, January By - General, General, ing area 223

CEU eTD Collection Kuznetsov bleaching dyeingand factory the and dyeworks Shustrov the example, for as, such enterprises, industrial Moscow of expansion the forbidding practice, into resolution its put to tried it factories, polluting the actions taken uptonow.” thestop to right no haveI feel I discharge, industrial bycaused damage the eliminate that Council. Go State the in considered was discharge) industrial the upon factories until the new law on the management of industrial enterprises (which also touched prosecut the for intercede to had Witte Sergey Finance of Minister the discussions, Moscow's of opposed measures that could hinder the development of industry in Russia. In 1899, in light position This ones. on the water resources, as it forbade opening new factories and the expansion of the existing limitation to the development of industry in Moscow, at least in the productions that relied remove other alland wastestheir therefuse factories.” from and decontaminate thus and fields filtration own their border, city the beyond located th because deadlock 92 91 90 89

But even those milder statements in the vernor Since the committee concentrated in its hands th hands its in concentrated committee the Since TsGAMOS,16:133:250:3 TsGAMOS, TsGAMOS, TsGAMOS, ed factory ed - General, however, refused, stating that “until the elaboration of the new rules rules new the of elaboration the “until that stating refused, however, General, 16:133:250:4 16:133:250:1 16:133:250:16 - owners. Witte asked Prince Sergey to not take action against polluting against action take not Sergeyto Prince asked Witte owners. caused expected concerns in the Ministry of Finance, which generally which Finance, of Ministry the in concerns expected caused

y ol awy hv a osblt t ognz a ter factories, their at organize to possibility a have always would ey 3 . - 91

2 - .

34 .

,

119 - 120 .

. 92

resolution of the committee could pose a severe

e decision e 89

- making on the destiny of of destiny the on making 90

h Moscow The 224

CEU eTD Collection one Only enterprise. sewerage the of functionality the maintain to willing municipality, pollu further prevent and law the of violators the prosecute to willing police, the first of line theseweragedesigned. not systemis others, withmuchhigher quantity ofworkershug and many and Zindel Prokhorov, Guebner, Kuznetsov, of those example for situation, same 2 the of district the in located factories dyeing nothing couldpolice: toresolve bedone hisconflict with waters (the Giraud factory discharged about 60,000 buckets of waste waters daily) and that Vsevolod Kastalsky, agreed that this was impossi to bear all the necessary costs. However, the majority of the municipal engineers, including system,ready city the joinsewerage to permit amunicipality the for againhe asked 1899, decision the against appeal to him advised which rivers, Moscow against Committee the to applied and up give not did Giraud refused. municipality the and system, the of line first the of district the outside located factory, His system. sewerage the join to permission the for Board City the asked 1898 in Giraud Claude owner factory The River. Moskva the into discharged be to dirty too were waters the that revealed Board Medical Provincial the of analysis because facilities, its of reconstruction the and production of expansion the denied was it factories, other the with Together situation. the with dealt enterprises 94 93

Clearly, Giraud was trapped between the decision of the different authorities authorities different the of decision the between trapped was Giraud Clearly, example Another As for the police prohibition to discharge the dirty waters from Zhurnaly Komissii po nadzoru za ustroystvom novogo vodoprovoda i kanalizatsii v Moskve Moskve v kanalizatsii i vodoprovoda novogo S.n., ustroystvom za nadzoru po Komissii Zhurnaly TsGAMOS, 1902 ), ), p. 16:133:250:32 228 .

-

the Giraud silk factory silk Giraudthe - 33 ,

60 - 61 .

-

nd presents an interesting case of how the big the how of caseinteresting an presents

ble because of very high volume of waste line [of the sewerage system] are in the the in are system] sewerage the [of line 94 e amount ofwaste for which waters,

the industrial pollution of pollution industrial the

the Giraud factory, other

of the City Board. City the of however, was was however, h chemical the tion, and the and tion, – 93

(S.l.: (S.l.: 225 the

In

CEU eTD Collection ofSt. tothe post disappearpromotion did not withTrepov's the pressure of the Moscow administration against the polluting factories persisted to system sewerage the of incapacity the Despite existence. and the Moscow municipality did not get the chance to complete the task in the years of its 1911 until start no did works the but 1904, in prepared was project detailed Its slowly. bucketsmillion ofwaste waters. a than more out poured each factory textile Prokhorov and Zindel while buckets, 800,000 producing were buckets daily. and filtration fields the volume of industrial waters to be processed was set only at 400,000 cityfactories.the all serve not could system. the of line first the of district the outside sewers municipal the to connections potential the among priority given were that favorandGiraud's the Moscow of in1900allowed tojoin sewerage him appeal system. in decide to up, ended case the which in Moscow, in system sewerage and pipe water the and it was his explanation that finally persuaded the Committee su possible, technically was connection the that believed Semenov, A. engineer, municipal 98 97 96 95

h cntuto o te eod ie f h swrg sse ws proc was system sewerage the of line second the of construction The factories the was it decisions, these all of result a As TsGAMOS, pr k zapiska Poyasnitel'naya 333. p. “Kanalizatsiya”, Nikitin, pp. Ibid., 216 97 16:133:250:106 -

218 This was far below the actual volume of effluents that the Moscow factories . Thus, the above mentioned Guebner factory alone discharged daily daily discharged alone factory Guebner mentioned above the Thus, . .

- oyetku kanalizatsii gorodakanalizatsii oyetku Moskvy, 108

.

