Notes and References

1 Introduction: Film, Television, and the Second World War – The First Fifty Years

1. A.J.P. Taylor, English History, 1914–1945 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1965): p. 313. 2. James Chapman, Cinemas of the World (London: Reaktion, 2003): pp. 96–97, 197. 3. On the changes in British war films in the 1950s, see John Ramsden, ‘Refo- cusing the “People’s War”: British War Films of the 1950s’, Journal of Contem- porary History, 33: 1 (1998): pp. 35–63; James Chapman, ‘Our Finest Hour Revisited: The Second World War in British Feature Films Since 1945’, Journal of Popular British Film, 1 (1998): pp. 63–75. 4. For an excellent survey of American combat films, see Jeanine Basinger, The World War II Combat Film: Anatomy of a Genre (New York: Columbia University Press, 1986). 5. The most comprehensive survey of Second World War films up to the early 1970s is Roger Manvell, Films and the Second World War (London: Dent, 1974). 6. Pierre Sorlin, European Cinemas, European Societies, 1939–1990 (London: Routledge, 1991): p. 54. 7. Susan Hayward, French National Cinema (London: Routledge, 1993). 8. Chapman, Cinemas of the World: p. 233. 9. M. Liehm, Passion and Defiance: Films in Italy from 1942 to the Present (Berkeley: UCLA Press, 1984); Pierre Sorlin, Italian National Cinema, 1896– 1996 (London: Routledge, 1996). 10. Mark Baker, ‘ “Trummerfilme”: Postwar German Cinema, 1946–1948’, Film Criticism, 20: 1–2 (1996): p. 94. 11. Jason Jacobs, The Intimate Screen: Early British Television Drama (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000): p. 98. 12. The period from the late 1960s through to the beginning of the 1990s was particularly fertile for television war stories. Through the 1990s production slowed, but after 1999 interest seems to have increased. War drama on television has received remarkably little scholarly attention, but a useful introduction is Cary Bazalgette, ‘TV Drama Goes Back to Front’ in Geoff Hurd, ed., National Fictions: World War Two in British Films and Television (London: BFI, 1984): pp. 43–50. 13. John E. O’Connor, Image as Artifact: The Historical Analysis of Film and Tele- vision (Malabar FL: Krieger, 1990): p. 324. 14. See Jacobs, The Intimate Screen: pp. 117–124.

2 ‘Rose-tinted Blighty’: Gender and Genre in Land Girls

1. Nicholas Pronay, ‘The British Post-bellum Cinema: A Survey of the Films Relating to World War II Made in Britain between 1945 and 1960’, Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television, 8 (1988): p. 39.

205 206 Notes and References

2. The Battle of Britain (Guy Hamilton, 1969); A Bridge Too Far (Richard Atten- borough, 1977). 3. Wendy Webster, Englishness and Empire, 1939–1965 (Oxford: Oxford Univer- sity Press, 2005): Chapter 2. 4. Land Girls (John Page, 1942). 5. Against the Wind (Charles Crichton, 1947); Odette (Herbert Wilcox, 1950); Carve Her Name With Pride (Lewis Gilbert, 1958); A Town Like Alice (Jack Lee, 1956). 6. Tenko ran from 1981 to 1984 with a special reunion episode in 1985. Wish Me Luck ran from 1988 to 1990. 7. These films included Yanks (John Schlesinger, 1979); Hanover Street (Peter Hyams, 1979); Another Time, Another Place (Michael Radford, 1983); The Brylcreem Boys (Terence Ryan, 1996); Hope and Glory (John Boorman, 1987); The Dressmaker (Jim O’Brien, 1988); Chicago Joe and the Showgirl (Bernard Rose, 1989); Memphis Belle (Michael Caton-Jones, 1990); The English Patient (Anthony Minghella, 1996); Enigma (Michael Apted, 2001); Charlotte Gray (Gillian Armstrong, 2002). 8. John Ramsden, ‘Refocusing “The People’s War”: British War Films of the 1950s’, Journal of Contemporary History, 33 (1998): pp. 35–63. Emphasis in the original. 9. Discussion of British Second World War films made before the 1970s includes the following: Christine Geraghty, British Cinema in the Fifties: Gender, Genre and the ‘New Look’ (London: Routledge, 2000), Chapter 10; Robert Murphy, British Cinema and the Second World War (London: Continuum, 2000), Chapter 8; Michael Paris, Warrior Nation: Images of War in British Popular Culture, 1850–2000 (London: Reaktion, 2000), Chapter 7; Richard Weight, Patriots: National Identity in Britain 1940–2000 (Basings- toke: Macmillan, 2002): pp. 340–351. For discussion of post-1970 produc- tions, see Robert Murphy, British Cinema and the Second World War (London: Continuum, 2000): Chapter 9. 10. Andrew Higson in English Heritage, English Cinema: Costume Drama Since 1980 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003) excludes discussion of period films and costume drama that deal with the period from the 1940s to the present, but notes that ‘several such films were set in the Second World War’, including Hope and Glory (1988), The Dressmaker (1988), Chicago Joe and the Showgirl (1989) and Enigma (2001) as well as Land Girls (p. 32). 11. John Hill, British Cinema in the 1980s (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1999): p. 77; Andrew Higson, ‘The Heritage Film and British Cinema’ in Andrew Higson, ed., Dissolving Views: Key Writings on British Cinema (London: Cassell, 1996): pp. 233–234. 12. Quoted in Sonya Rose, Which People’s War?: National Identity and Citizenship in Wartime Britain 1939–1945 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003): p. 110. 13. Dad’s Army ran on television from 1968 to 1977. 14. Millions Like Us (Frank Launder and Sidney Gilliat, 1943). The qualities given to Charlie in this film also distinguished an earlier wartime portrait of a factory foreman in The Foreman Went to France (Charles Frend, 1941). 15. Rose, Which People’s War?: p. 118. 16. Antonia Lant, Blackout: Reinventing Women for Wartime British Cinema (Prin- ceton NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991): pp. 72–73. Notes and References 207

17. Daily Express, 24 September 1943. 18. These Hollywood films included The Color Purple (Steven Spielberg, 1985); Fried Green Tomatoes at the Whistle Stop Café (Jon Avnet, 1991); Thelma and Louise (Ridley Scott, 1991). 19. The Gentle Sex (Leslie Howard and Maurice Elvey, 1943). 20. Pierre Sorlin, ‘Children as War Victims in Postwar European Cinema’, in Jay Winter and Emmanuel Sivan, eds, War and Remembrance in the Twentieth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999): p. 108. 21. Letter from Mrs H. Boyde, Romiley, Cheshire, no date, but reply sent on 2 December 1954. BBC Written Archives Centre, T6/311. Emphasis in the original. Philip Dorte, the director of War in the Air had served as a Signals Officer in the Royal Air Force Volunteer Reserve (RAFVR) and was mentioned three times in dispatches. John Elliot, producer of the series, served with the BEF in France and Belgium and with the 16th Infantry Brigade in the Middle East. 22. Independent on Sunday, 6 September 1998. 23. Exeter Express and Echo, 5 August 1998. 24. London Evening Standard, 3 September 1998. 25. The Woodlanders (Phil Agland, 1997); The Scarlet Tunic (Stuart St Paul, 1997). Television serials of Far From the Madding Crowd and Tess of the d’Urbevilles were both shown in 1998. 26. London Evening Standard, 3 September 1998; The Observer, 6 September 1998. 27. The People, 6 September 1998; Belfast Telegraph, 8 September 1998; The Scotsman, 24 September 1998; Gloucestershire Echo, 25 September 1998. 28. The People, 6 September 1998. See also Daily Mail, 4 September 1998; The Independent, 3 September 1998. 29. The Scotsman, 24 September 1998; Belfast Telegraph, 8 September 1998; Daily Mirror, 4 September 1998. 30. The People, 6 September 1998; Daily Mail, 4 September 1998; Daily Mirror, 4 September 1998. For a discussion of what he calls ‘heritage-baiting’, see Raphael Samuel, Theatres of Memory (London: Verso, 1994), Vol. I: pp. 259–273. 31. Daily Mail, 8 and 21 August 1998; Daily Mirror, 3 September 1998; Gloucester- shire Echo, 23–25 September 1998. 32. Daily Mirror, 4 September 1998. 33. I Live in Grosvenor Square (Herbert Wilcox, 1945) and The Way to the Stars (Anthony Asquith, 1945) both avoided sealing heterosexual union through dispatching American men to death on active service. 34. The Affair (Paul Seed, 1995). 35. Jewish experience was occasionally explored in dramas made for television: The Evacuees (Alan Parker, 1975); Forbidden (Anthony Page, 1984). 36. See Michael Paris, Come See the Paradise, Chapter 9 of this book.

3 Policing the People’s War: Foyle’s War and British Television Drama

My thanks to Professor Clive Emsley of the Open University for providing refer- ences to the history of crime and policing during the Second World War. 208 Notes and References

1. Foyle’s War is produced by Greenlit Productions for ITV1. To date there have been 14 feature-length episodes. The dates in parantheses are for the first networked broadcast on ITV1: ‘The German Woman’ (27.10.2002), ‘The White Feather’ (03.11.2002), ‘A Lesson in Murder’ (10.11.2002), ‘Eagle Day’ (17.11.2002), ‘Fifty Ships’ (16.11.2003), ‘Among the Few’ (23.11.2003), ‘War Games’ (30.11.2003), ‘The Funk Hole’ (07.12.2003), ‘The French Drop’ (24.10.2004), ‘Enemy Fire’ (31.10.2004), ‘They Fought in the Fields’ (07.11.2004), ‘A War of Nerves’ (14.11.2004), ‘Invasion’ (15.01.2006) and ‘Bad Blood’ (23.01.2006). At the time of writing a further two episodes were in production for probable broadcast in 2007. Most episodes are written by Anthony Horowitz, the exceptions being ‘Among the Few’ (Matthew Hall), ‘War Games’ (Michael Russell) and ‘They Fought in the Fields’ (Rob Heyland). 2. This quotation is from the Press Pack for Series 3 of Foyle’s War,p.1,on the microfiche for the series held by the National Library of the British Film Institute, London. 3. On British war films of the 1950s, see James Chapman, ‘Our Finest Hour Revisited: The Second World War in British Feature Films since 1945’, Journal of Popular British Cinema, 1 (1998): pp. 63–75; Robert Murphy, British Cinema and the Second World War (London: Continuum, 2000): pp. 204–268; and John Ramsden, ‘Refocusing the People’s War: British War Films of the 1950s’, Journal of Contemporary History, XXXIII/1 (1998): pp. 35–63. 4. ‘ITV commissions WW2 crime drama’, Broadcast, 2 March 2001: p. 10. 5. ‘Foyle’s War to run and run’, Broadcast, 28 March 2003: p. 8. 6. ‘Perfect Foyle’, Radio Times, 21–27 January 2006: p. 10. 7. James Walton, Daily Telegraph, 26 October 2002: p. 26; John Preston, Sunday Telegraph Review, 3 November 2002: p. 6. 8. See Angus Calder, The People’s War: Britain 1939–45 (London: Jonathan Cape, 1969) and The Myth of the Blitz (London: Jonathan Cape, 1991), and Paul Addison, The Road to 1945: British Politics and the Second World War (London: Jonathan Cape, 1975). There is, of course, a vast and ever-expanding histor- ical literature on Britain and the Second World War. For our purposes the most useful recent addition to the debate, focusing more on the ways in which the dominant narrative arose than on whether or not it is true, is Mark Connelly, We Can Take It!: Britain and the Memory of the Second World War (Harlow: Pearson Education, 2004). 9. Thomas Sutcliffe, ‘A Quiet Victory in the Ratings War’, Independent Review, 11 December 2003: p. 21. 10. This is the list of wartime crimes cited by Assistant Commissioner Summers (Edward Fox) in the first episode when Foyle requests a transfer as he believes, ‘I could be doing something a little more relevant to the war effort.’ 11. Clive Emsley, ‘The Second World War and the Police in England and Wales’, in Cyrile Fijnaut, ed., The Impact of World War II on Policing in North- West Europe (Leuven: Leuven University Press, 2004): pp. 151–172. See also Roy Ingelton, The Gentlemen at War: Policing Britain 1939–45 (Maidstone: Cranborne Publications, 1994) and David Thomas, An Underworld at War (London: John Murray, 2003). 12. Sarah Crompton, ‘Why We Love the Best TV “tecs” ’, Daily Telegraph,13 November 2002: p. 23. 13. Walton, Daily Telegraph, 26 October 2002: p. 86. Notes and References 209

