The Application of Music in Industry and Its Effect Upon the Morale and Efficiency of the Worker

Home , Go Faster, Little Nellie Kelly, Panama Hattie

THE APPLICATION OF MUSIC IN INDUSTRY AND ITS EFFECT UPON THE MORALE AND EFFICIENCY OF THE WORKER

John H. ScottJr. W. Scott Libbey

Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

for the Bachelor of Science Degree

from the

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

1 9 4 3 THESIS AUTHORIZATION

DateJanuary 54 1943

Name brLJD .tt,..Jr.

9 Te Appic.ato.n .. fMusc-in jrtduztxy-azcjJtsEffec. upan- _thLe M-rale-and-Eficlenay .of-the-Worker

This is your authority to proceed with the thesis investigation as outlined in your preliminary report. Please return this sheet with the original copy of the finished thesis.

Signature of the Advisor, indicating completion of a sat-- isfactory preliminary report.

Advisor

Signature of the Supervisor, indicating proper registration fo- redit, and generally satisfactory progress.

and gene l s M. I. T. Graduate House Cambridge, Massachusetts January 11, 1943

Professor George W. Swett Secretary of the Faculty Massachusetts Institute of Technology Cambridge, Massachusetts Dear Sir:

In accordance with the requirements for graduation, we herewith submit a thesis entitled, The Application of Music in Industry and its Effect upon the Morale and Efficiency of the Worker. We wish to express our gratitude to Professor Douglas McGregor, who has been extremely helpful in the organization of our material. Sincerely yours,

QJ Q4 John H. Scott, Jr.

W. Scott Libbey TABLE OF CONTEINTS

Introduction Purpose 2 Scope 3 Method 4 history 5

Sumiary 7

The Effects of Music 12 Psychology of Music 13 Rhythm 14 Morale 15 Fatigue 22 Physiological Fatigue 22 Psychological Fatigue 24 Decreased Capacity for Doing Wvork 26 Fatigue and the Production Curve 26 Stimulation 29 1Noise 29 Production 31 how Morale and Fatigue influence Cost 31 How Music Saves Time 32 Obtaining Reliable Data 33 Daily Production Curves 36 Possibility of No Effect on Production 38 Scientific Experiments on the Effect of Music on Production Rate 39 The Operadio Experiment 55 Further Evidence of 1viusic's Effect on Production Rate 56 Waste and Quality 57 Safety and health 61

The Application of Music 63 Conditions Under Which hiusic Can be Used 64 Physical Conditions 4hich Must Be Considered 65 Characterjstics of the Work and Worker 68 The Music Installation 75 Ways of Obtaining the Music 7b Equipment 78 Availability of Equipment 81 The Psychology of installation and Operation 82 The Operation of the System 83 Times and Types of Music 85 The Time to play Music 86 The Type of Music 95 The Music Program: Times and Types in Combination 107 Conclusion 109 -I

Further Uses for the P.A. System 110 Difficulties iihich May Be Encountered 112 Conclusions 114 Recommendations for the Future 116

Appendices 118 A, Employer's Attitudes 119 B, Reported Effects on Production 123 C, The Music at Work Program of Radio Otation WNYC 126 D, Record Lists 128 E, Case Histories 134 F, Views of the £vanagements of British Industrial Companies 142 Bibliography 144 1

INTRODUCTION 2

PURPOSE

The purpose of this thesis is to prepare a report which will set before a manufacturer considering the use of music the facts relative to its application and its effects upon the morale and efficiency of the worker. It is our hope that all of our major premises will be carefully weighed by the manufacturer in view of today's existing knowledge, but we must first pass out the warning that so little scientific work has been carried on in this phase of industrial welfare, that no sure-fire answer has been found for every question. Our presenta- tion attempts to correlate all available information as of the present date. Although we are undoubtedly preju- diced toward the use of music, we shall try to maintain a spirit of impartiality. SCOPE

This investigation strives to include only music's place in the industrial organization. Instances of increases in milk production by the use of music in barns has come to our attention, but we feel that the limita- tions of our work will exclude the study of music on the farm. We have also placed restrictions upon the method of transmission of music to workers. All glee clubs and band concerts, participated in by the worker, are elimi- nated. Our sole concern is with the use of music played to the worker, no matter how it is presented.

Although music played during working hours is our chief interest, rest period and lunch hour music will also be considered. The factory worker receives most of our attention, but the effect of music on the clerical and mental worker will also be considered. 4

IMTHOD

For the gathering of our information, all available literature for the past twenty years was first searched.

We were thus able to obtain about two hundred names of persons, organizations, and companies displaying interest in music in industry. The main body of our material has come mostly from our contacts with these two hundred corresoondents. 5

HISTORY

For centuries music has been playing a significant role in man's work life. Old sea chanteys of the sailors and the use of music in the building of the pyramids are evidence of music's early prominence in history. The first recorded case of the use of music in the modern age is probably Thomas Edison's attempt to use phonographs in a cigar factory. The failure resulted from too much noise which could not be overcome by the weak volume of the phonograph. The necessity of good electrical reproduction was the temporary fly in the ointment. In 1925, Westinghouse Electric Co. at its Newark plant, successfully introduced the playing of records over its loud speakers, but the idea remained rather dormant until the advent of the British studies in 1937. Studies of industrial music were made due to the activities of equipment producers and the interests of the British Industrial Health Research Board. A great impetus was given to music in industry in 1940 by the desire to improve morale and increase production for the benefit of the war effort. Foilowing the British lead, manufacturers in the U.S. are just awakening to the potential value of music in industry. The timeliness of our investigation may be shown by the estimate that last April only 500 plants employed music, while in July, the 6

number had risen to almost 3,000.1

1. Antrim, Doron K., "IMusic for All-Out Production," Forbes, August 15, 1942, p. 16. I

SUMMARY 8

kusic has two psychological effects. A spirited melody brings a feeling of gaiety, while a melancholy one produces listlessness and somberness. By the application of the known effects of music, it is possible to use music to advantage in the improvement of the morale and efficiency of the industrial worker.

Morale denotes the worker's will to work and satis- faction in his job. Because music provides a genial atmosphere and indicates to the worker that management is interested in the welfare of its employees, the worker feels happy in his job and way of life. Poorly chosen music will not have beneficial effects, but good music, properly reproduced will help form a bond of friendship between workers and management.

The repetition of one task will soon result in fatigue.

Whether the fatigue be caused by physical inability or mental tiredness, a decrease in production will result. Numerous scientific investigations have shown music's effect upon us mentally and physically. 6tudy of these findings in conjunction with an analysis of the periods of highest fatigue lead to the choice of the most opoortune hours to play music.

Management's ultimate interest in the value of music usually concerns its effect upon production. 'The easiest way to effect a production increase is to improve the morale F9

and reduce the fatigue of the worker. Any study of music's effects on production entails the necessity that all other working conditions remain constant. Only two tests under controlled conditions have been made: (1) by Wyatt and

Langdon of the Industrial Health Research Board, Great Britain, and (2) by Prof. Burris-Meyer of Stevens Institute of Technology. In both instances, the use of music has brought about an increase in production, while its elimination has been followed by a production decrease. It must not be assumed that music will always increase production, however.

The application of music warrants a great deal of consideration. For maximum results music requires that there be not too much noise, a concentration of workers, and monotonous work. Individual variances among employees, such as musical training, proportion of men to women, age, and nationality influence the type of music. Employee requests should be used if in accordance with the general program of music.

Music in the industrial plant may be obtained in numerous ways. The Viuzak Corporation specializes in "piped in" music while R.C-A. Manufacturing Company puts installations in plants. However, a number of companies prefer to make their own installations. WNYC has a noon hour program for radio-equipped plants in the New York area. Operating costs under any of these 10

set-ups is insignificant. Present shortages of Olectrical reproduction equipment raise difficulties in obtaining a music installation, but the feat is far from impossible.

Workers sometimes get the idea that the music is being introduced to cause them to work faster; this impression should be discouraged.

Almost anyone can operate the music system. This task often falls to the telephone operator. The record library grows larger as it is kept alive with new tunes furnished by the company, and additions sometimes made by the employees. Control of the entire music program and installation should be under the supervision of the

Industrial Relations Department.

Probably the most unexplored field in industrial music concerns the times and types of music which should be played. Rules are few and conflicting, and are of doubt- ful quality. Yet, usually any music is better than none.

The worker is not interested in having music at the times and in the amounts which will do him the most good.

But our main consideration is to give the worker what is best for him. One must not use more than one or two hours of music a day. One should preferably schedule music only after ascertaining one's own production curve, and determining where the music will do the most good. 11

A careful study of the characteristics of the workers in the plant is the first necessity in determining the type of music to be pieyed. Several "comimoln denominator" types can be discovered which will suit almost anyone in the plant. There are a number of characteristics of particular types of music which must be kept in mind in order to use these types to best advantage.

Particular music periods require particular types of music. One's final program is obtained by determining both the times at which Lusic is to be played and the music which is to be played at each of these times. L4

TBE EFFECTS OF MUSIC 13

PSYCHOLOGY OF MUSIC

Music has a psychology of its own. While it is one of the least tangible arts that affect our sense organs, it is also one of the most effective. Everyone knows that when certain pieces are played, old experiences are recalled, emotions which were felt when the song was first heart become attached to the melody of the song, and an emotional surge is brought forth by the musical strains. 1.

As we look at the effects that music may play upon our mental-being, two changes of mood can be detected.

First, if a slow, lilting and rich melody is heard, the tendency will be for a calming effect upon our nerves and senses. A feeling of peacefulness will overcome our minds. On the other hand, a fast, highly spirited tune will awaken our emotions to the point of gaiety and possibly bellicos- ity. As we proceed to expand our thesis, the ways the 2. above knowledge may be put to practical use may become clear.

1. Crane, G. W.,"Psychology, Applied,"p. 347.

2. Scott, Cyril,"Ginger Up Your Brains With Music, Etude, November 1931, p. 773. 14

RHYTHMA

Strangely enough, the first thing that we are going

to discuss about music is something which music does not normally do. There seems to be a rather prevalent miscon- ception that the main reason for the use of music in industry is to increase the speed of the worker by forcing

the rhythm of his operation to become faster. This is supposed to be accomplished by picking music with a rhythm slightly

faster than the operation rhythm, and playing this music to the worker. And the worker is then supposed to speed up so he can keep in time with the music.

A few cases have been found where music has operated on the worker in this way. But look at the difficulties which would face the arranger of the program. It would mean that all the music played would have to have precisely the same rhythmic speed. The music so picked would probably be

adapted to only one type of operation in the factory.

And this system could be used only where the operations were of a one-two or one-two-three nature, which is seldom

the case.

In the following pages we are going to point out the

real reasons for the use of music. 15

MORALE

Morale is an idea that can not be properly defined or measured. One person will say that it is the general spirit of mind and feeling expressed by the worker, while another will argue that morale denotes the worker's attitude towards his employer and job after economic reasons have been put aside. If the worker enjoys doing his job, his morale is high; if he hates his job, his morale is considered low. As David Sarnoff of RCA Manufacturing

Co. Inc., has said, "morale is a state of mind."1 Morale typifies the mood of the employee's thoughts. Unfortu- nately, morale is so intangible that no simple index can be used to measure it. Almost all conclusions must be based on personal opinions, the exactness of which is open to question. The factors that may affect morale usually include rank of employees, success of employee, supervision, earnings and working conditions. It is under working conditions that music is included. Music becomes part of the atmosphere and surroundings that influence either positively or negatively the employee attitude. If music can help to change tangible and measureable items of employee efficiency, it must be conceded that morale has

1. "Building Morale for Increased War Production," E. C. Morse, R.C.A. Manufacturing Co., 1942 16 been influenced.

Professor Burris-Meyer's recent tests1 . show that the early departure of piece-work employees, free to leave when they please, dropped from 22.75% to 2.85% when music was introduced. A graph of this is illustrated in Fig. 1. Manufacturers have claimed that since music has been used the rate of turnover and absenteeism has taken a definite drop. Monday morning absenteeism was decidedly cut by the use of music in the test just mentioned. Fig. II shows the results. Due to many possible changes of other conditions and unknowns some skepticism is warranted. Conse- quently the desire to work must now be stronger than previous to music--morale is higher.

To bear out our point that morale must be measured more by opinions than by figures (except in above cases) a few statements and facts are presented. In one company, an employee in a non-music department asked to be trans- ferred to a music department because he considered music essential to the happiness of his job. Several companies have granted employees' requests to bring in their own radios. Music installation at Westinghouse's East Pitts- burg plant was made to fulfill the desire of employees.

At Botany-Worsted, 97-99% of employees voted after installation that they liked the music,

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The following reactions are typical. "Produces bright and cheerful atmosphere." 'Brings general good feeling between workers and management." "I didn't mind coming back from vacation, because of music." "Music makes time seem to go faster." "Music is essential to our war effort' says Air Vice-Marshall Sir David Munro.

Horace E. Baker, Assistant to Plant Manager of Bristol-

Myers sums up music's morale effect as follows: "Music, in my opinion, is just another intangible asset like a pat on the back from your boss, when you do a good job, or like the cheerful smile with which someone greets you in the morning." The Reuben H. Donnelley Corp. considers music to be one of the factors which make the better type of employee prefer to work for them rather than for competitors. The other factors are courteous treatment by supervisors, clean orderly rest rooms, immaculate dressing rooms, scientifically planned ventilation and lighting and venetian blinds. Of all the items mentioned as contributing towards improved morale, music is rated last, and would be the first to go if it were ever necessary to eliminate any of these things. This seems reasonable enough.

Granted that the worker's task is more pleasant, do we have sufficient reason to make another investment? How will the union feel about this new idea? Will labor think that this is just another method of management to crack the whip for more production. Let us consider the questions. 20

In return for the general increase in morale, the almost negligible cost is put into the background. Music is known to have attracted more and a better type of worker to plants which experienced excessive labor troubles before music. The explanation is simple. Workers sought a better place to work. Music has been heartily endorsed by most labor unions; others have neglected to comment. Probably the most widely known interpretation of labor's attitude was issued by

A. F. of L. President, William Green, when he said, "A friend of labor for it lightens the task by refreshing the nerves and spirit of the workers." Music is viewed as another way in which management may provide for the welfare of the employee. Whenever music is installed in a plant, management is careful to explain that the desire for higher morale is the reason for the decision. However, we can not neglect the fact that an increase in morale will tend to increase production and reduce costs and labor troubles. Not always does music divorce itself from labor problems. The abolition of music brought a recent sit- down strike in a cigar factory. Sometimes when music is not played at the regularly scheduled hour, employee complaints are quick to follow. Sylvania Electric Products, Inc. of Danvers, Mass., had one employee remark, "If the music is turned on again, you will have better workers." Poorly reproduced music will be nerve wracking and will 21 do more harm than no music at all, but good music, properly reproduced should inspire more will to work and improve morale. 22

FATIGUE

Today's industrial tempo, which features machines and a specialization of labor, has made possible great increases in the speed of the worker. Incentives further augment the cause for greater output and resultant higher pay, but because of improper management or the peculiari- ties of the task the worker experiences excessive and un- necessary fatigue.