98

In the project of the first line of the sewerage system sewerage the of line first the of project Inthe 96

Nevertheless, the sewerage system obviously system sewerage the Nevertheless, - p. p.

and not the residential estates residential the not and 86

Petersburg Governor process the industrial wastes, industrial the process .

pervising the creation of eig rather eeding - General -

and it 226 95 – -

CEU eTD Collection Moscow Exchange thatlobbied theinterests Committee, elites ofthe business regional acceptable. contradictory mutually to came often police and inspectors factory organization, sanitary municipal and zemstvo Board, Medical Provincial as them to even unclear remained formulation loca responsible any water the water in the water reservoir to the worse” pathoge or poisons films, oil reaction, acidic or alkaline smell, or color expressed any have not should it C, 30° than higher discharged waters. According to the regulation, the temperature of discharge should not be subjected imprisonment. even tofines or declared dangerous for the pollution of water, air and soil, had to be closed and their owners n but law, the breaking limbo juridical the in stuck were year. in 1905 and the murder of Prince Sergey by 101 100 99

As the industrialists of the Moscow province wrote in 1910 in their appeal to the the to appeal their in 1910 in wrote province Moscow the of industrialists the As pre last Throughoutthe In 1908, the Medical Council made another atte another made Council Medical the In1908, TsGAMOS, TsGAMOS, mirovymi nalagayemykh sud'yami vrachebny Ustav

- intensive factory could still be charged with not fulfilling this rule. Although the 101

conclusions conclusions on what filters and waste treatment devices could be considered 143:1:385:3 143:1:385:12 l authorities were eager to implement these regulations in practice, the the practice, in regulations these implement to eager were authorities l (St.

Petersburg: Gosudarstvennaya tipografiya, 1905), p. 124; 124; p. 1905), tipografiya, Gosudarstvennaya Petersburg: obody could offer any alternative to it. Legally, all these factories, factories, these all Legally, it. to alternative any offer could obody .

.

- revolutionary decade the factories of Moscow and its province its and Moscow of factories the decade revolutionary

(St. –

the authorities knew they were polluting the rivers and and rivers the polluting were they knew authorities the

Petersburg: Gosudarstvennaya tipografiya, 191 tipografiya, Petersburg: Gosudarstvennaya nic microbes and should not “change the quality of of quality the “change not should and microbes nic 99

a bomb of the socialist 100

-

the formulation that meant that practically mpt to specify the requirements to the to requirements the specify to mpt - revolutionary the same Ustav o nakazaniyakh, nakazaniyakh, o Ustav 4), pp. 44 pp. 4), - 45. 45. 227 ,

CEU eTD Collection of Finance, of inchemistry,scientists, experts biology, bacteriology, engineeringhealth. and public Interior, of Industry, and Trade Communications, from the factory inspec of Ministry the from officials II.by theEmperor Nicholas the of wastes factory the from region industrial Moscow of waterways protection the for measures the on research the for committee Temporary the country new the of basis the as findings research the baseform regulationsfuture for wouldthen theagainst pollution. this of results the treatment; their of ways efficient and adequate most the and health, research project on the industrial wastes, the risks they pose to the e large a initiate to the proposed was against It argue police. and and administration the on of arbitrariness stand to ground scientific and legal the industrialists the potenti would that program positive a with up came law, the of implementation degree considered decontaminationbereached should is it of satisfactory. sothat nobody Yet, <...> waters these of decontamination provincial the thereforedemand authorities unthinkable, is factories, the of closure the means which factories, 105 104 103 102

h poet novd eea itrse pris I ws uevsd y h hg state high the by supervised was It parties. interested several involved project The th Industry and Trade of Ministry the in support found idea This The Moscow Exchange Committee, well aware that it could not about petition the non existing the to waters industrial of discharge the forbids that law the of application the Ibid., pp. 7 pp. Ibid., p. 7. 1914), vodami stochnymi zagryazneniye ot rayona promyshlennogo Moskovskogo vodoyomov merizyskaniyu k po okhrane komiteta Otchetvremennogo TsGAMOS, TsGAMOS, -

10/ 143:1:385:17 143:1:385:2

.

- 18 104 .

- wide law on this matter. In 1911, the creation of creation the 1911, In matter. this on law wide i otbrosami fabrik I zavodov za 1913 god (Moscow: S.n., S.n., (Moscow: god 1913 za zavodov I fabrik otbrosami i tion tion and local authorities. It was implemented by and refuse was approved approved was refuse and nvironment nvironment and human at hoped to use its use to hoped at knows what what knows 103

102

ally give ally

- 105 scale 228

-

CEU eTD Collection the in intervention paternalistic of type the of failure the marked also had, they effects resou Economy created the Central Committee for Popular Water Protection that of would manage the water Council Supreme the bourgeoisie, imperial the by financed and organized Soviet the g of agenda the in well fitted findings and goals its as sponsors its outlived committee Temporary the of work the However, industry. Russian the in capital private researc to recommend efficient themost solution. plants treatment waste test created and abroad and Russia in systems treatment waste and it had on the natural environments of Central Russia. The experts impact and posed it hazards health the production, to relation and character its discharge, the Moscow Exchange arrangedby equipment scientific were and officefacilities outlays,contracts, instructions, issues practical the All region. industrial Moscow the of factories 160 of donations of budget annual The capital. 108 107 106 vrmn. n 99 o te ai o te eprr cmite wih a invented, was which committee, Temporary the of basis the on 1919, In overnment.

The revolutionary events of the first decades of the twentieth century, among many other the of results the from benefit to chance the get not did however, industrialists, The In 1912 private by exclusively financed and organized was that initiative private a was it Yet, medistsiny, rayona ot zagryazneniya stochnymi vodami i ot promyshlennogo Moskovskogo vodoyomov okhrane k mer izyskaniyu po komiteta vremennogo Otchet . vntky “ors okhrany “Voprosy Ivanitskiy, A. TsGAMOS, rces proletarian ofthe state. new h they were so generously funding, as the Bolshevik revolution brought an end to end an brought revolution Bolshevik the as funding, generously so were they h - 1917, this Temporary committee conducted extensive research on the industrial 1918 143:1:385:58 - 1923 (Moscow: S.n., 1923), pp. 47 pp. 1923), (Moscow: S.n., 1923

Committee. - 65 .

h project the vodoyomov 106

108

107 brosami fabrik

- obshchestvennogo pol'zovaniya”/ pol'zovaniya”/ obshchestvennogo

lot 500 rubles 95,000 almost - 48.

i

zavodov ,

vol. 1 studied the existing filters - -

3 was formed by the the by formed was

(Moscow, Pyat' let sovetskoy sovetskoy let Pyat' 1914 - 1917 229 – ).