14. This plot device also features in the 1946 film Green for Danger, which centres on murder in a military hospital during the V-1 attacks of 1944. The local postman, wounded in a raid, dies on the operating table: it turns out to be no accident but murder by a nurse whose mother had died in a raid and who blames the postman, who had been leader of the rescue team that failed to reach her in time. Directed by Sidney Gilliat, Green for Danger is a minor classic of British cinema that is chiefly notable for Alastair Sim’s wry and amusing performance as Inspector Cockrill. 15. This episode seems to have been partly inspired by Richard Hillary’s The Last Enemy, as it focuses on the physical and mental rehabilitation of pilots who have suffered horrific burns. The temperamental Scottish surgeon Mr Jamieson (Bill Paterson) is clearly modelled on the pioneering plastic surgeon Archibald McIndoe. 16. Foyle’s War, Press Pack (Greenlit/ITV, 2002): p. 20. 17. See William MacKenzie, The Secret History of SOE: Special Operations Executive 1940–1945 (London: St Ermin’s Press, 2000); and David Stafford, Secret Agent: The True Story of the Special Operations Executive (London: BBC Wordwide, 2000). 18. The phrase ‘friendly socialism’ to describe Priestley’s broadcasts was used by film critic Leslie Halliwell in introducing a season of wartime films, under the umbrella title The British at War, on Channel 4 in 1984. Priestley’s Dunkirk broadcast was actually on 5 June 1940. It sounds to my ear that the voice in the episode is not Priestley’s but rather that of an actor impersonating him. 19. Nicholas John Cull, Selling War: The British Propaganda Campaign Against American ‘Neutrality’ in World War II (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995): pp. 93–94. 20. Corelli Barnett, The Audit of War: The Illusion and Reality of Britain as a Great Nation (London: Macmillan, 1986); John Charmley, Churchill: The End of Glory (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1993); and Clive Ponting, 1940: Myth and Reality (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1990). 21. The Imperial War Museum, London, holds over 300 letters from correspond- ents writing to Thames Television about The World at War, the majority of which are critical of perceived errors, omissions and misinterpretations. Mrs Joan E. Barkley, for example, ‘took very strong exception to the impression you gave, that all the evacuees had dirty habits, had no idea how to behave and were not used to sleeping between sheets and eiderdowns! What an infernal nerve you have really!’ Stanley Bennett felt that the series had not given due recognition to Field Marshal Montgomery’s role in the Battle of the Bulge and urged the producers to ‘give it to the young ones straight, we old ’uns know how it was. The Yanks broke and were on the run, and their generals covered with pearl handled guns and medals didn’t have a clue.’ One correspondent was so outraged by the concluding episode that he described the historians on it (Stephen Ambrose and IWM dir. Noble Frankland) as ‘those long-haired wiz-kids (male or female?)’. 22. See James Chapman, ‘Re-presenting War: British Television Drama- Documentary and the Second World War’, European Journal of Cultural Studies, forthcoming. 23. There are some (probably inevitable) departures from strict authenticity. Andrew Foyle’s Spitfire is a model from later in the war armed with 210 Notes and References

20-millimetre canons in its wings, rather than the Mk I and Mk II in service during the Battle of Britain. Nor is Horowitz’s meticulous research infallible. In ‘Eagle Day’, for example, set in August 1940, Andrew’s old university friend Bruce refers to working for the Crown Film Unit: but the GPO Film Unit did not become the Crown Film Unit until 1 January 1941. And in ‘The Funk Hole’ Andrew and Sam attend a 6 o’clock screening of Gone With the Wind at a local cinema, emerging (after a film lasting 3 hours and 40 minutes and probably shown with an interval) into broad daylight. Even allowing for Double British Summer Time, it would surely have been dark, or at least dusk, by 10 o’clock in October?. 24. Guardian, 28 October 2002: p. 23. 25. Foyle’s War, Press Pack (Greenlit/ITV, 2002): p. 20. 26. Ibid.: p. 21.

4 An Autobiographical Allegory: Franco Zeffirelli’s Tea With Mussolini

1. F. Zeffirelli, Zeffirelli: The Autobiography of Franco Zeffirelli (New York: Weiden- feld & Nicholson, 1986): p. xi. 2. D. Lybarger, ‘Spreading the Wrong Gospel: An Interview with Franco Zeffirelli,’ Pitch Weekly, 13 March 1999, Lybarger Links, http://www. tipjar.com/dan/zeffirelli.htm. 3. J. Mortimer, The Summer of a Dormouse (New York: Viking Penguin, 2001): pp. 3–4, 6. 4. Zeffirelli, Zeffirelli: pp. 17–18. 5. P. Miller, ‘Tea With Mussolini: Joan Plowright Interview’, Star Interviews,30 June 1999, http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?vinst=PROD. 6. D. Rooney, ‘MGM Ready for “Tea” as Zeffirelli Firms Sked’, Daily Variety,27 May 1998: p. 14. 7. P. Hoschka, ‘Judi Dench Press Conference’, http://www.filmscouts.com/ scripts/interview.cfm?File=3065. 8. E. Weitzman, ‘Straight Up’, Interview, December 1998, https://DanaInfo= infotrac.galegroup.com. 9. C. Moore, ‘Lily Tomlin’s Evolutionary Career’, http://www.afterellen.com/ People/2005/3/lilytomlin2.html. 10. Miller, Star Interviews. 11. ‘Franco Zeffirelli’ in J.C. Tibbets and J.M. Welsh, ed., Encyclopedia of Film- makers, 2 (New York: Facts On File, Inc., 2002): pp. 701–703. 12. K.L. Benson, ‘Tea With Mussolini’, Video Librarian, November/December 1999: p. 55. 13. ‘Leading “The Continuing Struggle for Freedom”: Transcript of President’s State of the Union Message to Nation’, New York Times, 30 January 1991, A12. 14. T. Friedman, Longitudes and Attitudes: Exploring the World After September 11 (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2002): p. 3. 15. R. Maltby, Hollywood Cinema, 2nd edn (Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Ltd., 2003): pp. 212–217. 16. L. Giannetti and S. Eyman, Flashback: A Brief History of Film, 3rd edn (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2006): pp. 480–481. Notes and References 211

17. C. Zecchinelli, ‘Tozzi Will Produce Medusa Pix’, Daily Variety, 2 February 1999: p. 10. 18. C. Zecchinelli, ‘Tozzi Inks Medusa Prod’n Pact’, Daily Variety, 18 May 1999: p. 11. 19. ‘MGM Is Revamping United Artists Label for Low-Budget Fare’, Wall Street Journal, 8 June 1999: p. 1. 20. B. Higgins and C. Petrikin, ‘UA Fit for Lions Niche’, Daily Variety, 8 June 1999: p. 1. 21. ‘Film Box Office Wrap’, Daily Variety, various issues, June–July 1999; ‘News for Tea With Mussolini,’ Internet Movie Database, http://www.imdb.com/ title/tt0120857/news. 22. Zeffirelli, Zeffirelli:p.24. 23. M. Walsh, As Time Goes By: A Novel of Casablanca (New York: Warner Books, 1998). 24. J.P. Diggins, ‘Flirtation With Fascism: American Pragmatic Liberals and Mussolini’s Italy’, American Historical Review, LXXI (1996): p. 487. 25. J.P. Diggins, ‘Mussolini and America: Hero-Worship, Charisma, and the “Vulgar Talent” ’, Historian, XXVII (1966): pp. 566–568. 26. Ibid.: pp. 584–585.

5 Soccer with the Dead: Mediterraneo, the Legacy of Neorealismo, and the Myth of Italiani Brava Gente

1. Filippo Focardi, ‘La memoria della guerra e il mito del “bravo italiano,” ’ Italia Contemporanea, n. 220–221 (September–December, 2000): p. 395. If not otherwise indicated, all translations are mine. 2. Ibid.: p. 396. According to Battini, ‘a selective and partial public memory was thus elaborated, which was based on the exclusive attribution of crimes against humanity to the German nation that was equated to the National Socialist system.’ Marco Battini, Peccati di memoria. La mancata Norimberga italiana (Bari Laterza, 2003): p. ix. 3. Battini, Peccati di memoria:p.95. 4. Nicola Labanca, ‘Colonial Rule, Colonial Repression, and War Crimes in the Italian Colonies,’ Journal of Modern Italian Studies, 9: 3 (2004): pp. 308–309. 5. See Millicent Marcus, After Fellini. National Cinema in the Postmodern Age (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins U.P., 2002): p. 76. 6. See Lino Micciché, ‘Per una verifica del neorealismo’ in Lino Micciché, ed., Il neorealismo cinematografico italiano, 2nd edn (1977; Milan: Marsilio, 1999). 7. Brunetta, Storia del cinema italiano, Vol. 3, Dal neorealismo and miracolo economico (1983; Rome: Editori Riuniti, 1993): p. 129. 8. Alberto Lattuada, ‘Guardie svizzere e utili idioti,’ Filmcritica (May 1954): pp. 87–90. 9. Cited in Alberto Lattuada ‘Alberto Lattuada. Interno. Giorno,’ in Piero Berengo Gandin, ed., Alberto Lattuada Fotografo. Dieci anni di Occhio Quadrato (Florence: Alinari, 1982): p. 9. 10. Giuseppe De Santis, ‘È in crisi il neorealismo?’ Filmcritica, 1: 4 (March 1951): p. 109. 212 Notes and References

11. Giuseppe De Santis, untitled and undated notes for lecture at Purdue Univer- sity of 7 October 1989, De Santis Archive, Scuola Nazionale di Cinemato- grafia, Rome. 12. Ibid.: p. 110. 13. See Marcus, After Fellini:p.93. 14. Luca Malavasi, Gabriele Salvatores (Milano: Il Castoro cinema, 2004): p. 8. 15. Office National Hellenique des Criminels de Guerre (ONHCG), Les atrocités des quattres envahisseurs de la Grèce, 100–1 The Greeks indicted 151 Italians as war criminals. 16. Lidia Santarelli, ‘Muted Violence: Italian War Crimes in Occupied Greece,’ Journal of Modern Italian Studies, 9: 3 (2004): p. 280. 17. Enzo Monteleone, Mediterraneo (Milan: Baldini and Castoldi, 1992): p. 8. ‘We Researched that Period in Depth’; Salvatores told historian Pasquale Iaccio, ‘We read [Renzi’s] “L’armata s’agapò,” novellas and historical novels,’ see Pasquale Iaccio, Cinema e storia. Percorsi immagini testimonianze (Napoli: Liguori, 2000): pp. 461–463. 18. See Renzo Renzi, ‘L’armata s’agapò,’ Cinema Nuovo, 2: 10 (1 May 1953): p. 74. 19. Ibid.: pp. 73–75. 20. See Massimo Mida and Giovanni Vento, ‘Storie Italiane,’ Cinema Nuovo,74 (10 January 1956): pp. 13–20. Citation from p. 16. 21. Enzo Monteleone, ‘Soggetto’ in Monteleone, Mediterraneo (Milan: Baldini and Castoldi, 1992): p. 16. 22. Office National Hellenique des Criminels de Guerre (ONHCG), Les atrocités des quattres envahisseurs de la Grèce. Allemandes, Italiens, Bulgares, Albanais (Athens: ONHCG, 1946): pp. 79–124. 23. Monteleone, ‘Soggetto,’ pp. 31–33. 24. See Homi K. Bhabha, The Location of Culture (London: Routledge, 1994). 25. See Fernand Braudel, La Méditerranée et le monde méditeranéen à l’epoque de Philipppe II (1949; Paris: Armand Colin, 1966). Salvatores is cited from the director’s interview included in the release of the ‘new unabridged edition’ of Mediterraneo. 26. Solinas cited in Paolo Calamandrei and Renzo Renzi, eds, Il Processo s’agapò. Dall’Arcadia a Peschiera (Bari: Laterza, 1954): p. 54. 27. Elio Vittorini introduced the Einaudi edition of Biasion’s novel in 1953. Renzo Biasion, Sagapò (1953; Turin: Einaudi, 1991). I am quoting the English translation of the novel The Lost Legions. Three Italian War Novels translated by Archibald Colquhoun and Antonia Cowan (London: McGibbbon and Kee, 1967): p. 37. 28. See Lietta Tornabuoni, La Stampa, in Merkel, ed., Gabriele Salvatores (Rome: Dino Audino, 1993): p. 48. 29. Galt sees the film as ‘doubly structured by a leftist reading of Italian political history and by a displacement of this politics onto romance.’ See Rosalind Galt, ‘Italy’s Landscapes of Loss: Historical Mourning and the Dialectical Image in Cinema Paradiso, Mediterraneo, and Il Postino,’ Screen, 43: 2 (Summer 2002): p. 159. 30. Spectators’ opinions are in Centro Culturale San Fedele (Milan), ‘Film discussi insieme 1991’ Vol. 31, Biblioteca Luigi Chiarini, Archive of the Centro Nazionale di Cinematografia, Rome. 31. Washington Post, 8 May 1992. Notes and References 213

32. Film Journal, May 1992. 33. New York Post, 23 March 1992. 34. Christian Science Monitor, 16 June 1992. 35. Marcus, After Fellini:p.83.