Before any study may be made of the effects of music on fatigue, the nature of fatigue must be discussed. In- dustrial fatigue may be classified into three related phenomena: 1.

(1) A physiological change (2) A feeling of tiredness (3) A decreased capacity for doing work.

To determine how fatigue could be brought on and combatted it is necessary that each element be carefully explained.

Physiological Fatigue

The first consideration of industrial fatigue re- volves around changes in the physiology of the body. The human body may be thought of as a machine, since fuel and

1. Viteles, M.S.,"Industrial Psychology", p. 441. 23

energy must be stored up before the body will function.

A lactic acid accumulation due to an insufficient quantity of oxygen will produce local fatigue. Fatigue also produces changes in the blood, in the endocrine glands, and in the nervous system, as well as transformations in blood cells and chemistry and variations in pulse and blood pressure. Therefore, if music is going to reduce this phase of fatigue, music must alter the conditions under which fatigue is fostered. With the use of a Moss dynamo-meter, Dr. J. Tarchanoff found that a person could lift more than usual when spirited music is played; and with melancholy music there is a decrease in lifting power'2. Numerous other studies have given rise to many conclusions that may be drawn as to the influence of music on the human body. The work of Tarchan- off and Dutton shows that music increases metabolism. Fere,

Tarchanoff, and Scripture indicate that music increases or decreases muscular energy. It accelerates respiration and decreases its regularity, as demonstrated by Binet, Weed, and Giulbaud. A marked but variable effect is also produced on pulse and blood pressure. The researches of

Cannon have shown that Zausic influences the internal secre- tions.3. A good example of music's physiological effect

1. Viteles, M.6., "Industrial Psychology", p. 450.

2. Dardes, Earl, "Music'. How Its strains Inspire Us", Musician, Sept., 1936, p. 136

3. "How Music Affects the Human body," Musician, July, 1938, p. 124 24

can be illustrated by the fact that in a six-day bicycle race in Madison Square Garden the average speed under the influence of music increased from 16 to 17 miles per hour. As a result of the many physiological ohanges produced by music, care must be taken in its choice or else the music will adversely affect the fatigue instead of help- ing to reduce it. Tarchanoff's experiment is a good example of this.

When music of a lively type is brought to our ears, physio-motor reactions compel muscular tension. This tension of the muscles tries to release itself in bodily activity.' We realize this in the desire to spend our pent-up energy. When we have followed this urge, a sense of satis- faction and relief is experienced. If when hearing music, you tap your feet or clap your hands, you give evidence of true physio-motor reactions.

Psychological Fatigue

The second aspect of fatigue deals with a feeling of tiredness and boredom. Since it is subjective in nature, the extent of tiredness cannot be determined. This feeling of fatigue normally acts as a protective device in prevent- ing exhaustion, but often there is little correlation with phsiological fatigue. A person may feel tired and yet he

1. Tiffin, J., "Industrial Psychology," p. 218. 25

may work as efficiently as ever, or he may feel normal, and yet he may be actually working at a low rate because

of physiological fatigue. Particularly in mental work, the feeling of fatigue may be experienced when the figures of production show no amount of fatigue.

All psychological fatigue results from boredom and the monotony of repetitive work. As the boredom is in-

tensified the worker resorts to day-dreaming and talking with fellow employees, and his production drops off. This

type of day-dreaming usually concerns the unpleasantness of the job and the wish for a better one. It must be pointed out that this day-dreaming is unlike that caused by the thoughts of pleasant days brought back by the hear-

ing of a familiar song. In the case of intelligent workers the problem is most acute. In every instance management should endeavor to keep the worker's mind on his job. Since this approaches the impossible, a substitute for mind wandering and relaxation of attention to the work should be provided. Music can fulfill the task of afford-

ing a diversion from the monotony of a repetitive cycle, but, at the same time, work in such an unnoticeable manner

that the worker fails to realize the passing of his un-

pleasant job in favor of the delightful conditions under

which he has the opportunity to be employed.1 . Since any

1. Crane, G.W.,"Psychology Applied," p. 347. 26

diversion of the eye will tend to affect production, and because music causes reaction upon the part of tne ear and not the eye, the worker's complete physical activity may be devoted to his work.

Decreased Capacity For Doing Work

In addition to physiological and psychological fatigue the industrial psychologist recognizes a third concept; this one deals with the output of the employee. Since the de-

creased capacity for doing work results from the effects of physiological and psychological fatigue, the quantity of output is used as the most practical measure of fatigue. Of course, the manufacturer is concerned only in the changes

in production, and not in the degree of fatigue. If we can accurately judge the causes of the fluctuations in the production, we shall have progressed a long way towards answer- ing the question, "When can music be used most effectively?"

Fatigue and the Production Curve Fig.IM shows a typical production curve for an operation where muscular movement is vital to production. An auto- 1. matic machine's production should not be affected by fatigue on the part of the attendant. An operation requiring only slight use of the muscles will have a more smooth curve than the following, since the physical fatigue will be less.

1. Barnes, R.M., "Iotion & Time Study", p. 138 27

1.oo 9.oo 10o .00 12.60 1.Oo 2.oo 3.0. ' .0o %.00 MORMiNG AFTER NOOW Fig. m Typical daily production curve for heavy muscular work. From BarnesR.k.,Motion and Time Study,p. 138.

Our typical production curve has several important characteristics which will bear study in order that we may know what are the most opportune times to use music. When the worker arrives in the morning his production will be low for a short period until he gets back into the rhythm of the operation. In defense of our logic we must say that this initial inertia is due to a lack of practice while any production drop at the end or middle of the work period must be attributed to fatigue. Following the period of "warming up" to the job there is a steady increase in production until a leveling off period occurs. Usually about one hour is required to attain the maximum output period which has a duration of a similar length of time.

It is at this point that a steady rate of decrease sets in.

Whether this be for the morning or afternoon session, there is no essential difference in the general tendencies. Slightly less time is required for attaining maximum productiveness in the afternoon, but this is more than 28

offset by the afternoon's faster rate of decline. It can not be emphasized too much that Fig.D= is only a typical

curve of production output. In cases where the hours or working conditions are different, our curve will not necessarily hold true. On piece-work operations not

infrequently does the production increase just before a rest period or the end of the day. Maybe the worker sud- denly realizes the lag in production and puts on a last spurt. Only from experiment can the production curve of the individual company, and sometimes even the department, be ascertained. Only in this manner may the best times to use music for the relieving of fatigue be determined. As the production curve is studied, the theoretical times to use music become rather clear. When the workers first come on the job, peppy or martial music should go a long way towards eliminating the initial inertia. Since our production has now supposedly reached its peak level at a quicker rate, care must be taken that the decline in production does not set in sooner than usual. To handle this situation music is played at the pre-fatigue period just before the production begins to drop. By the process of experimentation the number of times that a musical series of lifts need be given can be obtained. In a later section the actual times and types of music that have proved most beneficial will be taken up. 29

Stimulation

Besides causing a decline in the over-all fatigue, music can produce a stimulation. A displacement of fatigue, such as is the effect of coffee, is the evidence of stimulation. Although the worker may be psychologically influenced to work harder, his physical body may not be changed by music. He is, therefore, confronted with a temporary lift which will hold him until he gets home. However, there seems to be little of this effect. If we can believe what workers say (we have no other choice here, since no tests have been made), the fatigue reduction of music while at the factory is not a mere displacement of fatigue, since workers claim a permanently less tired feeling and more joyful spirit than before music was used in their plants.

Noise

Noise is credited with doing a lot of harm to employee efficiency by causing greater fatigue. It is hardly expected that noise in a steel mill can be elim- inated, but there is no need to augment the noise and consequent inefficiency and fatigue by the use of poor reproduction facilities. Many companies have found from sad experience that music which blares and screeches is more of a liability than an asset. Not only does it actually increase fatigue, but it is a source of 30

irritation which may anger the employee. It is therefore of utmost importance that the music be clear and distinct if an efficient organization is to be maintained and labor trouble to be avoided. 31

PRODUCTION

How Morale and Fatigue Influence Cost

The manufacturer is guided in almost all of his decisions by the one primary purpose of turning out a greater

amount of goods at a lower total cost. In other words,

he is trying to (1) produce more goods with his present

facilities, (2) cut down the costs below his present costs.

The ability of music to influence morale and fatigue --

and perhaps to have a rhythmic effect--has been demonstrated.

Now, how can these effects of music help the industrialist out his unit cost?

It has been explained how the industrial psychologist

has shown that as mental and physiological fatigue increases,

the individual's production rate decreases. In fact, the

production rate is used as a convenient way of measuring

the degree of fatigue. So we will argue no further the

point that lower fatigue means higher production.

How can better morale cut the unit product cost? In

the first place, it is fairly obvious that the worker who

is happy can produce faster; that the worker who is on

friendly terms with his employers vill not hold himself

back, either purposely or subconsciously. Most employers

claim that they use music to aid morale, and they are undoubtedly sincere in this statement. But when we look at the situation realistically, it is clear that their

subconscious, indirect purpose is to aid production and

cut costs by means of a higher degree of morale. Not only can better morale increase output, but it can also decrease the cost of operations, since (1) less supervisory and administrative work will be necessary with content workers,

(2) it has been demonstrated (by Houser, e. g.) that high morale results in less demands for increased wages.

In the present section, we will not consider the lower total cost aspect further. Music's effect here is indirect, and has never been measured. So music's effect on production will be discussed from now on. No attempt will be made to differentiate between production increases resulting from lower fatigue, stimulation, rhythmic effects, or morale; rather, the over-all effects on production will be investigated. Actual controlled tests of music's ability along this line will be cited.

How Music Saves Time

Though the increase in production rate is the main contribution of music to higher daily production, there is another way in which it is effective in achieving this latter objective. We refer to the ability of music to keep the worker on the job for the full daily work period. 33

Mr. John C. Chevalier, general manager of the Palace

Laundry in Washington, D. C., describes their experience,

"We found that the get-together in the morning in the var-

ious departments was slowing and that there was lost motion

in production starting time, so a morning program of

marches, etc. was inaugurated, and this had a satisfactory

effect." Workers often find various pretexts to cease

work, so as to talk with neighbors, watch visitors, etc.

Music has been found to cut down this non-productive time.

Obtaining Reliable Data

Before discussing the actual production results which

have been obtained with music, let us consider some of the

difficulties which are faced in measuring these output

changes. This will make it clear why no figures on this

subject are perfectly reliable, and why any figures obtained by any means other than scientifically controlled exper-

iments are particularly open to suspicion. We do not mean to imply that such figures do not prove what they pretend to prove, but rather that it must be borne in mind that they may possibly be erroneous, quantitatively at least.

In making comparisons between production rates with and without music, it is necessary to hold constant a large number of factors which might influence the produc- 34

tion rate, either upward or downward, and make the apparent

results false. Most comparisons fail in this respect,

allowing some of these causative factors to vary. A

change in the group of workers being tested is a good

example. If a new worker took the place of an experienced

worker, and music were tried shortly thereafter, the pro-

duction rate figures with music would be misleadingly low,

.relative to the non-music figures obtained while the exper-

ienced worker was on the job. Other variable conditions

would be: pay rate, light, temperature, humidity, venti-

lation, noise, weather, quality of materials, number of

machine breakdowns, etc. Also, obviously, changes in pro-

cess, product and machinery would invalidate results.

Employer-employee difficulties would cause erratic ouiGput.

Another factor to bear in mind is that if music is

taken away from workers who are used to it, there may be

much more of a drop in.production at first than can be

expected after the shock of their loss has worn off. Like- wise, when music is played to workers for the first time, the pleasant surprise may produce temporary results

greater than will be obtained in the long run. Therefore,

test periods must be of sufficient duration. But the

longer the test period, the greater the changes in variable conditions. A dilemma is faced. 35

If the subjects of the experiment realize that a test

is being made, and if they are told that music is expected to increase their output they may subconsciously drive

themselves to greater efforts while the music is being played. Morale: disguise the experiment as somethIng else.

The experimenuir is clvarly faced by a numour of difficulties, and error in his results is almost something to be expected. Errors are, therefore, not to his dis- credit if he makes a reasonable attempt to conduct a significant test. He has the further problem of choosing a unit of measurement of production. In a shipyard, for example, this is almost impossible. In cases such as this, pure opinion has had to be resorted to in judging relative production rates. Too often, however, this type of guesswork is used to avoid the trouble of making a serious test.

Wherever someone's opinion as to production changes is given, it must be treated as such, and its degree of relia- bility borne in mind. -~nI -

0 36

Daily Production Curves

The manner in which fatigue affects the daily pro-

duction curve has been explained. The way in which

music affects the curve must now be discussed. Figure IV

shows a series of daily production curves. Series I is

the curve of a worker doing work requiring considerable

muscular effort and being paid by time. 1 Series II is

that of a worker performing an operation where less effort

is necessary, pay still being by time. It is flatter than

the first one. Series III shows how a worker produces

when he is on piece work. Toward the end of the morning

and of the afternoon he puts on a last spurt of speed,

and his curve acts accordingly.2 It must be emphasized

that these curves are theoretical curves only. Seldom do

workers have smooth curves; usually they are quite jagged;

but when the fluctuations are smoothed out the resultant

curves are like those shown.

The placing and duration of music periods follow no

standard model. This aspect of the problem will be con-

sidered later in this report. One of the most common

schedules, for an 8:00 to 5:00 day with no rest periods

1. Barnes, Ralph M., "Motion and Time Study", p. 138

2. Anderson, A. G., "A Study of Human Fatigue in Industry", an abstract of a thesis, pp. 20-22, University of Illinois, 1931. 37

I,.,. 11.00 . .00 2.00 3-0* mve 00 X" H H H H TIME Series I Heavy Luscular Work

- m - - - - -

- - - - - t.#@ ~Le. /#ee 1.00 Ise. 'KO, iiCOG H H H T-M -i H TIME S3eries II Li-ht Luscular Work

0 mmmmmommmm" mmmmmmmmmv

9.o0 9.0. IO.Oe JI.Oo /2.00 A06 Z.0 . .."o J eo H H sTIM 1-4 H Series iIl Piece-Work k-I- 9MUs PgBolas -- wt" Owsm. nV 4Gu-r mIPag(.

Fig. IV Theoretical Daily Production Curves With and Without uUsic. 38

except noon hour, supplies music thus: 8:00 to 8:15;

10:45 to 11:10; lunch period; 3:20 to 3:45; 5:00 to 5:15

(this latter period covers the start of the next shift,

and the clock punching of the first shift). These periods

of music give the worker a "lift", much the same way a

short nap would, and act accordingly on production. When

the music schedule mentioned is used, the result is shown

approximately by the red curve in each series. Of course,

the reaction of every worker is not the same, but this

represents a typical one. Note the quicker pick-up in

the morning and the slowing of the downward trend in late morning and afternoon. The objective, of course, is to make the area under the final production curve as great

as possible. The playing of music at any given time will

result in a spurt of output at that time; but the placing

of these music periods during the fatigue periods adds

more area under the production curve than as if they were

placed at the high point of the curve.