CEU eTD Collection dec its with environment, natural the from it protect even way, some in and, health, human promote to meant were environment with relations human transform radically to attempts the an 1870s the In pollution. towards attitudes the in shift sublime a revealed cases presented The discourse. potentially with solution outcomes.dangerous environmental promoting were authorities Moscow the effluents, toxic the for fields filtration large creating or systems sewerage municipal the to connect to industrialists pressing by sense, as environments surrounding the and farming sewerage the on have the could that wastes industrial impact poisonous the studied had however, Nobody, conducted. were fields filtration wastes, human policy indeed life authorities ofthemade somewhat Moscow their difficult. more true the got connected to the sewers produced only a small part of the city's industrial wastes, while simplistic outlook on this problem left too many issues out of the picture. The factories that unt their draining stopped success. moderate very also had century the of turn the at launched it that campaign pollution admin Moscow the that matters industrial e, motnl, hs apin ruh idsra pluin no h lgt f public of light the into pollution industrial brought campaign this importantly, Yet, organic process to designed was system sewerage Moscow the hand, other the On and system sewerage the to connected got factories Moscow of dozens several Indeed, giants were excluded from the system of waste treatment, although the restrictive the although treatment, waste of system the from excluded were giants

moigogncwse, otn tem addryriwtr yte early the By rainwater. dirty and streams rotting wastes, organic omposing d 1880s, the discussions about sanitation were overtly antropocentric. All antropocentric. overtly were sanitation about discussions the 1880s, d and this was the task for which all the preliminary research and tests of tests and research preliminary the all which for task the was this and well as the efficiency of the filtration fields in neutralizing them. In that In them. neutralizing in fields filtration the of efficiency the as well reated refuse in the city waterways. Yet, Trepov's rather rather Trepov's Yet, waterways. city the in refuse reated istration was advocating. The results of the anti the of results advocating.Theistration was

230 a -

CEU eTD Collection chapter.this of title the in invoked stations”, “police the of rule discretionary of danger the but them, resp state thenot symbolize to came it elites urban amongthe many of eyesof the in Yet,paternalism. tool a into it turned who police and administration local the by appropriated Europea advocated by the elected self system, sewerage new a of construction the and “cesspools” Moscow’s against campaign dispos the to harvesteda regime. different by political made them volens their of risks potential the of industrialists among awareness reasons behind it. Nevertheless, the pressure of the Moscow police and administration rose political and social also but environmental, only not had certainly Russia, revolutionary that, although prevention, its for responsible also but it of guilty only not connected to increasingly human action was environment the of condition poor the time, same the At outcomes. well human with sake, own their for environments human health or direct economic interest, but rather showed an attempt to protect the river to reference no had 1900s and 1890s late the in police and administration Moscow the fight for cleaner rivers became less clear. Thus, the materials of anti the of beneficiary immediate and only the as human the of image the century, twentieth The story of Moscow’s campaign against pollution shows how the meanings attached attached meanings the how shows pollution against campaign Moscow’s of story The onsible attitude towards nature and local communities nor the governmental care of of care governmental the nor communities local and nature towards attitude onsible n modernity. By the turn of the twentieth century this powerful symbol was was symbol powerful this century twentieth the of turn the By modernity. n

al and treatment of wastes changed over time. In the 1870s and 1880s the 1880s and 1870s the In time. over changed wastes of treatment and al - nolens nolens take action against it, though the fruits of would eventuallyit be –

- in this case, that of factory government institution, had a promise of social progress and

- en a ol oe f h poten the of one only as being - owners, owners, who were openly declared enterprises and eventually eventually and enterprises - pollution pollution campaign of

n h pre the in 231 tial -

CEU eTD Collection law and saw sciencetheir arbitrariness thatthey shieldfromstructures. the the state of thein was it andaction, to take industrialists the pushed rule such of threatsthe However, but as the necessity to uphold and expand the more familiar patterns of administr regularization and codification proper the for pressure the as not ambiguity legislative the administrati Moscow The within. operate to bodies sanitary controlling the and industrialists the for language legal common the and framework clear the create to need the meant legislation rul the advocated and policies bureaucratic arbitrary the of risks the saw Industry, and Trade of Ministry century only a minority of the tsarist officials, mostly from the Ministry of Finance and the relations in officialdom Russian the within controversies existed the illustrates again once case latter the hand, other the treatment left spa pollution industrial the and system sewerage n technological and scientific fixed the of lack the demonstrate, the of choice the on debates the as of the andscientific knowledge legal in governmentalRussian practices. On the one hand, The discussed cases also reveal the mechanisms and the limitations the and mechanisms the reveal also cases discussed The on and police, too, invoked the law as a point of reference, but they interpreted ce ce for th e of law. For them, the vagueness and unspecificity of the existing existing the of unspecificity and vagueness the them, For law. of e e interpretation

to the regularization of power. In the early twentieth twentieth early the In power. of regularization the to of science

at

the the discretion of orms in the field of waste waste of field the in orms political actors. On

of the application application the of ative rule.

