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Manju Tacire: Learning Manchu, an Introduction to the Manchus and Their Language

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Authors Autry, Robert William

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MANJU TACIRE: LEARNING MANCHU, AN INTRODUCTION TO THE MANCHUS AND THEIR LANGUAGE

Robert Autry

A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of the

DEPARTMENT OF LINGUISTICS

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

For the Degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

In the Graduate College

THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA

2019

THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA GRADUATE COLLEGE

As members of the Master’s Committee, we certify that we have read the thesis prepared by Robert Autry, titled Manju Tacire: Learning Manchu, an Introduction to the Manchus and their language and recommend that it be accepted as fulfilling the dissertation requirement for the Master’s Degree. .

Date: 8/15/2019 Wilson De Lima Silva

Date: 8/ 14/19 Ofelia Zepeda

Date: 8/15/19 Amy V Fountain

Final approval and acceptance of this thesis is contingent upon the candidate’s submission of the final copies of the thesis to the Graduate College. I hereby certify that I have read this thesis prepared under my direction and recommend that it be accepted as fulfilling the Master’s requirement.

Date: 08/15/2019 Wilson De Lima Silva Master’s Thesis Committee Chair Linguistics

Acknowledgements

Amba urgen baniha geren mini hūncihinde – mini ama, eme, iki, jai deheme - ceni wehiyereme, jai mini sargande; ini wehiyereme sartaburame, jai ini mini gisun tacirede, jai mini ani inenggidari buyasita nakakū ere jalu baita dulimbade be aisilame icihiyarade geli (geren i bi kokirambi akū! Tuttu toyon sain!). Baniha umesi!

Dubende, guwa amba-jecekū baniha mini sure mefede, Ting’Lan, bade i oho mini “fithe”, jai takabun mini ganio dadu feciki jugūnde museni tesubai gisun, suduri, ulan, jai fujuri emgi.

Ere takabunci manggi, bi icingga beri beri okson emgi, jai belheni beri beri gai emgi mudande - jai nūl bi be nakame bahanambi! Šure, buhiyekū, i sini faššanci tafulanci bi nerinde geli minibeye tesubai gisun gisureme bahanambi garga anggai.

Sini tacibun tafulanakū, bi Manju waka, jai geli “lengguist” waka. Sini tunggenci museni gisun dahi weihungge museni oyo fejergi - hohoo goro museni Manju susugurunci! Tuttu baniha entehetei, mini butulinggu mujilenci.

Suwende, wacihiyame omi, jai “dubetele!”

-Fang Halai Niohe “Lang”

Table of Contents Afaha Emu: Abstract (Yarun), pp. 7-8 Frequently used Linguistic Terminology, pp. 9-11 Position, pp. 12-13 Afaha Juwe: Manju Takabun: Introduction to the Manchu People their history, and language pp. 14-19 Manchu People (Manju Urse) pp. 14-16 Manchu Language (Manju Gisun) pp. 17-18 Manchu Written Language (Manju Hergen) 18-19 Afaha Ilan: Learning Manchu (Manju Tacire) pp. 20-169 Afaha Ilan Nirugan (Chapter Three Layout): Kicen Anakū (Lesson Key), pp. 23 Linguistic Abbreviations Key, pp. 24 List of Commonly used Manchu Words/Phrases in the Chapter, and their English Translations, pp. 25 Manchu to English Pronunciation Guide (Manjuci Inggiride Jilgan Yarun), 26-27 Kicen 1: Manchu Sentence Structure and Personal Pronouns, pp. 29-34 Kicen 2. Inamiate Pronouns, pp. 36-38 Kicen 3: Manchu Plurals, pp. 39-42 Kicen 4: The Genitive Case and the Manchu Possessive, pp. 45-49 Kicen 5: The Dative-Locative Case, pp. 52-56 Kicen 6: The Ablative Case, pp. 57-61 Kicen 7: The Accusative Case, pp. 62-63 Kicen 8: Demonstrative Pronouns, pp. 65-69 Kicen 9: Colors (Boco), pp. 70-73 Kicen 10: Verb Formation and Basic Manchu Tenses, pp. 75-80 Kicen 11: Irregular Verbs, pp. 81-84 Kicen 12: Negation and the Imperative in Manchu, pp. 85-89 Kicen 13: Verbal Question Formation in Manchu, pp. 90-94 Kicen 14: Utilizing more than one Action (Verb) In a Sentence, pp. 95-99 Kicen 15: Complex Verb Tenses in Manchu, pp. 100-104

Kicen 16: Voice, Intention, and Direction with Manchu Verbs, pp. 105-111 Kicen 17: Adjectives, pp. 112-116 Kicen 18: Nouns and Noun Development in Manchu, pp. 117-123 Kicen 19: Numbers (Ton), pp. 124-133 Kicen 20: Time (Erin) and Age, pp. 136-145 Kicen 21: Directions (Ergi), pp. 146-153 Kicen 22: Greetings, Departures, Common Phrases and Responses to them, pp. 154-158 Kicen 23: Adpositions in Manchu, pp. 159-163 Kicen 24: Manchu Names and Naming Tradition (Manju gebu jai gebulere-ulan), pp. 164-169 Afaha Duin: Appendix and Word Lists (Ashan jai Gisun Afaha), pp. 170-207 Feten (Elements), pp. 170-171 Beyei Ubu, Yabun, jai ini Simen (Body Parts, Actions, and its’ Vital Fluids), pp. 172- 175 Kemnere jai Bodoro Gisun Afaha (Measuring and Calculating Word List), pp. 176 Mujin jai Banin Afaha (Emotions and States of Being List), pp. 177-180 Ba, Bana, jai Baising Afaha (Lands, Territories, and Settlements List), pp. 181-182 Banainirugani Banin (Map’s Features, Topographical Features), pp. 183-184 Hūncihin jai Guwa (Relatives and Others), pp. 185-186 Etuku (Clothing), pp. 187 Booi Ubu, Inenggidari Agūra (Parts of the House, Everyday Tools), pp. 188-191 Abalara Hajun jai Agūra (Hunting Weapons and Implements), pp. 192-194 Burtei Duwali Leose jai Kuren (Common Kinds of Buildings and Establishments), pp. 195-197 Buda, Omingga, Budaiboo jai Teoden (Food, Drink, Kitchen and Trade), pp. 198-201 Duwali Faksi (Types of Specialists), pp. 202 Gurgu jai Orho (Animals and Plants), pp. 203-206 Arbun (Forms, textures), pp. 207 Gisunci Daljingga Gisun (Language Pertaining to Language), pp. 208-209) Uncehen Yarun (Citations), pp. 210

List of Tables Table 1.1: Personal Pronouns, pp. 29 Table 1.2: Inanimate Pronouns, pp. 36 Table 1.3: Plurals, pp. 39 Table 1.4: Case Suffixes, pp. 44 Table 1.5: Genitive Case, pp. 45 Table 1.6: Demonstrative Pronouns, pp. 65 Table 1.7: Colors, pp. 70 Table 1.8: Simple Verb Tenses, pp.75 Table 1.9: Complex Verb Tenses Table, pp. 100 Table 1.10 Voice and Direction Suffixes, pp. 105 Table 1.11 Intention Suffixes, pp. 110 Table 1.12 Adjective Making Suffixes, pp. 112 Table 1.13 Types of Nouns and Noun Making Sufffixes, pp. 117 Table 1.14: Numbers One through a Million Chart, pp. 124 Table 1.15: Directions, their forms, and relations, pp. 146 Table 1.16: Important roots and notable relations of direction words, pp. 147

Afaha Emu: Abstract (Yarun)

This work provides a brief introduction to the Manchu language, with an emphasis on teaching spoken Manchu rather than written Manchu. However, while this comprises the majority of the work, there are an additional two sections provided; a chapter introducing the

Manchu and their language, as well as an appendix providing organized vocabulary lists.

Most works covering the learning of the Manchu language are concerned with the written language for reading documents, rather than the spoken language for daily communication.

Works that do teach Manchu for spoken and written use often place emphasis on learning the orthography over learning the living language, and present material in a manner that is overwhelming for the learner while using written Manchu examples and standards as mediums through which they teach the natural spoken language. Additionally, few teaching materials, regardless of their focus, are interactive – providing the reader with avenues through which they can test their new knowledge. Thus, this Manchu language material focuses on the spoken language of the Manchus, rather than the written language and historical texts, while additionally attempting to provide simple, interactive learning that is easily interpretable for new learners.

Below I will describe each chapter and section of the material in brief, as well as my reasons behind certain decisions regarding its’ organization and its’ content.

1. The Introduction

The Introductory chapter, titled “Manju Takabun: Introduction to the Manchu people, their history, and language” is organized into two distinct sections: Manchu History and Manchu

Language. These sections are self-explanatory in their contents.

2. The Teaching Portion

The Teaching chapter, titled “Manju Tacire” meaning ‘Learning Manchu’ or ‘Learn

Manchu’ comprises of 23 distinct sections, each focusing on a different basic concept, or building block of the Manchu language. These concepts range from pronouns, to colors, numbers, and directions, to developing verbs and adjectives and describing the structure of a traditional Manchu name. The primary purpose of this chapter is to provide the reader with the necessary tools to interpret basic Manchu phrases and words when spoken, as well as to be able to develop their own sentences in Manchu. Important to note is that while most Manchu language provided in this chapter derives from the “Standard” Manchu (SM henceforth) which is the most commonly learned, and spoken, variety of Manchu by Manchus today – and was used to record notes during the Qing Dynasty (1636-1912), as a speaker, I additionally provide words, phrases, and concepts that I use that may not have an SM equivalent, or may just be an

‘alternative’ to the SM itself. I will always provide SM forms of a word or phrase first, however where dialectal or idiolectal differences may exist I will mention these as well. I do not adhere to rigorous standardization of Manchu based on the written language itself, and therein promote modern day speakers – with a good understanding of the Manchu language – to experiment with their Manchu, and to both develop and use new phrases and terms, as well as the old.

3. The Appendix

The Appendix portion of this work is purely “FYI” – providing additional Manchu language information for any interested readers. This portion is comprised entirely of organized ‘word lists’ – with categories such as elements, household, topographical features, and cooking – that aim to provide the reader with additional ‘basic’ vocabulary to experiment with, while not dedicating a whole new teaching section for each word list.

Frequently Used Linguistic Terminology:

Below is a brief list of more specialized, linguistic terminology that will be frequently mentioned throughout the material, as a reference for the reader:

Language Family:

A language family is a grouping of languages, termed ‘daughter languages’ that can be positively traced to a common linguistic ancestor, or ‘proto-language’.

Vowel Harmony:

The process in which vowels in a word must both be of the same ‘type’. So far as this work concerns, it means that there is (generally) a pattern that certain vowels follow in regards to what vowels they can and cannot appear after in a word. Manchu has a ‘light’ adherence to vowel harmony, meaning there are many exceptions to the traditional rule. These, and relevant exceptions, shall all be covered throughout the work.

Agglutinative

Agglutinative describes a language which adheres to agglutination, the process in which morphemes – often of different parts of speech - are ‘stacked’ together to create different meanings, and therein new words – with the morphemes themselves remaining relatively unchanged in their pronunciation despite this. Typically, agglutinative languages have more

9 words with higher frequencies of affixes than non-agglutinative languages. Manchu is a moderately agglutinative language.

Suffixing

Pertaining to agglutinative languages, Manchu is additionally a ‘suffixing’ language, wherein most of its ‘agglutination’ comes in the form of suffixes, and their addition to root words. There are relatively few infixes in Manchu, and little to no prefixes.

Cases

Case is the mode through which the grammatical function of a particular word is revealed, or marked – such as its role as the subject of an action (accusative), the source of an action or thing (locative), time of an action (dative), time, place, or person from which something has come (ablative) or the possessor of an object (genitive). Cases in vernacular Manchu are suffixes. They are often treated as separate words under some circumstances in the orthography, or written language. In this material, for the sake of teaching the reader the spoken language, I treat all cases as suffixes.

1. Locative: The locative case is used to imply where something is or has occurred. In

Manchu, the Locative case is marked by the suffix -de, translation as ‘in’, ‘at’, and ‘on’.

2. Dative: The dative case implies when something has occurred. Like the locative case in

Manchu, it utilizes the suffix -de.

3. Genitive: The genitive case marks a pronoun as the possessor of an object. In Manchu, it is marked by the suffix -ni.

a. Possessive: The possessive in Manchu is not often considered a case in itself,

however functions similarly to the genitive – as the suffix -i, differing only in the

lack of an initial /n/. It is used to mark all non-pronouns as possessors of an

object.

4. Accusative: The accusative case marks the direct object of an action or verb, or more simply the subject of an action or occurrence. In Manchu, it is marked by the suffix -be

5. Ablative: The ablative case describes movement, or transition, from one place or thing to another. It is marked in Manchu by the suffix -ci and is also frequently used for comparison.

Position:

I am American-born of partial Manchu-Chinese descent from the Fang Hala, a Manchu clan of Han Chinese (SM: Nikan) origin, and therein an overseas-Manchu, or Namu Manju. I was first introduced to Manchu-Chinese culture, history, and language from my grandmother during my childhood – which had brought me to having further interest in our Manchu-Chinese heritage later in life, and in further learning and preserving our old family language of Manchu – the foremost reason I had for beginning my research of linguistics six years before the making of this teaching material – with the hope of learning to record, preserve, revitalize and expand its use within my own family.

Manchu is my preferred language of use within the household, and I retain a passive- fluent level in the language today. It remains more ‘natural’ than English in ‘casual’ spheres of interaction (predominately household) whereas English naturally dominates outside of the house.

Its continued use within the family as the ‘table language’ multiple generations after immigrating from China (while Mandarin, Cantonese, and later English remained in use with friends and in laws, and eventually replaced Manchu in most spheres) means that it has evolved ‘away’ from the standard in many regards, and has become Anglicized (Inggiricilaha) in its production, order, and some of its vocabulary (via loan words.). Many words have since evolved in their use and meaning, while the standard – deriving from the written language that has largely been unspoken for over 200 years – remains relatively unchanged and retains more original vocabulary, however has seldom been used for everyday conversation outside of limited cases since the decline of

Manchu over 200 years ago.

Speaking a non-standard variety of Manchu while being a learner of the standard, and having first learned passive, natural spoken Manchu as opposed to written Standard Manchu,

12 much of the knowledge I transcribe here is from my dialect and speech (MS) rather than

Standard Manchu (MS: Durungga Manju), and therein may at times come into conflict with other attested Manchu language teaching materials, despite my best efforts here to teach the

Standard. I accept all responsibility for any incorrect, or otherwise ‘dialectally different’ non- standard information portrayed in this material. However, it is my hope to promote the teaching of natural, spoken Manchu over the older written language, and to promote the Manchu language as a living language still used, learned, and taught by many of us today in our everyday lives, with additional importance to us, rather than just having importance to those that wish to read our history in the old script, or study our language for purely linguistic motives.

Afaha Juwe: Manju Takabun: Introduction to the Manchu People their history, and language

Manchu People (Manju Urse)

Manchus, (SM: Manju) native to Manchuria and descendants of the earlier Jurchen peoples (SM: Jušen Urse), were founders of the Qing Dynasty (SM: Amba Daicing Gurun,

1636-1912), the final dynasty in Chinese history (Elliot, 2001). The Manchus became Manchus in 1635 when Hung Taiji, the first Khan of the Qing and second Khan of the Later Jin (SM:

Amaga Aisin Gurun) (MS: Amala Aisin Gurun) declared in a ‘dergi hese’ or imperial edict that the Jurchens and their subjects were to be known as Manchus rather than Jurchens (Elliot, 2001).

This day would come to be known since recent times as New Life Day, or Life Day (SM: (Ice)

Banjin Inenggi) among the Manchus; denoting the birth of the new Manchu tribe. While the origins of the word “Manchu” are unclear and debated to this day, the name change has since been universally accepted, with modern Manchus referring to themselves as Manchus rather than

Jurchens.

Like their Jurchen ancestors, the Manchu people are classified as Tungusic, and traditionally speak a Tungusic language that is often described as either a descendant of Jurchen, or its modern continuation. However, despite this, Manchus themselves are mixed in heritage – with many Manchu clans being of either Jurchen, Mongol, or Han Chinese origin – while sharing a common “Bannerman” (SM: Gūsai Niyalma (sg.), Gūsai Urse (pl.)) heritage spanning from the original Manchu Eight Banners (SM: Jakūn Gūsa) – the military force of the Later Jin and Qing

Dynasties – founded by Nurhaci (SM: Aisin Gioro Halai Nurgaci Han), the first Khan of the

Later Jin (Elliot, 2001).

Manchus today are heavily influenced by Han Chinese custom, culture, and language – and since the Jurchen Jin Dynasty (SM: “Erde” Aisin Gurun, 1115-1234) have ‘migrated south’, geographically, linguistically, and culturally – to the extent that since the Qing, Manchus have been by in large considered Chinese. Additionally, Manchus and earlier Jurchens were also known as having been influenced by Mongols – with the Jianzhou Jurchens having used

Mongolian as their ‘lingua franca’ as opposed to any variant of Jurchen until the rise of the Later

Jin Dynasty and Qing Dynasties, and the language reforms (SM: Gisun aitubun) of Nurhaci

(Crossley, 2002). It could be said that the Manchus and their earlier Jurchen ancestors have historically existed between greater Mongolian and Han Chinese culture and language spheres and have long struggled with determining their ‘place’ in East Asia, either looking to the

Mongols or the Chinese as a ‘golden standard’ for their own upstart states, governments and civilization.

No better example of this struggle between maintaining their ‘northern’ heritage and adopting southern customs exists than the struggle of the Jin emperors of Digunai and Shizong.

During the Jin Dynasty, the Jurchen Emperor Wanyan Digunai (SM: Wanggiya Halai Digunai

Han) had been so profoundly influenced by Han Chinese ideology that he had enacted an invasion of the then Chinese Song Dynasty with the hopes of merging his peoples and state with that of China – and in such inheriting the ‘mandate of heaven’. He enacted laws that promoted use of Chinese language, dress, institutions and customs within his own court and considered the

Chinese civilization and language superior his own, the Jurchens (Tao, 1976).