6 Safe Conduct: A Tribute to The French Film Industry During the Second World War

1. Jean Devaivre, Action. Mémoires 1930–1970 (Saint-Amand-Montrond: Nicolas Philippe, 2002). 2. Jean Aurenche, La Suite à l’écran. Entretiens avec Anne et Alain Riou (Paris: Institut Lumière/Actes Sud, 2002): p. 109. 3. The text was reprinted in the collaborationist movie newspaper Le Film, Organe de l’industrie cinématographique française, n 12, 29 Mars 1941 (Rappel des ordonnances concernant le cinéma en zone occupée): pp. 7–8. 4. Jean-Pierre Bertin-Maghit, Le cinéma sous l’occupation, Le monde du cinema francais, 1940 à 1946, Paris, Perrin, 2002: p. 26; Le Film,n 8, 1er Février 1941, Dimensions standard du film de 16 m/m:p.7. 5. Dr Dietrich loved French movie stars and would travel with some of them to Berlin in March 1942 when the Propaganda Abteilung organized a special journey. Among the actors were Danielle Darrieux, Viviane Romance, Suzy Delair, Junie Astor, Albert Préjean and René Dary. The chairman of the cinema magazine Ciné-Mondial, Pierre Heuzé, was also on the train. Pierre Darmon, Le monde du cinéma sous l’Occupation (Paris: Stock, 1997): p. 80. 6. Elisabeth Dunan, La Propaganda Abteilung de France, in: Revue d’histoire de la Deuxième Guerre mondiale, Octobre 1951, n 4; Paul Leglise, Histoire de la politique du cinéma français des années 1940–1944,t.2,Le Cinéma entre deux Républiques: pp. 35–36, Film Editions, Pierre Lherminier, 1977; C. Levy, L’organisation de la propagande allemande en France, in: Revue d’histoire de la Deuxième Guerre mondiale, Octobre 1966: pp. 86–96. Quoted by Darmon, Le monde du cinéma sous l’Occupation:p.79. 7. Christian Delage, L’autre combat perdu: la bataille des images,inTendres ennemis: Cent ans de cinéma entre la France et l’Allemagne ( Paris: L’Harmattan, 1991): p. 231. 8. Darmon, Le monde du cinéma sous l’Occupation:p.84. 9. Danielle Darrieux, Louise Carletti, Junie Astor, and Ginette Leclerc; directors Marcel L’Herbier, Marcel Carné, Georges Lacombe, Henri Decoin, Serge de Poligny, and Christian Jaque; and writers Pierre Véry and Charles Spaak. Darmon, Le monde du cinéma sous l’Occupation: pp. 75–76. 10. Ibid.: p. 76. 11. Jacques Siclier, La France de Pétain et son cinéma (Paris: Henry Veyrier, 1981), Rééd. Ramsay Poche Cinéma, 1990: pp. 17–18. 12. Darmon, Le monde du cinéma sous l’Occupation:p.92. 13. ‘A.C.E. and Filmatone (producers of movie soundtracks), and four new firms: Tobis-Film (distribution), Comptoir Général du Format Réduit (distribution in 16 mm), ACIFOR (equipment) and SOGEC (exploitation).’ From 1 million, the capital of Continental jumped to 150 million on April 16, 1941, less than 7 months after its creation. This money was given by U.F.A. and 214 Notes and References

Tobis’. Francis Courtade, La Continental,inTendres ennemis. Cent ans de cinéma entre la France et l’Allemagne (Paris: L’Harmattan, 1991): p. 219. 14. Ibid.: p. 217. 15. Bertin-Maghit, Le cinéma sous l’occupation: p. 26; Le Film,n 8, 1er Février 1941: p. 28. 16. Courtade, La Continental: p. 224. 17. Aurenche, La Suite à l’écran: p. 109. 18. Tout film historique procède nécessairement d’une recomposition du passé qui ne peut d’aucune façon se prévaloir d’une quelconque neutralité, Michel Jacquet, Travelling sur les années noires. L’Occupation vue par le cinéma français depuis 1945 (Paris: Alvik, 2004): p. 118. 19. Some French actors and screenwriters chose to leave France: René Clair, Julien Duvivier (whose wives were Jewish), Jean Renoir, Léonide Moguy, the actors Charles Boyer, Victor Francen, Michèle Morgan would all be in the United States during the war. Jacques Feyder crossed the border to Switzer- land, while Pierre Chenal went to Argentina. Philippe D’Hugues, Les écrans de la guerre: p. 18; Bertin-Maghit, Le cinéma sous l’occupation: p. 172. 20. Cf. Ciné-Mondial,n 32–42, April–June 1942, quoted by Jacques Siclier, La France de Pétain et son cinéma; Rééd. Ramsay Poche Cinéma, 1990: pp. 17–18. 21. Alain Pinel and Philippe Braud, Une police de Vichy: Les Groupes Mobiles de Réserve (1941–1944) (Paris, L’Harmattan, Collection: Sécurité et Société, 2004); Raphaël Delpard, Aux ordres de Vichy: Enquête sur la police française et la déportation (Paris: Michel Lafont, 2006). 22. Devaivre, Action: p. 119. 23. Voir Paris occupé me faisait mal, mais je n’ai pas fait de Résistance. Peut-être par manque de courage , Aurenche, La Suite à l’écran: p. 109. 24. Ibid.: p. 9. 25. Ibid.: p. 15. 26. Ibid.: p. 9. 27. Devaivre, Action: p. 143. 28. Ibid.: p. 17. 29. Devaivre, Action: p. 106. 30. Ibid.: p. 106. 31. Jacquet, Travelling sur les années noires: pp. 110–111. 32. Interview of Bertrand Tavernier in the show Carte Blanche, January 2002. 33. Bertin-Maghit, Le cinéma sous l’occupation: p. 144. 34. Filming was during the night mostly to save electricity. Christian Gilles, Le cinéma des années quarante par ceux qui l’ont fait, T. III, Le cinéma de l’Occupation: 1940–1944 (Paris: L’Harmattan, 2001): p. 46. 35. Jacquet, Travelling sur les années noires: p. 110. 36. Ibid.: p. 111. 37. Ibid.: pp. 108–109. 38. Ibid.: p. 111. 39. Ibid.: p. 107. 40. Ibid.: p. 108. 41. Ibid.: pp. 105–106. 42. Statement made by President Jacques Chirac on 16 July 1995. Jacquet, Trav- elling sur les années noire: p. 106. 43. Jacquet, Travelling sur les années noires: p. 107. Notes and References 215

7 Aimée, Jaguar and Sophie Scholl: Women on the German Home Front

1. The German edition has been used for the purpose of this chapter. See E. Fischer, Aimee & Jaguar: Eine Liebesgeschichte Berlin 1943, 2nd rev. edn (Munich: dtv, 1999). 2. F. Breinersdorfer, ed., Sophie Scholl: Die letzten Tage (Frankfurt am Main: Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag, 2005): p. 344. 3. M. Cooke, Women and the War Story (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996): p. 80. 4. M. Landy, ed., The Historical Film: History and Memory in Media (London: The Athlone Press, 2001): p. 11. 5. J.E. Davidson, ‘A Story of Faces and Intimate Spaces: Form and History in Max Färberböck’s ‘Aimée und Jaguar’, Quarterly Review of Film & Video,19 (2002): pp. 323–341, 324. 6. See L. Koepnick, ‘Reframing the Past: Heritage Cinema and Holocaust in the 1990s’, New German Critique, 87 (Autumn, 2002): pp. 47–82. 7. R. Gansera, ‘Immer mehr Filme tummeln sich in den Kulissen der Nazizeit: Rolf Schübels “Ein Lied von Liebe und Tod – Gloomy Sunday” ’, Süddeutsche Zeitung, 21 October 1999. 8. See K. Sieg, ‘Sexual Desire and Social Transformation in Aimée & Jaguar’, Signs, 21 (2002): pp. 303–331. 9. A. Owings, Frauen: German Women Recall the Third Reich (London: Penguin, 1995): pp. 342–343. 10. F. Breinersdorfer, Sophie Scholl: p. 327. 11. ‘Der Klang eines Films. Aus einem Gespräch von Nicos Ligouris mit Max Färberböck’, M. Töteburg, ed., Szenenwechsel: Momentaufnahmen des jungen deutschen Films (Reinbek bei Hamburg: Rowohlt Taschenbuch Verlag, 1999): pp. 167–171, 167. 12. ‘ “Es hat mich fasziniert zu sehen, worüber sie nachgedacht hat”: Julia Jentsch über Sophie Scholl, Bewunderung, Schwierigkeiten und ihre rebel- lischen Rollen’, Hamburger Abendblatt, 24 February 2005. 13. M. Cormican, ‘Aimée und Jaguar and the Banality of Evil’, German Studies Review, vol. xxvi (February 2003): pp. 105–119, 108. See also ‘Die Reise ins andere Ich. Die Rolle ihres Lebens: Maria Schrader über “Aimée & Jaguar” ’, Süddeutsche Zeitung, 11 February 1999. 14. P. Brooks, The Melodramatic Imagination: Balzac, Henry James, Melodrama, and the Mode of Excess (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985): p. 32. 15. E.A. Kaplan, ‘The Search for the Mother/Land in Sanders-Brahms’s Germany, Pale Mother (1980)’, E. Rentschler, ed., German Film and Literature: Adapt- ations and Transformations (New York and London: Methuen, 1986): pp. 289–304, 302. 16. D. Berghahn, Hollywood Behind the Wall: The Cinema of East Germany (Manchester University Press, 2005): p. 179. 17. J.E. Davidson, Quarterly Review of Film & Video: p. 323. 18. The full poem is cited in E. Fischer, Aimee & Jaguar: pp. 54–55. 19. See F. Breinersdorfer, Sophie Scholl: p. 142. 20. A. Owings, Frauen: p. xxiv. 21. C. Haste, Nazi Women (London: Channel 4 Books, 2001): p. 87. 216 Notes and References