Possibili. y of No Effect on Production

Under certain conditions, music may not increase the

production of the worker--even assuming accurate measure-

ment. There are four possible reasons for this (the first

three will be taken up in detail later): (1) poor music

system or program, i.e., reproduction, time, or type of

music; (2) work of such a type that no increase is pos- 39

sible, e.g., automatic machine operation; (3) music

applied to workers for whom it is not adapted, e.g., those who must mentally concentrate on their work;

(4) work artificially held down by the workers. This

last situation may be caused by workerst fear that a

piece rate will be changed, or it may be the result of

poor labor relations, wherein the employees are purposely

slowing down. If the workers believe that the music is

being introduced to cause them to work faster, they may

take this latter course.

In none of these cases can industrial music be

blamed for its failure. Proper study of the situation,

proper choice of method, and good labor relations come first. There is still the likelihood that the music will

aid morale, just the same.

Scientific Experiments on the Effect of Music on Production Rate

Having discussed several theoretical aspects of the

effect of music on production, let us investigate the

actual scientific, controlled experiments that have been made to discover the influence which music has on produc-

tion rate.

Only the results of tests dctually made in the factory, rather than in the laboratory, can be taken as conclusive

proof of music's effect on the worker. l odmbft ___ - ______

We know of only two such series of experiments that can be classified as truly scientific. In other words, the experimenters have seriously attempted to control the various variable factors previously mentioned, and have taken other precautions to make the results valid.

Because of their importance, these two experiments will be discussed in some detail. The first of these was performed in 1937 in Great Britain by S. Wyatt and J. N.

Langdon of the Industrial Health Research Board. It is reported as a section of "Fatigue and Boredom in Repeti- tive Work", Report #77.1 The second series of experiments were performed in 1942 by Professor Harold Burris-Meyer of Stevens Institute of Technology under a Rockefeller

Foundation grant. He was assisted by Mr. R. L. Cardinell.

Though a final report of their investigations has not yet been made, enough has now been announced to show that it is a comprehensive study. 2

It must be borne in mind that what is found true for one type of worker in one type of industry is not necessarily true for another type of worker or another type of industry. In the British study, the subjects

l. Wyatt and Langdon, "Fatigue and Boredom in Repetitive Work", pp. 30-42. 2. Harold, Burris-Meyer, "Music in Industry", an address before the A. S. M. E, October 15, 1942. 41

were 68 girls, aged 14 to 35. Twelve were selected for intensive study. They were engaged in making crackers

(party favors which explode when you pull them apart), a repetitive operation. They were paid by piece-work and were working on the day shift.

Music was played to the workers between one and

two hours a day. For the first six weeks, there was no

music, but production records were kept. For the next

three weeks, music was played on a certain schedule; for

another three weeks, on a slightly different schedule;

and for two more weeks, on a third schedule. Then for

five weeks, music was not played. Each of these groups of from two to six weeks is known as a "period".

Two parts of this investigation are significant from the production point-of-view: (1) music's effect on the average hourly output over a long period, (2) variations in output within the daily spell of work.

Figure V is a graph of the average hourly output during the experiment. The average hourly output with music is clearly higher than that without music. When music was discontinued, the average hourly output did not immediately fall back to the old level, but rather tthe decrease was gradual and suggested a progressive change in attitude towards the changed conditions of work". Hence the

1. Op. cit., Wyatt and Langdon, p. 34. 42

IV I

'51

1- 0 Xj -..-- - . -- 4 JlI- dc 9-14- S1-15 1.4- 1 .i musi ".4s- 2 s

sis -iIc*

** g94 , 0 DAYS F 1 Average hourly output on successive day s under different music schedules

23 -O MUSIC --- k M Sfe jo.$-tj.j$

* 20

I- 0 IM

IL 01e'.9t 20 'II

t6 -i

&01 9.20 *wu "S* 'AI !L46 "a9 Me 4 !-.a 1 *.20. 11A. e i-s 41Th 1 3 At a 4 rTMiQ (.qUARTaR-Moult 'antows) FIG vI Variations in the rate of working throughout the spell of work 43

average hourly output during this period should not be compared with the average hourly output during the rausic periods. The A. H. 0. (average hourly output) during the period before music was installed can, however, be safely compared with the A. h. 0. during each of the three different music periods. The A. H. 0. under each type of music schedule was different. The A. H. 0. for each of these periods was compared with the A. H. 0. before music was installed. The results found were:

The average increase over the original, non- music period was 6.Oo for the first music period. The increase was 2.6yo during the second music period. The increase was 4.4a during the third music period. These results are statistically significant. They really prove that the introduction of music does increase Droduction, for these particular workers on this particular operation. The efIect of the music may not have been precisely that indicated by tlLe figures, but the qualitative effect of the music is undeniable.

The second significant result of this investigation is the findings concerning variations in output within the spell of work. Figure VI shows this graphically.

First, a daily production curve was obtained for a typical 44 no-music day. This was a composite of the daily production curves of each of the days in the original period before music was tried. Then a similar composite curve was obtained for each of the three music periods.

Each of these three curves represented a typical, average production curve for a day in that period. These curves of the three typical musical days were superimposed on the curve of the typical no-music day. It is obvious at a glance that the music had a definite effect on the production. A. H. 0. climbs rapidly when the music is turned on in every case, and drops when it is turned off.

The increase in output during the minutes while the music is actually being played over the output during these same minutes on a no-music day was calculated. The lowest increase during any music period (where we are now using "music period" to mean the thirty or forty-five minutes during which music is played) was found to be 6.2%; the highest increase, 11.3%.

We must keep in mind that these figures indicate just one thing: that while the music was actually being played there were production increases of 6.2 to 11.3%. We must beware lest we jump to the conclusion that music can give us production increases of 6.2 to 11.3% per day. While the music was off, the production curve dropped. It is the total gain for the day that really counts. And the gain for the day was considerably less 45

than 6.2 or 11.3%. In fact, if we assume their figures to be accurate, the daily gain was precisely 6.0%, 2.6%, or 4.4%, depending on the type of music schedule.

These latter figures are the really significant and

important ones in this experiment. Probably the first thought that would come to mind would be that by playing music all day long the 6.2 to 11.3% increase could be realized for the whole day. But for reasons which will be explained later, one to two hours per day is about all the music that can safely be played. So our 6.2 to

11.3% figures help strengthen our theory as to the effects of music on production rate, but they prove nothing as regards the quantity of over-all gain that may be obtained.

The second series of significant experiments were those carried out by Professor Burris-Meyer of Stevens.

His results are particularly valuable in that he worked with a number of different types of workers, in a number of different industries. Though complete data on his experimental set-ups is not yet public,1 the results are available. 2 Five of his tests are important from the production point-of-view.

The results of the first test, as shown in Figure VII,

1. A complete report is scheduled to appear in Jan., 1943.

2. Op. cit., Burris-Meyer. t2t!H :HI E 171 -LLIL I T] I I--I-H+H-H 11±1 +111 +HI±H+I+H±I-H-H4+ 1-1 +4 f-ii-- I I IV 4T-FT -1 - T tl -i- i ! i 11 1,1-i -1 L i11 7- ±77 A- -L F1 * j -+ I TIT I - - i- - . 14-1--h-14H + LIT .1 flk I + I t- T- THt E I -A[I I -T-r ur 411-UTTI-IT f 41- T q- ++ +F +

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show the unit output rate (average of the group tested,

of course) of an individual on an afternoon when music

was played superimposed on the output rate of an after-

noon without music. Though both curves are very erratic,

the output curve of the afternoon with music is clearly

the higher. The average output for the entire afternoon,

in units per employee per quarter-hour, is: Without music, 46.5 units

With music, 49.6 units

Music has raised the afternoon's total production 6.25%.

The results of the second test (Figure VIII) show

the output per 100 man-hours on each day of a typical

five day week with music, this curve being superimposed

on that of a typical week without music. Again it is

clear that output with music is far above that without

it. The average production for the whole week, in output per 100 man-hours, is:

Without music, 301.2

With music, 335.6

11.4% more units were turned out during the music week

than during the no-music week.

The third test (Figure IX) shows how weekly output

changes when music is installed. Average production per

100 man-hours was calculated for an entire week without music. Then the same average was obtained on eight later HHHHHH.11.1111 III 1-H-I-1-H-11 -I±{-- 111H± 1+H-4-I I I ml J; T JLT F I I-I ii j Iii:] iiyL.LI.zl-i-.tk d-' ;-j .:t--ri L itI P~~~ L ' {2'~ ~ 1-4L4

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weeks, music being played during these eight weeks. In only one of these eight weeks was production lower than during the no-music week; it was considerably higher in the other seven. The production decline during the third week is undoubtedly attributable to some subtle variation in one of the conditions of work, the experimenters being unaware of the change. Because of the fact that data was obtained for only one week without music, and since it is fairly obvious that this test was of such duration that all variable conditions of work were not held constant, it should probably be given less weight than the others in the series.

The fourth test (Figure X) is very similar to the third test. The experiment was performed in another factory, however. It is of greater significance than test

#3 in that the production rate without music was observed for three weeks. Furthermore, the music was tested for only three weeks, thus giving the variables less chance to change drastically. The average output per man hour was: Before music, 270

After music, 281

The output was 4.07% higher while the music was used.

The results of the last test concerning output are illustrated in Figures XI and XII. The dotted curve of Trvt- _T 7S1 i r :TiThI _r l_77rv J i f - -I-! r 2 A t.1 1 ! I- I

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5.4

Figure XI shows the afternoon production curve of a typical individual in a certain factory before music was installed.

The solid curve shows what happened when music was added.

When a slightly different music schedule was tried in the same factory an even higher production curve resulted.

This is shown in Figure XII. The average for either of the curves obtained with music is higher than the average before music. The efficiency of the worker for the afternoon averaged:

Without music . . 72%

Music schedule shown in Figure XI . . 80% Music schedule shown in Figure XII . . 86.80

Under the first music schedule output is 11.1% (of the no-music output) higher than it is without music; under the second schedule, 20.6, higher.

Professor Burris-Meyer makes one other statement which carries considerable import, though he has not yet offered figures to substantiate it. In referring to tests such as his first one he says, "In more than 75% of the measurements of this sort in all the factories studied, we have found the area under the curve, or total production, to be greater when music was used than when it was not used."1

1. Op. cit., Burris-Meyer. 55

From a study of the experiments of the British

Industrial Health Research Board and of Professor Burris- Meyer, there can be no denying the fact that music can

be utilized to increase the productivity of the worker.

It must be emphasized again that findings in one indus-

try are not necessarily transferable to another. But

the types of workers which have now been studied are

varied enough, and the findings are general enough so

that there is every reason to believe that music could be profitably used in a large percentage of the manu-

facturing establishments of this country.

The Ogeradio Experiment

The two series of experiments which have just been

discussed are the only truly scientific studies of which we know. There is, however, one other experiment which

appears to have been carried out under fairly well controlled conditions, and which should, therefore, give reliable results. The work has been carried on on production line of the Operadio Manufacturing Company of

St. Charles, Illinois, and tests are still continuing at this time. The music was introduced gradually, so there would be no question of "forcing" production, and so the music would not be too much of a surprise to the workers.

Let us quote from a letter received from Mr. F. D. Wilson of Operadio: 56

"We have one production line producing Interphone Control Boxes which had been running for some months on this same item previous to these tests. This line had been carefully trained and selected and employees exchanged, and had reached a high level of production. All of us were extremely skeptical as to whether the music would help this particular line, as we had thought it had reached its peak of production. Our employees are paid on a bonus system and for the six weeks prior to the beginning of the music this production line had averaged 45.15% bonus. During the week ending November 7, when rest period music only was played, their production dropped to 43.66% bonus. During the following week ending November 11 when two half-hour Deriods of music were played, production jumped to an all-time high of 48.25o. It was 47.8j the following week. Our program reached-its full swing in the week of November 26 and production took a corresponding increase of 49$o. This dropped to 46.41% the following week and jumped to 49.27% during the week ending December 12. This figure was held closely and during the week ending December 26, was 49/o exactly.

"We illustrate this one production line because, as above mentioned, it had reached a very high level of production and we were extremely skeptical that it could be improved by the use of music alone. le have checked all contributing factors and we can find no other reason for it."

Further Evidence of biusic's Effect on Production Rate

There is a good deal of further information avail-

able as to alleged production benefits obtained from music,

but very little of it can be said to have been obtained from controlled experiments. Companies which have been contacted, or concerning which information is available have had varying results with music. 1 British manufac-

1. Compiled in Appendix B. 57

turers have made a number of statements of significance.1

Most companies are sure that their production is being increased by their music, and a few actually give figures.

The quality of these figures may be good or it may be bad; but since there are a goodly number of such numerical results, and since these figures almost invariably show production increases, they are probably qualitatively correct. And even the statements which are backed by no figures at all must be considered to carry some weight; the judgment of the business man has not completely failed him yet.

Waste and Quality

The amount of wasted and poor quality material turned out in a manufacturing process decrease the net amount of satisfactory production. Experiments and observations have shown that under some conditions music cuts down the amount of waste and improves quality. This phenomenon will not necessarily appear in every industrial music installation, of course, since the product and operation are probably of primary importance here.

The theoretical reasons for the reduction of waste again stem back to fatigue and morale. The worker who is physically and mentally fresh, who is taking an inter-

1. Appendix A. 58

est in his job rather than day-dreaming, and who wants

to do good work for his employer, will certainly turn out more goods which meet specifications.

A few years ago music was played to 55 clerks in the

Minneapolis Post Office during the Christmas rush.1 On a day without music they made 420 errors; on a music

day they made only 366 errors in handling the same amount

of mail. This was a 12.86% decrease. And they actually

completed the same amount of work in less time too. The

elimination of talking and wise-cracking was one of the main factors in this case. A New York mailing service found that errors were higher at the fatigue periods.

Though no figures are available, they are said to have cut the errors by the use of music. In a cigarette factory, rejects were cut by two-thirds when music was played to girl packers. 2 In the office of the Oklahoma Natural Gas

Company, of Tulsa, errors of billing clerks were reduced by 8% when music was used.3 The music schedule and program here were far from ideal; a better use of music might have obtained more spectacular results.

1. Deardorff, Robert, "Can Music Increase Production?", American Business, p. 28, June, 1940.

2. Antrim, Doron K., "Music-For All-Out Production," Forbes, p. 16, August 15, 1942

3. "Billing Clerks Work to Music - and Do More", Gas Age, July 16, 1942. 59

One scientific study of the effect of music on waste has been made. 1 The work was done by Professor John F.

Humes of Pennsylvania State College. The subjects were

88 women making radio tubes of three sifferent types.

Music was already employed in the factory investigated, but Professor humes desired to discover what would be the results of using various types of music programs, and of stopping the music altogether. The mean hourly per cent of scrapoage for each of the three types of tubes with each of the different music programs is as follows:

o -..- | ~ 4-)

^1 ;- S

A 2.55 1.75 2.00 2.36 2.27 Mean hourly per cent R 4.89 3.30 2.85 3.64 4.70 scrappage Z 3.43 3.48 3.78 4.39 4.94

The per cent of scrap is lower where the music is being played, in general. Some of the figures do not agree with this; but these figures have no statistical significance. Only figures which show a very definite change one way or the other can be considered to have statistical significance. And in every case where there

1. Humes, John F., "The Effects of Occupational Music on Scrappage in the Manufacture of iiadio Tubes," Journal of Applied Psychology, 1941, p. 573. 60

is a very definite change apparent, the indication is that scrappage is reduced by the music.