232

CEU eTD Collection the creating through and inspecting ofdwellings hygiene and the pub conditions sanitary improve to sewerage system, providing healthy and drinking water, controlling the quality accessible of food products maximally care gove elected the where cities the in done been has lot medical required the with personnel, hospitals received gradually Russia of corners godforsaken their of 30% about that] [on spent they year Every health. public of improvement the in resources and efforts enormous invested that governments imperial publi the and memoirs, his in noted he gloomy, so was everything not Yet, administration. medical its of inefficiency and confusion the epidemics, devastating of frequency the well aware of the cou living lastmonths. its agents, central to local from initiative the giving Empire, Russian h in era new a marked have could plan this 1916, September in Council State the by Approved country. the in health public civil control fully to meant institution centralized a Protection, Health State for Administration Main re health national the on commission interdepartamental Health Public of medical major a for plan his II Nicholas t s eesr t mnin ih go wr or esv ad uiia self municipal and zemstvo our word good a with mention to necessary is It was Rein Russia, in official medical top the Council, Medical the of Head the Being Gri Council, Medical the of Head the 1910, In 2 Health, Public and 1

Rein, G.E. Rein,

physicians and midwives, and physicians Iz perezhitogo,Iz c had achievements: health its also Iz perezhitogo, 1907 90 –

ntry's public health problems 1

-

103. n da ht eevd oa spot I 11 te special the 1914 In support. royal received that idea an pp. pp.

21

- 27 , quote from quote , pp. - 1918 1918

CONCLUSION (Berlin: (Berlin: zemstvo pharmacies and other institutions <...> A A <...> institutions other and pharmacies zemstvo - sanitary reform and the creation of the Ministry the of creation the and reform sanitary Parabola, Parabola, 1936), pp. ii 26 lic buildings. lic

- 27 –

. gory Rein presented to the Emperor Emperor the to presented Rein gory ealth policy and medical care of the of care medical and policy ealth its its high mortality and morbidity rates,

rnments strove to make the medical medical the make to strove rnments

om rpsd o sals the establish to proposed form budgets, and even the remote remote the even and budgets, 2

- v; see also Hutchinson, –

but the empire was was empire the but Politics Politics 233 -

CEU eTD Collection in mortality rate in Moscow was 33.8 in the period of 1872 sanitary soeasy reformsnot is toevaluate. question?” this answer which extent did the life of Muscovites improve because of this organization to but city; European Western any of envy provoke will sanitation Moscow's of guards 4000, including 60sanitary and 285physicians, 24veterinarians. doctors medical Moscow's of personnel medical The brigade. sanitary control, food abattoir, public system, sewerage and water modern a had Moscow this, to addition In free. for provided was institutions municipal the in care medical the All homes. maternity municipal 10 the of one in place almost a third of the urban population of 1.6 million; every fourth childbir patients individual million a half than more served gynaecological) and venereal 8000 beds. In 1912, 19 outpatient clinics (including specialized paediatric, ophthalmologic, about with hospitals municipal 21 had Moscow I, War World of eve the By impressive. quite seem health public of field the in municipality Moscow the of accomplishments 5 4 3

1910 The statistics can reveal a certain decline in death and disease rates. The average annual Still, as the long the Indeed, mind. in had Rein that cities the of one clearly was Moscow Statistichesky ezhegodnik goroda Moskvy, ezhegodnik Statistichesky Moskvy,goroda ezhegodnik Statistichesky S.n., (Moscow: Shchepkin, M.P. Zhbankov, - 1913. Sbornik po gorodskomupo vrachebno Sbornik 5

In the mid

1906 - bhhsvnoe samoupr Obshchestvennoye term municipal activist Mitrofan Shchepkin asked

), p. ),p. 4

hs s dfiut usin indeed, question difficult a is This 46 - 1880s, a quarter of Moscow's children did not survive to the age .

1911 19 06 -

sanitarnomu delu, delu, sanitarnomu - avleniye v Moskve. Proekt gorodovogo polozheniya polozheniya gorodovogo Proekt Moskve. v avleniye - 1913 (Moscow: Gorodskaya tipograf (Moscow: Gorodskaya 1913 1907

(Moscow: Gorodskaya tipografiya, 19 tipografiya, Gorodskaya (Moscow: - 1881, 26.4 in 1902 - aiay raiain exceeded organization sanitary pp. pp.

inspection and a disinfection a and inspection

19 s h drc ipc o the of impact direct the as - 44 .

, , “this number of the th in the city took 3

iya, 1916), 1916), iya, - 1906 and 25.4 –

who would 08 ), ), p.57. - p. 57; p. – pipe 234

or

CEU eTD Collection slower. were they importantly, more and metropolises; European major in those than higher significantly remained I War World of eve the on Moscow in rates general trend was a decline of death rates from infectious diseases. However, the mortality scarl and diphtheria smallpox, typhus, cholera, of epidemics simultaneous variations annual significant change (see Table 6.1) rates fro 1910 by five; of 8 7 6

Statistichesky ezhegodnik goroda ezhegodnik Statistichesky Source: Table 6.1 York: 1987), University Press, Oxford Robert Thurston, 81 goroda ezhegodnik Statistichesky Moskvy, p. 57. 1916), tipografiya, Gorodskaya g. 1887 za V.M.Ostroglazov,

8 m

Syphilis Diphtheria fever Scarlet Smallpox Measles Dysentery Typhoid Typhus Tuberculosis Disease

mrns' aeeia . oky 1872 Moskvy, g. naseleniya Smertnost' infectious infectious diseases in the two census years of 1882 and 1912 reveals . . Death rates from infectious diseases in Moscow per 100,000 population in 1882 and 1912. Bm, .. 18) p 1; p. 1888), b.i., (B.m.,

-

1913 this proportion dropped to 16%. to dropped proportion this 1913

Liberal Liberal City, Conservative State: Moscow and Russia's Urban Crisis, 1906

Smertnost' v Moskve za za Moskve v Smertnost'

. These numbers refer tothe specificyears and therewere ofcourse

Moskvy, 1911 Moskvy, –

ttsihsy zeonk ooa Moskvy, goroda ezhegodnik Statistichesky

o eape i 1908 in example, for p. 196. p. 13 72 77 49 53 82 65 63 432 1882

1911

1883 g., (B.m., B.i. 1884), p. 1, idem. 1, p. 1884), B.i. (B.m., g., 1883

- - 1913 1913 1913 1913 (Moscow: 1916), Gorodskaya tipografiya, - 1899 1899 (Moscow: Gorodskaya tipografiya, 1916). tipografiya, (Moscow: Gorodskaya (Moscow: Gorodskaya tipografiya, 1891) and and 1891) tipografiya, Gorodskaya (Moscow: 6