8 ‘This Film is based on a True Story’: The Tuskegee Airmen

1. On the HBO audience share see Tamar Jacoby, ‘Adjust Your Sets’, New Republic, 24 January 2000: p. 25. On the extensive national press coverage concerning the first showing see, for example, Time, 28 August 1995: pp. 62–64; New York Times, 21 August 1995, C11. 2. The official documentaries shown to mostly black audiences were The Negro Soldier (War Department, 1944) and the 10-minute Wings for This Man (Army Air Forces, 1944), narrated by Ronald Reagan. See Thomas Cripps, Making Movies Black (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993): pp. 102– 125; Stephen Vaughn, ‘Ronald Reagan and the Struggle for Black Dignity in the Cinema, 1937–1953’, Journal of African American History, 1 (2002): pp. 86–88. In the 50 years after the war there was only two further films, again documentaries, dealing with the Tuskegee airmen: one a US Air Force recruiting film, From These Beginnings (Military Airlift Command, 1974); the other a television piece, Nightfighters (Fulmer TV and Film, 1994). In print the small number of books and articles dealing with the Tuskegee airmen were often of a semi-official nature, for example Alan M. Osur, Blacks in the Army Air Forces During World War II (Office of Air Force History, 1977), or academic works, for example Stanley Sandler, Segregated Skies (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Press, 1992). 3. http://www.dcmilitary.com/airforce/andrews/1_8/national_news/5303- 1.html (accessed 14 January 2006), Bob Haskell, ‘Guardsmen Get History Lesson from Tuskegee Airmen’, p. 2. On The Tuskegee Airmen being used in connection with campus and other visits see, for example, http://berkely.edu/news/berkleyan/1996/0214/breifs.html (accessed 10 November 2005), ‘Tuskegee Airmen’; http://www.hendersondispatch.com/ articles/2005/12/07/news/letters/news01.txt (accessed 8 January 2006), Jason Alston, ‘Famed Tuskegee Airmen Pay a Visit to Carver Elementary’. On The Tuskegee Airmen being used as an educative tool see, for example, John Adelmann, ‘Victory at Home and Abroad: The Tuskegee Airmen Research Project and Seminar’, Social Education, October 2000: pp. 345–351; http://www.teachingwithmovies.com/members/guides/tuskeg ee-airmen.html (accessed 16 February 2006); http://curriculum.dpsk12.org/ syllabi/American_History_2.pdf (accessed 14 January 2006). On the oral history interviews being shaped around the film I am indebted to J. Todd Moye of the University of North Texas for an e-mail message on the project. On the archive see http://www.newsroom.ucr.edu/cgi- bin/display.cgi?id=994 (accessed 8 January 2006). On the national mus- eum see http://detroityes.com/webisodes/2002/fortwayne/31fortwayne.htm (accessed 9 February 2006). On the oral history project itself see J. Todd Moye, ‘The Tuskegee Airmen Oral History Project and Oral History in the National Park Service’, Journal of American History, 89 (2002): pp. 580–587. Popular histories, children’s books, memoirs, and biographies about the Tuskegee pilots published since 1995 include Alexander Jefferson, Red Tail Captured, Red Tail Free (New York: Fordham University Press, 2005); Lynn M. Homan and Thomas Reilly, Black Knights (Gretna, LA: Pelican, 2001); Charlene E. McGee Smith, Tuskegee Airman (Boston: Branden Publishing, 1999); John B. Holloway, Red Tails, Black Wings (Las Cruces, NM: Yucca Notes and References 217

Tree Press, 1997); Charles W. Dryden, A-Train (Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press, 1997); Jacqueline Harris, The Tuskegee Airmen (Parsinany, NJ: Dillon Press, 1996). The stage play was Black Eagles by Leslie Lee. Documentaries included separate episodes in the Legends of Airpower series of 2004 on three Tuskegee airmen; Silver Wings & Civil Rights, directed by Jon Anderson in 2004; The Tuskegee Airmen (Rubicon Productions, 2003); The Tuskegee Airmen (Cinebar Productions, 1998). 4. Lucas quoted in Los Angeles Times, 11 August 1990, F9; Kinoy quoted in Alan Rosenthal, ed., Why Docudrama? (Carbondale IL, 1999): p. 206; Williams quoted in Emmy, July–August 1995: p. 12. On the 1977 film project and Spielberg’s later interest see Time, 28 August 1995: p. 64. 5. On the issue of a limited audience for films in which most of the cast is black and budgets see, for example,. Nelson George, Blackface (New York, 1994): p. ix; Edward Guerrero, Framing Blackness (Philadelphia, 1993): p. 166. The first black pilot character in a Hollywood feature (played by James Edwards) appeared in a supporting role in Battle Hymn (Universal, 1956), a film set in the Korean War. 6. David E. Wilt and Michael Schull, ‘African Americans after World War II’, in Peter C. Rollins, ed., The Columbia Companion to American History on Film (New York: Columbia University Press, 2003): p. 215. On the difficulties in getting A Soldier’s Story made see Norman Jewison, This Terrible Business Has Been Good to Me (New York: T. Dunne Books, 2005): pp. 218–219. 7. CookquotedinRobertKubey,CreatingTelevision(Mahaw,NJ,2004):p.210.On HBO see also Tamar Jacoby, ‘Adjust Your Set’, New Republic, 24 January 2000: p. 25; http://www.hbo.com/films/about.html (accessed 20 January 2006). 8. On Fishburn passing on bigger pay packets see http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/VA- news/VA-Pilot/issues/1995/vp950826/08240018.htm (accessed 16 March 2006). On Fishburn’s rise to stardom see Donald Bogle, Toms, Coons, Mulat- toes, Mammies, and Bucks, 3rd edn (New York, 1997): pp. 363–364. On Price’s involvement in promoting the Williams script see Emmy, July–August 1995: p. 12; Time, 28 August 1995: p. 64; New York Times, 21 August 1995, C14. 9. Orieux quoted in Jean Oppenheimer, ‘Flying Against Fascism’, American Cinematographer, November 1995: p. 77. On the aerial photography see also Jeff Ethell, ‘Tuskegee Airmen’, Warbirds Worldwide, May 1996: pp. 24–26. 10. Markowitz quoted in David L. Robb, Operation Hollywood (Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 2004): p. 108. Filming also took place at Davis Field (Muskogee, Oklahoma). See Oppenheimer, ‘Flying Against Fascism’, p. 78. 11. http://www.neale-sourna.com/Paris.html (accessed 15 November 2005), interview with Paris Qualles; Frank Price quoted in The Virginian-Pilot,26 August 1995, Television Week section: p. 1. 12. Vernon Hopson quoted in Minneapolis Star-Tribune, 27 May 2005. 13. On the various aircraft flown by the Tuskegee airmen see, for example, Robert A. Rose, ‘Lonely Eagles’ Pts. I-II, American Aviation Historical Society Journal, Summer and Winter 1975: pp. 118–127, 240–252. 14. On the need to reshape history to fit the scope of big and small screen see Robert Brent Toplin, Reel History (Lawrence, KS, 2002), Chapter 1; also see Tom W. Hoffer and Richard Alan Nelson, ‘Docudrama on American Televi- sion’ in Alan Rosenthal, ed., Why Docudrama? (Carbondale, IL, 1999): p. 72. 218 Notes and References

15. On hazing see Jefferson, Red Tail: p. 27; M. Reid in Homan and Reilly, Black Knights: pp. 62–63; W. Downs in Mary Penick Motley, ed., The Invisible Soldier (Detroit, 1975): p. 207; Leroy A. Battle, Easier Said (Annapolis, MD, 1995): pp. 72–73. On black instructors see, for example, Gabrielle Morris interview of Archie F. Williams, University of California, Berkley, Regional Oral History Office, Black Alumni Series. 16. New York Times, 21 August 1995, C14. 17. It should be noted that at least one knowledgeable observer did not think that the film did justice to Colonel Davis (see Stanley Sandler in American Historical Review 101 [1996]: p. 1172). On the austereness of Davis’s character see, for example, comments by former subordinates in Holloway, Red Tails: p. 76. 18. On real-life airmen recognising elements of themselves in, for example, ‘Train’ see Holloway, Red Tails: p. 304; see also http://www.wccnet.edu/ news/pressreleases/viewarticle.php?aid=467 (accessed 10 November 2005). On the real Noel Parrish see, for example, Sandler, Segregated Skies: pp. 28–30. 19. New York Times, 21 August 1995, C14. For a separate instance of a Tuskegee programme pilot taking offence at the preference given to white POWs over black servicemen see, for example, Harry Sheppard in Nightfighters (Fulmer TV and Film, 1994) and in The Tuskegee Airmen (Cinebar Productions, 1998). On comments about the ‘coloreds only’ carriage on their initial journey to Tuskegee by future pilots see, for example, J. Briggs in Holloway, Red Tails: p. 58; Jefferson, Red Tail: p. 25; McGee Smith, Tuskegee Airman: p. 40; J. Suggs in Astor, Right to Fight: p. 192. 20. This and all subsequent quoted dialogues are from the author’s tran- script of The Tuskegee Airmen dialogue. A transcript can also be found at http://www.script-o-rama.com (accessed 14 January 2006). 21. Decatur quoted in Onyx, January–February 2004: p. 26. This was a scene, furthermore, which broadly reflected the experience of other Tuskegee airmen when they landed at other bases and encountered whites and blacks who had never seen an African-American aviator. ‘Many a flight line mech- anic blanched several shades paler than normal when we unsnapped our oxygen masks and jumped off the wings of our fighter planes to walk into base operations’, Charles Dryden remembered of visits to other air bases in the South, adding that a consolation ‘was the smiles and the thumb-to-index-finger OK signal flashed at us by the Negro workers in the cafeteria kitchens and by ditch diggers and truck drivers wherever we passed by’. Dryden, A-Train: pp. 90–91; see also, for example, J.B. Knighten in Holloway, Red Tails: p. 62; V. Hopson in Delma J. Francis, ‘Tuskegee Airmen Had the Right Stuff for WWII and Beyond’, Minneapolis Star-Tribune,27May 2002; Washington Post, 26 August 1995, D3. 22. On the actual sinking of the destroyer see Benjamin O. Davis, An Autobio- graphy (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1991): pp. 126–127; Charles E. Frances, The Tuskegee Airmen (Boston: Branden Publishing, 1993 edn): p. 123. 23. On the Eleanor Roosevelt visit and the Tuskegee experiment in general see, for example, Lawrence P. Scott and William M. Womack Sr., Double V (East Lansing, MI, 1994): p. 154, passim. On the establishment of flight training at Tuskegee see also Robert J. Jakeman, Divided Skies (Tuscaloosa, AL, 1992). Notes and References 219

24. See Watson in Homan and Reilly, Black Knights: pp. 85, 103; Watson in Lawrence J. Paszek, ‘Separate but Equal?’, Aerospace Historian, Fall 1977: p. 138. 25. On the actual meeting in Washington see, for example, Davis, Autobiography: pp. 103–107; on the background see also Robert E. Lester, ed., Records of the Tuskegee Airmen, Part I (Bethesda, MD, 2005), microfilm reel 4, frames 0936–0993. 26. Crockett quoted in Holloway, Red Tails: p. 250; see Sandler in American Histor- ical Review, 101 (1996): p. 1172. On bomber crews liking the 332nd Fighter Group as escorts see also, for example, Melvin McGuire and Robert Hadley, Bloody Skies (Las Cruces, NM, 1993): pp. 299, 302; Stephen E. Ambrose, The Wild Blue (New York, 2001): pp. 212–215; Jack W. Bosley interview in Adams Center Cold War History Project, VMI; G.C. Barnett in William Alexander Percy, ‘Jim Crow and Uncle Sam’, Journal of Military History, 67 (2003): p. 802; Dan Price quoted in Lexington Herald-Leader, 7 November 2005. On Davis insisting, despite grumbling, that the 332nd Fighter Group not abandon bombers in search of air-to-air kills – an order underscored in the film – see Roscoe Brown in Tuskegee Airmen (Rubicon Productions, 2003); Francis, Tuskegee Airmen (Boston: Branden Publishing, 1993): p. 113. C.M. Bussey in Holloway, Red Tails: p. 187; Harry Sheppard in Astor, Right to Fight: p. 298. On racist sentiment among the bomber crews see, for example, L. Purnell in Homan and Reilly, Black Knights: p. 85; E. Gleed in Holloway, Red Tails: p. 251. 27. For Chief Anderson’s views, see Time, 28 August 1995: p. 63. On the suspected suicidecrashofRossinItalyseeHolloway,RedTails:p.206;HaydenC.Johnson, The Fighting 99th Air Squadron, 1941–45 (New York: Vantage Press, 1987): p. 10. On the accidental crash of Francis Peoples flying a P-40 see Henry Peoples in Motley, Invisible Soldier: p. 229. On the buzzing incident (which took place over Walterboro, South Carolina) and the subsequent dismissal of a pilot see Alexander Jefferson in Motley, Invisible Soldier: p. 219. On the high attrition rate at Tuskegee see Lester, Records of the Tuskegee Airmen, reels 10–11. 28. Sheppard quoted in Homan and Reilly, Black Knights: p. 42; see also, for example, Peoples in Motley, Invisible Soldier: p. 228; Watson in Gerald Astor, The Right to Fight (Novato, CA, 1998): pp. 150–151; McGee Smith, Tuskegee Airman:p.47. 29. Ethell, ‘Tuskegee Airmen’, p. 26. On blacks going north to join the RCAF see, for example, University of California Berkeley, Regional Oral History Office, 1992 interview of Archie F. Williams; Scott and Womack, Double V: p. 160. On Americans transferring from the RCAF to the USAAF after Pearl Harbor see Fred Gaffen, Cross-Border Warriors (Toronto, 1995): p. 51. The only combat veteran role model that the pilots of the 99th Fighter Group learned from was Philip ‘Flip’ Cochran: but Cochran was white and he briefed them on combat techniques in North Africa. See, for example, Watson in Astor, Right to Fight: p. 189; Davis, Autobiography:p.97. 30. Sandler, American Historical Review, 101 (1996): p. 1173; V. Hopson as reported in Minneapolis Star-Tribune, 27 May 2002; J. Warren reported in Time, 28 August 1995: p. 64. See also, for example, Jason Alston, ‘Famed Tuskegee Airmen pay a visit to Carver Elementary’, Henderson Dispatch,7 December 2005, 1A, 6A. 220 Notes and References