It is to be understood, of course, that a proper music program and schedule, and good reproduction are essential if one is to reap the benefits here. Music with strong rhythms which conflict with the rhythm of the operation will probably increase scrappage. Overloud, poorly chosen music might possibly have the same effect. 61

SAFETY A1) HEALTH

The safety and health of the employee are of vital concern to everyone. Any way that can be used to reduce the number of accidents will be gladly accepted by management, especially if the treatment involves the use of something beneficial in other ways. Music plays that role. Accidents are known to increase considerably at a period of high fatigue. "25% of all accidents are caused by fatigue," according to the figures of the Travelers Insurance Company. Since we have shown that music is very useful to reduce fatigue, it follows that the number of accidents will also be reduced. No definite statistics are available to indicate less accidents when music is used, however, because no attempt has been made to gather such statistics. Once again caution must be used in the type of music employed. Music which is peppy enough to make the worker boisterous is liable to lead towards inattention to the

job. In the case of a machine tool operator, any inattention might result in physical damage to the employee.

Since so many machines perform in repetitive cycles, a rhythm for the operator is built up. If the music's rhythm is pronounced and different, a great chance will exist for a conflict of rhythms. Although the danger of acci-

dents is probably small, we cannot lose sight of the fact that the elimination of pronounced rhythmical music will be another preventive of accidents. 62

At Johnson & Johnson in Bloomfield, N. J., music played too loudly produced a very irritating and nerve- wracking effect upon the worker. Figures from the First Aid Department, over a period of three days, showed approximately a 300% increase in headaches due to nervous irritation caused by loud music. In consideration of. the health of the worker, music and physical equipment must be periodically checked to insure that there are no adverse effects on the physical health of the employees. 63

ThE APPLICATION 0P 1IUiIC -i

CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH MUSIC CAN BE USED

It is almost impossible to make any very definite

statements as to when and where music can be used. How- ever in this section we shall try to bring out a few of

the considerations which may influence the decision.

Again we must warn that what has been found true in one

case may not be true in another. Thus, if music has been

overwhelming successful in one textile mill, it may not necessarily have equal results in another.

It really proves practically nothing to recite the various types of industries which have successfully used music. It is the type of worker that is more important.

However, it is an interesting fact to note that music has been used in practically every type of industry imaginable: metal working, shipbuilding, textile, glass, electric goods, baking, tailoring, rubber goods, mailing, medi-

cines, toys, banking, leather goods, instruments, laund-

ering, aircraft plants, jewelry, printing plants, and many others.

The size of the plant or department seems to have no bearing on the use of music. It is used for any number of employees from a score to several thousand.

The important thing is that the conditions be such

that music can be used. If music cannot be adapted to 65

an entire plant, there is no reason why it cannot be

used in the departments where it is feasible. Also, just

because a plant cannot use music during working hours,

it need not go entirely without it; there are still lunch

and rest periods. Though the maximum gain from music will not be obtained in this way, it may still be well

worth the effort and expense. However, the remainder of this section will deal mainly with worktime music.

Physical Conditions Which Must Be Considered

Concentration of the Workers

The first factor to consider is the area over which

a given number of employees are spread. It is economi-

cally unfeasible to put in a plant broadcasting system

if the employees are too far apart. Some semi-automatic plants, such as almost workless chemical plants, would have a very high cost per employee if they used music.

Noise

The factor which seems to receive the most attention, and looms as the greatest obstacle in the potential music user's mind is noise. It is, to be sure, one of the limiting factors, but should not be considered uncon- querable. In their survey on music in industry the British

National Institute of Industrial Psychology found that 66

in a great majority of the cases where factories did not

use music it was because of the belief that noise made it impossible. 1 Most of these cases were probably unjus- tified; music could probably have been used.

To go into the entire theory of noise at this point

would be impossible. Suffice it to say that it is usually

possible to make music audible through what sounds like

a solid wall of noise. Sound experts can usually find

a "hole" in the wall of noise, and put a reasonable type

of music through it. So the use of music should never be given up immediately because of noisy conditions. Call a sound man first.

Music is aided by a psychological peculiarity of the ear. The ear is supposed to become immune to the steady

noise, to refuse to hear it. Everyone has noticed how a

loudly ticking clock is seldom actually heard; when the

ear becomes immune to the steady noise, it can hear the music. (This is an example of the phenomenon.)

Some of the noise conditions under which music can be heard are really amazing. As much as 100 decibles of noise can be handled without too much trouble. In a weave room at the Botany Worsted Mills music comes through

102 decibles of noise. Someone has figured out that this

1. J. Ramsay andER. E. Rawson, "Rest Pauses and Refresh- ments in Industry", British Nat. Institute of Indus- trial Psychology, 1939, p. 48. 67

is more noise than is created by a pneumatic drill ten feet away. Anyone who has ever been in a weave room will state that the pneumatic drill is not a very close

second. At the Vanadium Corporation of America, music is successfully used where it is "next thing to a boiler factory."1 The battleship "Alabama" was built to music-- a shipyard is hardly a quiet place.

It seems pretty clear, therefore, that music can be made to cut through a good deal of noise. This is true where the noise is steady; where it is intermittent the problem is much more difficult, though far from impossible. Another thing to consider is that the installation must be so made and music so chosen that the music it-

self will not simply add to the over-all noise. The music must come through the noise. If not, it will be confusing.

Machine operators have been known to find pretexts to stop their machines to listen to the music. This is

another good reason for making the music clear and audible, rather than simply having it compete with the noise.

It has been pointed out how the ear becomes used to noise, and hears it less loudly. One phenomenon which

sometimes occurs is the apparent further subduing of the

1. Richelsen, John, "Without a Song - a Sit-Down," Iron Age, March 3, 1938. 68

noise by the music. In other words, the ear picks up

the music, and the noise psychologically drops even further into the background.

Silence

A deathly silence can be just as oppressive as an

all-consuming noise. In some plants there are rooms where sound is damped out by the material being produced.

A textile inspecting room is a good example of this.

The workers welcome music as a particular blessing under these conditions.

Characteristics of the Work and Worker

The Time of Work

Whatever is said about the worker on the day shift will be true also of the worker on any other shift. In fact, the gain to be achieved by the use of music on night shifts is probably greater than that to be achieved during the day. Most of the data which is available on the use of music has been collected during the day, since many plants have no night shifts, and since the data compilers usually work during the daytime. Also, it makes no difference whether the worker has a four hour day or a twelve hour day; he will still gain from the use of music. 69

Characteristics of the Work

Monotony--The value of music in combatting monotony has been pointed out. Of course, this does not imply that non-repetitive work cannot benefit by music; it simply means that with work of a repetitive type some of the greatest gains can be made. It has been found that on jobs where practically no concentration is required, such as is often the case with automatic machines, the worker's mind can wander so easily that he does not become bored. On jobs where a very high degree of concentration is required, the worker is too busy to get bored.

But the real problem occurs on jobs where a medium amount of concentration is required; here boredom is pronounced.

And a large percentage of the tasks of industry are of this type.

Hand Work--Whether the worker be on hand or machine work, the use of music should have a production benefit. Of course, if a worker is running a group of automatic machines, the application of music will not speed up the machines. But it may pep him up enough so he can handle an extra machine. However, it is on hand work, particularly of the small assembly type, that the greatest, and most immediate gains should be apparent. 70

Mental Work--The value of music to the mental worker is a moot point. The mental or clerical worker is not our chief consideration in this thesis, but the effect of music on him is of interest. Music in the production departments may reach some of the workers in the mental class. Or there may be the question of deliberately playing music to certain of these workers.

Of course, the primary difficulty is that music may distract the mental worker, and lower his efficiency.

On the other side of the argument there are the proved beneficial effects which music has upon the degree of mental fatigue. Music can give a lift to the mental worker as well as to the physical worker. The question is whether the increase in efficiency caused by these lifts will more than make up for the loss in efficiency caused by the distraction.

It is impossible to argue this out on theoretical grounds, and very little study of the subject has been made. About all we can do, therefore, is cite a number of cases where music is used for mental or clerical workers. Music is used in the offices of the Bell Tele- phone Company of Philadelphia, of the First National Bank of Pikeville, Kentucky, of the Norfolk Navy Yard, of the Reader's Digest, of Selmer, Inc. The corridors of the 71

Insurance Building in Oakland, California are music

equipped. The main idea of this installation was to

speed up traffic in the corridors, and to make coming and going pleasanter; but many office doors are left open to hear the music. The president of one financial institution in this building said, "Our office never func- tioned more smoothly."1 Music is supplied to billing and clerks at Botany Worsted,/at the office of the Oklahoma

Natural Gas Company. In all these cases music was more of an advantage than a disadvantage, and was considered worth having. It would seem, therefore that there is a use for it with the mental worker.

Care must be taken to keep the music unobtrusive, in the nature of a background, or it may become distracting.

Piece Work--It seems to make absolutely no difference whether the worker is being paid on a piece-work or day- work basis. Theoretically, one might reason that because the piece-worker will probably be working more nearly at this capacity, there would not be much production gain possible. Keep in mind, however, that all of the experiments mentioned in the section on the effect of music

1. Burke, Earl, "A New Experiment with Music in Business," Etude, August, 1939, p. 503. 72

on production were performed where piece-work was in use.

yt~hmic Work--We have already pointed out that music is seldom used in order to speed up the worker by forcing him into a faster rhythm. But, will there not be a possibility of conflict between the rhythm of the music and the rhythm of the work? This is a very likely pos-

sibility, and must be guarded against. It has been found, however, that this trouble is not as bad as one would imagine, that there is little confusion caused. In order to guard against it, horever, where operations are very definitely rhythmic, music should be chosen which does not have a very strong rhythm.

Skilled Workers--The skilled worker has to concentrate on doing a good job, and it could therefore be argued that music should distract him, and cut down his production. In actual practice, however, it has been found that music can be played to the skilled worker, as well as the un- skilled worker, with good results. The only rule to be observed here is that the music must be particularly well chosen, of high quality, and well reproduced, since the skilled wiorker is undeniably more easily distracted.

Variations in Music's Effect on Different Workers

Two different workers of the same age, sex, nationality, color, and musical training may have entirely dif------

73 ferent reactions to music in general, and to a particular piece, or a particular type of music. The associations which that worker has with a given piece or type of music may be entirely different from the associations of his neighbors. This is one of the reasons why it is impossible to be sure that workers in one group will receive music successfully just because an apparently identical group did so. 'However, in a case like this, the odds would be that music would be successfully received, and in such a situation this assumption would be warranted.

Of course, when there are differences in age, sex, nationality, etc. one would never expect to get similar results. So the make-up of each work group must be studied before music is -pplied, and the right kind of music chosen. If this is done properly (one of the following sections will discuss this), music should work successfully.

A certain number of workers will always be found who do not want any music at all. If the percentage is too high, the use of music is impossible, since the dis- ruptive element will defeat its purpose. It is very, very seldom that such a sitiuation occurs, however, and music can usually be installed without such an unfortun- ate result. 74

If there are a number of types of workers in the group to receive music, one might worry about the possibility of pleasing them all. It is almost invariably possible, however, to find types of music which will be satisfactory to them all. This fear should not, therefore be any deterrent to the installation of music. 75

THE MUSIC INSTALLATION

Ways of Obtaining the Music

Types Available

There are a number of different ways in which one may obtain music, and a number of different services available. We will not go into this exhaustively, since it is assumed that the manufacturer will survey this angle very carefully before he puts out any money. The different methods will be listed; if any companies which offer services are left out it will be because we have only chosen one representative of each class.

Muzak Corporation--The Muzak Corporation offers two types of service: (1) music piped to the plant of the customer, (2) built-in systems which use transcriptions rented from

Muzak. Central studios are located in a number of important cities; if the manufacturer is beyond the convenient range of one of these studios, the built-in type of system is used. There are relatively few of this latter type in existence, however. In either case, the music is chosen carefully by the Muzak Corporation, and adapted to the particular plant. The transcriptions which are used by Muzak give better reproduction than an ordinary phonograph record, and since they are used with an amplifying system of equal quality, the final broadcast 76

is of very high fidelity. They maintain that their system is superior in cutting through noise.

R. C. A.--This company, and its representatives engineer and install equipment, and plan programs for industrial music systems. First they survey the plant, and put in a complete amplifying system. They have a programming department which studies the conditions in the plant and decides the types.and times of music which should be played. The customer may obtain his own records, from the recommendations of R. C. A., or if he desires, he will be supplied with Victor Records by the company.

He is supplied with an initial library, and about twenty per cent of this library is exchanged each month. All the operating of the system is actually done by the customer.

The Compnyts Own Installation--It is possible to have one's own installation put in by any one of a number of companies which make radio and P. A. installations. These companies usually have sound engineers who will plan out the best system for satisfactory plant broadcasting.

After they have the physical system in, however, their service stops. It is up to the customer to plan his own music program. We hope that this thesis will be an aid in doing precisely that. 77

Special Program Wired in from Radio Station--A unique

system is employed by the Oregon Shipbuilding Corporation.

The company has arranged with a nearby radio station to

have specially prepared programs piped in to the shipyard.

News, music, etc. is broadcast in the shipyard much as

a radio program would be, except that the program is

prepared specifically for Oregon Shipbuilding.

Radio Programs Intended for Industrial Consumption--Two

radio stations of which we know, WNYC and WJZ, broadcast

special programs of music for use in industry. WTYC,

for example, offers music from 12:00 to 1:00, six days a week. There is no advertising, and the music is spec-

ially chosen so as to be appropriate for industrial use. 1

Instruments--Some companies offer piano music at lunch

and rest periods, one of the talented employees often

supplying the necessary musical ability. Electric organ music is used in other places. During the past summer

the Wheeler Shipbuilding Corporation enjoyed noontime

concerts by the WPA War Service Music Project unit.

Such cases as these are uncommon, however, and merely go

to illustrate the point that music in industry does not

necessarily signify electronics.

The Workers' Own Radios--Some companies allow the workers to bring in small radios of their own. This system has

1. See Appendix C for a typical one week program. 78

obvious disadvantages. The quality of the program cannot be controlled, advertising slows down the worker, he must take time out to dial. When the company supplies the radio for a group of workers, the situation is the same.

The Cost of Industrial Music

This is a subject where it is impossible to give specific costs. Every plant will be different. If one operates his own system, the cost of operation is negligible, and the first cost the only important factor.

Systems can be put in which cost anywhere from 25Q to

$50,000. One estimate has put the cost at between 3' and 71 cents.per square foot. The employees sometimes help pay for records, or lend records of their own. If one rents records from R. C. A. there is a charge which must be met. Muzak charges for the time that the service is given. One company estimates that it costs less than ten cents per week per employee to retain Muzak service. Another company obtains music for less than five cents.

Eqguimen~t

The Psical Set-U3p of the System

The Plant BroadcastinE System--This includes three parts: 79

the phonograph pick-up or radio or microphone, the

amplifier(s), the loud-speakers. Sometimes a number of pick-ups are available, often two or three micro- phones, and usually radio receiving apparatus. Auto- matic record changers are common. Plant broadcasting systems are almost always used for paging.