Comparing the statistics of death death of statistics the Comparing - 1910 Moscow experienced experienced Moscow 1910 also declining much much declining also

7 35 41.5 1.5 43 50 10.5 3 248 1912 1911

Smertnost' v Moskve Moskve v Smertnost'

atina

- 1913 (Moscow: (Moscow: 1913

a substant 7 -

1914 1914 -

but the the but

pp. pp. 77

(New 235 ial -

CEU eTD Collection and “sanitation” of understanding the of breadth The reform. sanitary the of results the of health reformers proclaimed, the mortality and morbidity statistics capture only one aspect were effective. most policies the of which and decline mortality the to contributed Moscow in reform sanitary the way which in and extent what to say to necessary be would demography historical epidemics the fighting in policies preventive and organizations particular diseases. preventive and curative medicine or the autonomous decrease in the virulence of strains of behaviour, environmental and occupational factors, development of sanitary infras and stereotypes cultural of change and standards living in improvements interventions, to ra measures and the death rates. Although McKeown's argument has lost popularity, it helped health public the between relations the problematized and about debated have scholars s not connected McKeown argued that the nineteenth necessarily an immediate result of the sanitary reform. Ever since the 1970s, when Thomas 11 10 9

Although the decline in death and di and death in decline the Although this even Yet, Hardy, 1856 medicine, University Press, 1998); Anne Hardy, The Burdens of Disease: Epidemics Human and inResponse Western History Reinterpretation of the Role of Public Health,” 1850 c. Decline Mortality Britain’sin Intervention Social of Importance “The Szreter, Simon T ise awareness of the complexityise awareness the mortality ofthe factors behind ofdecline homas McKeown, homas McKeown, The Epidemic Streets, Epidemic The o much to sanitary interventions, but rather to improvements in nutrition, in improvements to rather but interventions, sanitary to much o - 1900 - 10

r The Modern Rise of Population Population of Rise Modern The

Indeed, historians have emphasized the importance of the local health elatively moderate moderate elatively ( Oxford: Clarendon Press, Press, Oxford: Clarendon pp. pp.

290 - The The Epidemic Streets: Infectious diseases and the rise of preventive 294 - century mortality decline in and England Wales was .

sease rates was exactly the goal that the Moscow the that goal the exactly was rates sease -

Social Social History of Medicine eln i Mso' mraiy ae ws not was rates mortality Moscow's in decline 1993 (New York: Academic press, ).

, , 11 1988, 1988, 1, pp. 1

but an entire study in study entire an but (New Brunswick: (NewRutgers Brunswick: 1976 – ). -

direct social direct social 38; J. N. Hays, tructure, tructure, - 1914: A1914: 236 9

CEU eTD Collection and necessity the in belief the preserve to helped it implementation, its upon took reform policy Medical the of oppressive practices and forced the replaced reform The salvarsan. of invention the and agent ap this of the high aimed at early diagnostics, treatment and, eventually, prevention of venereal disease among th albums sanitary of introduction the and personnel promote to and carriers its soci outcast most the from patients significant limitations, the right to privacy, anonymity and with body autonomy even among the though advocated, it policies, previous the with comparison In disease. venereal inp and outpatient free the of creation the implementation ofthese policies was and oftennotfully intrusive voluntary. diagnos early the promised clinics outpatient and hospitals municipal free of network the schools, at examination medical inspection, sanitary The control. and regulation surveillance, in increase an was efforts urb safer acreate and diseasecombat to desire intervention thecity inthe lifeand residents. of its me the of diversity the erapeutic practice. practice. erapeutic The reform of syphilis prevention, launched by the Moscow municipality, resulted in resulted municipality, Moscow the by launched prevention, syphilis of reform The the by driven was It results. and mechanisms its in ambiguous was intervention This

of medical inspection, which in essence still remained coercive. In the shape the the shape the In coercive. remained still essence in which inspection, medical of - risk social groups through regular semi risk social proach was quite doubtful, especially before the identification of the syphilis syphilis the of identification the before especially doubtful, quite was proach T h asures united under its umbrella defined the potential scope of the the of scope potential the defined umbrella its under united asures is new policy developed into a kind of proto of kind a into developed policy new is - police committee with the somewhat softer and less intrusive intrusive less and softer somewhat the with committee police –

through the exclusion of police, employment of female female of employment police, of exclusion the through al groups. It attempted to de to Itattempted groups. al tics and the better treatment of disease disease of treatment better the and tics tet eia cr fr hs sfeig from suffering those for care medical atient an environment, but the side the but environment, an - anonymouscheck

-

more humane preventive and and preventive humane more - stigmatize the disease and and diseasethe stigmatize - ups, but the efficiency ups, but - screening medicine, medicine, screening - effect of these of effect

–

but the the but 237

CEU eTD Collection against humans. mobilized were killing industrialized and rationalized of technologies and ideas the when industrialization of slaughter prepared the groun process. acceptable morally thus and abstract an into turned slaughter animal the population urban the of most for and broken, t city, the from disappeared livestock While body. slaughter and human minimize therisks for theurban populationan in cooperation with the imperial and local governments, it elaborated and tested policies to Russia; in dynamics and incidence their diseases, animal of knowledge advanced abattoir Acting abattoir. Moscow the to livestock its sending were that Empire Russian the of regions vast the in epizootics of spread the curbing thus slaughtered animals, the in infection of detection the allowed and consumers meat the among di alimentary prevent helped It products. food over control sanitary disease. venereal against measures any of target primary the were women when bias gender the centuryand twentieth the until examinations mandatoryvenereal the of usefulness 13 12