31. http://www.neale-sourna.com/Paris.html (accessed 15 November 2005) Paris Qualles interview, p. 7 (see also Time, 28 August 1995, p. 64); http://history.acusd.edu/gen/WW2Timeline/HOYT/breaking.html (accessed 10 November 1995), speech delivered by General Ronald R. Fogleman, 12 August 1995. 32. Detroit News, 26 August 1995, 1A, 4C; San Francisco Examiner, 25 August 1995, C2; Washington Post, 26 August 1995, D1; New York Times, 25 August 1995, D18. 33. Chicago Tribune, 25 August 1995, Sec. 5, p. 3; New York, 28 August 1995: p. 126; People, 28 August 1995: p. 13; USA Today, 25 August 1995, D3; see also Virginia-Pilot, Television Week, 26 August 1995: p. 1. 34. New Orleans Times-Picayune, 20 August 1995, TV Focus: p. 6; Los Angeles Times, 25 August 1995, F1; Newsweek, 28 August 1995: p. 53; TV Guide,26 August 1995; New York Amsterdam News, 26 August 1995: p. 22. 35. http://actionadventure.about.com/library/weekly/2002?aa021502.htm (acc- essed 10 November 2005). On the educational function see also, for example, Cuba Gooding Jr comment in Virginian-Pilot, 26 August 1995: p. 1. For cyberspace comments on the HBO film see, for example, http://us. imdb.com/title/tt0114745usercomments?start=10 (accessed 22 November 2005). 36. On the renewed Red Tails project see http://www.negrophile.com/phile/ articles/airmen_on_air_part_two.html (accessed 10 November 2005).

9 ‘What Happened was Wrong’: Come See the Paradise and the Japanese-American Experience in the Second World War

With thanks to Wendy Webster and Robert Matson for their helpful comments on an earlier draft of this Chapter.

1. Gordon Prange, At Dawn We Slept: The Untold Story of Pearl Harbour (London: Michael Joseph, 1981): p. 582. 2. Quoted in Jonathan Lewis and Ben Steel, Hell in the Pacific (London: Channel 4 Books, 2001): p. 23. 3. Ralph E. Donald, ‘Savages, Swine and Buffoons: Hollywood’s Selected Stereo- typical Characterizations of the Japanese’, Germans, and Italians in Films Produced During WWII, Images: A Journal of Film and Popular Culture, http://images journal.com. (accessed 15.05.06). 4. Arthur Caylor, ‘Behind the News’, San Francisco News, 2 March 1942. 5. A transcription of the film script for Come See the Paradise is available online at, http://www.awesomefilm.com/script.seetheparadise.txt (accessed 25.05.06). 6. On 2 February 1942, the Director of the FBI, J. Edgar Hoover, a man not noted for his liberalism, wrote to the Attorney-General that a thorough investigation of Japanese-American communities had revealed no evidence of sabotage or subversive activities, and expressed concern that the evac- uation was being driven by ‘public and political pressure rather than by factual data, public hysteria and in some instances, the comments of the Notes and References 221

press and radio announcers’. Quoted in http://www.geocities.com/?Athens/ politicians.html?200612 (accessed 12.04.2006). 7. The Japanese-Canadian experience of internment has been sympathetically dealt with in Anne Wheeler’s television film The War Between Us (1996) – a film that clearly owes some debt to Come See the Paradise. 8. On the legal challenges to the internment see Peter Irons, Justice at War: The Story of the Japanese-American Internment Cases (New York: Oxford University Press, 1983). 9. John Morton Blum, V Was for Victory: Politics and American Culture During World War II (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1976): p. 155. 10. Quoted in Michi Weglyn, Years of Infamy: The Untold Story of America’s Concen- tration Camps (New York: Morrow Quill, 1976): p. 114. Japanese Relocation has beenreissuedonbothvideoandDVDbyInternationalHistoricFilms,Chicago. 11. Clayton R. Koppes and Gregory D. Black, Hollywood Goes to War: How Politics, Profits and Patriotism Shaped WWII Movies (New York: The Free Press, 1987): p. 75 12. Only in 1968 did the US Government finally pay compensation to Japanese- Americans for the losses incurred in the evacuation. On 10 August 1988 Congress passed the Civil Liberties Act and formally apologised for the camps and the incarceration of Japanese-American citizens. 13. Alan Parker, commentary on the DVD release. 14. Perhaps the most blatant examples were Sands of Iwo Jima (1949) and Flying Leathernecks (1951), both starring John Wayne. 15. Quoted in Weglyn, Years of Infamy: p. 114. 16. Alan Parker, Notes on the Making of the Film (20th Century Fox, 1991). These were originally included in the Press Book, but are now reproduced with the DVD. 17. Ibid. 18. Parker, DVD commentary. 19. Parker, Notes. 20. Rita Kempley, Washington Post, 18 January, 1991. 21. Chris Hicks, Desert News, 18 January, 1999. 22. Frank Maloney, http://www.imdb.com/reviews/08/0894 (accessed 25.05.06). 23. Vince Deehan, http://www.imdb.com/reviews/48/4835 (accessed 25.05.06). 24. Michael Morrison, Edinburgh University Film Society Programme Notes, 1992–1993. 25. Farrah Anwar, Monthly Film Bulletin, 57: p. 683, December 1990: p. 350. 26. Time Out, http://www.timeout.com/film/69523.html. 27. Terry Hong, ‘Asian Americans’, in Peter C. Rollins, ed., The Columbia Companion to American History on Film: How the Movies Have Portrayed the American Past (New York: Columbia University Press, 2003): p. 229. 28. Parker, commentary to DVD. 29. Roger Ebert, Chicago Sun-Times, 18 January 1991. 30. Since 1991, American filmmakers have produced a number of films about Japanese-American experience in the Second World War: documentaries like Beyond Barbed Wire (1997), the story of the 442nd Infantry Regiment; Rabbit in the Moon (1999) and Time of Fear (2005), both dealing with life in the camps; and the feature film Snow Falling on Cedars (1999), dealing with anti-Japanese prejudice in the immediate post-war period. 222 Notes and References

10 Commissioning Mass Murder: Conspiracy and History at the Wannsee Conference

The author is very grateful to Loring Mandel for sharing a copy of the Conspiracy script and for email correspondence about its pre-production background.

1. ‘Hatred on the Agenda’, Kenneth Branagh interview with Nancy Mills, The Washington Post, 15 May 2001. 2. All quotes from the Protocol are from ‘Appendix A: Translation of the Protocol’, Mark Roseman, The Villa, The Lake, The Meeting: Wannsee and the ‘Final Solution’ (Allen Lane: Penguin Press, 2002): p. 109. 3. Mark Roseman, ‘Next on the Agenda: Genocide. Then Drinks’, The Times Higher Education Supplement, 25 January 2002, p. 20. 4. Roseman, The Villa, The Lake, The Meeting:p.79. 5. Ibid.: p. 55. 6. Christian Gerlach, ‘The Wannsee Conference, the Fate of German Jews, and Hitler’s Decision in Principle to Exterminate All European Jews’, The Journal of Modern History, 70 (December 1998): p. 760. 7. Roseman, The Villa, The Lake, The Meeting:p.79. 8. See Appendix A. The Protocol (Appendix A): in translation; Roseman, The Villa, The Lake, The Meeting: pp. 108–118. 9. Roseman, The Villa, The Lake, The Meeting:p.2. 10. Ibid.: p. 87. 11. Ibid.: p. 96. 12. Peter Longerich, The Unwritten Order: Hitler’s Role in the Final Solution (London: Tempus Publishing, 2003). 13. Roseman, The Villa, The Lake, The Meeting:p.4. 14. Mandel outlined his method of ‘Informed speculation’ via email with the author, 30 March 2005. He has also discussed this in several media inter- views. 15. The makers of Der Wannseekonferenz, director Heinz Schirk and scriptwriter Paul Mommertz, earlier attempted a biographical portrait in 1977 of Heydrich, called Reinhard Heydrich: Manager of Terror. See Lawrence Baron, Projecting the Holocaust into the Present: The Changing Focus of Contemporary Holocaust Cinema (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, Inc, 2005): p. 71. 16. Naomi Pfefferman, ‘ “Conspiracy” Theory’, Los Angeles Jewish Journal, 14 May 2001. 17. As Pierson noted, his goal was to engage audiences by ‘making them feel as if they were in that room at Wannsee, as if it were a live event’. He ‘kept the cameras always at eye level so viewers would imagine that they were sitting at the table’. To allow the actors to feel they were really at Wannsee, he shot 10-minute takes at a time and used smallish 16-mm cameras so he could fit two on the set without having to pull out a wall. See Naomi Pfefferman, ‘Conspiracy Theory’, Los Angeles Jewish Journal, 14 May 2001. 18. David Gritten, ‘When the Job is Odious’, Los Angeles Times, 13 May 2001. 19. Mandel has since written a stage version of Conspiracy which remains unpro- duced. 20. Loring Mandel, email to author, 30 March 2005. 21. Mandel’s emphasis, email to author, 30 March 2005. Notes and References 223

22. See Charter of the International Military Tribunal, http://www.yale.edu/ lawweb/avalon/imt/proc/imtconst.htm#art6. 23. Conspiracy, Production Notes/Press Release (Time Warner), 5 April 2001: http://www.timewarner.com/corp/newsroom/pr/0,20812,668647,00.html. Broadcast on HBO 19 May 2001. 24. Roseman, The Villa, the Lake, the Meeting:p.96. 25. Christopher Browning, The Origin of the Final Solution: The Evolution of Nazi Jewish Policy, September 1939–March 1942 (London: Heinemann, 2004): pp. 411–412. 26. Mandel, Conspiracy (draft script): p. 88. 27. Alan E. Steinweis, ‘Review of Conspiracy’, The American Historical Review, 107: 2 (April 2002): p. 674. 28. Steinweis, ‘Review of Conspiracy’, AHR, 107: 2 (April 2002): p. 674. 29. David Gritten, ‘And the Motion before us is Genocide’, Radio Times, 19–25 January 2002. 30. Pfefferman, ‘ “Conspiracy” Theory’, Los Angeles Jewish Journal, 14 May 2001. 31. No author, ‘HBO Depicts Nazi Meeting that Changed History’, Orlando Sentinel, 9 May 2001. 32. Conspiracy, Production Notes/Press Release (Time Warner/HBO), 5 April 2001. 33. Roseman, The Villa, The Lake, The Meeting: p. 107.