Ultimately, Wanggiya Halai Digunai Han failed in his attempts to annex China, and the emperor that followed him, Emperor Wanyan Shizong (SM: Wanggiya Halai Wulu Han) had followed a path opposite to his – promoting use of Jurchen language among Jurchen subjects and

15 within the Jurchen courts, while still respecting Han Chinese subjects and language (Tao, 1976).

He had even attributed the failures of Digunai to his ‘abandoning of their simple Jurchen culture’ in exchange for the Chinese culture (Tao, 1976). In addition to this, he attempted to further expand Jurchen language use and development by translating Chinese classics into Jurchen, so that his Jurchen subjects may read them in their own native language. Later in life, Wulu would question his decisions and attempts to preserve Jurchen and wondered whether his ancestors would look kindly towards his attempts (Tao, 1976).

Today, the Manchus have been near-entirely Sinicized; with the majority of Manchus being monolingual speakers of Mandarin, as opposed to their own native Manchu, of which there is only an estimated 10-20 native speakers (Eberhard, Gary, Charles, 2019). The attempts of

Shizong - and those that followed him in the earlier Qing Dynasty - to preserve Jurchen-Manchu heritage, language, custom and culture ultimately failed, while the Manchu emperors succeeded in something the Jurchen emperor Digunai had not; successfully merging the Jurchen people with the Chinese state and civilization, and becoming its rulers. This was done the cost of their own native language and heritage, as this success came with the assimilation of many hundreds of thousands of Chinese and Mongolian speaking peoples that, while organized under the

Banners with the “Old Manchus” (SM: Fe Manju, compared with those that ‘became’ Manchu later, SM: “Ice Manju”, New Manchus), would ultimately have their languages and cultures dominate the original Manchu ones, even within the Manchu courts, by the late 1800s – to the extent that the last Manchu emperor, Aisin Gioro Pu I Han, was unable to speak his own language, instead speaking Mandarin (Elliot, 2001) (Puyi, Jenner, 1987).

Manchu Language (Manju Gisun)

The Manchu language (SM: Manju gisun) is a Southern Tungusic (SM: Julergi

“Tungus”, MS: Jurgi “Tungus”) language within the Tungusic Language family, often categorized as being a part of a “Manchu-Jurchen” group, comprising of the earlier ancestor language Jurchen (SM: Jušen gisun), Manchu, and then Xibe (SM: Sibe gisun), another former variant of Jurchen most typically considered a separate language from Manchu, due to the ethno- cultural divide between the Manchus and the Xibes, as both languages are mutually intelligible

(Whaley, 2012). Unlike their Northern Tungusic equivalents, such as Evenki (SM: Šolon, literally meaning “fork”) and Oroqen (SM: Oronco, from the root ‘Oron’, meaning “reindeer” – denoting their traditional reindeer herding lifestyle) Manchu and Xibe have been greatly influenced – in terms of their structure, vocabulary, and pronunciation – by Mandarin language, and have lost in part their original structures, that today remain more thoroughly preserved in the northern group (Ramsey, 1987).

In terms of the relationship, Manju gisun, Sibe gisun, and Jušen gisun are functionally the same language, however like all other languages Manchu and Xibe have evolved since being referred to as Jurchen. Despite this, Manchu and Xibe are demonstrably descended from, or functionally are current variants of Jurchen, and their linguistic descent from and relation to

Jurchen is not currently contended.

Use of Manchu has dwindled greatly since the beginning of the Qing, where is had begun as the primary language of the new Manchu court, its officials, and ruling family, the Aisin

Gioro. It’s decline in use is recorded as having begun by the 18th and 19th centuries, around the reign of the Jiaqing Emperor (SM: Aisin Gioro Halai Yong yan Han, 1760-1820) where he is recorded as having been frusturated at the inability of his own court officials to understand or use

17 the language functionally (Roads, 2000). As early as the 1720s the Yongzheng Emperor (SM:

Aisin Gioro Halai In Jen Han, 1722-1735) is recorded as having expressed his concerns with the potential loss of the Manchu language among Manchus in the future, claiming that additional incentive and encouragement for its use would be required to save it (Roads, 2000).

In terms of the functions of the language itself, Manchu is an agglutinative, primarily suffixing language that demonstrates an often-mixed adherence to vowel harmony; with many exceptions to the traditional vowel harmony existing. While being a suffixing language, many of these suffixes have been historically represented as separate words in early modern and contemporary written varieties of Manchu, despite being functionally suffixes. It has a simple five case system, using the ablative, dative, locative, genitive and accusative cases – with there being four total suffixes for the five cases (the dative and locative together utilize -de). The standard variety is described as having a vowel inventory of 6 vowels, compared with the vowel inventory of Xibe which has 8, however spoken Manchu itself can be aberrant from this traditional interpretation based off the written standard. Many loans exist from several nearby languages, most prominently from Mongolian and Mandarin, ranging from titles of nobility, names referring to various types of organized districts and counties, measurements, religious

(primarily Confucian and Buddhist) terms, and words of various flora and fauna.

Manchu Written Language: (Manju Hergen)

The “Manchu” written language (as opposed to the earlier Jurchen orthography, or

“Jušen Hergen”) dates back to 1599, wherein Nurgaci commissioned two scholars (SM: Baksi),

Erdeni Baksi and Gagai Baksi, to produce a Manchu script from Mongolian script. This earlier script came to be known as “script without dots and circles” (SM: Tongki fuka akū hergen) (MS:

Hergen tongki fuka akū), as opposed to the later modified script by Dahai Baksi1 which was

“script with dots and circles added” (SM: Tongki fuka sindaha hergen).

Regardless of the iteration, the Mongol based script may be considered as the ‘Fe

Hergen’, or “Old Script”, or even ‘Doroi Hergen’, or “Ceremonial Script”. Its use outside of ceremony, reading old Qing documents, and school instruction is fairly limited - with most

Manchu language users today – especially online - opting to use Latin derived scripts, such as

Möllendorf (named after its creater Paul Georg Von Möllendorf) or Abkai2. These newer, Latin based scripts may be termed as the ‘Ice Hergen’, or “New Script(s)”. These “Ice Hergen” – particularly Möllendorf’s (with some differences) – will be the primary medium through which I teach Manchu in the following chapters, on the basis that it is more commonly used among

‘casual’ Manchu speakers and learners in readily accessible portions of the internet.

1 Officially, according to the source for these scripts, the Manjui Yargiyan Kooli – or “Manchus’ Veritable Records”, sometimes translated as “Manchu Veritable Records” 2 Worth noting is that this choice among Manchu learners and Manchus is not necessarily political, but rather derives from the relative ease of using a Latin-based orthography for typing as opposed to the traditional Manchu script itself. In addition, most teaching resources for Manchu found online utilize one of the two above-mentioned Latin-based scripts, rather than the Fe Hergen, as their primary medium for teaching the language (https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Manchu). 19

Afaha Ilan: Learning Manchu (Manju Tacire)

The following chapter (afaha)3 is intended for those who wish to grasp a basic understanding of and ability in spoken Manchu. First, the reader will learn Manchu personal and object pronouns, followed by Manchu plurals and their use, the five cases and their use, demonstrative pronouns, colors, verbs – their production and use – adjectives, nouns, numbers, time, directions, adpositions, and then end off with a chapter showing examples of everyday speech utilizing these former concepts, followed by an informative lesson introducing traditional

Manchu names, their structure, and history. With this format, it is my hope that the reader will not only be able to ‘speak’ some basic Manchu, but will additionally attain the ability to innovate and create in Manchu, with an understanding of how to do so, when, and what the individual components of a given utterance mean. This is but a brief introduction to the Manchu language.

Due to the introductory nature of this work, many earlier lessons will provide lists of 30 or so Manchu vocabulary items – pertaining to family, house, household objects, and the like – to be used in conjuncation with whatever the lesson specifically covers (nouns to add plurals to, nouns to count, to apply color to, to utilize alongside demonstrative ponouns and cases, etc.).

Some of these are repeatedly used throughout the work and exist as a conduit through which the reader may learn the building blocks of the language, which remain the primary focus throughout most of this chapter. However, do not feel the need to memorize all of these items every lesson – many are there for reference, as they contain a similar theme, and not all will be included in questions later.

3 To promote the reader being ‘assimilated’ into Manchu language, simple titles and phrases throughout the chapter will either begin in Manchu, or transition from Manchu into English. However do not worry – these items shall be covered briefly – alongside their translations – prior to the lessons. 20

The topics (tacin) of this chapter are divided into lessons (kicen). There are a total of 23 lessons: covering basic vocabulary, and skills required to establish a ‘base’ with the Manchu language. Each lesson will begin with an introduction, with many followed by a chart displaying all relevant materials – primarily suffixes and their meanings and areas of speech - in a condensed form. Many lessons will begin, or end, with organized vocabulary lists that may be used in the following, or later, chapters. Following these charts and examples will be the

“Practices” (Urebun) – brief lessons with questions to practice material covered in the lessons.

While not entirely necessary, the reader may consider using the later Appendix portion of this work – especially when delving into lessons that require the reader to begin developing their own responses to sentences. This will allow the reader to expand their vocabulary beyond what is shown here in the teaching chapter, and therein provide the reader with a more diversified list of talking points and a more thorough understanding of basic Manchu. I advise the reader to attempt speaking aloud the Manchu material provided in this section, utilizing the pronunciation guide that is provided.

There are multiple varieties of spoken and written Manchu – the most popular of these being commonly referred to as “Standard Manchu” or “Literary Manchu” (MS: Durungga

Manju/Burtei Manju, Model/Standard or Common Manchu)4. This is the variety through which the reader will learn Manchu here, however I will additionally provide non-standard Manchu forms and phrases under certain circumstances as well, for the readers interest, or when a standard variety variation of a phrase or concept is not known. Non-standard information will

4 Most of the consultation on Standardized spelling, unfamiliar words to the author from Standard Manchu, as well as many of the written irregular verbs (which shall be covered later) occurred through use of the “A Comprehensive Manchu to English Dictionary”, written by linguist and sinologist Jerry Norman. 21 primarily derive from my dialect and speech, which is referred to as ‘MS’ (My Speech, as seen above) throughout the chapter.

Afaha Ilan Nirugan (Chapter Three Layout): Kicen Anakū (Lesson Key) Linguistic Abbreviations Key, Common Words List, and Manchu Pronunciation Guide Lesson 1: Personal Pronouns and Sentence Structure Lesson 2: Object Pronouns Lesson 3: Plurals Lesson 4-7: Manchu Cases Lesson 4: Genetive Case Lesson 5: Dative-Locative Case Lesson 6: Ablative Case Lesson 7: Accusative Case Lesson 8: Demonstrative Pronouns Lesson 9: Colors (Boco) Lesson 10: Simple Verb Tenses Lesson 11: Irregular Verbs Lesson 12: Negation and the Imperative in Manchu Lesson 13: Verbal Question Formation in Manchu Lesson 14: Utilizing more than one Action (Verb) In a Sentence Lesson 15: Complex Verb Tenses in Manchu Lesson 16: Voice, Intention, and Direction with Manchu Verbs Lesson 17: Adjectives Lesson 18: Nouns and Noun Development in Manchu Lesson 19: Numbers (Ton) Lesson 20: Time (Erin) and Age Lesson 21: Directions (Ergi) Lesson 22: Greetings, Departures, Common Phrases and Responses to them: Lesson 23: Adpositions in Manchu Lesson 24: Manchu Names and Naming Custom (Manju gebu jai gebulere-ulan)

Linguistic Abbreviations Key

This chapter utilizes three-line interlinear glosses in order for the reader to better understand the meaning entailed by individual components of an utterance, as opposed to simply understanding the meaning of their šošon, or sum. Below is an abbreviations list, including every abbreviation present in the glosses provided.

Tenses: (Erin) PRES – Present tense FUT/PRES – Future/Present tense PAST – Past tense NEU – Neutral tense ADJ – Adjective PL – Plural POSS – Possessive ABL – Ablative case LOC/DAT – Locative-Dative case GEN – Genitive case DIR – Direction INCL – Inclusive EXCL – Exclusive NEG – Negative REP – Repitition (once, twice, thrice, etc.) INT – Positive Interrogative NEGINT – Negative Interrogative NOM – Nominative MASC – Masculine FEM – Feminine

List of Commonly used Manchu Words/Phrases in the Chapter, and their English

Translations

While I will be providing English translations for certain recurring words and phrases in

Manchu initially, I will eventually only provide the Manchu forms of these words, as a way of introducing even additional vocabulary – with context – to the reader.

Afaha – Chapter Kicen – Lesson Urebun – Practice Gisun – Language, vocabulary Manju gisun – Manchu language Inggiri gisun – English language Manju (gisun)-ci Inggiri (gisun)-de5 – From Manchu into English (Translate) Inggiri (gisun)-ci Manju (gisun)-de – From English into Manchu (Translate) Tungseren – Translation Tungsere – The imperative, or command form (one of them) for the verb tungserembi, to translate Ana-kū – Key Tuwa-kū-de – For example (lit. “In example”)

5 Here, I do not drop the ‘n’ from ‘gisun’ following the addition of the locative -de. This is because in my speech (MS) the vowel preceeding this suffix is typically nasalized. However, in SM - written and oral – this is not necessarily the case, and it is dropped prior to the addition of -de in Standard Written Manchu (along with other consonants). 25

Manchu to English Pronunciation Guide (Manjuci Inggiride Jilgan Yarun)

Aa – like English “a” in “About” Bb – like the ‘b’ in English “Bee” Cc – like English “ch” in “Chapter”. Dd – like English ‘d’ in “Adamant” Ee – like English ‘e’ in “Dent” Ff – like English ‘f’ in “Form” Gg6 – Word initially can be pronounced as the velar English ‘g’ in “Gut”, however when in the middle of a word may be produced as a guttural ‘h’ or as a uvular-fricative ‘h’ Hh – Similar to the Manchu ‘G’, may be produced either as a velar English ‘g’, guttural ‘h’, or uvular-fricative ‘h’. Ii7 – like English ‘i’ in “It” Jj8 – like English ‘j’ in “Joy” Kk – Can either be like the English ‘k’ in “pickle” or pronounced more gutturally akin to the Manchu “Hh” – dependent on if the sound is at the begininning of a word, in the middle, or near the end (as is seen in word final -ku and -k in Manchu, which are pronounced as the ‘k’ in cackle). Ll – like English ‘l’ in “laugh” Mm – like English ‘m’ in “mole” Oo – like English ‘o’ in “bold” OOoo – like the sound represented as ‘oa’ in “coat” Pp – like English ‘p’ in “snap”

6 Production of the Manchu ‘g’ and ‘h’ varies dependent on location of the sound in the word (whether it is at the beginning or middle of a word) as well as dependent on dialect/individual speaker preference. With the influence of Mandarin on today’s Manchu, many speakers of Manchu do not produce these sounds gutturally or uvullarly on any occasion. 7 In MS, due to Anglicization, this vowel is sometimes produced more like the ‘ee’ in English “feet” than the ‘i’ in “kit”. 8 In MS, this sound is the subject of some sporadic change (that is, change in sound that is not consistent in every instance a certain environment occurs – and therefore cannot be predicted). Many words that begin with /j/ in SM begin in MS instead with /d/ or /di/, while others don’t (i.e. Juwen = Duwen, however Jui = Jui). 26

Rr – like the trilled Spanish ‘r’ in “pero”9 Ss – like the s in English “silly” Šš – like “sh” in English “fashion” Tt – like the t in English “tap” Ts – Voiceless alveolar fricative, an ‘s’ where the near-front of the tongue makes brief contact with the front teeth in a ‘pressing’ motion, allowing for temporary blockage of air. Uu – Production varies. May be like the ‘oo’ in English “food”, or ‘uh’ in English ‘thud’ Ūū – Long ‘oo’ in English ‘food’, with elements of the ‘u’ in English “mud”. Word finally, it represents aspiration following a consonant. Ww - like the ‘w’ in English “why” Yy – like the ‘y’ in English “York” Dz – Unlike English, corresponds most often to the sound “si” in Mandarin, sometimes written as “se”.

Notable Mentions:

In many Manchu words, one can see sounds orthographically represented as “sh”.

However, do not be fooled – this is not like the “sh” in English “shoe”, rather both the ‘s’ and the

‘h’ are pronounced independently of eachother:

Therefore, the Manchu word for a larger bird, “Gasha” would be pronounced as ‘GAS-

HA’, not as ‘GA-SHA’, and a word such as “Hashu” would become ‘HAS-HU’ in Manchu pronunciation. Finally, the same applies to orthographic representations of ‘th’: the word for claw, ‘fatha’ would be pronounced as “FAT-HA”, rather than “FA-THA”.

9 Among many second language speakers whose first language is Mandarin, this is not produced ‘trilled’ however may more closely resemble an English /r/ instead. 27

Sucungga Kicen-i Gisun Afaha (Initial Lesson’s Vocabulary List)

Manju – Manchu Niyalma – Person Urse – People, peoples Uhe – Community, unity, general Haha – Man Hehe10 - Woman Ama – Father Eme – Mother Sargan – Wife Eigen – Husband Ahūn – Older Brother Deo – Younger Brother Gege – Older Sister Non – Younger Sister Iki – Twin Hūncihin – Relative (Da) Mafa – (Great) Grandfather (Da) Mefe – (Great) Grandmother Boo – Home, family, house, room Boigon – Family Dahama – Uncle Deheme – Aunt Jalahi – Cousin (male) Jelehi – Cousin (female) Ajige – Small, young Amba – Big Andala – ‘On the way’, so-so Sakda – Old (living things) old age, old person Ciksin – Adult Jui - Child Gucu – Friend Anda – “Blood Brother”, best friend Kesike – Cat Indahūn – Dog Doshon – Favorite, best Dalji – Relation Dalji-ngga11 - Related Daljikū – Unrelated Adali(n) – Same Fakca-ngga – Different (MS) Nū – Female, girl

10 On observing more basic vocabulary in Manchu, it might become clear that there is a certain degree of grammatical gender (haha+hehe, ama+eme, dahama+deheme, jalahi+jelehi, etc.) wherein /e/ denotes something feminine, while /a/ denotes something masculine. This phenomenon is not common outside of vocabulary pertaining to the sexes and familial relations, however – and exceptions do exist (i.e. sargan = “wife” and eigen = “husband”). 11 Here the suffix -ngga, an adjective (ADJ) creating suffix, is used to make the word ‘dalji’, meaning relation, into an adjective denoting something as being related. While details on this process are not yet provided, they will be in a later chapter. 28

Kicen 1: Manchu Sentence Structure and Personal Pronouns

There are seven basic personal pronouns in the Manchu language; six with an equivalent pronoun found in the English language. Manchu utilizes exclusive/inclusive distinctions (i.e. we for ‘you and me in this room’, and we for ‘us humans’, for example) for the 1st person-plural:

‘be’ and ‘muse’, respectively. In addition to this, there is no he/she distinction made in Manchu personal pronouns; ‘i’ itself entails both meanings. All five of the cases in Manchu can be expressed alongside these pronouns as the particles –(n)i, -de –(m)be, and -ci. These will be covered later, however, for now we will be focusing on the pronouns alone.