It is possible to have a number of different circuits leading to different groups of loud-speakers.

This makes it possible to page someone or broadcast a certain program of music in just one section of the plant.

The number of speakers which may be used is virtually limitless. At The Curtiss-Wright plant in Buffalo there are six hundred. It is possible to have outdoor installations; this is common in shipyards.

The Record Library--It is impossible to give a definite size for the record library. The governing factor is the frequency with which it is desired to repeat a given record. It is best to repeat no oftener than about once in two weeks, and if possible less frequently. Of course, this is not true for the more popular tunes.

Just as an example, an R. C. A. supplied library usually consists of 300 to 500 records, with a twenty per cent monthly turnover.

It is also now possible to obtain transcriptions.

Sometimes records are obtained by borrowing from employees. 80

The quality of the music is likely to deteriorate under these conditions, and strict control of the type of

records played must be maintained.

Several Important Considerations in a System

It must be remembered that conditions for listening

to music are not normal in the factory, and performance

must be governed accordingly. It is essential that good reproduction be obtained. Poor reproduction is just so

much more noise; and noise means fatigue and ragged nerves.

It is necessary that the entire installation be engineered

as a unit. There is no point in having high quality

records, pick-up, and amplifier if loud-speakers are used which are too small to handle the load. A chain is no

stronger than its weakest link. It is important that the

intensity of the music be distributed evenly throughout

the plant. Loud spots and dead spots each have their

obvious faults. By using a large number of smaller speak-

ers, and by careful planning, an even sound level can be

obtained. 8 r

Availability of Equipment

In these times of shortages and priorities, the possibility that equipment may be unavailable must be considered. Electrical equipment is hard to obtain.

Shellac for making records is scarce. Substitutes will probably solve this latter problem, however. The WPB is taking considerable interest in the possibility of increasing the country's war production with the aid of music. 1 And one very good argument to obtain priorities for equipment at the present time is that the P. A. system is needed for air raid purposes. Its use for music is purely incidental (?).

1. Mr. Wheeler Beckett of War Production Drive Head- quarters is now making a nationwide survey of music in industry. in

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF INSTALLATION AND OPERATION

As we explained before, the ultimate desire behind

the installation of industrial music is to increase the

over-all efficiency of the business, both from a production and an organizational point-of-view. And one of the

important factors in the situation is employee morale. It is absolutely necessary that one foster the impression

in the workers that the music was introduced to improve their morale. It is allright to be realistic and frank, and let them know that you believe that the improved morale will result in a more efficient, more productive organization. But what must be avoided at all costs is allowing them to acquire the erroneous belief that music was installed with the prime objective of stimulating them to greater output. This belief could cause the whole music plan to backfire.

One very valuable technique is to let the employees help pick out the records that are to be played. This strengthens their conviction that the music is for their benefit.

The playing of the full schedule of music from the very beginning is not so good as a gradual increase in the amount of music. Music may first be played at lunch only, then the rest periods may be added, and finally L

83 work-time music. Before music has actually been played during work the employees will probably have requested that it be played at this time, as well as during lunch and rest periods. Thus, it appears in their minds that the music during work hours is their idea. 83

THE 'OPERATION OF THE SYSTEM

Supervision and Operation

So little time is spent in the actual operation of the system that the question of who shall do the work is really not of great importance. There are a number of different arrangements. It is operated in various places by: the telephone operator, the infirmarian, the foreman of a department, a specially appointed hem- ber of the office staff or maintenance department, 'eto,

It usually comes down to a question of who can run the apparatus most conveniently, since little skill is required.

In the New England Confectionery Company music is used in only one department, and the music is chosen and played by the woman foreman. If she is so busy she forgets to put on the music at the regular time, her girl workers start singing to remind her. A Very diplo- matic method.

The programming is often under the supervision of' the personnel department, sometimes under the control of a department foreman, and sometimes all decisions are made by whomsoever happens to have been appointed to operate the system. At Botany Worsted Mills there is a special Music Department, but this is seldom necessary. 84

One thing must be emphasized: decisions must be freely made by the person who handles the programming, and who presumably is acquainted with the rules which should be followed; the likes and dislikes of miscellaneous executives should have no influence.

Choice of Records The choice of the records obtained and played is generally handled by the person who has supervision over the system. As explained before, if some company,such as, R.C.A. or Muzak is supplying the service, programming is almost entirely in their hands. Even under these conditions, however, the customer can make requests.

It is impossible to please everyone in the choice of music. The workers are reasonable enough to understand this; just explain it to them.

Many companies try to give the workers some choice in the records to be played. It gives the worker a feeling of importance, and gives him the music he wants. Request boxes are usually provided. In some cases the music which is picked by the employees is played only at lunch hours; in other cases it is played during work, after the undesirable requests have been weeded out. The former system is probably the best.

In many companies records are loaned by the workers, and,therefore, obviously are chosen by the workers. However, 84 some companies have a rule that only company--owned records may be played. This avoids the embarrassment of telling an employee you do not want his records.

Woodward Governor Company has a unique system whereby a number of records are kept in their "popular" category, two leading new ones being added and two old ones dropped every week.. 85

T IES AND TYPES OF IVILY6 IC

Now we are entering into the most unexplored field of all, where no two people agree. Miany of the rules which we have here are the result of theorizing; most have been obtained empirically; practically none have been proved experimentally. It is a field in which much work must be done. Some of the rules which we will give are tempered by our own personal beliefs, as determined from a study of present practice.

Practice is extremely varied as regards the kind of music to play and when to play it because of the conflicting results which have been obtained by the use of identical techniques in apparently identical situations. The tryth of the matter is that the situations are not truly identical. Until we have a good way of measuring the situation, it is going to be difficult to determine what kind of technique to use for given conditions. Many rules as regards times and types have been called rules when they never should have been. The result at the present is that no one seems to be very sure of anything, since for every rule there are numerous exceptions. So if the rules we cite do not work out in a given company, it is because we have put forward unsound rules, or because the situation in your company is not what it seems to be. 86

There is one bright spot in the darkness, however,-- and perhaps this bright spot has been the cause of many unsound rules. No matter how bad the choice of music, no matter how bad the timing, the results still seem to be good. This is true of most companies, at least.

For example, at the Oklahoma Natural Gas Company Music was supplied in one of the worst programs imaginable-- production still went up. At Botany 7orsted Mills "all types of programs and records have been tried, and all have been received satisfactorily.

The Time to Play Music

Times to play music are divided into the two divisions: music during work, and music during rest and lunch. We are particularly interested in the former, and stress will be placed upon it.

What Good Scheduling Is

The worker does not necessarily want good scheduling.

He wants the music he likes, and would preferably have it immediately and more or less continuously. He is not interested in having the music come on at the times and in the amounts which will do him the most good.

"A poll was recently conducted in a factory and

1. "Paging & IMusic System in Botany Worsted Mills," a two page paper prepared by 7otany. 87

suggestions from employees, regarding types of music and hours of playing, were solicited. The total number of ballots returned were approximately 1500, compris- ing a cross section of the total employees in the plant-,

"One question asked employees was: 'How many hours in the working day should music be played?'

"Response to the inquiry: 1 2 hours- -- 7.0 3 hours- - -13.51 4 hours- - -26.0% 5-6 hours- -17.01 all day- - -23.5 When we consider that one to two hours of music per day

is considered enough(this will soon be discussed), it

is clear that the worker's ideas are not necessarily too

good.

Our main consideration should be to give the worker what is good for him, and not primarily what he likes.

Of course, where he very definitely does not like what

is good for him, it is best to temper the treatment with his desires. A happy medium can usually be reached which will please the worker, and do him considerable good too.

A very slight change in programming may be of great

importance, though this is not generally the case. We cited one of Burris-Meyer's experiments where two different music schedules were used, and the daily production curves under each obtained. The solid curve in Fig. XI was obtained with one schedule; the solid curve in Fig. XII was

1. "Music in Industry," pamphlet by R.C.A. IfS. Inc. 88

obtained with an improved schedule which was planned

specifically to knock the bottom off the 2:15 dip. The improvement is obvious.

How Much Music to y

If music cuts down fatigue and increases production

to the greatest degree while it is actually playing

(Fig. VI shows this clearly), why not play music all

day long? In some cases this may be justified, but in general it is bad practice. The music under these con-

ditions becomes just so much more noise.. Even if it does not always do this, it nevertheless loses its

effectiveness after awhile. The worker becomes immunized to it, and no longer gives evidence of a lift from the

music. In actual practice-it has been found that the greatest benefit is obtained by giving the music in short

periods. This keeps the employee hungry for more. He

is picked up every time the music comes on. It has been found a good general rule to play between one and two hours a day, which includes lunch and rest period music.

One case has come to our attention where it seems that a certain company is justified in playing music almost continuously. It is a photographic film manufacturer, and the girls who do the work have to work in absolute darkness. 89

Difficulty of Choosing a Schedule

The number of types of schedules is almost without end. Some companies cannot use music during the period

of work, and,therefore, use it only at lunch and rest

periods. Many companies do not have rest periods, and, of course, cannot have music at such times. Some firms- play music only 'at the morning and afternoon fatigue periods. Some users play their music continuously;

some play a given number of records every hour; some

play music whenever it occurs to the person in charge- of the apparatus. In other words, there is no general rule.

There are several reasons f or this confusion.

First of all, no one has done much research in the field, and most scheduling is a result of judgment. In the second place, conditions in different plants vary so greatly that it is impossible to formulate any one ttright" way. Practically anything is better than nothing.

Specific Times at Which Music May Be Played

Noon Period--Music should certainly be played during lunch.

The noise of the machinery is gone; distracting music can be played without hurting production. The music will result in a more complete recovery from fatigue, but its main value at this time is to raise morale. Pleasant music always makes food taste better. Jazz, vocals, in 90

fact anything the workers want can be safely presented

at this time. This is also the time to give news and bulletins, if any. Broadcasting may or may not be

continued for the full lunch period.

Rest Periods--What is true of lunch periods are also

more or less true of rest periods. The objective of the music at these times is to aid the worker to recover from his fatigue.

At the Beginning of the Shift--When the worker first

arrives he is usually half asleep; stirring music at

this time will get him up to maximum production faster. The whole day will seem better if it is well begun.

Just Before the End of the Shift--This period usually

consists of music during about the last fifteen minutes of the shift. It is probably tco late to pick the

workers' production up much, though this aspect must not be overlooked. The main idea of music at this time

is to put the worker in a happy frame of mind, so he will go hOme feeling satisfied and refreshed. There is one- great disadvantage of music at this time. Workers often

interpret it as the signal to start cleaning up, and the

beginning of the music oftens means virtual cessation of work.

Just After the End of the Shift--Music just after the

quitting whistle can also serve as beginning music for the next shift. It performs much the same task as the 91 music just before the end of the shift, sending the worker home happy, without causing him to stop work early.

It usually takes a worker very little time to punch the clock and leave, however, so this music can be effective on the departing worker for a couple of minutes only.

Whether this is enough to do any good is the question.

Fatigue Periods--It has been explained how there is a period in the morning and in the afternoon(and correspondingly on night shifts) when fatigue becomes high* In the average plant, with the average man, this usually begins about the middle of the morning, and slightly before the middle of the afternoon. For an

8:00 to 5:00 day these occur at about 10:00 and 2:30. Music is usually played about 10:30 and 3:15 to combat this fatigue. Provided it is possible to use music during working hours, these times should certainly receive their share.

Pre-Fatigue Periods--Music is often played about an hour before the fatigue periods, with the purpose of giving the worker a boost before he has a chance to slump in production. This slows up the onset of fatigue. When pre- fatigue music is used, fatigue period music is usually played a little later than otherwise. The arguments for using music at these times are not so strong, but it will certainly do some good. Anytimea-Some plants use music without any attempt to adapt it to the production curve.. They just count on giving the worker a continual series of lifts all day long. Whether this is the most effective way is debatable, but it certainly does a lot of good anyway.

Types of Schedules It is hard to classify schedules into types, but we will try to do so anyway.

Continuous--It has been explained that some companies keep the music on all day long. The disadvantages of this have been mentioned, and one case cited where it seemed justified. This is not a common method, however.

Adapted to the Production Curve--This usually includes music at the beginning of the shift, at lunch, at the fatigue periods. Often pre-fatigue music is used.

Following is a typical music schedule which R.C.A. recommends for an 8:00 to 5:00 day:

8:00 A.M. to 8:15 A.M.- "Opening" Music 10:45 to 11:07- Work---"fatigue"--Music 12:00 noon to 12:45- "Luncheon" Music(and Radio News) 3:20 to 3:44- Work--" fatigue" --Mu sic 5:00 to 5:15- "Opening" music for second shift,etc.

Cyclic--Some companies merely play two or three records 93 every hour on the hour, or one or two every half hour.

The music has a fatigue-reducing effect, andof course, helps morale. This method is far less scientific than the last method mentioned, however. It is a less realistic method, too, since it does not admit that fatigue varies as the day progresses. It is a less effective method, and merely offers an easy way of supplying music without taking the trouble to do much plannring.

Length of Periods

Practically no scientific work has been done to determine the proper length of periods. We believe that what has been done does not have much significance. So one's periods must be set by keeping in mind that a' maximum music time of about two hours a day should be used, and ap 'ortioning this time between the various periods chosen according to their importance. Usual'y periods are between fifteen minutes and half an hour.

Decidin on a Schedule There is only one really good way to determine what would be the best schedule to use: to deterinine one's production curve, and to adapt the music to it.

If it is impossible to measure production so as to obtain the curve, then judgment will have to be used to obtain a rough approximation to the curve. 94

If one's production curve varies from the typical ones, if it has strange dips and rises, then music must be applied so as to bring up these dips. A period of music should be arranged to begin on the declining side of the dip and continue until the dip starts up again. The lower the dip, the longer the period of music which should be applied there.

Where labor is light, and the worker does not physically fatigue much, we get a fairly flat fatigue curve, as was shown in Fig. IV, Series II. Scheduling of the cyclic type may almost be justified in such a case. Byt where heavy muscular labor is involved (Fig. IV,

Series I), it is more important that music be applied at the fatigue period to raise the curve. These are about the only rules to offer.

Do's and Don'ts of Scheduling

Several rules can be mentioned which had best be followed. Music periods should be on time. The workers look forward to them and are provoked if they do not arrive on schedule. Do not use continuous music, or periods of too long duration. If you find that music near the end of the shift means "clean up" to the workers, change your schedule to avoid this difficulty. On dark and rainy days, give the workers more music to cheer them up. 95

Music on the Night Shift

The value of music on the night shift should be tremendous, but no one has done much to prove this yet.

Night shift music is coming more and more into vogue now, however.

Sometimes the night shifts are given music on a schedule which corresponds with that used for the day shift. It has been found, however, that the night worker requires more music than the day worker, so schedules are usually expanded for him. Some companies play music almost continuously for the night shift, while having a normal schedule for the day shift. This is probably going too far.

One rather amusing but troublesome result of music at night is that people in nearby homes have trouble sleeping. This is particulatly bad in the summertime, when factory windows are open. No good solution has been thought up for this problem yet.