Yet, as any industrial slaughterhouse, it profoundly transformed the experience of of experience the transformed profoundly it slaughterhouse, industrial any as Yet, The creation of the public abattoir in Moscow was a major step forward in Lantern Books, LanternBooks, Patterson, Charles 2 History Public Abattoir,1850 British of Development The Slaughter: Otter,“Civilizing Chris , ( 2005

, 3, 2, (2005), p. 30;Paula p. (2005), 2, CiYoung the3, and , Slaughterhouse “The Lee, ), pp. 13 13 2002 -

19 The Eternal Treblinka: Our Treatment of Animals and the Holocaust the and Animals of Treatment Our Treblinka: Eternal The . -

). animal animal relations. It contributed to the commodification of the animal

12

oe uhr hv ee sgetd ht the that suggested even have authors Some d damages for livestock owners. d damagesowners. for livestock ds ds for the tragedies of the twentieth century he link between meat and killing was was killing and meat between link he

as a scientific center, the center, scientific a as seases and poisonings poisonings and seases ty,” Food and History and Food - 1910,” 1910,”

establishing

(New York:(New Food and and Food upheld 238 , 3 ,

CEU eTD Collection over prioritized unquestionably almost were resources for demand their and cities industrial growing also revealed the establishment of a new model of urban i throughoutthe doubtful rather was wastes urban neutralizing in system sewerage Moscow the of effectiveness overall the it, treat to impossibility the and refuse industrial on research of lack usage, its towards the environment. attitudes responsible more promoted and pollution industrial and urban the by posed risks the of awareness raised together that policies and research discussions, of range the design and hygiene private ofthe home. The of thesewerage construction sy city interacted with its natural resources, and on the micro wastes urban of treatment and removal collection, the in breakthrough fundamental a indeed was in theof labor policiesthelivingworkers. and improve standard political and social given circumstances the revolution seemed to be the the mechanismonly that could prompt in that confirmed sense, a in and, capitalism Russian of relations employment and labor existing the to alternative viable any offer not could “public good” in fact were. The operation of the the abattoir showed of that the public implications governm social the narrow how revealed employer an as policy its creation, hierarchies i Yet, because of the constraints in the system, sewerage the reform, sanitary Moscow the of achievement celebrated Another In the specific Moscow context, the public abattoir exposed the functioning of the social .

It greatly reshaped the experience,urban both on the macro n Russia. Despite the importance of the “public good” rhetoric in the abattoir's the needs and concerns of rural communities, while the potential conflict potential the while communities, rural of concerns and needs the mperial period. The process of the sewerage system constructionsewerage the system of process Theperiod. mperial

operation operation of the sewerage system, selectiveness of - rural interaction. The needs of the - level –

in terms of organization, -

level level –

in the way the stem inspired

changes 239 ent

CEU eTD Collection character of migration and its lack of generational continuity, the strong ties of migrants to raised. and born were children their where and families their left they Petersburg. St in than stronger and standards, Russian by even impressive was it size; comparable of cities European the in than expressed more was Moscow in population the of character migrant refor the of influence only the was under came it it of and parts population, substantial that volatile occasionally remarkably a with dealing were they fact, In many andof the inthepolitical social realities obstacles Russian model that the elites had in mind. However, both of these entangled processes encountered “civilized” behavior training and the “uncultured” people to live their according life to the “hygienic” “healthy”, of norms new imposing and disseminating constructing, through provide medical assistance to those in need. The disciplinary mechanisms were introduced applyin in expressed was good” “public of ideals the to and community urban the to service The of state centralthe of intervention bythe cities the favorof in resolved was sides two betweenthe “ The Moscow health reformers were not working with a stable group of urban residents. sho have I As h Wrd f h Rsin esn: Post 82 pp. Hyman,1990), Peasant: Russian the of World The (eds Frank Stephen and Eklof Ben in loyalties,” regional and patterns family migration, proletariat: 15 1900 14 ozdorovleniye

–

a pattern that would betakena patterntothe would extremeintheSoviet period. that g scientific knowledge, technology and the municipal resources to fight disease and – For the analysis of the family patterns in peasant migration see also Robert Johnson, “Peasant and and “Peasant Johnson, Robert also see migration peasant in patterns family the of analysis the For Pete St and Moscow in mobility and persistence, Residential “Transience, Bater, James 1914,” 1914,” Slavic Review Slavic wn in my dissertation, the sanitary undertakings of the municipal project project municipal the of undertakings sanitary the dissertation, my in wn 14 ”

The true home of many migrant workers remained the vi the remained workers migrant many of home true The in some way implied both “serving the people” and disciplining them. them. disciplining and people” the “serving both implied way some in

– 3.

, 39 (1980), 239 (1980), 39 ,

- – Emancipation Culture and Society Society and Culture Emancipation 54.

Empire. (Boston, MA: Unwin Unwin MA: (Boston,

15

h transient The llage, where llage, ms. rsburg, The The 240

or or .), .),

CEU eTD Collection municipality was in fact in constant and increasing deficit, which in the last pre cities. European between capita per were Moscow in taxation from revenues municipal The goals. disciplinary or good public its either implement different reg norms for lobbied industrialists the while to, supposed not were they where it joining on insisted others to, encouraged were they when system sewerage the to connect to refused them in inventive remarkably were property city The rejection. meat on policies softer negotiated or compensation, animals ororgans,the contrary, or,on cattle broughttotheslaughter sick toget municipal livestock The inspection. medical the avoided prostitutes The negotiation. and subversion resistance, of practices diverse of Moscow naturally had its agency in shaping the realization of those reforms and showed research, my of scope the beyond remained policies the officials governmental would be sodramaticallytackled by theSov thoroughly “civilize” the Russian city one had to start with the Russian village To impact. limited very a have only could behaviour of models new the in them train and the village meant that the efforts of the Moscow reformers to t h sm tm, h rsucs f h mncplt wr isfiin t effectively to insufficient were municipality the of resources the time, same the At elites the what on focused I dissertation my In Moskovskaya Duma Moskovskaya 16