Personal Pronoun Bi (I) Be (We, us exclusive) Muse (We, us inclusive) Si (You) Suwe (You plural) I (He/She/It) Ce (They/Them) Table 1.1: Personal Pronouns with Cases Chart

First, we will start with basic uses of the personal pronouns, separate from the five

Manchu cases. To describe one’s own ethnic background, area of work, or role in the family in

Manchu, for example, one would simply require use of the relevant pronoun and the correct classifier (aspired description).

Tuwakūde (For example, in example)

(1) a. Bi Manju b. Be haha12 c. Muse hehe

i Manchu we.EXCL man we.INCL woman “I am Manchu” “We (you and me) are men” “We (all of us) are women”

d. Si eme e. Suwe ama f. I mafa

you mom you.PL father he grandfather “You are a mom” “You all are fathers” “He is a grandfather”

g. Ce dahama h. Muse boigon they uncle we family “They are uncles” “We are a family”

As demonstrated within the examples, use of a verb equivalent to the English verb ‘to be’ is not required. However, such a verb does exist; the Manchu verb “ombi” (to be), a verb that is unique in that its use demands SVO word order, over the typical Manchu SOV. It is used for this purpose more frequently by second language speakers of Manchu orally, and especially in written form, despite it being unrequired.

(2) a. Bi oci Manju hehe b. Ere sakda haha oci ama

i am-PRES Manchu woman this old man is-PRES father “I am a Manchu woman” “This old man is a father”

The above sentences would be equally acceptable without the use of the verb ombi as well and would entail the same meaning.

12 You may notice that provided the plural form of something is implied by context – i.e. a naturally plural pronoun in this case – the use of plural markers themselves (which we shall cover after personal and object pronouns) is not required. Keep this in mind for future lessons. 30

(3) a. Bi Manju hehe b. Ere sakda haha ama i Manchu woman this old man father ‘I am a Manchu woman ‘This man is a father’

As seen above, “stacking” (SM: Muhaliyambi – “to stack”) nouns or adjectives in order to more thoroughly describe someone or something is acceptable in Manchu and requires no additional words beyond what is already known – one simply adds the relevant modifiers after the pronoun…

Tuwakūde (For example, in example)

(4) a. Bi ajige Manju jui b. Suwe ajige sakda Manju deheme dahama

i young Manchu child you-PL little old Manchu aunt uncle ‘I am a young Manchu kid’ ‘You all are little old Manchu aunts and uncles’

…although, “jai” meaning ‘and’ in Manchu may be added between items if desired - as it would be in English. Akin to the use of ombi, however, it is seldom required for simpler sentences describing different aspects of the same object, or objects.

(5) a. Bi sakda Manju jai gucu b. Ce ajige dahama jai anda i old Manchu and mother they young uncle and aunt “I am an old Manchu and a friend” “They are young uncles and best friends”

c. Muse boo jai boigon d. Suwe sakda gucu, jai hūncihin we home and family you.PL old friend “We are a home and a family” “You (pl.) are old friends, and relatives”

e. I fakca-ngga (jai) daljikū dahama f. I dahama (jai) dalji-ngga

he separation-ADJ and without.relation uncle he uncle relation-ADJ “He’s a different (and) unrelated uncle” “He’s an uncle (and) related”

It can be useful, however, when speaking of two very different subjects or connecting two utterances describing unrelated things together (something that will be seen once developing more complex sentences).

g. Muse boigon, jai suwe kesike

we home and you.PL cats “We are a family, and you are cats”

h. Suwe daljingga, jai muse daljikū

you.PL relation-ADJ and we relation.without “You all are related, and we are unrelated”

Urebun 1: Below is a quick urebun (practice) pertaining to the personal pronouns. You will be required to translate the utterances below from English (Inggiri gisunci) into Manchu (Manju gisunde) or vis versa using the personal pronouns provided above, and vocabulary provided earlier in the chapter. Tuwakūde: I am Manchu – Bi Manju

1. I am Manchu (and) a mother

______

2. He is a father

______

3. She is a mother (and) a friend

______

4. You are a mom

______

5. You (PL) are old Manchus

______

6. We (INCL) are Manchu and grandmothers

______

7. We (EXCL) are young fathers

______

1. Bi ajige Manju

______

2. I Manju haha jai iki

______

3. Si eme jai gege

______

4. Suwe ama jai anda

______

5. Ce Manju jai mefe

______

6. Be sakda hehe

______

7. Muse mafa jai mefe

______

Juwe-ci Kicen-i Gisun Afaha (Second Lesson’s Vocabulary List)

Leose – Building Giyan – Room Falan – Floor Oyo – Roof Hecen – Wall Talgan – Surface Uce – Door Fa – Window Dosin – Entry Tucin – Exit Cin Giyan – Main Room, Commonroom Bedergen – Bedroom, bed Oton13 Boo – “Bath Room”, bathroom Buda(-i14) Boo – “Food Room”, Kitchen Jui Giyan – Kid Room Yafan – Garden Haša – Garage, tool shed Horho – Closet Usin – Farm Ongko – Pasture Usin Boo – Farmhouse Pen – A shed of straw for animals Untuhun – Empty, emptiness, idle, unused Jalu – Full Urgen – Width, wide Silhi – Narrow, thin Niyalmai-Duwali – Humanity15 Gurgu – Animal Umiyaha – Bug, insect Nimaha - Fish Bayan – Bountiful, fertile Saikan/(MS) Mei – Beautiful Waliya-ha (past tense of verb ‘to abandon’) – Abandoned, left behind, desolate

13 “Oton” itself may refer to either a ‘tub’ or a ‘bath’ 14 This is the Manchu suffix -i being used adjectivally, rather than as a possessive; to describe the room as ‘pertaining to food’ rather than ‘belonging to it’. Both the possessive and adjectives will be discussed further in later chapters. 15 This here has the word niyalma, meaning person, followed by the possessive -i and the word duwali, meaning kind. In MS, however, a singular human would be known as ‘hun’, a loan from the Mongolian word of the same meaning. 35

Kicen 2: Inanimate Pronouns

There are two distinct inanimate pronouns in Manchu, each with a plural form. Akin to their personal pronoun equivalents, all five cases of the Manchu language can be expressed alongside these with their four corresponding particles (-i, -de, -be, -ci). All rules that apply to personal pronouns apply to inanimate pronouns.

Inanimate Pronoun Tese (Those/They) Tere (That) Ese (These) Ere (This) Table 1.2: Inanimate Pronouns

(6) a. Tese leose boo b. Ere dosin-uce, jai tere tucin-uce… those building home this entry door and that exit door “Those buildings are homes” “This is the entrance door, and that’s the exit door…”

c. Ere giyan oton boo d.Tere leose untuhun pen this room bath room that building empty animal.shed “This room is the bathroom” “That building is an empty animal shed”

e. Ese giyan oton boo jai buda-i boo f. Ere nimaha usin

these room bath room food-POSS room this fish farm “These rooms are the bathrooms and the kitchens” “This is a fish farm”

g. Tere haša untuhun h. Tese giyan jalu, dadu horho untuhun this garage empty those room full but closet empty “This garage is empty” “Those rooms are full, but the closet is empty”

Urebun 2: Translate the below sentences from Manchu into English (Ese siren Manjuci Inggiride tungsere) and then English into Manchu (Inggirici Manjude)

1. Tere boo jalu

______

2. Ere falan, tere haša, jai ere yafan

______

3. Ere oton boo untuhun

______

4. Ere urgen usin boo

______

5. Ese buda-i boo (jai) oton boo

______

6. Tese leose, ese kesike, ce mefe, tere yafan jai ere jalu haša

______

1. These buildings are empty

______

2. This house

______

3. These wide bathrooms and kitchen are empty

______

4. These are empty kitchens

______

5. These kitchens are empty and narrow

______

6. The animal shed is full, but the garden is empty

______

Kicen 3: Manchu Plurals There are two types of plurals in Manchu – the “regular” (-sa, -se, -so) plural and the

“familial” (-ta, -te, -ri) plural. Both are expressed with a suffix that varies dependent on the vowels that are present earlier in the word, and if an object is ‘familial’ or not. If there is a consonant present at the end of a noun, the consonant must first be removed prior to the addition of the plural. Below are examples of the plural, and demonstrations of the effect vowel harmony has on its production:

Plural Example Example (Plural) Translation (Singular) Regular Plurals -sa Umiyaha Umiyaha-sa Insects -se Uce Uce-se Doors -so Boo Boo-so Houses Familial Plurals -ta Ama Ama-ta Father(s) / Parent(s) -te Eme Eme-te Mother(s) -ri Mafa Mafa-ri Ancestor(s), Grandfather(s) Table 1.3: Plurals

The “Plural” suffix in Manchu (-sa, -se, -so / -ta, -te, -ri) is not required for use when the plural is already implied in the context of a sentence, such as through use of the second person plural (suwe), third person plural (ce) first person plurals (be’/muse), or a word expressing the plural such as tatala/labdu/umesi, meaning “a lot” or “many”, geren meaning “each”, “all”, or

“every” or yooni meaning “all”. Observe this in the sentences below:

(7) a. Tatala haha b. Tese hehe eme a.lot.of man those woman mother “A lot of men” “Those women are mothers”

Inclusion of the plural markers will not change the meaning of these sentences in the slightest. They will, however, sound odd to a native speaker:

c. Tatala haha-sa d. Tese hehe-se eme-te

a.lot.of man-PL those woman-PL mother-PL “A lot of men” “Those women are mothers”

Context is key regarding the use of plurals in Manchu. Most singular forms of a concept may be used to denote the plural provided additional context is provided – making the use of the plural suffix pointless. An example of this would be the use of the singular ‘niyalma’ to denote a peoples, ethnicity, or more than one person, when this would generally be the point of its’ plural form ‘urse’. See examples below:

(8) a. Muse Manju niyalma b. Muse Manju urse we Manchu person we Manchu people “We are Manchu people” “We are Manchu people”

Urebun 3: Utilizing the vocabulary that has already been provided, change these singulars into plurals, then sini jabun tungsere Manjuci Inggiride (translate your answer from Manchu into English) Example: 1. Eme - Emete

1. Dahama

______

2. Gucu

______

3. Ama

______

4. Deheme

______

5. Tucin

______

6. Mafa

______

7. Anda

______

8. Uce

______

9. Gurun

______

10. Horho

______

11. Ongko

______

12. Yafan

______

13. Haša

______

Dui-ci Kicen-i Gisun Afaha

Inu – Yes Waka – No, not Dere – Table Deretu – Long table, wide table (urgen dere) Hose – Box Daniyan – Safe, storage Sarhū – Dish rack Hohon – Barrel, liquor vessel (Arki tetun) Guise – Cabinet, shelf Etuku Guise – Clothing Cabinet Buda Guise – Food Cabinet Suwaliyasun Guise – Spices Cabinet Bithe Guise – Bookshelf Oton – Tub, bathtub Tetun – Vessel, tool Agūra – Tool Tampin – Water container (Muke tetun) (MS) Juhe Hose – Ice Box, refrigerator Muhaliyan – Stack Bombon – Pile Comcok – Cluster Mala - Hammer Šudun – Shovel Hadahan – Nail Hayatun – Screw Ada – Plank Fufun (MS) Arga-ngga Jeye16 – Saw Guwa – Other, another Tuttu – Therefore Geli – Additional, extra, more, as well Kulge – Car Cuwan – Boat Sukdun Kulge – Gas Car Talkiyan Kulge – Electric Car Ice – New Fe – Old Geren – Each, every, all Umesi – Very, extremely, many

16 Translates into SM and MS as “Fanged Blade”. 43

Kicen 4-7: Manchu Cases

There are five cases in the Manchu language – the genitive, dative, locative, ablative, and accusative. Among these five cases, there are four suffixes utilized to express them: with a single suffix expressing either the locative or dative, dependent on the context. Below is a chart introducing these cases with examples, after which there will be four small individual lessons covering each case – with the dative and locative -de being taught as a single lesson.

Case Type Cases Examples of Use Translations Dative/Locative -de Gurun-de “In/to the country” Genitive -ni Si-ni gurun-i “Your country’s…” Accusative -(m)be I-(m)be “Him” Ablative -ci Boo-ci “From the house…” Table 1.4: Case Suffixes

Kicen 4: The Genitive Case and the Manchu Possessive Genitive Mini* (My) Meni* (Our, exclusive) Muse-ni (Our, inclusive) Si-ni (Your) Suwe-ni (Your plural) I-ni (His/Hers/Its) Ce-ni (Their) Table 1.5 Genitive case

The genitive case in Manchu is a suffix and is always represented as such in the written form. It is similar in its application and structure with the possessive -s in English. Naturally, the genitive is unique to pronouns, while the Manchu possessive (-i) is utilized for ascribing possession to all non-pronouns.

(9) a. Mini buda guise b. Meni umesi ice ajige boo

my food cabinet our.EXCL very little house “My food cabinet” “Our very new little house”

c. Muse-ni agūra jai agūra boo d. Mini boo si-ni boo

our.INCL-GEN tool and tool room my house you-GEN house “Our tool(s) and tool room” “My house is your house”

e. Si-ni agūra boo - tuttu si-ni haša…

you-GEN tool house therefore you-GEN garage “Your tool house – therefore your garage…

f. I-ni ice buda guise g. Ce-ni sakda anda jai i-ni fe cuwan…

he-GEN new food cabinet they-GEN blood.brother and he-GEN old boat “His new food cabinet” “Their old best friend and his old boat…”

Worth noting is that the genitive first person singular and first-person plural EXCL do not positively correlate with their root pronoun equivalents, bi and be. Therefore, they will not be further ‘broken down’ in their glosses.

Possesive Case:

The possessive case lacks the initial /n/ found in the genitive -ni, but aside from this functions the same, and is orally a suffix (often treated as a separate word in the orthography, with some exceptions – it will be shown here as a suffix, however, since I am teaching spoken

Manchu).

Tuwakūde:

(10) a. Si-ni ahūn-i sukdun kulge umesi fe, dadu sini gege-i talkiyan kulge umesi ice you-GEN older.brother-POSS gas car very old but you-GEN older.sister-POSS electric car very new

“Your older brother’s gas car is old, but your older sister’s electric car is new”

b. Mini anda-i šudun tere haha-i šudun

my best.friend-POSS shovel that man-POSS shovel “My best friend’s shovel is that man’s shovel”

c. Ere mini mefe-i boo; tuttu inu, ere i-ni buda guise mudan-de

this my grandmother-POSS house therefore yes this her-GEN food cabinet turn-LOC “This is my grandmothers house; therefore yes, this is her food cabinet in turn”

Finally, to produce the possessive pronoun in Manchu (i.e. his, hers, theirs, mine, etc.) one must utilize the suffix -ngge – and adjective making suffix roughly translating here as

‘pertaining to’ - to any of the pronouns while utilizing the genitive case. It will follow the target object in most utterances, just as it would in English.

(11) a. Ese šudun mini-ngge… b. …dadu tese hadahan si-ni-ngge

these shovels my-ADJ but those nail you-GEN-ADJ “These shovels are mine..” “…but those nails are yours”

c. Jai mudan-de, ere amba agūra bombom meni-ngge!

and turn-LOC this large tool pile our.EXCL-ADJ “And in turn, this tool pile is ours!”

Urebun 4: Ese siren (sentences) Manjuci Inggiride tungsere (translate these sentences from Manchu to English)

1. Ere sini mafai boo, dadu ese guise (jai) agūra waka – ese meningge

______

2. Tere urgen agūra bombon – hadahan hayatun jai šudun…

______

3. Sini jui jai mini sargani budai boo jai oton boo

______

4. Museni ajige jai umesi fe cuwan, jai ceni ice kulge

______

5. Tese hehei agūra ceni agūra, dadu museni agūra geli ceni agūra, jai museni agūra waka.

______

6. Tuttu ere cuwan miningge, jai ese šudun, usin agūra, jai ere cuwan guise siningge mudande.

______

Now, using all vocabulary obtained so far, make some siren sinibeye (yourself) utilizing the genitive and possessive!