The Type of Music

We have already pointed out how the worker does not necessarily want his music scheduled in the way that would be best for him. With regard to the type of music to be played this is more than ever true. 96

There is a huge mass of conflicting information available in this field. One company reports that vocals are poison; the next one finds that they are desirable, and offer variety. And so it goes. Much of this confusion is caused by downright error in

interpretation of results by some music users. Their error soon becomes a rule, and is published as such.

Further confusion is caused when different results are obtained in apparently similar situations. It is possible to find some plants where the workers will like or dislike any kind of music you may care to name, to find some companies which have had success and others which have had failure with absolutely any type of music.

Adapting the Music to the Worker

It is impossible to put too much stress upon the necessity of adapting your music to your workers. This is one of the most important steps in the entire installation of the system. If this is properly done, the music should succeed in its purpose to a very large degree.

We must repeat ad nauseam that all workers must not be considered the same as regards their reaction to music. 1 Two apparently similar workers may have

1. MJyeretC.S.,Individual Differences in Listening to Music 97

entirely-different likes and dislikes. And workers- of different ages, sexes, nationalities, etc. can hardly be

considered to have the same reactions to a given musical

selection.. Now, how does this effect our choice of music, how do we go about deciding the proper thing to play? It has been pointed out before that differences in age, sex, and nationality are the most obvious points to attack first. We will leave until later the attempt to fulfill the worker's personal likes, since they are more difficult to measure. Our first step is to make a very close study of the workers in the plant. We ask ourselves a number of questions. What is the average age of the workers in the plant? Do these ages spread over a wide range? What is the proportion of men to women? Are there any outstanding nationality groups? What kind of music have these groups been brought up on, American or music of the homeland? What about the intelligence and skill of the workers?

Everyone likes a different type of music, although several different kinds will satisfy the same person. This gives us the key we need. Having made a study of the groups in the factory, and knowing the types of music which each group will tolerate, our task becomes simply that of picking out the "common denominator" types which are acceptable to a large majority. Of course, this large majority need not take in the whole plant, different music 98

can be played to different sections of the plant at

different times.

To aid in finding the "common denominator" we are

giving a brief and debatable list of the music that is

effective with various classes of workers. We can make generalizations only, of course, and refer to the "average"

worker of a class. By teffective" music is meant music which the workers like, yet which is good for them too.

The Mental Worker--He usually prefers to have his music soft and distant, to be in the nature of a background. If it is obtrusive, it distracts him., For this reason vocals are out. Complicated orchestrations should be avoided,

just a simple melody being sufficient. The music may be

either classical or popular, though the former is probably best. Symphonies are very acceptable.

The Skilled Worker--Because of the fact that he has to do a good deal of mental work too, his music should lean toward that used for the mental worker. It need not be quite so conservative, however. Reproduction must be of the best quality.

The Old versus the Young Worker--The old worker likes waltzes, polkas, marches, and plenty of the "good old songs." Both Viennese and Yodern waltzes are satisfactory. The 99

young worker likes principally popular songs, marches, and Modern waltzes, in fact anything with a good swing to

it.-*

Men versus Women--Men like marches, while women like them

less. Men like to have music serve as a background, while women prefer to have the melody stand out fairly

strongly. Both seem to like waltzes.

The Worker on the Rhythmic Operation--He very definitely does not want the music to have too strong a rhythm, since it may conflict with the rhythm of his operation.

The Worker of Foreign Nationality--Obviously such a worker likes to hear songs of the old country once in awhile, though he usually has heard enou±h American music

so he can enjoy it,.

Some "Common Denominator" "'usic There are several types of music which fit into the role of the common denominator almost always.

Almost all workers will accept music of the semi- classical type, Victor Ferbert's work being a good example. Waltzes, marches, and unobtrusive choral numbers are liked by practically everyone. Conservative renditions of popular music bring few complaints. Of course, it must be emphasized that overdoing any of these types removes them from the common denominator 100

classification. And it must also be rembered that there

are certain to be a few workers who will complain loudly for any given type. Do not be frightened too much by the loud noise created by a very few. Their fellow

workers will usually quiet them down..

The Characteristics of the Musici Vocals--There are a number of objections which are raised to the use of vocals during the hours of work. They are

more distracting than instrumental music. They intrude

through the background. They require too much of the worker's attention, and, therefore, sometimes decrease

production. A good example of this occurred in Necco.

After a vocal one of the workers requested, "Please play that one again. We didn't get the second line." For mental workers they are definitely out. Another dis-

advantage of vocals is that they do not reproduce well.,

If used properly, vocals need not be left off the

list altogether. Then sung by very clearly enunciating singers like Bing Crosby they distract the worker very

little. If the song is very familiar, the worker does

not have to concentrate upon the words. Familiar, soft

choral numbers are satisfactory. Vocals are very power- 2 ful in their effect on people , and may therefore be more

1. See Appendix D wbich contains record lists. 2. Schoen, M. and Gatewood, E. L., "The Mood Effects of Music". 101

effective in aiding morale and fatigue. Botany Worsted

Mills re-ports that vocals are very satisfactory, and offer variety. Everyone has found that sopranos must be left off the list.

At lunch, of corse, vocals can easily be used.

Rhythm--Where operations are cyclic, it has been exnlained that the rhythm of the music should not be too strong. Many manufacturers are afraid to use music because they fear there will be a rhythm conflict. If proner pieces are chosen, it is possible to use music with the most rhythmical operation.

Where there are no complications of this type, fairly strong rhythms are best, since they give the warker more of a pick-up. The young folks react particularly well to rhythmical numbers.

Classical versus Popular--In general, popular music receives a better response than classical music. Hit parade numbers are well liked. But it is really amazing how many workers like really good music. And practically all workers enjoy semi-classical works to a certain degree. Selmer, Incorporated found that they "had more requests for good music than for popular numbers from the employees--which was a surprising thing". Mental workers usually nrefer classical music. Attempts to 102

play symphonies to factory workers bring imiediate reoer- cussions, however.

Slow versus Fast--Fast music has a very stimulating effect; slow music calms one down. The choice between the two usually rests upon the purpose for which the music is intended at the particular time. Hymns can cut production tremendously. Music which is too fast irritates and makes one nervous, and therefore brings on fatigue. Such music is also rather distracting.

Orchestrations--This type of music is just so much more noise added to an already noisy environment. Straight melodies reproduce much better, and are less confusing to the worker. Sammy Kaye is to be preferred to Benny roodman, for example. At lunch, of course, Benny can be used.

Associative Music--It is usually better to use music which is familiar to the worker. Associations with familiar music are usually pleasant, and hearing the familiar tune brings back pleasant memories. Marches, for examnle, are more stirring if they have some personal significance, memory of a certain narade, perhaps. There is one difficulty: a particular worker migit have very strong associations with a particular piece, and hearing it would distract him. The use of unfamiliar or non-associative music is not useless, of course. Any pleasant melody can 103 be enjoyed. Prof. Burris-Meyer tried out unfamiliar music on workers with satisfactory results..

Foreign Music--For Americans, American music is the best, with the addition perhaps of very familiar foreign music.

But the use of Scandinavian music might be rather futile, except on a group of Scandinavians..

Brassy Music--All music of the jazzy, brassy type classes as noise after passage through the typical reproduction facilities. It merely confuses and irritates the worker. If it must be used, play it at lunch.

News-.It is argued that in these days the poor worker gets more than enough news without having more given to him when he goes to work. It is found, however, that most workers like to have the opportunity to hear a summary of the latest developments at some time during the day. News should not be given during work, but only at lunch and rest periods. Announcing World Series scores at the end of every inning is allowable, however.

Relaxing versus Invigorating Music--Again it is a question of whether you want music at a particular time to pick the worker up or quiet him down. Early in the morning he needs to be picked up. At noon he probably needs to be quieted down. If work is of the sort which can make one nervous, use relaxing music; if the work puts the worker to sleep, use 104

peppy music..

Background Music--Men usually prefer music to serve as a

sort of background, while women like their music to stand out clearly. Mental workers prefer the background type.

Talking Records--Do not use them during the work hours.

Christmas Carols--Most workers like to hear these at Christmas time, and very often requests are received for them.

They do not cut down production unless they are too slow,

Marches--These are very good. They pick the worker up when he needs such treatment. Almost everybody likes them, if not indulged in to excess. There is one trouble which may arise:marches tend to make a worker tap his feet, and one company found that this annoyed the workers on the floor below. This was probably the fault of building construct- ion.

Rhumbas--Typical versions are hard to reproduce. If they can be reproduced without getting into the category of noise, however, they can be used perfectly well, and many companies do use them.

Waltzes--These are almost universally well-liked, whether

Modern or Viennese. Only a very few of the "hep-cats" could find objection. 105

Old versus New--The older folk prefer oldtime music like "My Gal Sal" and "A Bicycle Built for Two," while the young folk like the popular numbers better. But each group also tolerates the other's favorites, and usually gets a 7ood deal of enjoyment from them.

Organ Music-Organs usually "boom" when amplified and add to the noise of the shop.

Pieces with Undesirable Content--Some pieces have words which outlaw them immediately. The song which is always quoted in this connection is "Deep in the Heart of Texas."

It is undesirable to have the workers stop to clap their hands at the proper place, or pound their work with their tools, to the mutual destruction of both. "The Strip Polka" is another good example.

Do's and Don'ts in Choosing Music 1. Do not repeat a given record more than every week

or two. Also avoid too many records of one type.

2. Use records which have a constant volume level, so the

music will not first be lost in the noise of the machines, and then return to deafen the listener.

3.Get variety into the program. 4. Do not mix too vividly contrasting types. It is a

shock to the listener, and is distracting. 5. Do not play any music at all if 7ood, clear re-

reproduction can not be provided. 106

What the Workers Themselves Want for Music It is necessary to measure the desire of the workers

in some way, so as to please them insofar as possible. A "request box" can help accomplish this.

Workers will request all types, without exception. However, in general they choose very sensbly and conservatively.1

They do, however, have too strong a liking for vocals.

What is Best for the Workers

Workers are, in general pretty sensible. They realize that their own personal desires are not the only

things that count, and that plant efficiency is a necessity.

If one number would be too distracting for them, it is usually necessary only to tell them so.

Practically every type of musical group has been used on the records which the workers hear.. Dance bands,

accordion solists, light concert orchestras, etc. have

been used,411 with varying degrees of success. Provided

the music can be reproduced clearly, and the tune is of

the proper type, it-makes little difference what kind of

a musical group supolies it.

Workers often like to sing along with the music. This

seldom leads to complications. Care must be taken that this does not serve as a distraction. If the singing becomes

boisterous, it is dangerous.

1. In App. D.,records chosen at the Harvard Univ. Book- bindery illustrates this. 107

The Music Program: Times and Types in Combination

e Types Which should be Played at Particular Times

Here again we are on. incompletely explored ground. A little theorizing will be done, however, and present practice explained.

First Thing in the MorAirg--Use invigorating music, marches,

for example, to wake up and pep up the worker.

Lunch-.This is the time to work in the types which are

undesirable during work hours. News, vocals, request numbers, etc. can be olayed. Theoretically, soothing music should be played so the worker can rest and digest his food,

and this should be done insofar as possible.

Rest Periods--Use relaxing music so the worker will re-

cuperate faster.

Morning Pre-Fatigue Period--Use music which is neither too

invigorating nor too relaxing, in other words, a good medium type music. This holds production and keeps the slump from starting as soon.

Morning Fatigue Period--The pangs of hunger are beginning to make themselves known.. Music of a somewhat soothing type helps allay this pain, and at the same time has considerable fatigue-reducing ability.

Afternoon Pre-Fatigue Period--Again medium type music to hold up the production curve. 108

Afternoon Fatigue Period--The worker is beginning to get physically tired at this point. The music applied should be fairly invigorating, fast and rhythmic.

End of Shift--The majority of opinion seems to indicate that a quick tempo should be used at this time, so the worker will receive a final pick-up before he starts for home.. He will then look back upon the day's work with more satis- faction. However, some plants use songs like "Going Home" at this period. This practice is probably not the best.

The Complete Schedule

Following is the program used by the Woodward Governor

Company. It illustrates many of the points we have mentioned.

8:30-8:40 a.m.- Band Music 9:30-9:40 a.m.- Popular tunes Lunch periods - Dinner concert music, light classics 2:00"2:10 p.m.- Band Music 3:30"3:40 p.m.- Piano tunes, organ melodies, Hawaiian or Spanish guitars,etc. 4:30-4:40 p.m.- Popular music

Adapting the Program to Special Conditions

As has been mentioned, conditions at night are somewhat different from those in the daytime. More music should be played, and a more invigorating type should be used..

Dark and rainy days call for more music, and music of a peppier type. Hot days call for invigorating music.

The noon hour program is very flexible. Happy birthday greetings, marriage congratulations, etc. should be given at this hour. 109

An Aid in Programming It has been found very helpful to divide one's records up into groups to be played in a given period. All the records for the early morning period are put in one place, all the morning fatigue period records in another, etc. This makes programming much easier, since one can be certain that all the records in a group can be used at the time f or which they are specif ied. Less planning is required.

Conc lus ion

We trust that, after having waded through t1 is section, you are convinced that choosing the proper times and types of music is no simple matter to be left more or less to chance. Let us repeat again. First, derive your production curve ard fit your music times to this. Then study your workers, and find the "common denominator" types of music which will be most satisfactory for all concerned. And lastly, keep a close watch on results at all times; when changed are needed, make them. 110

FURTHER USES FOR THE P.A. SYSTEM ill

Out of the realm of music in industry, but defi.- nitely concerned with the economic point of view is the use of a loudspeaker system for other purposes than music. In most companies the public address or amplifying system is used for more than music. Below are listed some of the more common uses: bond rallies, happy birthday greetings, air raid and fire drills, paging system, company bulletins concerning production and social programs, safety news, news comments, and World Series baseball scores. Although this list is far from complete, an indication is given of the many beneficial opportunities that may accrue to the user of a public address system. 112

DIFFICULTIES WHICH AY BE ENCOUNTERED 113

In order to present clearly to the prospective music user both sides of the question of industrial music, and to remove any possible suspicions as to our prejudice, we are presenting here in one place the outstanding difficulties which the user of industrial music may encounter: 1. If for some reason the music has to be dis-

continued, labor trouble may result. In one case where this occurred, there was actually a strike. 2. If it is impossible to use music in all departments, those without music may be resentful. 3. There are always a certain number of employees who will not like the music, and may make trouble. 4. Some workers persist in talking while the music is playing, annoying their neighbors who wish

to listen to the music. This can result in internal strife. 5. The workers may get the erroneous idea that the music is intended to whip them on to greater production, and the whole program may

backfire. 114

CONCLUSIONS 115

Under conditions suited for music, good music adapted

to the workers will result in better morale, less fatigue, and greater production. The converse of this statement

is also true.

The original intention of many manufacturers who

install music is to increase morale and reduce fatigue, while production benefits remain in the background as a secondary reason. Neverthless, the final analysis shows

that better morale and less fatigue mean higher production.

Not all employees enjoy music while they work, but the great majority do and would be extremely displeased if it were removed.