Thurston, Thurston, Liberal City, Conservative State Conservative City, Liberal 16

ulating the treatment of factory discharge. thetreatmentulating offactory ept te rftblt o svrl iy nepie, h Moscow the enterprises, city several of profitability the Despite

(Moscow: Novy khron (Moscow: Novy -

thought and did about the sanitary reforms and the reception of of reception the and reforms sanitary the about did and thought

finding alternative, illegal ways of waste removal; some of of some removal; waste of ways illegal alternative, finding - produc ograph, 2010), p. 311 p. 2010), ograph, r a te btor i ad eoe infected removed and hid abattoir the at ers ,p. 44; L. F. Pisar'kova, Pisar'kova, F. L. 44; ,p. iet state severaliet state decades later.

three and four times less than in other big big other in than less times four and three

but it is clear that the population the that clear is it but –

uiia atvss experts, activists, municipal

educate the urban population

Gorodskiye reformy v Rossii i Rossii v reformy Gorodskiye

- – war war decade

a a task that - owners owners 241

CEU eTD Collection whichhospital, left practically “disciplining”, for and “educating” notime “civilizing”. measures health public and surveillance of mechanism a as served have could circumstances other under that doctors, sanitary and physicians those of activity the situation such In physician. each per patients 60 at 70,0 of population average of an each with districts police I several of area an serving War was doctors sanitary district World Moscow's of eve the on Thus, overloaded. much very was organization compensat not could growth medical Moscow the to personnel of“publimplications two. the between correlation a was there that proved projects those of implementation the it, on the formula where advocated by the health were reformers. Although in that the 1880s the plans sanitation projects of were based realization the delayed or hindered finances municipal of lack The amounted on average to almost a m 18

The financial problems of the municipality complicated the recruitment of new medical aian ndo nd hlscai sntraa raiasy v r v organizatsiya sanitarnaya in budushchem,” i blizhayshem nastoyashchem i zhilishchami (St. nad nadzor Sanitarny Moskvy goroda “Vrachebno Uspensky, P.V. Pisar'kova, p. 37; 1985), Press, of California 17

hs etra cntans arwd on h aray ut lmtd social limited quite already the down narrowed constraints external Those

Joseph Joseph Bradley, eesug Tpgaia okn, 87, . 2; E.F. 128; p. 1897), Soykina, Tipografiya Petersburg:

(ocw Grdky tpgaia 11) p. 3, 145 132, pp. 1913), tipografiya, Gorodskaya (Moscow: , disseminating the “healthy” norms, was limited to the most immediate most the to limited was norms, “healthy” the disseminating

Muzhik Muzhik and Muscovite ic good” thattheMoscow reformers health were promoting. “public “public good” did not depend on profit and was more important than –

00. In the municipal outpatient clinics, the daily norm was set set was norm daily the clinics, outpatient municipal the In 00. diagnosing, quarantining, disinfecting, curing or sending to to sending or curing disinfecting, quarantining, diagnosing, - aiany ognztia” n .A enr Verner,A. I. in organizatsiya,” sanitarnaya fr h ices o te ra pplto; s rsl the result a as population; urban the of increase the for e

- illion illion roubles a year and in 1916 reached five million. sanitary organization. It was indeed growing but this but growing indeed was It organization. sanitary : Urbanization Urbanization in Late Imperial Russia Gorodskiye reformy, reformy, Gorodskiye Obshchestvenny vrach Obshchestvenny p. 305. p. Pechorkin, “Ambulatoriya v eye eye v “Ambulatoriya Pechorkin, , 6 (1912), pp. 753 , (1912), pp. 6

Sovremennoye khozyaystvo khozyaystvo Sovremennoye azlichnykh gosudarstvakh gosudarstvakh azlichnykh - 147; M.I. Pokrovskaya, Pokrovskaya, M.I. 147;

(Berkeley: University - 765.

242 18 17

CEU eTD Collection openly reformers health Moscow the Sometimes pragmatic. often and ambiguous as d be rather can but oppositional, necessarily not also were sides two the between of the urban population unfreedom realization. The big unfreedom strong disciplinary yet,overtones; in practice both of these aspects received very moderate sanitation of project the level introduction to this dissertation, the potential answer could be that, indeed, at the discursive administration could take place afterthe only close the flophouses, it received a response saying that the “widening of the rights of a city to right the for asking Interior of Ministry the to petition a sent Council City Moscow the inf of incidence high and conditions sanitary poor overcrowding, their for notorious flophouses, the close even not could government city The compulsory. system sewerage the joining make it could nor enforced, successfully cities European introduce male venereal inspection, could not forbid private slaughterhou others, however, they probably wanted to the m control, disease venereal of system new the with as cases, some in Indeed, tasks. set the all of realization the ensure to small too also was population city the over power 19 unicipal reformers refused to use the potential of direct coercion offered by the state. In In state. the by offered coercion direct of potential the use to refused reformers unicipal

Returning to the question about the character of Russian “ Russian of character the about question the Returningto legal The Quoted in Quoted Thurston, -

me competence of the municipality and its administrative, juridical or symbolic or juridical administrative, its and municipality the of competence aning the desire of the Moscow elites to monitor and regulate the daily life

Liberal City Liberal -

but it did limit its scope and the spheres it penetrated. The relations

combined the rhetoric of serving the urban community with with community urban the serving rhetoricof the combined

, - Conservative Sta Conservative

meaning the autocracy -

but could not. Thus, the municipality could not

whole City hadwhole Statute changed.” been te, te, p. p. 41 .