______

Sunja-ci Kicen-i Gisun Afaha

Bi – Present tense of verb ‘to have’, used commonly with the locative, it translates as “there is” or “there are”. Jakarame (-rame, -reme, -rome) – “Alongside”, “along with”, pertaining to, with. Must drop word final consonant prior to suffixing -rame, -reme, or -rome. Jaka – Thing, product Buda – Food, dish Booha – Side dish, appetizer Omi-ngga17 – Drink Muke – Water Amta-ngga18 Muke – “Tasty Water”, flavored water Obonggi Muke – “Bubble Water”, soda Sun - Milk Sula – Juice Arki – Liquor, alcohol Genggen Arki – “Soft Liquor”, beers Mangga Arki – “Hard Liquors”, wine, vodka, rum, etc. Genggen Omingga – Soft Drink Mangga Omingga – Hard Drink Nure – Wine Yali – Meat Sogi – Vegetable Tubihe – Fruit Do-nggo19 – Filled, stuffed Duha – Sausage, guts, ‘extra meat’ (geli yali/fulu yali) Suwaliyasun – Spices Suwaliyasu-ngga – Spiced

17 From root ‘omi’ relating to drinking and the verb ‘omimbi’, to drink 18 From root ‘amtan’ meaning “taste” 19 From root ‘do’ meaning filling, innards, or insides 50

Okto – Powder Misun – Sauce Satan – Sugar Dabsun – Salt Efen – Bread, pastry, dessert Jancuhun Buda – “Sweet food”, desserts Saise – Cookies Sarin – Feast Ucuri – Festvial Ucuri Buda – Festival Food Jeku – Grain, grains Jeku Buda – “Grain food”, oats, oatmeal Inenggi – Day Erin – Time Gūnin – Opinion Turgun-de20 – “In reason”, because Kušun – Bad Sain - Good

20 This is an example of the locative in use – we will be covering it further in this chapter 51

Kicen 5: The Dative-Locative Case

The dative-locative case of -de is a suffix usually added at the end of the target noun or time. Depending on the context, it can denote something as being ‘in(to)’, ‘at’, ‘on(to)’, or ‘to’ something. In the previously mentioned Möllendorf ‘proper’ orthography, however, as well as in the Fe Manju Hergen inibeye, it is sometimes represented as a separate word. Words that end with consonants are usually followed by a separate word representation of -de as ‘de’, meanwhile words that end with vowels may have the suffix -de attached to them (not when used alongside pronouns). Despite its orthrographic representation, however, -de remains a suffix in the spoken Manchu language, and not a standalone word, and shall be written as a suffix here. It maintains the same function in locative and dative both.

Tuwakūde: (For Example)

(12) a. Mini boo-de, tatala suwaliyasun guise, jai guwa duwali buda guise bi

my house-LOC a.lot.of spice cabinet and other kind food cabinets have “There are a lot of spices, and other kinds of food cabinets in my house” b. Inu, tuttu ere guise-de, tuwakū-de, dabsun satan bi – jai arki bi tere hose-de yes so this cabinet-LOC example-LOC salt sugar have and liquor have that box-LOC “Yes, so in this cabinet, for (in) example, there is salt and sugar – and there is liquor in that box”

These above examples are locative. Observe the same structure maintained for the dative:

c. Tere inenggi-de… d. Jai ere guwa inenggi-de geli…

that inenggi-DAT and this other day-DAT also “On that day…” “And also on this other day…”

Finally, -de can be used informally to attribute and opinion or thought to someone of something, just as in English. To apply -de to any of the formerly discussed pronouns (save muse), simply drop the final -i and add -de in its place (min-de, men-de, muse-de, in-de, sin-de, suwen-de, cen-de).

(13) a. Tuttu i-ni gūnin ai, si-ni doshon suwaliyasu-rame?

so he-GEN opinion what you-GEN favorite spice-pertaining.to “So what is his opinion, pertaining to your favorite spice?”

b. Tuttu, in-de, i-ni gūnin-de, dabsun mini doshon duwali suwaliyasun turgun-de…

so him-LOC he-GEN opinion-LOC salt my favorite type spice reason-LOC “So, to him, in his opinion, salt is my favorite spice because…”

c. Jai I-NI gūni-reme ere-de si-ni-beye gūnin ai?

and he-GEN opinion-pertaining.to this-LOC you-GEN opinion what “And pertaining to HIS opinion in this, whats your own opinion?”

There are no exceptions to this structure for -de. While the orthographic representation may be argued, -de never occurs before the target word (as it would in English) or anywhere else besides. It will always be found following the target word, whether represented as attached or as an independent word.

Urebun 5: Below are lines provided with two objects: one a location, and the other a thing. Using these vocabulary items, try and create sentences attributing the thing as being in, at, or on the location. If the provided words are in English, translate these into Manchu and then create a sentence (all English words have been provided with Manchu translations in previous chapters). Then, translate all sentences into English from Manchu (Geren siren Manjuci Inggiride tungsere). Note: Don’t forget the simple Manchu verb bi, to have, and its prominent use in describing location! Also, for words describing the frequency of something (few, many, limited, etc.) one may refer to page ___, if they wish to try and use those here (they will be covered in a later chapter). Tuwakūde: 0. Mini dahama deheme, mini mefei yafan Mini dahama (jai) deheme mini mefei yafan-de______My uncle (and) aunt are in my grandmothers’ garden______

1. Indahūn, ini boo

______

2. Tere haha jai hehe, ceni budai boo

______

3. Deheme dahama, mini usin boo

______

4. Suweni mefe mafa, museni haša

______

5. Mini anda gucu, cenibeye yafan

______

6. Man and women, their house

______

7. Cat dog, our (EXCL) kitchen

______

8. Friend and best friend, your (PL) own house

______

9. Grandmother and counsin (masc.), their room

______

10. Mother and father, your kitchen 55

______

Kicen 6: The Ablative Case

The ablative case of -ci, like the dative-locative, is often represented orthographically as either a separate word or as a suffix. However, similarly to the dative-locative, it is truly a suffix in the spoken language. It can be used to describe ‘leave’ from a certain point in time or place, or for comparison.

-ci for describing ‘leave’:

(14) a. Mini mefe-i yafan-ci i-ni guwa gucu-i yafan-de

my grandmother-POSS garden-ABL her-GEN other friend-POSS garden-LOC “From my grandmothers’ garden to her other friend’s garden”

b. Ere boo-ci tere boo-de

This house-ABL that house-LOC “From this house to that house”

-ci used for comparison:

c. Ere dahama guwa-ci dooli d. Kesike indahūn-ci ajige

this uncle other-ABL greedy cat dog-ABL small “This uncle is greedier than (the) other” “Cats are smaller than dogs”

e. Ere jalahi guwa-ci tarhūn f. Tere boigon ere-ci amba

this cousin other-ABL fat that-GEN family this-ABL large “This cousin is fatter than the other” “That family is larger than this (family)”

As can observed in the above examples, the ablative -ci is typically added to the ‘source object’ when used to describe ‘leave’, then followed by the ‘destination’ (if a destination is mentioned). For use in comparisons, the final object in a string will typically be the one in which

-ci attaches itself, and the one being positively compared with the former object (with the former object as the ‘subject’ of the sentence).

As with the dative-locative case, the ablative can be used alongside pronouns – surfacing as min-ci, men-ci, muse-ci, in-ci, cen-ci, sin-ci, and suwen-ci.

(15) a. Ere efen min-ci in-de

this pastry me-ABL he-LOC “This pastry is from me to him”

b. Dadu tese arki in-ci min-de, guwa gala-de

but these liquor he-ABL me-LOC other hand-LOC “But these liquors are from him to me, on the other hand”

Pronouns may also be compared with each other as well as with other things in this manner:

c. Meni ahūn men-ci amba sube-ngge

our.EXCL older.brother us.EXCL-ABL large muscle-ADJ “Our older brother is larger and more muscular than us”

d. Dadu be in-ci sure!

but we.EXCL he-ABL wise “But we are wiser than him!”

Here are a few additional examples sentences utilizing the ablative -ci and dative-locative

-de for reference

(16) a. Muke-ci sula-de, sula-ci arki-de, arki-ci falan-de…

water-ABL juice-LOC juice-ABL liquor-LOC liquor-ABL floor-LOC “From water into juice, from juice into liquor, and from liquor onto the floor”

b. Genggen arki-ci mangga-de

soft liquor-ABL hard-LOC “From soft liquor into hard (liquor)”

c. Mangga wehe-ci hecen-de

hard rock-ABL wall-LOC “From a hard rock into the wall”

d. Dadu ere dosin-ci tere guwa tucin-de, tatala mudan bi

but this entry-ABL that other exit-LOC a.lot.of turn have “But from this entry to that other exit, there are a lot of turns”

Urebun 6: Below are more complicated Manchu sentences, utilizing all the cases learned so far, as well as vocabulary from all previous afaha. Ese Manjuci Inggiride tungsere, jai julgen sain ere urebun emgi (and good luck with this practice).

1. Mini ama eme suweni boode, dadu bi ceni boode waka. Bi museni mafai boode, ini hašade.

______

2. Ere booci guwade, tatala mudan bi. Dadu sini sargani booci mininggede, waka.

______

3. Inu, tuttu minde, mini doshon duwali buda Manju buda – tatala dabsun inde emgi, ere amtangga. Dadu mini gucui gūninde, ini ursei buda museni budaci amtangga. Minde waka, dadu.

______

4. Tatala bombon agūra bi mini hašade – jai ere hašaci sini guwa hašade, ere duwali bombon bi geli. Dadu meni dahama haša bi waka, tuttu i bombon agūra bi waka mudande.

______

5. Mini mefe mafa ceni boode tatala kesike bi. Dadu museni boode, kesike tonggo. Tuttu ceni boo museninggeci jalu

______

Kicen 7: The Accusative Case

The accusative among all the cases is most frequently represented as a separate word – with few exceptions occurring outside of it’s used alongside pronouns. It is most often observed in sentences involving verbs, when the speaker wishes to positively or negatively correlate an action with a specific person, or object (something we will be covering in a later lesson). It is not, however, required in all sentences where an action has occurred, but is useful to emphasize the source or target of an action, or inaction.

Tuwakūde:

(17) a. Sakda haha i-ni mala i-ni jui-de be bu-ha, jai jui i-ni oyo dasa-ha

old man he-GEN hammer ACC he-GEN child-LOC give-PAST and child he-GEN roof fix-PAST “The old man gave his hammer to his kid, and the kid fixed his roof”

Here, the emphasis is placed on the old man’s kid, and his involvement in being given the hammer. Observe the use of be in the same sentence, but with a different emphasis:

b. Sakda haha i-ni mala be i-ni jui-de bu-ha, jai jui i-ni oyo dasa-ha

old man he-GEN hammer ACC he-GEN child-LOC give-PAST and child he-GEN roof fix-PAST “The old man gave his hammer to his kid, and the kid fixed his roof”

Here the emphasis of this whole set of actions is the hammer that the old man had given his son to fix the roof, rather than the son or the roof themselves. 62

And now for an example of its use with pronouns. Most pronouns will come with the addition of an /m/ after their roots prior to the addition of the suffix -be – therefore ce becomes cembe, i becomes imbe, suwe becomes suwembe, and si become simbe. However, bi is not bimbe, but instead ‘mimbe’, and be becomes ‘membe’, while muse simply adds the -be without the addition of the /m/, becoming musebe.

(18) a. Tuttu sakda haha im-be, i-ni-beye jui, ere mala bu-ha

so old man he-ACC he-GEN-self child hammer give-PAST “So the old man gave him, his own son, this hammer”

Verbs will be taught in a later chapter, alongside verb tenses. Until then, keep in mind the use of be, and remember its purpose to emphasize the source or target of an action. It is not required for use in every sentence involving an action, however, is simply useful when one wishes to emphasis something involved in an action.

Jakū-ci Kicen-i Gisun Afaha Uba – Here (noun) Uba-de – Here (adverb) Tatala – A lot, many, numerous Labdu – Many Umesi – Very, extremely, many Geren – Each, every, all Yooni – All Beri beri – Each and every Bakta-ngga – Wide-spread, encompassing, popular Algi-ngga (Algin, Fame) – Famous, popular Ani (An-i) – Normal, usual Uhe – General, common, community, unity Inenggi-dari – Everyday, common, usual, normal Burtei – Common, popular, widely known, renowned To-nggo (Ton, number) – Few (in number), limited, ‘numbered’ Labsa – Rare, infrequent, lacking in number Hihan – Rare, cherished, meaningful Garga – Single Garga-ngga – Only, alone, lone Erimbu-ngge – Few, rare, uncommon (lit. “gem like”) Jalan – World Abka – Heaven Dabali - Across Jalu – Full, entire Hon – Most Teheren – Equal, matching Bakcin – Opposite, opposing

Kicen 8: Demonstrative Pronouns

Below are the primary demonstrative pronouns in Manchu, including those that are specific to my dialect (written in italics). Most of the demonstrative pronouns can be detected in their use of the word Ai, We, Udu and Ya – followed by the use of words such as “ba” (for land/place) in addition to the ablative -ci and dative-locative -de. Finally, worth noting is that while some demonstrative pronouns in Manchu are traditionally placed at the end of an utterance

(ai, we), many speakers/writers of Manchu today instead utilize an Anglicized (MS:

Inggiricilaha) or Sinicized (MS: Nikacilaha) order by placing those demonstratives at the beginning of the sentence instead. In some instances, either placement is acceptable. Below are examples with acceptable placements of these pronouns.

Demonstrative Pronouns Ai (What?) We (Who?) Ya (Who/What?) Ainu (Why?) Yaba/Aba/ (MS)Aiba (What place/Where?) Abide/Yabade (MS)Aibade (At/to What place?) Atanggi/(MS)Jakade-o/Erinde-o (when, at what time) Adarame (How?) Aici (What kind/type?) Udu (How many?) , (How much?) , (To what extent is…?) Uduci/(MS)Ainci (Which) Eici…eici…(either…or…) Aika (If), -ci (If, when used with verbs – alternative to aika) Table 1.6: Demonstrative Pronouns Chart

(19) a. Kesike ai? b. Si-ni haša abide? c. Si-ni gebu ai?

cat what you-GEN garage where you-GEN name what

“What cat?” “Where is your garage?” “What’s your name?” e. Udu niyalma bi, si-ni boo-de?

how.many people have you-GEN house-LOC “How many people are there, in your house?” f. Si uduci niyalma? you which person “Which person are you?” g. We si? Manju urse to-nggo uba-de

who you Manchu people number-ADJ “Who are you? Manchu people are few (numbered) here” h. Abide si-ni gurun, ba-na-i-nirugan-de?

where you-GEN nation place-land-POSS-drawing-LOC “Where is your country, on the map?” i. Tuttu si ere gūnin bi. Ainu? I umesi burtei duwali gūnin, minde

so you this opinion have why it very common kind.of opinion me-LOC “So you have this opinion. Why? It’s a very common kind of opinion, to me (I think)”

j. Ere eici muse-ni cin buda eici muse-ni booha

this either we-GEN main dish or side.dish “This is either our main dish or our side dish” k. Aika ere sini gūnin inu, i be bakta-ra-k

if this you-GEN opinion yes it ACC accept-PRES-NEG “If this is indeed your opinion, (I) do not accept it.”

l. Si ere gūnin bi-ci, i be bakta-ra-k

you this opinion have-if it ACC accept-PRES-NEG “If you have this opinion, I don’t accept it” m. Jai ere-reme, adarame si geli ere gūnin bi? Si-ni usin mini-ngge-ci teheren!

and this-along.with how you even this opinion have you-GEN farm my-ADJ-ABL equal “And alongside this, how can you even have this opinion? Your farm is equal to mine!” n. Tuttu udu urgen si-ni ice cuwan? Jai udu bayan usin bi uba-de?

so how.much wide you-GEN new boat and how.many fertile farm have here-LOC “So how wide (to what extent wide) is your new boat?” And how many fertile farms are here?

Urebun 7: Using all the vocabulary and knowledge that has been provided thus far, translate these sentences either from English into Manchu, or from Manchu into English.

1. We bi? We si? Abide be?

______

2. Abide sini doshon gucu ere jalu, umesi urgen yafande?

______

3. Uduci agūra ere? Ini gebu ai, Manju gisunde? Jai uduci siningge, jai miningge waka mudande?

Muse tatala fonjin bi erereme.

______

4. Suweni gebu ai? Suweni doshon duwali kulge - geren guwaci sain sini gūninde- ai?

______

5. Jai sini doshon duwali kulgereme, ainu si sini gūnin bi?

______

6. Ceni doshon duwali buda ai, Manju budarame? Tesei gebu ai Manjuci Inggiride?

______

7. Yabade sini agūra sini hašade, sini boode? Jai udu gurgu, nimaha, jai duwali gurgu jai nimaha bi sini pende? Mini gūninde, umiyaha gurguci burtei minibeye pende, tuwakūde.

______

8. Ainu tere sini doshon duwali buda?

______

9. Tuttu minde, mini gūninde…ere buda geren guwa duwali budaci amtangga – jai i tatala dabsun bi inde.

______

10. Udu duwali suwaliyasun bi tere guisede, sini budai boode?

______

11. Udu urgen sini mefei yafan? Jai udu nure bi ini arki guisede, sini gūninde?

______

12. Eici mafa eici mefe, eici ama eici eme, eigen sargan…dadu ce jui waka, minde.

______

Kicen 9: Colors (Boco) Boconggo – Colored Bocorakū – Colorless, without color Lamun/Laman (MS)– Blue Fulgiyan – Red Šanggiyan – White Suwayan – Yellow Sahaliyan/Kara2122 – Black Cendz – Orange Niohon/Niowanggiyan – Green Fulahūn/Fuluhūn – Pink Aisin – Gold Nioron/Niori – Rainbow colored Šušu – Purple Fulahūri/Tuwa-ri – Fire colored, deep red (from verb “tuwambi”, meaning to flame) Teišu-ri – Bronze/Copper colored (from noun teišun, meaning bronze/copper) Sele-ri – Iron/Metal colored (from noun sele, meaning iron metal) Eihe-ri – Dark brown (from noun eihen, meaning donkey) Bolo-ri – Grey/Autumn colored, Autumn (from noun bolo, also meaning Autumn) Table 1.7: Colors

21 In Manchu, “sahaliyan” and “kara” both mean black but are used for different instances depending on the individual speaker and dialect – i.e. most Manchus will call black tea “kara cai”, but the Black River in Manchuria “Sahaliyan Ula”. In MS kara is more frequently used than sahaliyan. Kara is Mongolic in origin. 22 Sometimes ‘yacin’, meaning “dark” is attributed as also meaning “black”, however it denotes ‘dark’ in the same manner one might say a story was figuratively “dark”, or that the lighting at night is dark as well. 70

Colors in Manchu (Boco Manju gisunde)

Colors (Boco) in Manchu seldom function in drastically different manners from their

English language counterparts and require little effort to learn. Typically, to describe the color of something in Manchu, the color will precede the target noun and requires no prior modifications.