11 Laughing Against Horror: Life is Beautiful and Train of Life

1. Films document such lack of information. In Underground (1940) it is said that the prisoners at Dachau have been able to build a clandestine radio transmitter. In To be or Not to Be? (1943) the Germans are cruel but easily fooled by the Poles who do not seem to suffer too much. In None Shall Escape (1944) the Germans operating in a Polish village kill a good many Jews but do not transport the survivors who are eventually rescued by the Christians. 2. See Charles Glass, ‘The Universal Instant’, Times Literary Supplement, 3 March 1995: p. 7. 3. Die Judische Selbstverwaltung in Teresienstadt (The Self-Government of the Jews in Theresienstadt). The film is now lost but a few sequences and the photographs taken during the shooting are still available. 4. In April 1945, when the Americans liberated the camp of Dora-Mittelbau, Lili Meyer Jacob, a Hungarian deportee, found some two hundred photographs taken by the Germans which documented the life of Hungarian deportees from their arrival at the camp to the gas chamber; extracts from this collec- tion have often been published, but the only complete collection is Maria Cataruzza, ed., Storia della Shoah Vol. II (Turin: UTET, 2006). 5. The first shots were taken by the Soviets when they liberated Maidanek, Vernichtungslager: Majdanek – cementarzysko Europy (Death Camp: Maidanek – cemetery of Europe). Other films were shot in Dachau by George Stevens and edited by his son in 1987 (D Day to Berlin), in Falkenau by Samuel Fuller, and in Bergen-Belsen by American and English operators. 224 Notes and References

6. Night and Fog, a 30-minute film directed by Alain Resnais was released in 1955. In 1945 the Allies made a compilation of pictures taken in various death camps, Memory of the Camps, which was not released; in this film there is no mention of the Jews. The same can be said about another important documentary, Ordinary Fascism directed by Miikhail Romm (1966). 7. As has been shown by Jeffrey Shandler, While America Watches: Televising the Holocaust (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999). 8. With notably Christopher Browning’s Ordinary Men: Reserve Police Battalion 101 and the Final Solution in Poland (New York: Harper Collins, 1992) and The Origin of the Final Solution. Also, arguable though it is, Jonah Goldhagen’s Hitler’s Willing Executioners: Ordinary Germans and the Holocaust (New York: Knopf, 1996). 9. Another important initiative was the creation by Steven Spielberg of the ‘Video Archive for Holocaust Testimonies’ at Yale, where the testimonies of survivors are systematically collected. See Geoffrey Hartmann, The Longest Shadow: In the Aftermath of the Holocaust (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1996), and Lawrence L. Langier, Holocaust Testimonies: The Ruins of Memory (Yale University Press: Cambridge MS, 1991). 10. Shoah: The Complete Text of the Acclaimed Holocaust Film (Cambridge: Da Capo Press, 1995). 11. Barbie Zeiler, ed., Visual Culture and the Holocaust (Brunswick: Rutgers Univer- sity Press, 2001); Anton Insdorf, Indelible Shadows: Film and the Holocaust (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003); Joshua Hirsch, Afterimage: Film, Trauma and the Holocaust (Philadephia: Temple University Press, 2004); TobyHaggithandJoannaNewman,eds,HolocaustandtheMovingImage:Repres- entations in Film and Television since 1933 (London: Wallflower Press, 2005). 12. There were three adaptations: The Diary of Anne Frank directed by George Stevens (1959), The Diary of Anne Frank directed by Boris Sagal (1980), and Anne Frank Remembered directed by John Blait (1995). 13. When he was looking for a producer Mihaileanu sent Benigni his script, asking if he would take part in the film. Benigni refused. Some accused the Italian actor of plagiarism. The charge was absurd, there is nothing in common between the two films, but the scandal was indirect publicity for Train of Life. 14. And some do not like him for that reason; they criticise his whimsicality, which, in their view, does not fit in with the horror of the Shoah. 15. Where Life is Beautiful was attended by only 700,000 spectators in the year of its release. 16. Marcel Gauchet, The Disenchantment of the Word: A Political History of Religion (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997). 17. In the battalion of Jew hunters described by Christopher Browning, only one-third of the men were Nazis, see Note 8 above. See also Caty Caruth, Trauma: Exploration in Memory (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1995); Dominick LaCapra, Representing the Holocaust: History, Theory, Trauma (Ithaca: Cornel University Press, 1994), and History and Memory after Auschwitz (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1998). Notes and References 225

12 Enemy at the Gates as a ‘Soviet’ War Film

The research on which this article is based was supported in part by the Provost’s Office at the University of Vermont and a University Scholar award from the UVM Graduate College. I am pleased to thank Clayton R. Trutor for his able research assistance and Kevork Spartalian for his comments on an earlier version. Transliteration follows the LC system, modified slightly for personal names in the text.

1. Likewise, D-Day was depicted as a minor event in Soviet historiography of the war. 2. IMDb.com reports German viewership of only 1.3 million and US receipts of less than $80,000. Some American reviewers thought that Vilsmaier’s focus on ‘good’ Germans skirted German culpability for the war too handily. 3. Vasilii Zaitsev, Za Volgoi zemli dlia nas ne bylo: zapiski snaipera (Moscow: Izd-vo DOSAAF, 1971). An English translation is available in Vassili [sic] Zaitsev, Notes of a Sniper: Vassili Zaitsev’s Account of the Battle of Stalingrad, Neil Okrent, ed., David Givens, Peter Kornakov, and Konstantin Kornakov trans. (Los Angeles: 2826 Press, 2003). This version also includes Zaitsev’s 1943 ‘Sniper’s Story,’ a short account translated by E.L. Yakovleva. 4. I have seen figures as high as 300. This number comes from Zaitsev’s 1943 ‘Sniper’s Story,’ in Notes of a Sniper: p. 272. 5. William Craig, Enemy at the Gates: The Battle for Stalingrad (New York: Reader’s Digest Press/E.P. Dutton, 1973); David L. Robbins, War of the Rats (New York: Bantam Books, 1999). 6. On the movie’s reputed expenses, variously estimated at $70–$95 million, see, for example, Neil Smith, Enemy at the Gates, 7 March 2001, www.bbc.com. The Saving Private Ryan connection is mentioned in every review I have read. 7. From countries that report gross box office receipts rather than attendance, the film earned $51 million in the US, £4 million (UK), E3 million (Spain); ‘Business Data for Enemy at the Gates (2001),’ IMDb.com. 8. Robert Wilonsky, ‘Bad Aim,’ Dallas Observer, 15 March 2001, www. dallasob- server.com.; Peter Rainer, ‘Is War Hell or What?’ New York, 26 March 2001, www.newyorkmetro.com. 9. Peter Travers, ‘Enemy at the Gates,’ Rolling Stone, 15 March 2001. Oddly, Variety declared that the major problem with the film was not that it had ‘gone Hollywood’ but that it was ‘decidedly European in look, narrative, and tempo’; see Derek Elley, ‘Enemy at the Gates,’Variety, 7 February 2001. 10. Smith, Enemy at the Gates. 11. For an example of the Russian view, see Viktor Matizen, ‘Korolevskaia okhota na Zaitseva,’ Iskusstvo kino, 7 (2001): pp. 42–45. 12. For sample reviews from specialists see Michael Ihnatenko’s in Military Affairs, 38: 3 (October 1974): pp. 123–124 and Michael Parrish’s in Slavic Review, 33: 2 (June 1974): pp. 363–364. 13. In fact, Chernova figures nearly as prominently as Zaitsev in Craig’s book. 14. In the foreword, however, Marshal Chuikov writes, ‘Major Konings [sic], a “super-sniper” who was the head of the Berlin sniper school, flew to Stal- ingrad’ with instructions to kill Zaitsev; see Zaitsev, Za Volgoi zemli dlia nas ne bylo,3. 15. ‘Interview with David L. Robbins,’ www.davidlrobbins.com, no date. 226 Notes and References

16. Robbins, War of the Rats:p.xi. 17. Russian Orthodox believers cross themselves right to left, not left to right. The army newspaper is Krasnaia zvezda (Red Star), not Krasnaia armiia (Red Army); why go through the trouble of printing it in Russian, with Cyrillic orthography, which most viewers will not know, and get the name wrong? The anthem played in the banquet scene was not adopted until 1944, and so on. 18. John Erickson, ‘Enemy at the Gates,’ New York Times, 19 August 1973. For Erickson’s approach to the subject, see The Road to Stalingrad: Stalin’s War with Germany (New York: Harper and Row, 1975). 19. Margaret McGurk, ‘ “Enemy” Shot Down,’ Cincinnati Enquirer, 16 March 2001. 20. Rainer, ‘Is War Hell or What?’. 21. Denise J. Youngblood, Russian War Films: On the Cinema Front, 1914–2005 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2006). 22. The most famous Soviet films that utilize this trope are Andrei Tarkovsky’s Ivan’s Childhood (Ivanovo detstvo, 1962) and Elem Klimov’s Come and See (Idi i smotri, 1985). This is also the subject of a very recent Russian film, Aleksandr Atanesian’s Bastards (Svolochi, 2006). 23. The Soviet cult of the Great Patriotic War is thoroughly covered in Nina Tumarkin, The Living and the Dead: The Rise and Fall of the Cult of World War II in Russia (New York: Basic Books, 1994). 24. There were also two feature-length compilation documentaries: Leonid Varlamov’s Stalingrad (1944) and Maria Slavinskaya’s The Great Battle on the Volga (Velikaia bitva na Volge, 1962). 25. A.O. Scott, wrote, ‘the spectacled, anxious and possibly treacherous Danilov is close to anti-Semitic caricature And surely there is something a bit unseemly in a World War II movie that puts the line “I’m following orders” in the mouth of a Jew.’ See ‘Saving Private Ryanovich: Same War from a Different Perspective,’ New York Times, 16 March 2001. 26. Not surprisingly, the historical Kulikov, who survived Stalingrad, makes no such remarks in Zaitsev’s memoirs. 27. Good examples of recent exposés are Penal Battalion (Shraftbat, dir. Nikolai Dostal, 2004), Echelon (Eshelon, dir. Vladilen Arsenev, 2005), and Man of War (Chelovek voiny, dir. Aleksandr Muradov, 2005). 28. There is an alternative, and it is demonstrated by another French director, Régis Wargnier, in the aptly titled East – West (Est-Ouest, 1999), which is a completely bicultural (Russian and French) historical film set in the USSR in the postwar period.

13 Bomber Harris: Raking Through the Ashes of the Strategic Air Campaign Against Germany

1. Statistics taken from Martin Middlebrook and Chris Everitt, The Bomber Command War Diaries, an Operational Reference Book, 1939–1945 (London: Viking, 1985): pp. 707–712. Notes and References 227

2. For details of the bombing war and the reaction of the British media see Mark Connelly, Reaching for the Stars: A New History of Bomber Command in World War Two (London: I.B. Tauris, 2001). 3. See Mark Connelly, We Can Take It! Britain and the Memory of the Second World War (Harlow: Longman, 2003) for a discussion of British television and the Second World War. 4. See British Film Institute Special Collection, Pathfinders; Sun, 20 May 1972; Sunday Times, 20 January 1973; Jonathan Falconer, Bomber Command in Fact, Film and Fiction (Thrupp, Gloucestershire: Sutton, 1996): pp. 106–107. 5. Dudley Saward, Bomber Harris (London: Buchan and Enright, 1984). 6. Broadcast, 31 July 1987. 7. Radio Times, 2–8 September 1989: p. 34. 8. See Mark Connelly, ‘The British People, the Press, and the Strategic Air Campaign against Germany’, Contemporary British History, 16: 2 (2002): pp. 39–58. 9. For the debates over Bomber Command resources see Denis Richards, The Hardest Victory, RAF Bomber Command in the Second World War (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1994): p. 70. 10. See Bomber Offensive: pp. 220–258. 11. See Martin Middlebrook, The Schweinfurt – Regensburg Mission. American raids on 17 August 1943 (London: Allen Lane, 1983). 12. Sir Charles Webster and Noble Frankland, The Strategic Air Offensive against Germany, 1939–1945 Vol. II (London: HMSO, 1961): pp. 220–221, 254. 13. Max Hastings, Bomber Command (London: Michael Joseph, 1979): p. 269. 14. See Richards, Hardest Victory: pp. 227–231; Hastings, Bomber Command: pp. 276–278. 15. See Hastings, Bomber Command: pp. 184–188. 16. Webster and Frankland, Strategic Air Offensive, Vol. II, p. 206; Hastings, Bomber Command: p. 268; Martin Middlebrook, The Berlin Raids, RAF Bomber Command Winter 1943–44 (London: Vilking, 1988): p. 325. 17. For the Nuremburg raid see Martin Middlebrook, The Nuremburg Raid, 30–31 March 1944 (London: Allen Lane, 1980). 18. For a discussion of the wartime debate about bombing see Stephen A. Garrett, Ethics and Airpower in World War II, the British Bombing of German Cities (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1993). 19. See Martin Middlebrook, The Battle for Hamburg. The Firestorm Raid (London: Allen Lane, 1980). 20. Letter to the author, 28 June 1999. 21. Document quoted in Webster and Frankland, Strategic Air Offensive, Vol. III, p. 112. 22. For the debate about Dresden and Harris’s image see Connelly, Reaching for the Stars: pp. 132–157. 23. Letter to the author, 28 June 1999. 24. Radio Times, 2–8 September 1989: p. 34. 25. The World at War had used music in a similar way; note, for example, the way It’s a Lovely Day Tomorrow is used over newsreel shots of the pouring monsoon in the Burma episode. 228 Notes and References

26. Guardian, 4 September 1989. 27. Radio Times, 23–29 September 1989: p. 77. 28. Figures supplied by Erin O’Neil, BBC Records Centre, Caversham, 14 February 2006. 29. Radio Times, 2–8 September 1989: p. 35. 30. Radio Times, 23–29 September 1989: p. 77. 31. Listener, 7 September 1989: p. 39; 31 August 1989: p. 35. 32. Sunday Telegraph Magazine, 3 September 1989: p. 15. 33. For a discussion of the Harris statue and unveiling see Connelly, Reaching for the Stars: pp. 137–140. 34. For an example of the press coverage of these ceremonies see Daily Telegraph, 1 June 1992 and 14 February 1995. 35. For the adaptation of Bomber see Radio Times, 18–24 February 1995: p. 32; Sunday Times, 21 February 1995.