-

indeed exclude didnot the small ozdorovleniye ectious disease. ectious ses ses ” , raised in the the in raised , –

which other escribed

When When 19 243

CEU eTD Collection place. th in and it, replace cameto that state Soviet the also but rule, imperial the only not outlived reforms, those of course the territorial outpatient clinics and the ideas of universal access to medical care, developed in infrastructure sanitary of system the Yet, advertised. than better or for a worse, failure, whiletheir public benefit turned be outto far less impressive for was, citizens liberal moral and responsible disciplined, create to mission” “civilizing to the public health structures organized inthe city. majority of Moscow residents by and large escaped it but, when necessary, still could resort workers the example, for groups, social selected the arbitrary of domain the in freedom to respect in effectivelyonly functioned discipliningSurveillanceand rule. administrative of zone certain a out carving thus allowed, is eluded social control; in others, they strove to clearly delineate previously had that life human of aspects of regulation and surveillance the introduced reforms sanitary the cases, some In resources. administrative available the of advantage of interests autocracywhenclash suppor and therewasthe its offered when no but law, of rule the of absence the lamented and state the of coercion direct the opposed okn bc a te ocw aiay eom fo 21, t a b si th said be can it 2015, from reforms sanitary Moscow the at back Looking

e long run contributed to turning Moscow into a healthier a into Moscow turning to contributed run long e

f h pbi aati, hl the while abattoir, public the of , of the free public hospitals and hospitals public free the of ,

what is forbidden from what t, they took t their at 244

CEU eTD Collection 7:490 raz O 179:54:980 179:54:961 179:54:947 sluzh nizshikh sluzhby i nayma usloviy obshchikh vyrabotke O 179:54:632 oplaty uvelicheniya dnya, rabochego sokrashcheniya proyekta vyrabotke O 179:54:631 179:46:19 Lichnoye 179:45:3639 delo Vyshinskoy 179 Fund 179:Municipality The Moscow 143:1:385 Fund 143: Mo dlya Komissii finansov Ministerstve pri obrazovanii Ob 16:133:250 16:132:40 16:130:240 Obyazatel'ny Fund 16: Moscow Governor to1917 Center for prior documents CentralMoscow Archive(TsGAMOS, State TsIAM) former of ARCHIVAL SOURCES SOURCES

: 33 hzasv utot n grdkm ktpionm vr vsak udoynogo vystavku dvore skotoprigonnom myasnogo skota v gorodskom na ustroit' khozyaystva Vserossiyskoygigienicheskoy vPeterburge vystavke v trebovaniy. gorodskomrabochikh upravlenii obshchestvennom vMoskovskom i zabastovok preduprezhdeniya dlya stachek. upravlenia gorodskogo predpiyatiyakh na truda, otpuskov, ustanovleniya uluchsheniyaraboc byta prostitutsiyey. i Yauzy nikhotrabotannymi spuskayemymisfabrik. v vodami o i Moskvy prekrashcheniyu rek zagryazneniyak merakho i skladov rabot nikh na proizvodstve i zavedeniy promyshlennykh soderzhanii i ustroystve ob polozheniya r. chasti.

: Moskvu otrabotannykh fabrichnykh vod. 4

O provedenii meropriyatiy nechistot otsvalok i reki poochistke Yauzy. Protokoly zasedaniypovoprosuobochistke stochnykh komissii vod.

b baoai Ooo Kmsi la asorny vpoa suk v spuske o voprosa rassmotreniya dlya Komisii Osoboy obrazovanii Ob

Karty meditsinskogo osvidetel'stvovaniya zheshchin, zanimayushchikhsya zanimayushchikhsya zheshchin, osvidetel'stvovaniya meditsinskogo Karty

O zakrytii chastnykh boyen okolo g. Moskva za nesoblyudeniye sanitarnykh sanitarnykh nesoblyudeniye za Moskva g. okolo boyen chastnykh zakrytii O b cati ooksoo bceteng urveia pervoy v upravleniya obschestvennogo gorodkoskogo uchastii Ob

scow Exchange Commitee scow Exchange

reshe 1895

e postanovleniya Moskovskogo general i iprtrkm msosou bhhsv sel'skogo obshchestvu moskovskomu imperatorskomu nii -

General g.

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CEU eTD Collection 179:58:175 tse vedomosti Mesyachnye 179:58:130 179:58:44 4 otkrytii Ob 179:58:43 179:58:30 gorodskoy vrachey veterinarnykh komissii presedatelya komandirovanii O 179:54:1165. veterina starshego komandirovanii O 179:54:1125 179:54:1112 birzhi Myasnoy i skotopromyshlennoy Moskovskoy Komitetu razreshenii O 179:54:1105 179:54:1069 dezhur i rabot rasporyadka vnutrennego Pravila 179:54:1068 17 179:54:1054 ko O 179:54:1029 170:54:1012 179:54:995 prisposobleniy mekhanicheskikh i zdaniy chertezhey al'boma izdanii Ob 179:54:993 veterina i upravlyayushchim s Perepiska 179:54:992 kanalizatsionnom v rabochikh dvukh gibeli prichin sledstviya provedenii O 179:54:982 9:54:1057 boleznyam. publichnykh osmotrov kolichestve zhenshchin (1894 o ambulatorii zhenskoy gorodskoy i bol'nitse Moskovskogo dlya universiteta issledoniya pishchevykh produktov. ambulato oznakomleniya dlya granitsu veterinarno za A.P. Krasheninnikova upravy okhlazhdeniyumezhdunarodny poiskusstvennomu kongress produktov pitaniya. skotoprigonnogo iboyen. dvora myasnogo skota. otkormelnnogo 1 v ustroit' rabochimi nadzor potekhnicheskomu dvore skotoprigonnom vystavku myasnogo otkormlennogo skota v gorodskom na ustroit khozyaystva dvorom boynyami i rasporyadkadlya ivnutrennego boytsov boynyakh. na izucheniya dela. skotoboynogo s'yezda vrachey. yarmarke. gorodskikh otdeleniyemMoskovskim rossiys kolodtse gorodskikh

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g.

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i

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