Colors will also come after other adjectives and descriptors. Tuwakūde:

(20) a. Amba fulgiyan bithe b. Urgen lamun abka c. Yooni bakta-ngga niohon tala

Large red book wide blue sky all-encompass-ADJ green steppe ‘Large red book’ ‘Wide blue sky’ ‘All-encompassing green steppe’

Worth noting, however, is that not all colors in Manchu are ‘natural’ colors. What this means is that there is a distinction between colors such as ‘lamun’, ‘fulgiyan’, and

‘niohon’(Natural colors), and colors such as ‘sele-ri’, ‘eihe-ri’, and ‘teme-ri’ (Unnatural colors), namely the root of the latter three is not originally a color but are in fact established as colors via the suffixed -ri, which can be used to denote something as being the color of the modified noun itself.

(21) a. Sele, sele-ri boco b. Eihen, eihe-ri boco c. Temen, teme-ri boco

iron iron-ADJ color donkey donkey-ADJ color camel camel-ADJ color ‘Iron, iron color’ ‘Donkey, dark brown’ ‘Camel, light brown’

As seen above with eihen, provided the modified noun has a consonant at the end of the word, that consonant will be dropped prior to the addition of -ri

Urebun 8: Ese fonjin Manjuci Inggiride tungsere, jai aika ce fonjin, ce jabure mudande (Translate these questions from Manchu into English, and if they are questions, answer them in turn.)

1. Udu fulgiyan tubihe bi, museni deretude budai boode? Jai udu fulgiyan ese tubihe?

______

2. Uduci tubihe sini doshon duwali tubihe; sini gūninde yooni guwaci amtangga? Jai ini boco ai?

Eici fulgiyan eici lamun, niohon, nioron, guwa duwali boco?

______

3. Yabade suweni cendz kesike usin? Yabade tese cendz kesike?

______

4. Tuttu sini sakda amai ice yafan šušu boconggo inu, dadu guwa galade sini boo inibeye fulgiyan? Jai geren suweni kesike bocorakū? Ainu?

______

5. Tatala aisin kesike bi mini yafande inu, dadu bocorakū duwali kesike tonggo mini boode.

______

9. Tatala ajige sahaliyan indahūn jai majige burtei cendz kesike mini budai boode bi

______

10. Kara kesike jai suwayan eihen mini urgen yafande, jai niowanggiyan boconggo sogi bombon mini fulgiyan jai sahaliyan cuwande

______

11. Garga algingga šanggiyan jai sahaliyan kesike bi mini nimaha usinde – ini gebu ‘Giohoto’, jai i tatala ajige kesike-jui bi.

______

Juwa-ci Kicen-i Gisun Afaha (Lesson 10’s Vocabulary) Arambi – To do, to write, to make, to create Gisurembi – To speak Hendumbi – To say Subumbi – To explain Bimbi – To have Gaimbi – To take Bumbi – To give Salambi – To allot, to distribute Gelambi – To wake, to dawn Sadurambi – To sleep Teyembi – To rest, (MS) to take a nap Afambi – To fight, to siege, to wage war, to duel Batalambi – To fight as the enemy does (to fight back equally), to be hostile Tacimbi – To study, to learn, to research Tacibumbi – To teach Urebumbi – To practice, to repeat, to mine, to bother Tuwambi – To look, to see Toktobumbi – To publish, to establish, to determine Serebumbi – To reveal, to explore Kimcimbi – To investigate, to explore, to analyze Ilimbi – To stand Tembi/-de Tembi – To sit, to remain, to stay, to settle/to sit in or on (to ride – plane, car, boat…) Nakambi – To stop Deribumbi – To begin Bijambi – To break, to pause Jafambi – To wield, to hold, to grasp, to hold onto, to take and repay in kind Cihalambi – To like

Kicen 10: Verb Formation and Basic Manchu Tenses

Tenses Tense in Manchu Example Translation

(Tuwakū) (Tungseren)

Future- -mbi Sala-mbi “To distribute” Distribute/will

General Taci23-mbi distribute

Oyo-mbi “To study” Study/will study

“To rock” Rock/will rock

Present -re, -ra, -ro Sala-ra (Am/is) distributing, will distribute

Simple/Future (-nda-, -nde-, -ndo-) Taci-re (Am/is) studying, will study

Oyo-ro (Am/is) rocking, will rock

Past -ha, -he, -ho Sala-ha Distributed

(-ka, -ke, -ko) Taci-he Studied

Oyo-ho Rocked

Table 1.8: Simple Verb Tenses

Verb Formation in Manchu

Verb formation in Manchu is simple: one just needs to take a noun, and provided it lacks a word final consonant, add the correct tense suffix. If there is a consonant at the end of a word, it is typically dropped from the word and ‘replaced’ with the correct tense suffix. Observe some examples below:

23 Note that the vowel /i/ in Manchu is the ‘neutral’ vowel – any vowel may occur after it in a word. (Siren, Siran, Giolu, Girū, etc.) 75

(22) a. Tacin, taci-he b. Teyen, teye-mbi c. Ilin, ili-re

study study-PAST rest rest-DICT standing stand-PRES “Studied” “Rest, to rest” “Standing, is standing

Notably, however, some verbs created from nouns will have a suffix – la/-le/-lo (or -ra/- re/-ro, dependent on the individual speaker and their pronunciation) preceding the tense itself.

These adhere to vowel harmony, just as their tenses do, and therein will typically share the same vowel as their tense in turn. They contain no semantic meaning, and are not required for any specific set of verbs – observe examples of words commonly utilizing these suffixes below:

(23) a. Gisun, gisu-re-mbi b. Bata, bata-la-ra

language speak-re-DICT enemy fight.as.enemy-la-PRES “Language, to speak” “Enemy, fighting back equally or being hostile”

Three Simple Tenses

There are three ‘simple’ Manchu tenses – the Future-General, the Simple Present-Future, and the Simple Past. Their formation can be observed above, as well as their general translations.

The simple present and simple past forms both adhere to vowel harmony (-ra/-re/-ro, -ha/-he/- ho) while the future tense does not (-mbi) Below I provide a few examples with context so that one may fully understand their use, preceded by explanations of their possible meanings.

Future-General Tense (Dictionary Tense)

The Future-Present or Dictionary tense of -mbi may imply either a ‘general’ present tense of a verb (i.e. ‘I (generally) drink’) or a future tense of a verb (‘I will drink’). In everyday speech, however, it would most frequently be used for the future tense. Observe the same sentence and its two possible meanings through the use of -mbi below:

(24) a. Inu, bi inenggi-dari Manju taci-mbi

yes I day-every Manchu study-FUT “Yes, I study Manchu everyday”

b. Inu, bi inenggi-dari Manju taci-mbi

yes i day-every Manchu study-FUT “Yes, I will study Manchu everyday”

Simple Present-Future Tense

Meanwhile, the Simple Present-Future tense of -ra/-re/-ro, as its name entails, will generally entail the present tense, but may also on occasion entail the future, dependent on the context within a conversation:

(25) a. Inu, bi inenggi-dari Manju taci-re

yes i day-every Manchu study-PRES “Yes, I am studying Manchu every day”

b. Inu, bi inenggi-dari Manju taci-re

yes i day-every Manchu study-PRES

“Yes, I will be studying Manchu every day”

The Simple Past

The Simple-Past tense, unlike the prior two tenses, will generally adhere to a single interpretable meaning. However, through additional context, it may refer to something that had happened at a single point in time, or occasionally over a period of time:

(26) a. Inu, bi Manju be taci-he

yes i day-every Manchu ACC study-PAST “Yes, I studied Manchu”

b. Inu, bi inenggi-dari Manju be taci-he

yes i day-every Manchu ACC study-PAST “Yes, I studied Manchu everyday”

Now that you are more familiar with the uses of each of the simple tenses, below are

‘additional examples of their use with context and translations provided’ (geli tuwakū ce-ni baitala-rame turgun tungseren sinda-ha emgi)

(27) a. Ce tere Nikan bithe be kimci-re

they that Han.Chinese book ACC analyze-PRES “They are analyzing that Han book”

b. Muse-ni ice sefu ere min-de be tacibu-ha

our-GEN new teacher this me-LOC ACC teach-PAST “Our teacher taught this to me” c. Eme – ere inenggi-ci manggi, Manju inenggi-dari urebu-mbi

mom this day-ABL after Manchu day-every practice-DICT “Mom – from this day forward, (i) will practice Manchu daily”

d. Yooni ere urebun Manju emgi manggi, bi tatala saduran baitalambi

all this practice Manchu with after i a.lot.of sleep require-FUT “After all this practice with Manchu, I need a lot of sleep”

Urebun 9:

Ese siren eici Manjuci Inggiride eici ereci bakcin (tuttu Inggirici Manjude) tungsere – with the correct tenses applied! Tuwakūde: I studied English with my friend – “Bi Inggiri mini gucu emgi tacihe”

1. I rested with my dog after practice ______2. I am translating English into Manchu ______3. I will be translating English into Manchu ______4. From here on, I’ll do practice with Manchu everyday ______5. And after all of this practice, I’ll need a lot of rest ______6. Ere inenggici manggi, bi inenggidari Manju mini gucuse emgi urebumbi, tuttu amalade, i be gisureme bahanambi fonjikū! ______7. Mini sefu Inggiri gisun minde tacibuha ______8. Urebun manggi, bi mini indahūn emgi be teyehe. ______9. Jai tatala urebun bihe! Ere urebun cihalaha, dadu, tuttu yooni sain minde duben-de! ______10. Inu, bi Inggiri gisureme bahanambi – dadu mini Inggiri inibeye sain waka. ______

Kicen 11: Irregular Verbs

Irregular verbs in Manchu must be memorized, and do not have in of themselves (prior to being used) any signs designating them as irregular. Some, however (which shall be noted below) may take on irregular or regular form in everyday speech, and do not ‘have’ to be produced in the irregular24.

Irregulars in Manchu generally have three forms – irregular present, irregular past, and irregular imperative. I shall here be covering the former two more in depth. Not all irregular verbs are irregular in every tense, however. I will first discuss each type briefly, then show examples of their use.

Irregular Past

I start with the past since it differs the least from its non-irregular counterparts – to the extent that it is (in MS) pronounced identically to them orally, however written slightly differently (with -ka, -ke, and -ko instead of -ha/-he/-ho). Below is a brief list of verbs that utilize the irregular past

-ke -ka Jembi – To eat Sidarambi – To relax one’s grip Niyekdembi – To spoil Ubaliyambi – To change, to transform Sebdembi – To rust Tolgimbi – To dream (of) -ko

24 In MS, seldom are any irregulars produced orally any differently from their regular counterparts in the imperative, past and present tenses. Therein, unlike other chapters, most information on irregular verbs was collected from the aforementioned “A Comprehensive English to Manchu Dictionary”, rather than MS. 81

Okdombi – To meet in the middle, halfway Oyombi – To keep going until the end (lit. “to peak”)

(28) a. Mini buda je-ke b. Te si-ni cuwan sebde-ke!

my food eat-PAST now you-GEN boat rust-PAST “I ate my food” “Now your boat is rusted!”

c. Inu, i ini iki emgi jugū-rame okdo-ko

yes he he-GEN twin with road-along.side meet.halfway-PAST “Ya, he met with his twin halfway along the road”

d. I mala-de sidara-ka

she hammer-LOC loosen.grip-PAST “She loosened her grip on the hammer”

Some past tense irregulars may at first seem more strikingly different – adding an initial

/ng/ prior to the addition of the -ka/-ke/-ko – thus making -ngka, -ngke and -ngko. However aside from the addition of the /ng/, they are precisely the same as all other simple past forms in their function and production.

-ngke -ngka -ngko Sembi – To melt Cambi – To stretch Jombi – To remember or recall

(29) a. Fe tuweri nimanggi – emu erin-de jalu tala-rame cakja-ha – se-ngke

old winter snow one time-LOC full steppe-along cake-PAST melt-PAST “The old winter snow – at one time caked (crusted) along the entire steppe – melted”

b. Da-ci-da-de, i hohoo goro ca-ngka

source-ABL-source-LOC it such far stretch-PAST “In the beginning, it stretched so far” c. Inu, mini sakda mafa geli ere erin be jo-ngko, i-ni banjin-i dube-tele

yes my old grandfather still this time ACC remember-PAST he-GEN life-POSS end-until “Indeed, my old grandpa still remembered this time, (up) until the end of his life”

Irregular Present

For most irregular present verbs, the difference lies in the addition of a suffixed -nda, - nde, or -ndo prior to the present tense -ra/-re/-ro. Some (such as ombi and bimbi, mentioned previously) change more abberantly and unpredictably than this. I shall first cover the ‘standard irregular present’ then ombi and bimbi themselves.

Below is an example of a verb that is irregular in both the past and present – jalumbi – meaning to be full.

(30) a. Ahūn, baniha si-ni kesi-reme…

older.brother thank.you you-GEN kindness-pertaining.to “Older brother, thank you for your kindness…

…dadu geli buda baita-la-ra-k. Bi jalu-ndara. Dadu dahi, yargiyan-de, baniha.

but extra food need-PRES-NEG i full-PRES truth-LOC thank.you “But I don’t need extra food. I’m full. But again, really, thankyou”

Ombi and Bimbi

Ombi and bimbi – to be and to have, respectively, while maintaining regular past tense forms (o-ho and bi-he) as well as having unchanged present tense forms not requiring -ra/-re/-ro

(oci and bi) have irregular non-standard present-future tense forms (ojo-ro and bisi-re) alongside their standard future-present tense forms of ombi and bimbi and the aforementioned present tense forms oci and bi. In MS, these irregular forms are seldom used in everyday speech – with either the present oci and bi or simple future-present of ombi and bimbi being used instead. However, bisire is used in one of the formerly covered complex present tenses (-me bisire).

Kicen 12: Negation and the Imperative in Manchu

Negation in Manchu (With Verbs):

Negation in Manchu is done through the addition of the suffix -k or -ku25 at the end of a verb. This requires no other modifications and remains constant despite changes in tense and does not adhere to vowel harmony. We will first have an example using the verb ‘cihalambi’ meaning “to like”.

Positive Negative

(31) a. Bi ere buda cihala-ra b. Bi ere buda cihala-ra-k

i this food like-PRES i this food like-PRES-NEG ‘I like this food’ ‘I don’t like this food’

This form remains constant regardless of tense…

c. Bi ere buda cihala-ha-k d. Bi ere buda cihala-ha-bi-he-k

i this food like-PAST-NEG i this food like-PAST-have-PAST-NEG ‘I did not like this food’ ‘I had not liked this food’

e. Bi ere buda cihala-ha-bi-k

i this food like-PAST-have-NEG “I haven’t liked this food (before, generally)”

…and additionally, regardless of the vowels of the target verb

25 Among modern Manchus (and Manchu learners of non-Manchu descent alike), the Negation-suffix in verbs is written typically in one of three manners: either as “-kv”, “-ku”, or simply “-k”. In MS, the aspiration following the production of the velar /k/ is limited compared with other speakers, so I prefer to illustrate this with a simple /k/. Keep in mind these differences when reading Romanized Manchu texts elsewhere – they will differ in these ways but entail the same semantic meaning. 85

f. I ese saise cihala-ra-k g. I bebu-i cahin oyo-ho-k

she these cookie like-PRES-NEG he baby-POSS crib rock-PAST-NEG “She isn’t liking these cookies” “He didn’t rock the baby’s crib”

h. I hono ce-ni boo-de ji-he-k

he still they-GEN house-LOC come-PAST-NEG “He still hasn’t arrived at their house”

Of course, as with many things, negation in Manchu may also be performed by individual words supplementing the verb, rather than through using the negating-suffix -k:

(32) a. Garga indahūn muse-ni boo-de bi waka

Single dog we-GEN house-LOC have not “We don’t have a single in our house”

b. Bi gūnin bi waka ese baita-rame i opinion have not these affair-pertaining.to “I have no opinion(s) pertaining to these affairs

c. Waka, suwe-ni ama-ta-i efen cihala-ha-bi-he waka

no you.PL-GEN father-PL-POSS cake like-PAST-have-PAST not “No, I had not liked your parents’ cake”

Imperative in Manchu:

The imperative in Manchu is relatively easy to learn – for the ‘positive’ imperative one must do one of two things; simply utilize the simple present-future -ra/-re/-ro or drop the tense altogether. Meanwhile for the ‘negative’ imperative one does all of this while adding the word ume – translating here as “don’t” – just prior to the verb. Observe examples below;

(33) a. Oi! Muke hunio-ci si-ni mucen-de doola-ra!

INTERJ water bucket-ABL you-GEN pan-LOC pour-PRES “Oi! Pour water from the bucket into your pot!”

b. Sain, te ere muke buju good now this water boil “Good, now boil this water”

c. Ere manggi, buju-re dulimba-de, farsi farsi yali in-de sinda

this after boil-PRES middle-LOC bits bits meat it-LOC add “After this, while boiling, put all the bits of meat in”

d. Susugurun-i gisun taci-re!

home.country-POSS language study-PRES “Study the language of the homeland!”

e. Susugurun-i gisun ume taci-re!

home.country-POSS language do.not study-PRES “Don’t study the language of the homeland!”

f. Si tatala saduran gai-ha, tuttu ume teye!

you a.lot.of sleep take-PAST so do.not rest “You got a lot of sleep, so don’t rest!” 87

Urebun 10:

Ese Inggiri siren Manjude tungsere, jai Manju siren Inggiride mudande.

1. I don’t like English

______

2. I didn’t practice Manchu

______

3. He didn’t arrive at the house the other day…

______

4. The food was tasty, so I liked it

______

5. Study Manchu!

______

6. Bi mini boode jihek, guwa inenggide

______

7. Dadu guwa galade mini gucui boode jihe inu

______

8. Tatala urebun guwa gisunde cihalarak

______

9. Inenggidari, bi teyen gaimbi

______

10. Dadu ere guwa haha – mini anda, museni tacire booci - i inenggidari teyen gairak.

______

11. Suwe ini ajige untuhun horho cihalarak.

______

12. Inu, tuttu ce mini untuhun horho mini ice hašade cihalarak. Dadu ainu? Bi sarak. Mini horho untuhun inu, dadu guwa galade i ceni horhoci urgen.