14 Realism, Historical Truth and the War Film: The Case of Saving Private Ryan

1. Between the landings of the first wave of American soldiers at 6.30 a.m. and nightfall on the 6th June, 34,250 troops had landed at Omaha Beach at a cost of 4649 casualties, of which 3000 were killed. 2. Steven Spielberg quoted in a television programme entitled War Stories. Mark Cousins talks to Steven Spielberg, broadcast on BBC2 on 13 September 1998. 3. Steven Spielberg discussing the film while on the set in a programme called Return to Normandy, broadcast on BBC1 on 7 September 1998. 4. G. Brown, The Times, 10 September 1998: p. 37. 5. Flt Lt J. Nichol, ‘It’s the Brutal Truth’, The Sun, 11 September 1998: p. 30. 6. J. Wrathall, ‘On the Beach’, Sight and Sound, 9 (September 1998): pp. 34–35. 7. S.E. Ambrose, ‘The Longest Day (U.S. 1962): “Blockbuster” History’, in John Whiteclay Chambers and David Culbert, eds, WW11: Film and History (New York: OUP, 1996): p. 102. 8. Spielberg, War Stories, BBC2, 13 September 1998. 9. The Englishman C. Berry Cavory, who had been a member of General Eisen- hower’s staff: ‘He (Spielberg) has faced up to facts, I think he was the only producer that I have seen make a wartime film, who was really prepared to show the public what took place and that, to my mind, was the most cardinal effort in Saving Private Ryan. It is a factual film with the horrors of war clearly and fearlessly explained.’ Quoted from an interview in the programme Return to Normandy, broadcast on BBC1 on 7 September 1998. 10. See A. Kelly, Cinema and the Great War (London: Routledge, 1997): p. 45. See also J. Whiteclay Chambers, ‘All Quiet on the Western Front: The Anti-War Film and the Image of Modern War’, in Whiteclay Chambers and D. Culbert, eds, World War II, Film, and History (New York: OUP, 1996): p. 8. 11. Spielberg, War Stories, BBC2, 13 September 1998. 12. Spielberg, Return to Normandy, BBC1, 7 September 1998. 13. Spielberg, War Stories, BBC2, 13 September 1998. Notes and References 229

14. R. Capa, Slightly Out of Focus (New York: Henry Holt, 1947): p. 151. 15. Quoted in S.E. Ambrose, D-Day (1994): p. 396. 16. James Barker, ‘D-Day: Fact of Fiction?’ Focal International 13 (Autumn 1994): p. 6. 17. E. Walter, in a recorded interview held in the Imperial War Museum’s Sound Archive (IWMSA), accession no. 8299/07, reel: 3. 18. G. Dyer, The Missing of the Somme (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1994). This quote comes from an interview with Dyer in a television programme about the film Regeneration (1998), entitled Regeneration-History and Culture, broad- cast on BBC2 on 27 March 1998. 19. I.A. Grant, IWMSA, accession no. 3865/19, reel: 10. 20. D. O’Neill, IWMSA, accession no. 3971/04, reel: 3. 21. G. Laws, IWMSA, accession no. 14839/13, reel: 5. 22. Secret Caption Sheet no: A700 37/1. 23. G. Laws, IWMSA, accession no. 14839/13, reel: 5. 24. Anonymous remarks on an AFPU report sent to George Laws for the 50 feet of film shot by him near Ecouche on 19 August 1944. Held in the Department of Documents at the IWM. 25. P. Neushul and J.D. Neushul, ‘With the Marines at Tarawa’, Proceedings (April 1999): pp. 74–79. 26. J. and S. Combs, Film Propaganda and American Politics: An Analysis and Filmography (London: Garland Publishing, 1994): p. 78. 27. N. Ascherson, ‘Missing in Action’, The Observer, 6 September 1998: p. 7.

15 Downfall and Other Endings: German Film and Hitler’s War after Sixty Years

1. ‘Film Nazis: The Great Escape’, in Tony Barta, ed., Screening the Past: Film and the Representation of History (Westport: Praeger, 1998): pp. 130, 146, n. 7. Goebbels quotation as printed by Saul Friedländer, Reflections on Nazism: An Essay on Kitsch and Death (New York: Harper and Row, 1984): p. 10. 2. Barta, ‘Film Nazis’, p. 130. German films for German audiences are of course dense with the semiotics of language, social knowledge, cultural nuance and nostalgia. Much of historical significance is lost in translation. My concern is about how a ‘meta-image’ of Nazism or the Holocaust is developed, Tony Barta, ‘Consuming the Holocaust: Memory Production and Popular Film’, Contention, 5: 2 (Winter 1996): pp. 161–175. 3. The next incarnation, filmed concurrently with Downfall, showed how high Ganz set the bar. Being Austrian did not save Tobias Moretti from imperson- ating Charlie Chaplin in Heinrich Breloer’s Speer und Er (2005). He should have stuck to Inspector Rex. 4. On the other hand, to meet Bruno Ganz in a break from filming, with Hitler moustache and open-neck shirt, is a nice post-Brechtian double take. Such is the demystifying deconstruction of DVD Extras. 5. Oliver Hirschgiebel, the director of Downfall, appears to have had less influ- ence over its historical messages than Eichinger and Fest. Joachim Fest, Der Untergang: Hitler und das Ende des Dritten Reiches (Berlin: Alexander Fest 230 Notes and References

Verlag, 2002), trans. Margot Bettauer Dembo as Inside Hitler’s Bunker: The Last Days of the Third Reich (New York: Picador, 2005). 6. In his book Fest shows a surer touch in the selection of images: Hitler, his generals, men in trenches, and then (p. 72) a woman, her head and shoulders covered by a blanket, unknowable behind her gasmask, pushing a baby carriage as fast as she can past the debris of a cinema. The film advertised in large letters is REISE IN DIE VERGANGENHEIT – Journey into the Past. 7. ‘Tja, dann wollen wir mal’ – ‘Well then, let’s give it a go’ (Hitler to the untried young secretary Traudl Junge at the start of the film), Die Zeit, 44, 21 October 2004. Only Hitler, a Career, he says, ever moved him to write about other people’s films with a similar anger boiling in him. See Wim Wenders, ‘That’s Entertainment’ (1977), Emotion Pictures (London: Faber, 1989): pp. 93–99. 8. Klaus Theweleit in conversation with Michael Girke, Freitag, 46, 5 November 2004. 9. Syberberg described his Unser Hitler (Our Hitler, 1978) as ‘a work of mourning’. Reitz’s Heimat was released as a cinema film in 1984, and then on television. Fassbinder’s The Marriage of Maria Braun (1978) was set in the post-war years and Lili Marleen (1980) in a very emblematic Nazi context. See Anton Kaes, From Hitler to Heimat: The Return of History as Film (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1989), and Thomas Elsaesser, New German Cinema: A History (New Brunswick NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1989): Chapter 8. 10. Die Zeit, Nr.42, 7 October 2004. Ganz was known for his key roles in two Wenders films, The American Friend (1977) and Wings of Desire (1988). 11. For the realities of German operations against the peoples of the Soviet Union, Elem Klimov’s 1984 film Come and See is unsurpassed. After the burning alive of every man, woman and child found in a village an SS officer repeats what Hitler said often enough – that not every people has an equal right to live. The ending that follows is a virtuoso recasting of Hitler’s whole film epic. 12. For some, minding your own business might involve a spot of denunciation; see Ian Kershaw’s gently confronting interviews in The Nazis: Warning from History (BBC, 1997) – memorable television and important history. 13. A. and M. Mitscherlich, The Inability to Mourn (New York: Grove Press, 1975). See also Marcia Landy, Cinematic Uses of the Past (Minneappolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996): Chapter 6, ‘Historical Capital: Mourning, Melo- drama and Nazism’, and Omer Bartov, Germany’s War and the Holocaust: Disputed Histories (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2003). See also A. Dirk Moses, ‘Coming to Terms with Genocidal Pasts in Comparative Perspective: Germany and Australia’, Aboriginal History, 25, 2001, pp. 91–115. 14. Hannah Arendt, ‘The Aftermath of Nazi Rule: Report from Germany’, Commentary, 10, 1950, pp. 342–353. Quoted in Jeffrey K. Olick, In the House of the Hangman: The Agonies of German Defeat, 1943–1949 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005): p. 101. 15. Tony Barta, ‘After Nazism: Antifascism and Democracy in Dachau, 1945’, in Michael N. Dobkowski and Isidor Wallimann, eds, Radical Perspectives on the Rise of Fascism in Germany, 1919–1945 (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1989): pp. 289–318. 16. Daniel Jonah Goldhagen, Hitler’s Willing Executioners: Ordinary Germans and the Holocaust (London: Little, Brown, 1996); closer to the realities, in my view, is Christopher Browning, Ordinary Men: Reserve Police Battalion 101 and the Final Solution in Poland (New York: Harper Collins, 1992). The American Notes and References 231

production Holocaust (1978) was seen by 20 million people in West Germany. Kaes, pp. 28–35. For other pressures from outside Germany, see Hannah Arendt, Eichmann in Jerusalem (New York: Viking, 1963), Peter Novick, The Holocaust in American Life (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1999). 17. Sebastian Haffner, The Meaning of Hitler (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1979), and Fest, Chapter 6. Germans as Hitler’s first victims remains a bridge too far for most Germans, not to mention foreigners. It would mean giving the left opposition to the Nazis much more recognition, certainly more than the first victim status still claimed by many Austrians. 18. Tony Barta, ‘Recognizing the Third Reich: Heimat and the Ideology of Inno- cence’, in Tom O’Regan and Brian Shoesmith, eds, History on/and/in Film (Perth: Collins, 1985): pp. 131–139. Downfall is thought by some to a break a taboo, enabling Germans at last to recognise Hitler as human; Heimat,in my view, was a much more important breakthrough in allowing Germans finally to recognise themselves in their own past. 19. Günther Grass, Crabwalk (Harcourt: Orlando, 2002), trans. Krishna Winston. See also Laurel Cohen-Pfister, ‘The Suffering of the Perpetrators: Unleashing Collective Memory in German Literature of the Twenty-First Century’, Forum of Modern Language Studies, 41: 2, 2005, pp. 124–135. 20. Barta, Screening the Past, Chapter 1. Large screen, high-definition television will increase the potency and accessibility of this ‘vivid present’. For history and film scholars, electronic notes will open versions of the past on screen at a click. 21. Downfall DVD and website. Fest had been a soldier in the war; he died in 2006. Helmut Kohl, who famously said how lucky some were to have been born late, gave Downfall his ringing endorsement. 22. I remember a lesson compellingly taught by Peter Watkins. He screened the charge into the machine guns at the end of Gallipoli, then asked the class, ‘Is this an anti-war film or a war film?’ 23. Rainer Rother, ‘The Experience of the First World War and German Film’ in Michael Paris, ed., The First World War and Popular Cinema (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2000): pp. 217–246. 24. Speer made much of his single, late defiance. Up to that point, as Breloer reminds us, he bent all his talents to prolonging the war and the suffering – while envisaging the grand projects he would be able to realise after Hitler’s victory. See also Klaus Neumann, ‘Downfall: Almost the Same Old Story’, Rouge 6, 2005, www.rouge.com.au. 25. For local case studies see Klaus Neumann, Shifting Memories: The Nazi Past in the New Germany (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1990), Harold Marcuse Legacies of Dachau: The uses and Abuses of a Concentration Camp, 1933–2001 (Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001) and on film The Nasty Girl (dir. Michael Verhoeven, 1990). 26. Süddeutscher Zeitung, 30 October 2003, quoted by Cohen-Pfister, 27. It should be noted that 1945 had already returned to German cinema in 1946, with the first post-war film, Wolfgang Staudte’s Die Mörder sind unter uns. 27. Konrad Jarausch and Michael Geyer, Shattered Past: Reconstructing German Histories (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2003). 28. Kershaw estimates that not more than 10 per cent of the population were truly loyal to Hitler, Der Spiegel, 12 July 2004. They were also among the most active in denying guilt by association, which hardly improved matters for the other 90 per cent. Index