No strict rules and theory have yet been formulated in this difficult and confusing field. Although everyone connected with the subject of music in industry considers

himself to be an authority, there are only a few who know very much except that music is usually a good thing for an industrial plant.

Finally, music for industrial use is gaining in favor every day, and it is our opinion that more managements will come to realize that music should be a part of their

organizations. 116

RECOMaENDATIOMS FOR THE FUTURE

.I I

117

The subject of music in industry is so unexplored that we feel there is much room open for research and investigation. Only in the past few months has the United

States begun to take notice of its potentialities, and since the changes brought on by the war are so great no statement that holds true today will necessarily be valid tomorrow. It is almost impossible at this time to make any comprehensive tests to prove or disprove the value of music. Other environmental conditions are not static enough to allow music full credit for any change in morale or efficiency. Our only suggestion for the future is that there be made a long run series of tests in different types of plants, under controlled conditions, to prove what benefits and difficulties the manufacturer may encounter if he installs music in his plant, and to discover the best ways of obtaining these benefits. 118

APPENDICES 119

APPENDIX A

Employers? attitudes

In a report, Rest Pauses and Refreshments in Indust

by J. Ramsey and R. E. Rawson of the National Institute

of Industrial Psychology, made in England in 1937, the following were included as employers' attitudes to music at work.

Employers' Attitudes to Music at Work

Of the 47 respondents in whose factories music was

provided at work, 37 (74.5 per cent.) stated that it had

beneficial effects on efficiency, while 12 (25.5 per cent.)

stated that it had no effects, or that they were unable

to observe any effects. None found that music had bad

effects. Unfortunately, few respondents were able to produce

evidence of the effects of music, but the following typical comments indicate general experience:--

1. "Installed against monotonous work; keeps mind

off work and occasional short pauses to listen to an inter-

esting or 'pretty' piece of music all helps to keep up

standard and rate of work." 2. "Music, provided to please employees, is popular

with majority and incidentally seems to have good effects

on efficiency.

3. "(Music during overtime.) Convinced it is bene-

ficial without minute investigation. Employees doing 120

hammer work keep time to swingy music. Manager has noticed work quicken up with the introduction of music."

4. "Rest-periods tried and found too unsettling. Music found more satisfactory."

5. "More attention paid to work with music. Intro- duced to avoid boredom and succeeds here."

6. "Find in summer people not so tired mentally at end of day."

7. "Output increased."

8. "Useful to have installed wireless (1) to give the girls something as it is difficult to get the labour,

(2) to counteract the monotony."

9. "Effect in workroom stimulating. Swing of work surprisingly apparent. Music has the effect of stopping chatter and work improves in consequence."

10. "Especially in evening, when workers are tired, it bucks them up, and they work better for it."

11. "Music instituted in warehouse where an increase in output of 10-15 per cent occurred over and above increase due to institution of rest-pauses. The girls prefer work in the warehouse with music to work in other departments where higher wages are earned."

12. "Music merely to ease the monotony--more harmon- ious atmosphere." 13. "In the warehouse, it is found that slow and fast music affect the speed of work correspondingly. 121

They work to the beat."

14. "Singing is allowed and they work better, because it stops them talking, and people can work and sing,

but they cannot work and talk."

15. "Very great help--improves production. Staves

off the tired period during morning and afternoon."

16. "Output has definitely increased since introduction of music (but no statistics)."

17. "Has been found that music has a definite calm-

ing effect. Found that the fatigue peA od is deflnitely

lessened with introduction of rest-pauses and music, especially music in some departments."

18. "Good effect noticed. Steadier work generally.

Monotony of piece-work operations relieved."

In contrast to these favourable remarks, the follow-

ing, which were made by respondents in factories which

had tried music but found it unsuccessful should be

considered: -- 1. "Processes too noisy."

2. "Used to have it at meal times, but privilege

was abused. Questionnaire was later issued on music, but most workers were against it."

3. "Wireless was tried, but electrical interference

too great." 122

4. "Music was introduced, but almost instantly rejected as employees were against the idea." 5. "Music stopped because women became depressed and the authorities thought music out of place while the workers were on short time. 95 per cent wanted music to continue, when asked whether they liked it. 5 per cent said they didn't want it." 123

APPENDIX B

Reported Effects on Production

Herein are listed the effects on production which have been experienced by a number of companies contacted or concerning which information is available. The accuracy of any figures which are cited is not guaranteed, but the results should nevertheless carry some weight. In certain cases the figures may have been obtained under controlled conditions, but such is probably not the general case.

Raytheon Production Corporation, Newton, Mass. 7.8 to 11% production increase in a two week test involving over six hundred assemblers.

Oklahoma Natural Gas Company, Tulsa, Okla. 12% increase in output of billing clerks.

The Reuben H. Donnelley Corp., N.Y.C. No increase with typists and letter mailers.

Champion Spark Plug Co., Detroit, Mich.

No increase. An obstinate labor union is probably the reason for the lack of increase.

Duvernoy & Sons, Inc., Bakers, N.Y.C. "Production has been more consistent, has definitely increased." 124

Appendix

Elite Hand-Painting Corp., N.Y.C. Increase of between 5 and 10%.

A. C. Gilbert Co., New Haven, Conn.

Music "definitely increases the efficiency of our operators".

Kastar, Inc., Automotive Proucts, N.Y.C.

10% increase.

Lewyt Metal Products, Inc., Brooklyn, N.Y. No increase. However, "this may be due to the special work that our people are doing".

Swank, Jewelry and Accessories for Men, Attleboro, Mass. 9 to 14% increase.

Novel Products Co., N.Y.C. Production increase.

Harry Latz Service, 242 W 55 St., N.Y.C.

A long run increase of 2 to 4%. For awhile increases as high as 10% were made.

Minneapolis Post Office Without music a given amount of work took 50 hours; with music , 43 hours.

Arden Rayshine Co., Watertown, Mass.

15 to 20% increase in output of girl assemblers. 125

Appendix

Baker Bros., Tailors, Los Angeles, California

Production increase between 2:00 and 5:00 P.M.

Most companies do not attempt to take any production figures, but are sure that music is a good thing, and that it must help their production. 126

APPENDIX C

The "Music at Work" Program of Radio Station WNYC

Daily except Sunday, Radio Station WNYC of New York

City presents a one hour noon-time program of music for war workers in radio-equipped arms plants and shipyards.

There is no advertising. Below will be found a list of records similar to those that the manufacturer could expect to hear on a one week program.

Barry Wood-March For The New Infantry Gershwin-Selections from Lady Be Good and Tip Toes von Suppe-Light Cavalry Overture Lena Horne-I Gotta Right to Sing The Blues Suk-Sokol March

Pryor-Lights Out: March Berlin-Selections from As Thousands Cheer Rubinstein-Kammenoi Ostrow Thornhill-I'm Thrilled Kaye-Let's Bring New Glory to Old Glory

Victor-Crash Ont Artillery: March Weill-Songs from Lady In The Dark Adam-If I Were King: Overture Maxine Sullivan-If I Had A Ribbon Bow Verdi-Grand March-Aida

U. S. Army Band-American Spirit: March Duke-Songs from Banjo Eyes Smetana-Dances from The Bartered Bride Ellington-I Got It Bad And That Ain't Good Smith-My Great Great Grandfather III

Goldman-On The Hudson: March Rodgers & Hart-Songs from Pal Joey 127

Herold-Zampa Overture Spivak-Yesterday's Gardenias Chopin-Polonaise Militaire

B. B. C. Band-Castaldo March Porter-Songs from Panama Hattie Ponchielli-Dance of The Hours-La Gioconda Goodman-Dearly Beloved Shore-I'm Saving A Dime

IV Legion Band-March Salutation Gilbert & Sullivan-Selections from Princess Ida Flotow-Stradella Overture James-A Poem Set To Music Tchaikovsky-March Slave

Grenadier Guards Band-Liberty Bell: March Romberg-Songs from New Moon Johann Strauss-Songs of Love Waltz Kirby-Bounce Of The Sugar Plum Fairy Douglas-Everybody Every Pay Day V Coldstream Band-Lords Of The Air: March Kern-Selections from Show Boat Auber-Masaniello Overture Shore-Mad About Him Blues Schubert-March Militaire

Goldman-Happy Go Lucky March Cohan-Songs from Little Nellie Kelly Weinberger-Polka And Fugue-Schwanda Wilder-Seldom The Sun Red, White And Blue 128

APPENDIX D

Record Lists

1. R.C.A. List list HFere is a partia/2bf records-that R.C.A. Manufacturing Co. has found suitable for use in the industrial field, a list which is based on the actual choice of employees:

Title Record No. Dream Tango Fate Tango 20454

God Bless America Star Spangled Banner 26198 The Woodpecker Song I Walk With Music 26531 Smoke Gets In Your Eyes Zigeuner 24609 Stars and Stripes Forever Fairest Of The Fair 20132 Blue Danube Waltz Tales From Vienna Woods 15425 In A Persian Market Parts 1 and 2 4338

Skaters Waltz Estudiantina Waltz 35798

Indian Love Call Ah! Sweet Mystery of Life 4323 Imagination Charming Little Faker 26581 129

Appendix

2. Harvard University Bindery

This list of records was chosen by the employees of the Harvard University Bindery of Cambridge, and,

therefore shows the type of music they want:

Songs by Kate Smith

Johnny Doughboy Somebody Else Is Taking My Place

God Bless America When Irish Eyes Are Smiling

Shores of Tripoli I Threw A Kiss To The Ocean

Dear Mom Give Me One Dozen Roses I'll Pray For You At The Close Of The Day.

Bing Crosby Camptown Races Meet Me Tonight In Dreamland My Old Kentucky Home By The Light Of The Silvery Moon

Please' Deep In The Heart Of Texas

Dear Old Dad A Little Bit Of Heaven Fell From Out Of The Sky One Day. Glen Miller

Sunrise.Serenade This Is A Story Of A Starry Night

Moonlight Cocktail Indian Summer Skylark

Tommy Dorsey April And You

Jimmy Dorsey Tangerine

Nelson Eddy Waters Of The Minnetonka ~~1

130

Appendix

3. List recommended by Mr. Mischa Tulin This list was compiled by Mr. Tulin, who is in charge of industrial music installations for the

Eastern Company (RCA representative) of Cambridge. It was for use with the installation in the Harvard University Bindery. The list is on the following pages. 131

Appendix

COLUMBIA RECORDS

WALTZ TIME IN VIENNA - SARI

" if " " - MERRY WIDOW

if U if if - ESTUDIANTINA WALTZ

if if if gi - THE SKATERS

if if if if - WALTZ DREAM

if if if if - CARMEN SYLVA

if if if if - COUNT OF LUXEMBOURG

if if if if - YOU AND YOU

SILVER THREADS AMONG THE GOL D.

LOVE'S OLD SWEET SONG.

WHEN DAY IS DONE. - INSTRUMENTAL

MOONLIGHT AND ROSES - if

ROSES OF PICARDY

LITTLE GREY HOME IN THE WEST

ALEXANDER' S RAGTIME BAND

LADY OF THE EVENING

SAY IT WITH MUSIC

REMEMBER - "f SAY IT ISN'T SO

BLUE SKIES "f

ALWAYS "f 132

Appendix

- COLUMBIA RECORDS (conit.)

ALL ALONE - INSTRUMENTAL

MIGNONETTE

FLEURETTE -

CAPRICE VIENNOIS

VIENNA, MY CITY OF DREAMS -

JALOUSIE

AY, AY, AY. - JUST A COTTAGE SMALL

MY HEART STOOL STILL

I'M ALWAYS CHASING RAINBOWS

THE WORLD IS WAITING FOR THE SUNRISE

DECCA RECORDS

LOOK FOR THE SILVER LINING

THE LAST TIME I SAW PARIS

MAKE BELIEVE

WHY DO I LOVE YOU?

OL' MAN RIVER

THEY DIDN'T BELIEVE ME

YESTERDAY

SMOKE GETS IN YOUR EYES III I I II - --

133

Appendix

DECCA RECORDS (con't.)

GOIN' HOME

WHEN DAY IS DONE

A PERFECT DAY

LITTLE GREY HOME IN THE WEST THE PERFECT SONG

WHEN THE ORGAN PLAYED AT TWILIGHT

THE OLD REFRAIN

LA ESTRELLITA

VICTOR RECORDS

'TIL REVEILLE

DAWN

THE WHITE CLIFFS OF DOVER

MADELAINE 134 APPENDIX E

Case-. Histories

1. Weston Electrical Instrument Corp., NewarkN.J.

The combination paging and music system for

the entire plant was originally-installed by R.C.A. This system is excellent for paging and has considerably

cuttdown the time involved in locating any individual anywhere in the plant..

There are regular musical programs in all of the manufacturing and assembly departmentstas well as the lunch room. Music is not provided to the ad.- ministration and engineering departments, but the system is so arranged that they may receive the paging calls only. Weston makes use of 17 individual circuitS4 terminating at a switching panel wherein any of the circuits may be connected on both music and paging, paging only; orrcut out entirely-

It is impossible to measure any speed-up in production traceable to the music programs. This is due -to the rapid expansion in-attempting to meet the demands required in the war effort.. Employees are being added every day and additional whole departments every week so that it is impossible to break down the production and measure the speed-up due to the musical programs. 135

Appendix

However, in the new departments before music is

provided, there are definite demands from the employees

to put it in, and also if failures occur on certain of

the circuits and departments are cut out for a day or

so, there is a request from the union group to make

quick repairs and get the music system for their de-

partment back in operation as soon as possible. These demands are even stronger on the night shifts where the hours often seem long.

Weston operates on several shifts so that the hours may seem unusual, but the system operates from

seven in the morning until midnight, six days a week.

The different periods and the number of records played are listed as follows:

Periods Records Opening 7:00-7: A.M. 5 Pre Fatigue 8:50-9:14 8 Fatigue 10:15-10:30 5 Luncheon (2 separate lunch periods) 11 each Fatigue 2:00-2:24 8 Closing 3:30-3:45 5 Pre Fatigue 5:45-6:00 5 (night shift) Fatigue 7:15-7:40 8 Luncheon 8:30-8:t4 11 (night shift) 136

Appendix

Pgriods Records

Fatigue 10:00-10:24 8

Closing 11:30-11:24 5

The type of music depends upon the time of day.

Programs are made up by the week to avoid repetition as much as possible. Requests from employees indicate their preference for the more moderate dance music or popular records such as those usually played by Wayne-

King, Guy Lombardo, Sammy Kaye, Shep Fields, Etc.

They also like the older popular tunes such as Roses of Picardy, Smiles, My Gal Sal, etc. Apparently jitterbug music is out and opinion is that everybody has enough of the jitters trying to push production to the limit so that the more peaceful music is appreciated. Vocals do not work too well as- it is difficult to distinguish all the words where high noise levels are encountered such as in the screw machine and punch press departments..

A commercial record changer is used, but it will not stand up under the service demanded several hours a day. Records are received monthly by virtue of a contract with R.C.A. 137 Appendix

2. Botany Worsted Mills, Passaic, N.J.

The system was originally installed for the bolstering of employee morale, and making Botany

Worsted Mills-a pleasanter place to work in. There- was no thought of increasing production, although that should possibly be a natural consequence of happier working conditions. Production figures have never been checked.. Only a check of one program against another has been made, this by observation.