______

13. Mini inenggidari urebun Inggiri emgi arahak – dadu guwa galade Manju gisurehe!

______

Kicen 13: Verbal Question Formation in Manchu

Aside from the demonstrative pronouns in Manchu, questions are developed via the interrogative case, which is attached at the end of the verb as a suffix. The interrogative typically has two distinct forms – one ‘positive’ (simply INT) and one negative (NEGINT). I shall discuss these in further detail below:

Interrogative in Manchu

The interrogative in Manchu comes in two forms, with two suffixes acting as their markers: the positive interrogative -o, and the negative interrogative -n. The positive interrogative -o is added after the end of the target verb – no other alterations are required, regardless of the tense at hand. Meanwhile, to create the negative interrogative, one must naturally first be using the negative -k at the end of their verb, then following this add the

NEGINT -n.

Let us first start with a simple example using the verb ‘cihalambi’ meaning “to like” – first with INT, then with the NEGINT.

(34) a. Si ere Coosiyan buda cihala-ra-o? b. Si ere Coosiyan buda cihala-ra-ku-n

you this Korean dish like-PRES-INT you this Korean dish like-PRES-NEG-NEGINT “Do you like this Korean food?” “You do not like this Korean food?”

The addition of either the -o or the -n at the end of a verb in an utterance changes the status of the entire utterance from a statement into a question. The two additions remain unaltered regardless of the tense used:

90 a. Si ere Coosiyan buda cihala-ha-o?

you this Korean food like-PAST-INT “You liked this Korean food?” (Or “Did you like this Korean food?”) b. Si ere Coosiyan buda cihala-ha bi-he-ku-n?

you this Korean food like-PAST have-PAST-NEG-NEGINT “Had you not liked this Korean food?”

Additionally, many “unaltered” verbs and a few demonstrative pronouns may also make use of the interrogative, NEG or POS:

(35) a. Inu, inu-o b. Waka, waka-o c. Akū, akū -n

yes yes-INT not not-INT without without-NEGINT “Yes, indeed?” “No, is it so?” “Without, is it not had/is it lacking?”

d. Jakade-o e. Turgunde-o f. Naka-o

because-INT because-INT stop-INT “Why?” “Why?” “Is (it) stopping?”

g. Bi-o h. Jo-o

have-INT enough-INT “Is there ___? / Is ___ had?” “Is it enough?” i. Se-me-o IMP-CONV-INT Question particle used at the end of sentences to create a hypothetical/rhetorical question

91 j. Unde-o k. Aika-o

not.yet-INT if-INT “Not yet?” “If?” l. Waka-n m. Naka-n

not-NEGINT stop-NEGINT “Is it not?” “Is it not stopping?”

Urebun 11: Below I provide a sentence – each is either a question, or a statement. Provided the sentence is a statement, change it from a statement into a question of the same tense (INT if stated, or NEGINT if stated), while if it is a question, change this from a question into a statement.

1. Sini boode tatala indahūn bio?

______

2. Sini anda mini la Manju buda cihalaha (NEGINT)

______

3. Tuttu mini kesike Giohoto hono boode jihek. Ainu?

______

4. Sini gurun inu (INT)

______

5. Ce sini doshon gucu fe gurunci cihalarao?

______

6. I gucu akū (NEGINT)

______

7. Mini juise Manju gisun be tacihe (INT)

______

8. Suwe mini tubihe cihalahakun?

______93

9. Sini sefu sinde Manju gisun be tacibuha (INT)

______

Kicen 14: Utilizing more than one Action (Verb) In a Sentence

Generally, in Manchu, to utilize one than more verb one must pair the two together at the end of the sentence – the first verb ending in the ‘neutral’ verb suffix -me followed by the final verb, which will exhibit the intended tense suffix. The order of the verbs, as well as the tense of the final verb, has the potential to change the overall intended meaning of the utterance – without additional context.

Tuwakūde: (using the new verb bahanambi, meaning “to be able to ______”)

(36) a. Bi Manju gisure-me bahana-mbi

i Manchu speak-NEU able-FUT “I can speak Manchu” (I am able to speak Manchu)

There are also common compounds (MS: Muhaliyan, stacks) that are created using this method – akin to English “looking to do”, “seeking to do”, “hoping to do”, “attempting to do”,

“looking into” and so on. Below are some examples of these compoundx:

(37) a. Tuttu si ere-ci manggi, ai tuwa-me ara-mbi?

so you this-ABL look-NEU do-FUT “So from here on, what are you looking to do?” b. I la! Ere ketekata amta-me dube-re! c. Ai si in-de gūni-me hendu-mbi?

it spicy this snack try-NEU end-PRES what you he-LOC think-NEU say-FUT-INT “It’s spicy! Try finishing this snack!” “What are you thinking of saying (telling) to him?”

One may also use -me to imply an action as having occurred ‘alongside’ or at the same time as another. It’s use here is no different from its other use of compounding actions together, however, so context and word choice is key here:

d. I kundulen šaman-i tokso-de ucule-me ji-he

he respected shaman-POSS village-LOC sing-NEU come-PAST “He came to the respected shaman’s village singing”

The method for implying the use of two distinct verb one after another is different. This typically involves the use of the suffix -fi, which ‘attaches’ the verbs and denotes them as having occurred one after another, with the verb it attaches to having occurred before the final verb. In this manner, it is comparable to using “then” in English. As with using the neutral -me, the tense of the latter verb is always applied to former verb, in this case the one using -fi.

(38) a. Bi jugūn-de yafahala-fi fulgiye-he

i road-LOC walk-while whistle-PAST “I walked (and) then whistled on the road”

b. Suwe-ni jui i-ni dolbon dulimba-de ba-ba-de be feksi-fi murta-ra

you.PL-GEN child he-GEN work middle-LOC place-place-LOC ACC run-then shout-PRES “Your (pl.) child during his work is running (and) then shouting everywhere”

c. Muse Manju be ara-fi gisure-re, tuttu i (Manju) urebu-me bahana-mbi

we Manchu ACC write-then speak-PRES so that it (Manchu) practice-NEU able-FUT “We are writing then speaking Manchu in order to be able to practice it (Manchu)” 96

Finally, one may make use of both -me and -fi in a single sentence – below would be an example of what such a sentence may look like

d. Bi mini boodolbon be amta-me dube-fi daha-ha

i my home.work ACC try-NEU finish-then surrender-PAST “I tried to finish my homework then gave up (lit. surrendered)”

Urebun 12: Now, two (or more) verbs garga sirende baitalara. Below is a list of common verbs as a quick reminder. Have half of the sentences utilize -fi, and the other half utilize -me for ‘compound’ actions.

Arambi – To do, to write, to make Gūnimbi – To think (about), to consider Tacimbi – To learn, to study Sindambi – To place, to add Tacibumbi – To teach Cihalambi – To like, to want Urebumbi – To practice, to repeat Bimbi – To have Tungserembi – To translate Gaimbi – To take Bahanambi – To be able (to) Baimbi – To seek, to search (for)

______

10.

______

Kicen 15: Complex Verb Tenses in Manchu Present Present -me bi 1.Tanjura-me bi-mbi 1. Is praying/While Continuous26 -me bi-mbi 1.Tanjura-me bisi-re praying -me bi-si-re27 2.Tanjura-me bi -me ili-ha-bi 2.Tanjura-me ili-ha-bi 2. I am praying -ma-ha-bi 2.Tanjura-ma-ha-bi

Past Pluperfect/ -ha bi-he, -he bi-he, Tanjura-ha bi-he I had prayed Definite Past -ho bi-he Taci-he bi-he I had studied Songko-ho bi-he I had tracked Indefinite-Past -ha-bi, Tanjura-ha-bi I have prayed -he-bi, Taci-he-bi I have studied -ho-bi Songko-ho-bi I have tracked Imperfect Past -mbi-he Tanjura-mbi-he I was praying -mbi-he-bi Tanjura-mbi-he-bi or -me bi-he Tanjura-me bi-he “I had been praying” -me bi-he-bi Tanjura-me bi-he-bi Past- -hai bi, -hei bi, -hoi 1.Tanjura-hai bi 1. I have been praying Continuous bi 1.Taci-hei bi I have been studying -ha bi, -fi bi 1.Songko-hoi bi I have been tracking 2. Tanjura-ha bi 2. Tanjura-fi bi 2. I am still praying

Table 1.9: Complex Verb Tenses Table

Following the three ‘simple’ tenses, there are an additional five ‘complex’ tenses, which indicate more specific meanings. Many have multiple iterations, however, entail more or less the same meaning, and therefore one form of a single tense can be focused on – while familiarity should be made with the others.

One should quickly notice a similarity shared among all the complex tenses – the common use of various forms of ‘bimbi’, “to have”. Nearly all complex tenses require this verb –

26 Most of these in MS can be (and are) usually inferred by the simple present-future tense alone, rather than these tenses. 27 This is the irregular future-present form of bimbi, to have. Its ‘neutral’ or unchanged present tense form is bi. 100 which here acts as a suffix generally – for their creation. Below, I will provide examples of the more commonly used complex tenses and their translations. The reader may find a striking similarity between Manchu and English in these tenses.

Since they are more numerous and commonly used, I will first cover the complex tenses of the past tense:

Indefinite Past (General Past)

The Indefinite, or General Past is used to speak of something that has generally occurred at some point in time, with little emphasis being placed on the exact time in which it occurred. It uses the unaltered present tense of the verb ‘bimbi’, bi – hear meaning “have”. Its’ use is similar to how one in English would respond to an accusation of ‘having never done ____ before’ Below is an example: (second utterance)

(39) a. SI arki omi-he-o? Waka!! Si fe ene-tele arki omi-me bahana-mbi waka!

you liquor drink-PAST-INT no you old enough-until liquor drink-NEU able-FUT not “YOU drank liquor? No!! You’re not old enough to be able to drink!”

b. Dadu, bi yargiyan-de arki be omi-he-bi…

but i truth-LOC liquor ACC drink-PAST-have “But I honestly have drank liquor (before, generally) …”

Definite Past

101

The definite past is the opposite of the Indefinite – it it used to state resolutely that something had (or had not) occurred at some point in time. Naturally, therefore, it is more frequently used alongside dates (something that shall be covered later in this material). It always uses the simple past form of the verb bimbi – bi-he, meaning “had”. Observe examples of its use below:

(40) a. Tuttu si, sikse, Manju taci-he-bi-he-o

so you yesterday Manchu study-PAST-have-PAST-INT “So you, yesterday, had studied Manchu?”

b. Inu, juwe aniya te-ci onggolo, Inggiri ciksin-jui-se-de be tacibu-ha-bi-he

yes two year this-ABL before English adult-child-PL-LOC ACC teach-PAST-have-PAST “Yes, two years before now I had taught English to teenagers”

c. Tere inenggi-de, tatala aniya ere-ci onggolo, mini mefe ere min-de bu-he-bi-he

that day-LOC many year this-ABL before my grandmother this me-LOC gave-PAST-had-PAST “On that day, many years before now, my grandmother had given this to me”

Imperfect Past

The Imperfect Past is used to denote something action as having happened just before something else (i.e. had been doing ___ when suddenly…). It, along with the neutral tense, is commonly used to tell tales (SM: Julen alambi) (MS: Juren alambi).

(41) a. I i-ni kunesun yamaka-i elhe-de be je-mbi-he…

he he-GEN provisions apparently-POSS peace-LOC ACC eat-FUT-PAST

102

“He had been eating his provisions in apparent peace…” b. …erin-tele garga nergin-de, hutu orho-ci in-de fekce-fi, hendu-me “wuuu”!

time-until moment-LOC ghost bush-ABL him-LOC jump-then say-NEU wuuu “…until the time that in a single moment, a ghost jumped from the bushes at him, saying “wooo!”” c. …dadu bi fahū-ngga, hutu-gu-butu-gu, tuttu ere hutu bi olho-bu-me bahana-ha-k!

but i liver-ADJ ghost-gu-hidden-gu so this ghost i scare-to.give-NEU able-PAST-NEG “…but I’m brave, ghost-shmost, so this ghost couldn’t (didn’t) scare me!”

Past Continuous

The past continuos has two possible meanings it can entail, both utilizing a different set of endings, of them I will cover one each.

(42) a. Inu, ere jalu tuweri bi si-ni boo-de be ji-hei bi

yes this full winter i you-GEN house-LOC ACC come-PAST have “Yes, I have been coming to your house during this whole winter”

b. Jai ere-reme, bi geli ere boo-de ji-fi bi

and this-along.side i still this house-LOC come-then have “And alongside this, I have still been going to this house”

103

Urebun 13: Translate these sunja (five) sentences Manjuci Inggiride, which all utilize ursungga yabun gisun (layered/complex verb) suffixes:

1. Inu! Bi Manju be teci onggolo tacihebi!

______

2. Inenggidari, anaganakū, museni juise tacire boode yabufi tacimbi, jai ere ceni jalu banjin dulimbade arahai bi.

______

3. Mini fe andai boode yabuhabihe inu, dadu guwa galade bi ini anda inibeye cihalahabihek, tuttu ereci onggolo ini (andai) boode yabuhabi waka mudande.

______

4. Dadu ini cuwan cihalarak, bi inenggidari I (ini cuwan) be dasahai bi.

______

5. Esereme…si sini inenggidari Manju urebun baitalambi, sini inenggidari Inggiri urebureme.

Tuttu sikse, ainu si sini urebun arahabihek? ...Tuttu te, Manju urebu!

______

104

Kicen 16: Voice, Intention, and Direction with Manchu Verbs

Voice, intention and direction may be indicated either through additional contextual words in a sentence, or through certain suffixes (some also standalone words) - usually added prior to the tense. Below is a chart showing the most frequent of the voice and direction suffixes, which I shall cover first. Later on in the chapter I will provide a chart for the ‘intention’ implicating suffixes, as well as examples of their use.

-bumbi ‘to give’ Creates the causative form of the verb – implying it as being (-bu) acted on another, or oneself. This is actually just the word bumbi, to give, but used in this context as a suffix. -jimbi ‘to come’ When utilized in a verb, implies the direction of the verb or (-ji/-nji) action as being where the speaker is, i.e. “I omi-nji-he” means ‘he/she came to drink’. Like -bumbi, this is a separate word - the verb ‘jimbi’, to come, but used here as a suffix. -na/-ne/- ‘to go’ Opposite of -ji/-nji, implies the direction of the verb or action no as being away from the speaker, i.e. “I omi-ne-he” means ‘he/she went to drink’. -nu/-ndu ‘Together’ Implies the action it is used with as having been done ‘together’ with something or someone else, i.e “Muse omi-ndu- ha” would translate as ‘we drank together’. -ca/-ce/- ‘Together’ Similar to -nu/-ndu, implies an action as having been done co together28. Table 1.10 Voice and Direction Suffixes

Bumbi (-bumbi)

The addition of the verb bumbi, meaning ‘to give’ or in many instances ‘to cause’ or

‘bring about’ following the root of the target verb indicates the verb as being acted out on yourself, something, or someone else. This is known as the ‘causative’ form of the verb.

28 In some online materials (https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Manchu) these are claimed as having different meanings, however in MS they retain the same meaning regardless of the situation. Possibly a dialectal difference between SM and MS, however this is not certain. 105

Oftentimes verbs will be by their nature causative (i.e. abalambi – to hunt, or dudumbi – to feed

(livestock)) however other verbs must be made causative using -bumbi. (Jafabumbi – to wield another with something, to arm or be armed by another, from jafambi, to wield or hold). Observe examples below of causative forms of a verb alongside their non-causative forms and root words:

(43) a. Tacin, taci-mbi, taci-bu-mbi

study study-FUT to.give.study-FUT “Study, to study, to teach (lit. to ‘give learning/study to’)”

b. Ergen, erge-mbi, erge-bu-mbi

breath breathe-FUT to.give.breath-FUT “Breath, to breath, to give life to or animate (lit. ‘to give breath to’)”

c. Aitu, aitu-mbi, aitu-bu-mbi

recovery recover-FUT to.give.recovery-FUT “Recovery, to recover, to revive or save (lit. ‘to give recovery to or to bring about recovery’)”

d. Wen, we-mbi, wem-bu-mbi

influence to.be.influenced-FUT to.give.influence-FUT “Influence, to be influenced or civilized, to influence or civilize”

Worth noting is that by retaining the /bu/ from bumbi, then adding a word final /n/, one may create the noun form of these causative verbs – which may or may not differ from their non- causative root equivalents:

(44) a. Tacin, tacibun study education

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“Study, education”

b. Ergen, ergebun breath breath.giving “Breath, life-giving/animation”

c. Aitu, aitubun recovery give.recovery “Recovery, revival/restoration or saving

d. Wen, wembun influence influence.given “Culture, encultured/enriched, improved”

Jimbi (-ji/-nji)

The addition of the word jimbi, meaning to come, at the end of a word creates a

‘compound verb’ meaning ‘to come and ____’. The suffix -ji/-nji is used to describe the direction of the action as being or having been from the target noun and can be compared with the

“coming” in “coming to do”.

(45) a. I belhe-re tuttu dolbon kulge-de dube-nji-me bahana-mbi

he prepare-PRES so work car-LOC finish-come-FUT “He’s getting ready so (that) he’s able to come finish work on the car”

Of course, as with many other direction, voice, or other specialized suffixes, one may utilize other means to imply direction of a verb – such as use of the standalone jimbi, to come, itself (this is more common in MS – perhaps as a result of Anglicization).

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b. I belhe-re tuttu dolbon kulge-de ji-fi dube-me bahana-mbi

he prepare-PRES so work car-LOC come-then finish-NEU able-FUT “He’s getting ready so (that) he’s able to come then finish work on the car”

-na/-ne/-no

The suffix -na/-ne/-no is used to imply the direction of the action as being or having been away from the target noun – the opposite of -ji/-nji. It is equivalent to the use of ‘go’ or ‘went’ when saying “he went to talk to his father” or “he’s going to take the test”. Like -ji/-nji, its’ non- suffix equivalent would be a verb such as yabumbi or genembi, both meaning ‘to go’.