Abbatantuono, Diego, 64 Buhler, Joseph, 121, 124, 130, 131 Affair, 24, 96 Bulajic, Velijko, 7 Aimée & Jaguar, 11, 83–93 Burning Snow, 154, 155 Air Force, 106 Akhurst, Lucy, 21 Canaris,6 All Quiet on the Western Front, 179 Capa, Robert, 180, 181 Annaud, Jean-Jacques, 148, 149, 151, Carve Her Name with Pride,34 152, 154, 155, 156, 158, 160 Casablanca, 50, 51 Anne Frank Remembered, 137 Cher, 42, 50 Another Time, Another Place,25 Churchill, Winston S., 162, 167, 170, Aso, Cynthia, 116 173 Assassination,4 Churchill: The Wilderness Years, 167 Clarke, Tom, 114 Bad Day at Black Rock, 114 Clouzet, Henri George, 4 Baker, George, 29 Colditz, 7–8, 26, 27 Band of Brothers,8 Colditz Story,3,27 Batman, 111 Colesberry, Robert, 115 Battle for San Pietro, 180, 189 Come See the Paradise, 11, 105–18 Battle of Britain, 6, 13, 27 Conspiracy, 11, 119–33 Battle of El Alamein,7 Cooper, Stewart, 181 Battle of Midway, 180 Crawford, Anne, 17 Battle of Stalingrad, 154, 155 Cruel Sea,27 Battle of the Bulge,27 Curtis, Tony, 23 Battle of the Neretva,7 Battle of the River Plate,27 D Day 6.4.44,9 Benigni, Roberto, 137, 138, 140, 144, Dad’s Army,7,15 145, 146 Dam Busters,27 Betrayal from the East, 111 Danger UXB,32 Bettany, Paul, 17 Daniels, Ben, 130 Big Parade, 179 Dark Blue World,10 Bigagli, Claudio, 64 Davis, Colonel Benjamin O. Jr., 98, Black Book,5 100, 101 Blitz: London’s Firestorm,33 Days and Nights, 154 Bomber Harris, 10, 162–76 Dench, Judi, 42, 47, 50 Border Street,4 Devil’s General,6 Branagh, Kenneth, 119, 120, 127, 132 Dexter, Colin, 28 Braugher, Andre, 98 Diary of Anne Frank, 137 Breinersdorfer, Fred, 88, 89 Dini, Memo, 64 Bridge,85 Downfall, 11, 89, 120, 192–204 Bridge Too Far,6,13 Dresden: The Inferno, 10 Brower, Otto, 110 Dunkirk,27

232 Index 233

Eichinger, Bernd, 195, 196 Heydrich, Reinhard, 119, 121, 122, Eichmann, Adolf, 121, 122, 125, 126, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 127, 129, 131, 132, 198 131, 132 Eisenhower, General Dwight D., 169 Himmler, Heinrich, 135 Eisenhower, Milton S., 109 Hirschbiegel, Oliver, 89 Endo, Mitsye, 109 Hitler, Adolf, 39, 45, 120, 124, 132, Enemy at the Gates, 10, 148–61 144, 192, 193, 194, 196, 197, 198, English Patient,28 199, 202, 203, 204 Ermler, Fridrikh, 153 Hoffman, Otto, 121, 124, 129 Hogan’s Heroes,7 Family at War,7,8,26 Holocaust, 8, 135, 136, 198 Family Gathering, 115 Horowitz, Anthony, 29, 30, 33, 38 Färberböck, Max, 89, 92 Hoskins, Bob, 150 Fassbinder, Rainer Werner, 196 Howard, Leslie, 18 Ferroni, Giorgio, 7 Howell, Anthony, 30 Fest, Joachim, 194–5, 196, 197 Huston, John, 183 Fiennes, Joseph, 149, 158 Fires Were Started,32 Ice Cold in Alex,27 Firth, Colin, 128, 130 Ill-Met by Moonlight,3 Fishburn, Lawrence, 95, 96, 98 Inspector Morse, 26, 28, 29, 30 Ford, Aleksander, 4 Island at War,28 Ford, John, 180 Foyle’s War, 10, 26–38 Japanese Relocation, 109, 110 Freiser, Roland, 121 Jennings, Humphrey, 32 Friel, Anna, 12 Jentsch, Julia, 89–90 Fuller, Charlie, 96 Jewel in the Crown,28 Jewison, Norman, 96 Gamblin, Jacques, 70 Johnson, Van, 114 Ganz, Bruno, 120, 194, 197, 204 Journal de la Resistance,4 Gentle Sex, 16, 18 Junge, Traudl, 195, 203 Georgeson, Tim, 14 Go for Broke, 113 Kaminski, Janusz, 181 Goddard, Alain, 149, 151, 154 Kanal,4 Goebbels, Joseph, 71, 72, 86, 192, Kay, Barnaby, 129 195, 204 Khrushchev, Nikita, 150, 157 Great Escape,27 Kinoy, Ernest, 95 Great Turning Point, 153, 155 Kitchen, Michael, 29 Green, Jill, 26, 29 Klopfer, Gerhard, 121, 127–28, 131, Grief and the Pity,5 133 Guns of Navarone,6,27 Köhler, Juliana, 90 Kolberg, 192, 204 Hanks, Tom, 190 Kritzinger, Friedrich-Wilhelm, 121, Hardy, Robert, 167, 174 128, 129 Hardy, Thomas, 20 Harris, Air Marshall, Sir Arthur, 162, Lacombe Lucien,5 163, 165 Land Girls (1942), 13 Harris, Ed, 149, 158 Land Girls (1998), 11, 12–25 Hawks, Howard, 106 Lange, Rudolf, 121, 129, 133 Hell in the Pacific, 113 Lanzman, Claude, 135, 146 234 Index

Last Bridge,6 O’Brien, Maureen, 21 Lauter, Ed, 97 Odette,34 Law, Jude, 149 Operation Crossbow,27 Lebedev, Nikolai, 160 Orphul, Marcel, 4 Leibbrandt, Georg, 121 Overlord, 181 Leland, David, 19 Ozerov, Yury, 154 Life is Beautiful, 11, 137–47 Lithgow, John, 97 Parker, Alan, 105, 106, 108, 114, 115, Little Tokyo, USA, 110, 111 116, 117, 118 Living and the Dead, 159 Pathfinders, 163 Lloyd, Innes, 164 Pearl Harbour,9 London Can Take It!,33 Pearson, Drew, 111 Longest Day, 27, 179, 181 Perlman, Ron, 150 Luther, Martin, 121 Petrov, Vladimir, 154 Pierson, Frank, 126, 133 McBain, Kenny, 29 Pirosh, Robert, 113 McCormack, Catherine, 12 Plowright, Joan, 42, 43, 47 Mackintosh, Steven, 15 Podalydes, Joan, 70 Malle, Louis, 5 Poitier, Sidney, 96 Mandel, Loring, 125, 126, 128, 131, Portal, Air Marshal Sir Charles, 167, 132 168, 169, 170 Margulies, Stan, 95 Portman, Eric, 16 Markowitz, Robert, 97 POW,7,28 Mattes, Eva, 150 Mediterraneo, 11, 55–69 Quaid, Dennis, 105 Men Under the Sea,5 Meyer, Alfred, 130 Mihaileanu, Radu, 137, 138, 145, 146 Raven,4,80 Milestone, Lewis, 179, 181 Reach for the Sky,3,27 Millions Like Us, 3, 16, 17, 21–2, 27 Reitz, Edgar, 196 Minghella, Anthony, 28 Retribution, 154, 155 Mirandola, Vasco, 64 Riefenstahl, Leni, 193 Mississippi Burning, 115 Ritter, Karl, 5 Mitchell, Julian, 28 Robertis, Francesco de, 5 Mollo, Nick, 21 Roc, Patricia, 21 Monteleone, Enzo, 55, 60, 62, 63 Rome, Open City,5,58 Mortimer, John, 40, 41, 42, 43, 45, 46, Rossellini, Roberto, 5, 58 51 Rothemund, Marc, 88–9 Müller, Heinrich, 121, 126 Murderer’s Are Amongst Us,5 Safe Conduct, 10, 70–82 Mussolini, Benito, 39, 41, 45, 47, 50, Salvatores, Gabriele, 55, 59, 64, 65 52–53, 55, 56, 144 Saving Private Ryan, 9, 10, 22, 23, 150, 161, 177–91 Name of the Rose, 150 Sayonara, 113 Nettles, John, 29 Schindler’s List, 9, 136, 144 Neumann, Erich, 121, 128 Schrader, Maria, 90 Night and Fog, 135 Secret Army, 26, 27 No Bananas,28 Shaw, Don, 162, 164, 165, 166, 167, None but the Brave, 113 169, 170, 174, 175 Index 235

Shimono, Sab, 116 U 571, 9 Shoah, 136, 146 Unfinished Business, 115 Silence of the Sea,7 Smith, Maggie, 42, 47, 50 Verhoeven, Paul, 5 Soldier’s Play,96 Vidor, King, 179 Soldier’s Story,96 Vilsmaier, Josef, 148 Sophie Scholl, 83–93 Spielberg, Steven, 9, 95, 136, 144, 150, Wajda, Andreas, 4 177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 183, 184, War and Remembrance, 136 185, 190, 191 War in the Air,7,19 Stalingrad (1989), 154 Way Ahead,3 Stalingrad (1992), 148, 149 Way to the Stars,27 Star, 160 Wayne, John, 23 Star of Africa,6 We’ll Meet Again, 26, 27 Staudte, Wolfgang, 5 Weeks, Honeysuckle, 30 Stolper, Aleksandr, 154, 159 Weisz, Rachel, 12, 149 Stuckart, Wilhelm, 121, 124, 128, 130 Wenders, Wim, 195, 196, 197 Stukas,5 Whately, Kevin, 29 Syberberg, Hans-Jürgen, 196 Where Eagles Dare,6 Williams, Robert W., 95, 96, 98, 99, Tavernier, Bertrand, 70, 71, 72, 74, 76, 100 77, 78, 80, 81 Wish Me Luck, 13, 28 Tea with Mussolini, 11, 39–54 With the Marines at Tarawa, 180, 189 Teahouse of the August Moon, 113 World at War, 163, 164 Ten Days to D Day,9 Tenko, 13, 28 Thaw, John, 29, 174 Yanks, 26, 27 Thomson, Gabriel, 150 Yegiazarov, Gavril, 154 Threlfall, David, 128 Tomita, Tamlyn, 105 Zaitsev, Vasily, 149, 151, 152, 156, Tomlin, Lily, 42 157, 159 Tora! Tora! Tora!,6,113 Zanuck, Darryl F., 181 Train of Life, 10, 11, 137–47 Zeffirelli, Franco, 39–40, 43, 44, 45, Triumph of the Will, 193 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 54 Tucci, Stanley, 127 Zinner, Peter, 126 Tuskegee Airmen, 11, 94–104 Zinnerman, Fred, 114