For instance, the effect of vocal selections-...they found that the use of vocals makes no difference in the operating rate of workers and,.in fact, they like to break the monotony of pure orchestral selections with frequent injections of vocals or chorus numbers.

The music broadcast system, since its original conception, however, has developed into, primarily, apaging and Air Raid protection device, and from this angle it is unbeatable.. The system has been so set up that the paging occurs in all the plant, but the music is sent only to the manufacturing areas.

All types of programs and records have been tried, and all have been received satisfactorily.

There are some very high noise areas, probably as high as can be found in any industry, but by specially designing the loud speaker mechanisms, and by a proper 138

Appendix selection of music with regard to frequency and continuity of volume,-the music is looked forward to even under the worst noise circumstances.. A short news program at lunch hour is appreciated, and selections are played a full hour for those who have the lunch hour. This music usually consists of requests of the employees.

In actual operation, one or two sections have been chosen to have music put in at one time, and it has been characteristic of all of these--operations that the first day the music is received with some surprise and astonishment, while on the second day factions are formed of those who do and those who do not like the music, butjif you can just get your people to listen for two weeks, Botany has found that the lowest percentage in any department of those desiring the music is 97%, and has ranged as high as 99- in other departments.

One of main considerations of system should be to not give too much music at any one time, but to keep your people asking for more.

It is always possible to figure out the peak fatigue periods, and run music accordingly. Fore instance the people are brought in with a march in the morning and sent home with a lilting tune at night, and during fatigue periods the attempt is made 139

Appendix

to have the music seep into their consciousness in a softer way, until they become accustomed to it so

that they can get a lift out of it again.

Due to the variety of programs because of the

various noise levels and the tremendous expanse of the.plant, it has been found necessary to set up a-

special music department, for the operation. However, asmall plant should not find this necessary, as the playing mechanism can be readily operated by a part- time operator, and the programs can be set up on a rotation basis, so that they can practically be played without repeat for three or four weeks, and yet go along in perfect sequence without any specific laying out of individual programs. The system was serviced, installed and engineered by R.C.A. 140

Appendix

3. Cluett, Peabody.& Co.,Inc., Troy, New York Sometime ago the Muzak Corporation was asked to

collaborate in making a music installation in some of the departments; no idea of what results could be

expected were known. It was not approached with the idea of speeding up production, but they did want to

do everything to make this a "nice" place in which to work.

The first installation covered about twelve or fourteea departments. The music comes- from a control

studio, where it is produced from "transcriptions" furnished monthly by Muzak. Schedule worked out by management and Muzak whereby the music is played for a few minutes at a time, four or five times during the day. This schedule could be varied to meet the needs and desires of different companies.

Once when a remark was made that music was to be taken out of a department, it took only a few minutes time for a petition asking that "we have it from now on." There have been some complaints, but the causes were blamed in program selection. Sometimes there-have been too many repetitions of the same piece. However, the number of times a piece is played is now watched very carefully, and requests are confined to just oneF 141 Appendix period during the day. Sometime ago a vote was taken to determine whether or not the employees would like to Iave Muzak continued, and the results of this vote are given below:

Enrollment- Yes No No Reply 871 679 36 136 The large number indicating no reply was due- to the fact that the music had not been installed throughout an entire department and in various departments men were occupied in different locations-: of the factory.. 142

APPENDIX F

Views of the Managements of British Industrial Companies

The following is adapted from a very complete survey, conducted under the auspices of the British Government, on the use of industrial music in Great Britain. It was entitled "Music While You Work", and signed by Mr. Wynford Reynolds of the British Broadcasting Company. It was dated November 30, 1941. (next page) 143

Appendix Here are some of the views of managements that have been received in letters and reports:

'When, owing to a breakdown, music was discontinued, production dropped 13%. When music was re-introduced not only was normal production regained but output increased by 5%.'

'For an hour or hour and a half after a programme of music, production is increased by 121 to 15%.'

'You will be interested to know that production figures, for the period covered by the Music While You Work Progranmes, are constantly higher than those for other periods of the working day.'

'The introduction of music has been a marvellous thing for us and we have been more than repaid for the cost of installation.'

'The importance of Music While You Work in war production is probably incalculable.'

'The introduction of music has undoubtedly helped production if only by eliminating a considerable amount of the talking that takes place between the workers.'

'There is an excellent reaction to music throughout the works that is bound to increase production. It is one of the finest things ever introduced into Industry for the benefit of the workers.'

In the four years that we have been playing music in our factory we have found that the effect on our work people has been to make them much more mentally alert. We are convinced that those who are engaged on repetition work do not make as many mistakes when compared with the pre-music stage; also, that our workers leave at the end of the day much fresher and brighter.'

The application of music is an excellent method of boosting the tired worker.'

'Music is a mental stimulant. It has a humanizing effect which helps to counteract the evil effects of the mechanization of the workers. This, indirectly, is a decided benefit to production.'

'Radio takes away most of the boredom caused by repetitive work.'

'Suitable music has a definite pleasant mental effect and a tendency to dispel gloom and boredom. When gloom and boredom have once been dispelled an operator is much more alert and more likely to operate a machine, at its maximum possible capacity, for long periods.'

'In the absence of music there is a great tendency to discuss the doings of the night before and to talk across the machines. Immediately music is heard conversation tends to fade away.'

'Before the introduction of music, female workers used to wander off to the cloakrooms towards the end of the day and were absent for 15 or 20 minutes. Since the introduction of music this practice has ceased.' 144

BIBLIOGRAPHY 145

BOOKS Relative to Music ClarkKennethMusic in IndustryNational Bureau forithe Advancement-'of Musio, New York,1929. CraneG.W.,Psychology AppliedNorthwestern University Press, Chicago,1940.

Diserens,C.M.,The,-Influence of Music on Behaviorw Princton Press4Princton,N.J.,1939.

MooreDouglawiListening To Music,Norton,New York,1937. Seashore,C.E.,Why We Love Music,Oliver Ditson,1941.

Relativec To Industrial Psychology

BarnesRM,.,Motion and Time StudyWiley,New York,1940.

Burtt,HE.,Psychology and Industrial EfficiencyAppelton, New York,1931.

HeyelCarlHuman-relations Manual for Executives, McGraw-Hill,New York,1939. Mayo,EltonThe Human Problems of an Industrial CivilizationMacmillan,1933. TiffinJ. ,Industrial PsychologyPrentice-Hall,New York, 19420.

Viteles,MorrisIndustrial Psychology,Norton,New York, 1932.. 146

Reports

BondfieldMargaretNational Recreation Congress, Cincinnati,1942. Burris-MeyerHarold,"Music in Industry," Stevens Institute of Technology,(October 15,1942).

Collins,John J.,"The Social and Economic Value of Music in Industry," Radio Station WTMV, East St. Louis,Illinois,(1937).

Joyce,T.F.,"Sales Management in War-& After Victory," address to Nat. Federation of Sales Executives, New Yorkj(June.4,1942). HalpinDan D.,"Industrial Broadcasting," tAlk before Bridgeport Chamber of Commerce,(Nov..30,1942).

HalpinDan D.,"Music in War Industry," talk before A.I.E.E.N.Y.C.,(October 29,1942). LeeAmy,"Report of Use of Music in Industry," National Association of Music MerchantsNew York,(1942).

Mors-eElmer C.,"Building Morale for-Increased War Production," address to AM. Management Association, (1942).

"Music in Industry," Muzak Corporation,New York,(1941). Ramsay4J.,Rawson,R.E. ,and others,"Rest-pauses and Refreshments in Industry," National Institute of.Industrial Psychology,London,(1939). "Radio Transcription Service," Handbook for Joint Labor-Management Committees War Production BoardWashiington,D.C. ,(19425. Report #5,An accountt:of Research Work Council by thes N.I.I.P.,(1935).

Wyatt,$., & Langdon,J.N.,"Fatigue and Boredom in RepetitiveType Work," Medical Research Council, Industrial Health Research BoardLondon,(1938). 147 BIBLIOGRAPHY

(Periodicals, Signed)

AntrinDoron K.,"Music in- Industry Takes Fold in U.S.A.," International Musician,. pp.1,22(January 1942).

AntrimD.K.,"Music Goes to Work in War FActories," Readers: Dlgest,pp.68-70(September 1942)..

Antrim,D-K. ,"Music-For All Out Production,"" Forbes, p. .16{(August 15,1942).

AnttimD.K.,"Music Relieves3 Industrial Tedium," Commentator, (August 1937).

AntrimD.K.,American Magazine p;29 (August 1941).

Bartle4Stephen, "Survey,- and Layout of Sound Ihstallations-, Industrial Welffare and Personnel Management', pp. 129-131(September-October-1942).

Broome, L.E.,"Music While You Work," Industrial Welfare and PerBonnel Management,pp.67-70 (May-June. 1942).

Broome,-L.E.,"Music While -You Work," Industrial Welfare- and Personnel Managementi,pp.13I-132 (September-October 1942)..

BurkeEarl,"A New Experiment with Music in Business," Etude-p.503, (August 1939). Caldwell, O.H. ,"More:Music, MoreDefense," Etude, p.370(June 1940). CullinyJ.E.,"Music Makes a Difference," 'National Safety News~p.-60 (November 1940).

Dardes, Carl, "Music' How Its Strains -Inspire- Us," Musiciano p.136 (September 1936).

DeuteA.H. ,"Music-Production's Metronone?" Factory and Industrial Management,,pp.551-552 (March 1930)

DeardorffRobert,"Can Music Increase Production, American-Businessp.28 (June 1940).

EwenDavid,"Music Plays Many Roles " Etudetp.385 (June&1942). 148

Fay$P.J. & Middleton,W.C. ,"Relationships Between Musical Talent and Preferencesfor Different Types of Music," Journal of Ed. Psychologypp.573-583 (Nov. 1941). Fendrick,D.,"The Influence of' Music Distraction upon Reading Efficiency," Journal Educational Research, 1937. Gatewood.E.L.,"An Experiment in the Use of Music in an Architectural Drafting Room," Journal of Applied Psychology,p.355 (No. 5,1921). Gilliland,A.R. & MooreH.T.,"The Immediate and Long Time Effects of Classical and Popular Phonographe Selections," Journal of Applied Psychology,p.309. (No. $,1924).

Grabel,Virgil,"How American Industries are Utilizing, Music," Etudejp.1303 (May 1923). Hevner,Kate,"The Affective Value of Pitch and Tempo in Music," American Journal of Psychology, p.49 (1937). Hyde,I.M."Effects of Music upon Electro Cardiograms and Blood Pressure," Journal of Exp. Psycholopy, pp.213-224 (No. 7,1924).

HumestJ.F.,"The Ef :ects of Occupational Music on Scrappage," Journal of Applied Psychology, pp.573-5 87 (No.25,1941). Jensen, M.B.,"The Influence of Jazz and Dirge Music upon Speed and Accuracy of Typing," Journal Edu. Psychology,pp.458-462(No.22,1931).

Katin,Louis,"Music at Work," The Human Factor, p.277 (July-August 1935). MyersC.S.',Individual Differences in Listening to Music," Brit. Journal of Psychol. ,pp.52-71(No.13,1922).

Podolsky,Ed.,"Music Speeds Work " International Musician,pp. 1,9 (May 1942S.

PodolskyEd.,"The Doctor Prescribes Music," Stokes, p.133-134(1939). RichelsenJohn,"Without a Song-a Sit Down," Iron Age, p.37 (March 3,1938). 149

Samson,Don,"Let Them Have Music," Forbestp.14(June 1,1941). SantosM.V.,"Music as a Means to Speed up Work," Etude~p.232, (April 1941).

Scott.Cyril,"Ginger Up Your Brains with Music," Etude,p.773 (November1931). SeashoreC.E.,"New Vantage Grounds in the Psychology of Music," Science,p.517, (December 11,1936). Staples, Philip C.,"Music in a Famous Utility," Etude,p.386, (June 1942).

SylvesterElinor'F.,"Music While You Work," Domestic Commerce, (November 12,1942).

Tindall,Glenn M.,"Rhythm for the Restless," Personnel Journalpp.120-124 (October 1937). Trace,Leslie H. ,"Music in Factories," Labour Managementpp.169-171 (November 1937T.

(Periodicals, Unsigned)

Barronsp.5 (August 5,1941) Billing Clerks Work to Music," Gas Age, (July 16,1942).

Broadcast Music in Workshop," The EngineerP.31, (July 12,1940). Business Weekp.38, (October 24,1942).

Connecticut Industry,(July 1939). tElectronic Opportunities," Radio Retailing Today, pp. 18-19 (June 1942).

"Helps America," Radio Retailing Today, pg. 74-75 (January 1942). "How Music Affects the Human Body," Musician,p.124 (July 1938). 150

"Kentucky Booms Great Meadow," National Geographic, (July 1942).

"Let Them Have Music," Management Review,pp.211-213 (June 1941).

Literary Digest,p.25 (March 4,1922).

Literary Digest,p.22 (March 21,1925). Literary Digestp.82 (October 13,1928).

"Music Aids Workers," Radio News, p.44 (December 1938).

"Music and Labor," Etude,p.367 (Uune 1923). "Music and Physical Well-Being," Musician, p.16 9 (October-1938).

"Music and Production," Electrician,p.20 (July 11,1941). "Music as a Spur to Production," Playground,p.461 (January 1923).

"Music at Work," American Businesspp.20,22 (July 1942). "Music for Industry," Radio Retailing Today,(Dec. 1942).

"Musicin Factories," Management Review,(August 1939).

"Music in Industry," Radio Retailing Todaypp.18,19,25 (February 1942).

"Music in Industry,"Time, (June 30,1942).

"Music-More Profits in Industry," Management Review, (September 1939).

"Music. Speeds Production For War," National Safety News, (August 1942).

"Music. While You Work," Newsweek, (August 31,1942). Nation's Business, (October 1940).

"Physical Effects of Musical Vibrations," Musician, p..72, (June 1942). 151

"Physio-Motor Reactions to Music," Musician,p.156, (September 1938).

"Plant Broadcasting," ModernIndustry,pp.30-33 (September.15, 1942). "Productive :Melody," Time, (November 2,1942).

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"Factory Music," Baltimore Evening Sun,p.38 (Dec. 15,1942).

"Introducing Mrs. Maximer,"Christian Science Moniter, R.L. Strout, (October 15,1942).

Knox iFrank, An Address to the nations' workers in shipyardsCamdenN.J.,Courier,(October 21,1942).

"Making Work Swing," New York Times,- Editorial, (December 5,1942). "More Music in War Plants Planned," Baltimore Evening Sun,T.R. Henry, (October 27,1942).

"Music While We Work," Baltimore Evening SunEditorial, (September 24,1942).

"Patriotic Music Inspires New Departure Workers," Hartford Times, p.8, (May 26,1942). "Riveting To Rhythm," New York Times Magazine, F.H. McConnell, (August 31,1941).

"Radio Takes Bow as Aid to War Worker," New York World Telegram, Harriet Van Horne, (Dec. 19,1942).

"What Do You Think of Music in War Factories-," New York Daily NewsInquiring Reporter, (October 4,1942).