(46) a. Ce simnen be ara-na-ha b. Ce simnen be ara-ha

they test ACC do-go-PAST they test ACC do-PAST “They went to take the test” “They took the test (lit ‘did the test’)”

And for the same meaning implied via a separate word (yabumbi, to go) instead of -na/-ne/-no… c. Ce simnen be yabu-me ara-ha d. Muse muse-ni doshon ba-de be yabu-me je-mbi

they test ACC go-NEU do-PAST we we-GEN favorite place-LOC ACC go-NEU eat-FUT “They went to take the test” “We will be going to our favorite place to eat”

Now observe the difference between -ji/-nji and -na/-ne/-no

e. Ce simnen be ara-nji-ha f. Ce simnen be ara-na-ha

they test ACC do-come-PAST they test ACC do-go-PAST “They came to take the test” “They went to take the test”

-ca/-ce/-co jai -nu/-ndu

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In MS, both of these suffixes typically retain the same meaning – implying an action as having been done ‘together’ or by multiple persons, things, or entities. Below, I show examples of their use, as well as possible alternatives to the suffixes that imply the same meaning.

(47) a. Tuttu bi, mini iki jai mini anda tere be guni-ndu-ha-bi-he

so i my twin and my best.friend that ACC think-together-PAST-have-PAST “So me, my twin, and my best friend had thought (of) this together”

b. Be ere-de isina-ca-ha

we.EXCL this-LOC arrive-together-PAST “We succeeded (arrived) in this together”

A common alternative to either of these suffixes would be the word sasari, meaning together, which typically follows the subject

c. Muse sasari ere-de isina-ha

we together this-LOC achieve-had “We together succeeded in this”

d. Si jai si-ni deo be sasari tere amta-ngga buda buju-he

you and your little.brother ACC that taste-ADJ food cook-PAST “You and your little brother together cooked that tasty food”

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Intent

-kini ‘May (it be)’ Implies that the permission or ability for an action to occur is sought after, i.e. “Ini jon bargiyakini” would translate as “May his memory be preserved” -ki ‘Will’ States that an action will occur, and naturally entails the future tense. “Inu, bi sini mala hadahan sini kulgede sindaki” means “Yes, I will put your hammer and nails in your car” -ki sembi ‘Want’ Implies that an outcome is wanted, with the overall tense being tied to the tense of “sembi”. If one were to say “Bi si susude mudaki sehe” it would translate as ‘I wanted you to return home’. -cina ‘Hope that’, Implies that the action itself is hoped for or wished for. If one ‘wish that’ were to say “Bi si susude mudacina”, it would translate as ‘I hope/wish that you will return home’ Table 1.11 Intention Suffixes

Here ‘intent’ encompasses when one wishes, hopes, wants, or doesn’t want something – such things in Manchu are often represented through verbs via specific suffixes, and sometimes additional words.

There first suffixes used in Manchu verbs to imply ‘intent’ that I will be discussing here – the first being -kini, and the other being -cina. The first is equivalent to a hoping for the

‘possibility’ or ‘permission’ for something to occur, such as the “may” in ‘may he be blessed’ whereas the latter denotes the wish or hope that something will occur. Neither adhere to vowel harmony, nor change with the vowels of their target verbs.

(48) a. Si-ni jugūn faššan adisla-kini

you-GEN road effort bless-may “May your journey and efforts be blessed”

b. Bi si-ni jugūn faššan adisla-cina

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i you-GEN road effort bless-wish “I hope/wish that your journey and efforts are blessed”

To these, one might respond in kind using the suffix -ki – naturally entailing the future - used to make a promise or declare an action as certain:

c. I fonjin waka, bi mini golmin jugūn-ci boo-de be muda-ki – garga wašakū!

it problem not i my long road-ABL house-LOC ACC return-will single scrape.without “Its no problem, I will return from my long journey back home – without a single scrape!”

And in turn, the worried friend may respond… d. Sain, bi si garga ubu-de be si-ni mudan-de bi-ki se-mbi, sa-ra-o?

good i you single piece-LOC ACC you-GEN return-LOC have-will mean-FUT know-PRES-INT “Good, I want you in a single piece on your return, understand?” e. Inu mini haji, bi meni boo-de muda-ki – ere mini gashun sin-de!

yes my dear i our.EXCL house-LOC return-will this my oath you-LOC “Yes my dear, I will return to our home – this is my oath to you!”

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Kicen 17: Adjectives

Adjectives in Manchu are typically developed via suffixes, however ‘natural’ adjectives do exist (amba, ajige, urgen, onco, labsa, etc.), and even they may be modified by these adjective making suffixes to further amplify their meaning. Since many natural adjectives have already been mentioned and utilized (however some will be repeated here), this chapter will focus on teaching the reader how to create Manchu adjectives.

Adjectives and Adjective Formation in the Manchu Language:

Typical adjectives in Manchu are created by the addition of certain types of suffixes at the end of a Manchu noun – which, if ending in a consonant, drops said consonant prior to the use of the suffix. There are many types of adjective-markers in Manchu, however, which determine the ‘degree’ of the adjective at hand (such as better and best in English). In addition, similar to many other suffixes in Manchu, many adjective suffixes adhere to vowel harmony.

Below is a list of these suffixes, examples of their use, and their ‘rough’ translations into

English.

Adjective Markers English Translation Examples (without translation) -ngga, -nggo, -ngge ‘-ous’, ‘-y’, ‘-iv’, ‘-ic’, ‘-al’, ‘-full’, Ambangga, Orhonggo, ‘-less’ Selengge -kan, -kon, -ken ‘-ish’, somewhat, ‘-er’ Ambakan, Orhokon, Seleken -linggu ‘-est’, ‘-ist’, ‘most’ Ambalinggu, Orholinggu, Selelinggu -cuka, -cuke Same as -ngga, -nggo, -ngge Alacuka, Erecuke -si ‘fairly’, ‘rather’ Ambasi -i Possesive, but may imply something Derei as the ___ of ____, “-al” Galai Guruni Sideni -liyen/liyan Somewhat, minorly, sort of Bakciliyan, Oncoliyan -šun ‘fairly’, ‘rather’ (same as -si) Ambašun Table 1.12: Adjective-Making Suffixes

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First, I shall introduce randomly selected noun root words followed by their glossed – adjective equivalents, so the reader may see the process through which an adjective is made from a noun, and what constraints exist in the production process.

(49) a. Bata-ngga b. Bata-kan

enemy-ADJ enemy-ADJ “Hostile, (lit. “pertaining to the enemy”)” “Somewhat hostile, (lit. “Enemy-ish)”

c. Bata-linggu

enemy-ADJ “Most hostile, (lit. “enemy-ist”)”

d. Ala-cuka e. Amba-si f. Fakca-liyan

hill-ADJ large-ADJ different-ADJ “Hilly/Hillous” “Rather large” “Sort of different”

However, not all adjectives are created in this manner: many adjectives in Manchu originate from the addition of a typical adjective marker onto a Manchu verb, usually in the past tense.

(50) a. Necihiye-he b. Necihiye-he-ngge

subjugate-PAST subjugate-PAST-ADJ “Subjugated______” “A subjugated _____ (person/thing)”

c. Buce-he d. Buce-he-ngge e. Bata-(la)-ha-ngga

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to die-PAST to die-PAST-ADJ enemy-(la)-PAST-ADJ “Dead_____” “A dead _____ (person/thing)” “One that had been hostile”

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Urebun 14:

Below are A: nouns followed by an English description of what the nouns should be translated into (from English into Manchu) and B: Manchu adjectives requiring translation into English. Complete the following questions, and should any “incorrect” forms be found, correct them, and provide the English translation shortly after. 1. Faman/Somewhat lost:

______

2. Orho/sort of grassy

______

3. Sele/(Pertaining to something iron):

______

4. Ajige/Smallest

______

5. Bucekan

______

6. Bata/Hostile (Pertaining to that which is an enemy or hostile):

______

7. Orhokon

______

8. Seleken

______115

9. Ere ambalinggu gurgu ere minde henduhebihe, mini tacire boode – museni Manju urebun dulimbade.

______

10. Ajikan

______

11. Abkai

______

12. Fulgiyasi

______

13. Ambaliyan

______

14. Sahaliyakan

______

15. Bucehengge

______

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Kicen 18: Nouns and Noun Development in Manchu

I thought it best to provide a short chapter discussing the formation of nouns in Manchu, as the manner in which they are created, while generally easy, can at times be unusual for non- speakers. Hence, below I will describe many (however not all) of the major types of Manchu nouns, as well as their suffixes and how they are created. For reference and for a summary of these noun types and suffixes, observe the graph below.

Sound Example Origin Description (Filga) (Tuwakū) (Fujuri) (Subun) -n Taci-n Taci-mbi No meaning, frequently seen on nouns derived Haci-n Haci-la-mbi from verbs

-gan/-gen/- Ana-gan Ana-mbi No meaning, frequently seen on nouns derived gon Bodo-gon Bodo-mbi from verbs. May be interchanged with -n (i.e. bodogon = bodon, anan=anagan) -ku Jafa-ku Jafa-mbi Denotes a person or thing that embodies the action entailed by the verb (jafaku = “that which wields” or a grip -cun Ehe-cun Ehecu-mbi Frequently occurring ending for mujin, or feelings, as well as other categories of nouns. Often is equivalent to the ‘-ity’ in “familiarity”. -si Bithe-si Bithe Equivalent to English -er or -ian, denotes a person that ‘deals’ in the action or subject denoted by the target word: i.e. bithe = book, while bithesi = “one that deals in books”, such as a librarian or a clerk -ci Abala-ci Abala-mbi Same as -si -ji Ginggu-ji Ginggule- Similar to -ci and -si, but less frequent mbi -tun Kumu-tun Kumun/ Denotes a tool used for or related to the action or Kumu-mbi subject entailed by the target word, i.e. kumun = music, whereas kumusi = musician, and kumutun = an instrument, or tool used by a musician for music. Possibly originating from the word tetun, meaning tool. -bun Taci-bun Tacibumbi Denotes the noun form of a causative verb. Here, tacibun derives from tacibumbi, meaning ‘to teach’. Tacibun itself translates as ‘education’. Table 1.13 Types of Nouns and Noun Making Suffixes

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General Nouns

General Nouns in Manchu, while not adhering to any necessary structure, typically end with either a vowel, or one of a few consonants (-n, -m, -k, -t are the most common consonant endings in Manchu), although of these most will orally end in either an -n or an -m. If one is taking an unfamiliar verb and wishes to develop a noun from it, you remove the verb tense, and either leave the root be, or add a word final -n, in most cases. Below are a few examples of this with familiar verbs:

(51) a. Taci-mbi, tacin b. Aitu-mbi, aitu

study-FUT study recover-FUT recovery “To study, study/science” “To recover, recovery”

c. Gukubu-mbi, gukubun

destroy-FUT destruction “To destroy or wipe out, destruction

In some cases, however, the noun formed from a verb may end in -gan/-gen/-gon.

Observe examples below:

d. Anagan e. Bodogon excuse plan “Excuse” – from ‘anambi’ to make excuses “Plan” – from ‘bodombi’ to plan

f. Nirugan drawing “Drawing, painting, illustration, mapping” – from ‘nirumbi’ to draw or illustrate

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Note that oftentimes these forms of a noun can and will have equivalents without -gan/- gen/-gon as well. I.e. bodon and bodogon, anan and anagan, nirun and nirugan, jasin and jasigan, etc. These entail the same semantic meanings and may be used in place of their -gan/- gen/-gon equivalents, and vis-versa.

-si/-ci/-ji Nouns

-si/-ci/-ji Nouns, as deducible from their name, are nouns created via the addition of the suffix -si, -ci or -ji; all being the Manchu equivalents of the English “-er” ending, in “fighter” or

“ian” ending in “librarian”. These can used alongside nouns as well as verb roots. Like other

Manchu suffixes, one typically drops any word final consonant prior to their addition:

(52) a. Ergebun, ergebu-si b. Bithe, bithe-si c. Šudun, šudu-si Animation, animate-er book, book-er Shovel, shovel-er “Animation, animator” “Scribe, librarian, clerk” “Shovel, shoveler” d. Bi mini ani-inenggi-dari banjin-de bithe emgi bithe kuren-de be dolbo-mbi, tuttu bi ‘bithe-si’

I my normal day-every life-LOC book with book establishment-LOC ACC work-FUT so i book-er “In my normal everyday life I work with books in a library, so I am a ‘librarian’”

Verb Nouns

Verb Nouns here denote two things: first, nouns that are themselves semantically verbs, but dependent on context may denote an object or thing. Second, nouns developed utilizing the suffix -ku, added to the root of a verb to denote something that is the embodiment of the action entailed by that verb. Below are examples – first of verbs that are nouns, then of nouns developed using -ku:

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(53) a. Nicu-he b. Afa-ha

close-PAST fight-PAST “Pearl (lit. “closed”)” “Veteran (lit. “fought”)”

c. Bodo-ho

plan-PAST “Solution (lit. “planned”, or “calculated”)

Notably, these will adhere to the same rules that any other vowel would – such as rules involving the addition of the plural marker -sa/-se/-so

d. Nicu-he-se e. Afa-ha-sa f. Bodo-ho-so

close-PAST-PL fight-PAST-PL plan-PAST-PL “Pearls” “Veterans” “Solutions”

Next, here are examples involving the use of -ku:

g. Hasala-ku h. Henere-ku cut-that.which rake-that.which “That which cuts, scissors” “That which rakes, a rake”

i. Harsa-ku j. Jafa-ku protect-that.which grip-that.which “That which protects, protector” “That which grips, a grip or handle”

The suffix -ku differs from its -ci/-si equivalents in that it may denote a person or an object, whereas the use of -ci/-si almost always entails a person. Depending on context, the use of one or the other could imply a significantly different meaning. Observe examples of this below:

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k. Fusi-ku l. Fusi-si shave-that.which shave-er “That which shaves, a shaver or razor” “A shaver, one that cuts or shaves hair”

Here, we see that fusiku itself more accurately denotes a tool for shaving, while fusisi denotes a person that shaves or cuts hair. A fusisi may use an fusiku to do their job, however the reverse cannot be true. (fusisi fusiku be baitalame bahanambi tuttu ceni dolbon arambi, dadu ereci bakcin yargiyan ome bahanarak)

-tun Nouns

-tun Nouns are nouns which are created utilizing the suffix -tun, possibly from the

Manchu word tetun, meaning tool. Use of -tun establishes the word as being a ‘tool of the target noun’. “Natural” tools do exist in Manchu (i.e. šudun, mala, hadahan, sence hadahan, susin, jerin, hajun etc.) however many are developed through the use of -tun, as well as the use of -ku. - tun differs from -ku, however, in that it specifically designates a tool – rather than additionally having the potential to implicate a person. Here are some examples below:

(54) a. Kumun, kumu-tun b. Ali-mbi, ali-tun c. Dudun, dudu-tun

music music-tool receive-FUT receive-tool pig.feed pig.feed-tool “Music, instrument” “To receive, a table for offerings” “Tool for feeding pigs”

An equivalent to using -tun would be the use of Manchu words denoting tools – such as the previously mentioned tetun, as well as agūra, also meaning tool.

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d. Kumun agūra e. Ali-re tetun

music tool receive-PRES tool “Instrument” “Receiving tool, an implement for receiving offerings”

f. Dudun tetun pig.feed tool “Pig feed tool, an implement related to pig feed”

Adjective Nouns

Adjective Nouns are nouns that are developed utilizing an adjective marker, usually - ngga/-ngge/-nggo, and often times following the past tense -ha/-he/-ho of a verb as well. These were already covered briefly in the Adjective afaha of this material, however for reference I shall bring them up here as well.

(55) a. Necihiye-he-ngge

subject-PAST-ADJ “Something/someone that has been subjugated, a subject”

b. Caru-ha-ngga

fry-PAST-ADJ “Something that has been fried, fried foods”

c. Bodo-ho-nggo

plan-PAST-ADJ “That which has been planned or calculated, a solution”

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Causative Nouns

Causative Nouns here denote the noun forms of causative verbs, which consistently end in -bun, taken from the suffixed verb -bumbi, meaning to give, cause, or bring out in this context.

You have already seen many examples of causative verbs throughout the material; however, I will provide some below including their ‘original’, non-causative verb and their causative verb for reference.

Tacibun – Education, teaching, from tacimbi, to study, then tacibumbi, to teach, or ‘give study to’, or ‘give learning to’ Ilibun – Establishing (noun) or erecting (noun), from ilimbi, to stand, then ilibumbi, to erect, or ‘give stand to’ Gukubun – Destruction or wiping out, from gukumbi to be destroyed or wiped out, then gukubumbi, meaning to destroy or wipe out. Ergebun – Animation, from ergembi, to breathe, then from ergebumbi, ‘to give breath to’, or to animate, bring to life, etc. Aitubun – Revival, restoration, save from aitumbi, to recover, then from aitubumbi, to restore, save or revive, or ‘to give recovery to’. Sartabun – Comfort, delay, procrastinate, from sartambi, to delay or spend time leisurely, and then from sartabumbi, to comfort another, delay, or procrastinate – ‘to give delay to’ Takabun – Introduction, from takambi, to be familiar with or to know of and then from takabumbi, to introduce or to ‘give familiarity to’.

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Kicen 19: Numbers (Ton) Numbers in Manchu (Ton Manju Gisunde) Emu – 1 Tofohon (Juwan-Sunja) - 15 Minggan – 1000 Juwe29 – 2 Juwan-Ninggu - 16 Tumen – 10,000 Ilan – 3 Juwan-Nadan – 17 Saja – 1,000,000 Duin – 4 Juwan-Jakūun – 18 Sunja – 5 Juwan-Uyun - 19 Ninggun – 6 Orin – 20 Nadan – 7 Gūsin – 30 Jakūn – 8 Dehu30 – 40 Uyun – 9 Sunsai – 50 Juwan – 10 Ninju – 60 Juwan-Emu - 11 Nadanju – 70 Juwan-Juwe - 12 Jakūnju – 80 Juwan-Ilan - 13 Uyunju – 90 Juwan-Duin - 14 Tanggū – 100 Table 1.14: Numbers One through a Million Chart

Numbers work similarly in Manchu as they do in English – with ‘unaltered’ numbers acting as adjectives that precede the target noun in a sentence: thus “Twenty cats” in Manchu would be “Orin kesike”, with orin being twenty, and kesike being cats (of course, per usual, if the number exceedes ‘one’, the plural is implied in the number itself, and therein no plural marker for the noun is required). In this same spirit, Manchu numerals are also modified through the addition of various suffixes, the most common modifier for numbers specifically being -ci

29 There is a sporadic change (mentioned previously on page 26) of the sound /j/ into /d/ and sometimes /di/ word- initially in MS, and would likely first be noticed in numbers cross-dialectally – SM ‘Juwe’ in MS is “Duwen”, while Jakūn is Diyakūn and Juwan is Diuwan. Accordingly, in MS, the SM words for “two” and “transportation” (juwe and juwen, respectively) are identical (duwen). 30 Also may be pronounced/represented as ‘dehi’. 124

(unrelated to the ablative -ci), or in English /-th/, implying the ‘rank’ or ‘placement’ of the number in comparison with others.

Tuwakūde:

(56) a. Emu, emu-ci b. Orin, ori-ci c. Minggan, mingga-ci

one one-th twenty twenty-th one thousand thousand-th ‘One, first’ ‘Twenty, twentieth’ ‘One Thosuand, thousandth’

As demonstrated above, akin to most cases of suffixation in the Manchu language, any consonants (usually /n/) present at the end of the number are dropped prior to the addition of -ci, both in spoken and written Manchu. However, not all modifiers work in this manner:

(57) a. Ninggun, ninju b. Nadan, nadanju c. Jakūn, jakūnju d. Uyun, uyunju six six-ty seven seven-ty eight eight-ty nine-ty ‘Six, sixty’ ‘Seven, seventy’ ‘Eight, eighty’ ‘Nine, ninety’

The suffix -ju in Manchu for numbers sixty through ninety imply the transition from their

‘base’ numbers (6, 7, 8, and 9, respectively) into their double-digit forms. Effectively, /-ju/ acts as /-ty/ does for English numbers, and numbering. However, the suffix -ju is exclusively used for the numbers sixty through ninety, while ten through fifty in Manchu utilize the independent words of “juwan” “orin”, “gūsin”, “dehu”, and “sunsai”, in order.

Once reaching one hundred or over, Manchu does not utilize ‘and’ (“jai”, in Manchu) between ‘hundred’ or ‘thousand’ or ‘million’ and the smaller number following it (one hundred and fifty, for example). One simply utters the number from its greatest component to its smallest

125

– “one hundred and sixteen” in Manchu, for example, would therefore be “tanggū-juwan- ninggun”, or literally ‘hundred-ten-six’.

Also observed here (and in table 3.7 above) is that ‘emu’ (one) is absent from one- hundred, one-thousand, and one-million in Manchu – with these words alone independently implying “hundred” “thousand” and “million” on their own – and therefore not requiring any further context. “three hundred”, however, would be ‘ilan tanggū’ – just as one would see in

English.

Additional Suffixes Pertaining to Manchu Numbers, Numbering, and Counting

There are a few important suffixes one should know pertaining to Manchu numbers: the suffix -ta/-to/-te, implying the distribution of something in certain amounts, the suffix -rsu coming from the word ‘ursu’ meaning layer, denoting the number of levels or layers something has, and the suffix -nggeri, that denotes the number of times an action/occurrence has been enacted.

For the suffix -nggeri, there is no need for additional modifications beyond adding the suffix at the end of the word – it has no adherence to vowel harmony. It can be used together with a number as its own sentence, or as a part of a larger sentence.

(58) a. Ila-nggeri ere-de isina-ha bi-he…

three-REP this-LOC accomplish-PAST have-PAST “Three times (I) had achieved (arrived) at this…”

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However, just as with many cases, one may also opt to utilize a separate word rather than the suffix -nggeri, such as ‘erin’, meaning time

b. Ilan erin ere-de isina-ha-bihe…

three time this-LOC achieve-PAST-have-PAST “Three times (I) had achieved at this…”

For a tuwakū of -nggeri being used as its own sentence:

c. Tuttu si-ni kesike ebise-he-o? Udu erin?

so you-GEN cat clean-PAST-INT how.many time “So you cleaned your cat? How many times?”

d. Saja-nggeri

million-REP “A million times”

Next, we have the suffix -rsu, which derives from the word ursu meaning layer or level.

As with -nggeri, it does not adhere to vowel harmony, and only requires the speaker to drop the final consonant of the number prior to its addition to the word:

(59) a. Dui-rsu b. Tanggū-rsu c. Sunja tanggū dehu nada-rsu four-layer hundred-layer five hundred forty seven-layer “Four layers” “A hundred layers” “Five hundred and forty-seven layers”

d. Udu ursu bi elu-de? e. Udu-rsu

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how.many layer have onion-LOC many-layer “How many layers are there in an onion?” “Many layers”

Finally, we have the suffix -ta/-te/-to, which here indicates the number of recipients of something that has been distributed:

(60) a. Tofoho-to b. Juwan ila-ta c. Dehu dui-te fifteen-each ten three-each forty four-each “Fifteen each” “Thirteen each” “Forty four each”

Siren-de (In a line/sentence):

d. Uba-de meni efi-re pai – nada-ta

here-LOC our.EXCL play-PRES card seven-each “Here are our playing cards – seven each”

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Urebun 15: Below are numbers – either written out, or in numeral form: ese ton Manjuci Inggiride tungsere, jai Manju ton eici Inggiride eici ‘ton’ cenibeyede tungsere mudande. (Translate the numerals and English into Manchu, then the Manchu numbers either into English or into numerals themselves.) 1. One

______

2. Five

______

3. Seven each

______

4. 15

______

5. 23

______

6. 58

______

7. Twelve each

______

8. 102

______

129

9. 112

______

10. 1,108

______

11. Sixty-five each

______

12. Orin duite

______

13. Orin juwe

______

14. Susai jakūn

______

15. Tanggū orin emunggeri

______

16. Tanggū ninju sunja

______

17. Uyunju uyursu

______

18. Saja ilan minggan duin tanggū juwan ilata 130

______

19. Dehu duin

______

20. Minggan tanggū Juwarsu

______

21. Minggan Juwata

______

22. Tumen tanggū oringgeri

______

23. Saja ilan minggan ilan tanggū orin jakūn

______

24. Sajanggeri

______

25. Minggan ilan tanggū orin sunjanggeri

______

26. Tanggūnggeri

______

27. Tofohonggeri

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______

28. Juwan Ninggunggeri

______

The sentences below incorporate concepts and vocabulary provided earlier in the work. Tesei tungseren ai, Manjuci Inggiride? (what are their translations, from Manchu into English?)

1. Udu niyalma bi sini boode?

______

2. Orin kesike bi mini boode – duin beri beri giyande. Tuttu udu giyan bi miniboode, jalude?

Sunja. Dadu boo guwa niyalma akū – geli garga guwa niyalma bi waka.

______

3. Abide mini duici omingga?

______

4. Udu gurun bi museni jalande?

______

5. Tanggū uyunju sunja gurun bi jalu jalan dabali.

______

6. Udu omingga? Ilata, mini gūninde. Dadu guwa galade…duin ilanci amba, tuttu duite sain minde!

______

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7. Tuttu mini gucu minde hendume “udu pai, geren musede?” museni efin onggolo, jai bi mudande inde jabume “juwan juwete”.

______

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Ori-ci Kicen-i Gisun Afaha

Erin – Time, (MS) minute Bilagan – Dates Hūwangli – Calendar Biya Hūwangli – “Moon Calendar” – Lunar Calendar Wargi Hūwangli/Nehūwangli/Burtei Hūwangli – “Western/Modern/Common Calendar”, Gregorian Calendar Tumen – Ten thousand years Minggan – Thousand years Tanggū – Hundred years (a century) Juwan – Ten years (a decade) Aniya – Year Forgon – Season Biya – Month (MS) – Nadan (Nadan Inenggi – “seven days”, a week) Inenggi – Day Dulin Dobon – Middle of the night Dobon – Night Tuhen – “Set”, “setting”, sun setting time Yamji – Evening, Afternoon Dulin/Dulininenggi – Middle/Midday Erde – Morning, early Gelan – Dawn, wake (from verb gelambi – to dawn, to wake, to wake up)

Cananggi – Day before Yesterday Sikse - Yesterday Enenggi/Inekū Inenggi – Today (lit. “this day”, for the latter) Cimari/Cimaha – Tomorrow Coro – Day after tomorrow

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(MS) Hūrun – Hour Nergin – Moment, (MS) second Udu – How many, how much, to what extent (Udu aniya – how many years)

Banjiha Inenggi/Banjin Inenggi – Birthday (lit. “Birthed Day”, or just ‘Birthday’) Arambi – To celebrate (in the context of specific dates) Tumen jalafun jecen akū – “Ten thousand long lives without boundaries”, a birthday wish Ice Aniya – New Year Emgi – With, together, (‘Bi ere ucuri be arambi mini ama emgi’ “I celebrate this festival with my father”) -tala/-tele/-tolo – Until (Ere inenggi-tele, bi oho fonjin-akū/ “Until this day, I was without problem(s)”) Burtei – Common (‘ese etuku burtei inu’ – “these clothes are indeed common”) Ani – Usual, normal, norm (‘ere mini ani doro’ – “this is my usual custom”) Labsa – Rare, unoften, infrequent (‘tere duwali inenggi labsa!’ – “that kind of day is rare!”) Hihan – Rare, cherished (‘Museni inenggi sasari geli umesi hihan minde’ – “our days together are still very cherished to me” Tonggo – Few, lacking, limited (in number, supply, frequency) (‘jai te tere duwali inenggi tonggo’ – “and now that type of day is lacking”)

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Kicen 20: Time (Erin) and Age (Se)

Time and Dates in Manchu (Erin jai Bilagan Manju gisunde)

Intrinsically related to numbers, numbering and counting in Manchu akin to most languages, is time, or “erin” in Manchu. Therefore, below I have detailed information on measures (kemun) for time, examples of their use in natural utterances, and culturally relevant information, where it is needed. The primary sections will detail bilagan (dates) aniya (years) forgon (seasons) biya (months) nadan (weeks) and inenggi (days), as well as their most basic components and common modifiers.

Months in a Year in Manchu (Biya Aniyade Manjude)

Traditional months in Manchu (adhering to the Lunar Calendar, or Biya Hūwangli) are denoted by their number (and sometimes by animals, per loaned Chinese traditions), followed by the word “biya”, literally meaning moon, but here denoting a month. Below is a list of the months in Manchu.

Emu Biya Sunja Biya Uyun Biya Juwe Biya Ninggun Biya Juwan Biya Ilan Biya Nadan Biya *Omson Biya Duin Biya Jakūn Biya *Jorgon Biya

*Latter two do not correlate with the contemporary Manchu words for ‘eleven’ or

‘twelve’. These would be ‘Juwan-Emu Biya’ and ‘Juwan-Juwe Biya’ respectively.

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(MS) Days in a Week in Manchu (Inenggi Nadande Manjude)

Days of the week (“Nadan” in MS, translating literally as ‘seven’) are not a native concept in Manchu, however, are present in MS due to “Inggiricilan” (Anglicization). They are denoted in a similar fashion to months in a year; by applying the proper number, followed by the

Manchu word ‘inenggi’ meaning day.

Emu Inenggi Sunja Inenggi Juwe Inenggi Ninggun Inenggi Ilan Inenggi Nadan Inenggi Duin Inenggi

Dates in Manchu: (Bilagan Manjude)

Traditionally, when telling the date in Manchu, the modifier (in this case, the day/month itself, represented by a number) will precede the words for “month” and “day” themselves (Ilan

Biya = Month Three, or March, and Orin Inenggi = Day Twenty, or 20th of the month) with the

Month in its entirety then preceding the day:

(61) a. ilan biya orin uyun inenggi three month twenty nine day “March 29th”

b. nadan-biya juwan nadan-inenggi seven month ten seven day “July 17th”

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While this is the traditional method of declaring the date in Manchu, it is worth noting that use of the Manchu equivalent of /-th/ in ‘tenth’ or /-nd/ in ‘second’ is also linguistically acceptable in these circumstances, however not traditional:

Therefore this

(62) a. Nada-ci biya juwe-ci inenggi seven-th month seco-nd day “July 2nd”

Entails the same semantic meaning as this

b. Nadan biya juwe inenggi seven month two day “July 2nd”

But is not typically used, even among modern Manchu speakers. It is linguistically acceptable, however not necessarily culturally so – per it not being the traditional way a date is declared.

Types of Days in Manchu (Duwali Inenggi Manju gisunde)

Cananggi – Day before Yesterday Sikse - Yesterday Enenggi/Ineku Inenggi – Today (lit. “this day”, for the latter) Cimari/Cimaha – Tomorrow Coro – Day after tomorrow

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Urebun 16: Below are dates written in either numeral-form per American dating standards or Manchu dates written per Manchu standards. Translate these dates from English into Manchu or Manchu into English per the corresponding standards.

1. 3/29/1990

______

2. 2/25/2018

______

3. 6/12/1994

______

4. 11/11/1988

______

5. 12/25/2012

______

6. Emu Biya ninggun Inenggi minggan tanggū orin aniya

______

7. Jakūn Biya jakūn Inenggi ninggun tanggū jakūnju duin aniya

______

8. Ilan Biya gūsin Inenggi tanggū dehu duin aniya

______

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9. Juwe Biya juwan ilan Inenggi minggan uyun tanggū orin ninggun aniya

______

10. Omson Biya orin sunja Inenggi juwe minggan juwan jakūn aniya

______

11. 7/14/2016, today

______

12. 4/8/2008, tomorrow

______

13. Ninggun Biya juwan ilan Inenggi juwe minggan juwan juwe aniya

______

14. Emu Biya emu Inenggi ninggun tanggū ninju jakūn aniya

______

15. March 29 1997

______

16. July 17 1918

______

17. 3 Biya 9 Inenggi, sikse

______

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18. 11 Biya 26 Inenggi, cimari

______

19. Juwan biya juwan Inenggi, cananggi

______

20. March 5, today

______

Ese siren Inggiride tungsere. Aika ce fonjin (If they are questions), you may answer them for additional practice if you wish.

1. Udu inenggi bi, nadande?

______

2. Cimari uduci inenggi?

______

3. Cananggi uduci inenggi?

______

4. Inenggidari, mini indahūn fulahūn boconggo, jai (i) mini sakda hahai fe cuwande tembi, guwa duwali gurgurame. Ganio, inuo?

______

5. Aniyadari, duin cin forgon bi. 141

______

6. Yamjidari ilan omingga bi, mini gucu emgi.

______

7. Sini mefe emgi, udu inenggide aniyadari ucuri be arambi? Ucuri arambio?

______

8. Ineku bilagan ai? Ere inenggi ai? Enenggi bilagan ai?

______

9. Sini banjin inenggi ai? Sini guruni banjin inenggi ai? Sini gurunde, urse ceni guruni banjin inenggi-ucuri arambio? Udu burtei ere doro sini jalu gurun dabali? Sini boigonde?

______

10. Tuttu sini nadaci aniyatala, sini boigon ilan indahūn ini boode be bihebiheo?

______

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Asking and Telling one’s age in Manchu: (Aniya se Manju gisunde)

Asking one’s age (se) in Manchu can be done in a number of ways, with the simplest involving the use of the demonstrative pronound udu, meaning ‘how many’, in this context – which typically precedes the target noun it is asking about:

(63) a. Udu aniya si? Udu se? Se ai? how.many year you what.extent age age what “How old are you? How old? What age?” (lit. ‘how many years (are) you?’, ‘to what degree old (are you)?’ and ‘what age (are you)?’

Telling one’s age in Manchu has two methods; a ‘traditional’ method (utilizing the

“aniya se” phrase, meaning ‘years old’) (with se here literally denoting age) and a nontraditional method saying one has so many years, involving the use of the present tense of bimbi, to have – bi (Bi ____ aniya bi/ “I have ____ years”). Below are glossed examples of both with their semantic English translations:

(64) a. I – mini gucu – juwan jakūn aniya se b. Bi juwan ilan aniya se he my friend ten eight year age I ten three year age ‘He – my friend – is eighteen years old’ ‘I am thirteen years old’ c. Mini eme nadan-ju sunja aniya bi d. Mini indahūn nin-ju aniya bi – indahūn-i aniya-de

my mother seven-ty five year has my dog six-ty year has dog-POSS year-LOC ‘My mom is seventy-five years old’ ‘My dog is sixty years old – in dog’s years’

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Urebun 17: Below are members of a family with their ages written Inggiride jai Manjude. Translate these into the bakcin gisun, or opposite language.

Tuwakūde: Your Cousin, 14 years old: “Sini jalahi, juwan duin aniya se”

1. My mother, 45 years old:

______

2. Your (pl) father, 66 years old:

______

3. His grandmother, 93 years old:

______

4. Their grandfather, 82 years old:

______

5. Your favorite (doshon) friend, 16 years:

______

6. Si, orin duin aniya se:

______

7. Sini indahūn, sunja indahūn-aniya se

______

8. Sini kesike, juwan ninggun kesike-aniya se:

______144

9. Guwa guwa niyalma (Any other person), orin jakūn aniya se:

______

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Kicen 21: Directions (Ergi)

Directions in Manchu are known as ‘ergi’(meaning “side”, or “direction”), and come in many forms – however typically, most directions in Manchu will have three ‘forms’ – their place form, which are not definitively marked, their directive form, most often recognizable by the suffix -si, here implying ‘in the’, ‘to the’, ‘towards’ or the English suffix ‘-wards’ and the locative form demarcated by the addition of ‘ergi’ and occasionally the locative -de. Below I provide a chart with the most common directions and all their forms (if applicable), followed by a chart of their roots, their translations, and related words. Then, I shall provide some examples of their use in sentences.

Direction/Ergi Place Directive Locative (Noun)Form (Adverb) (Adjective) Form Form

North/Behind Amala Amasi Amargi South/In Front Jule/Jure Julesi/Jusi Julergi/Jurgi East/High, Dele Desi Dergi Above East Gelan Gelasi Gelargi Above, On Top Ninggu Ninggude West/Low, Wala Wasi Wargi Beneath West Tuhen Tuhesi Tuhergi Low Fejile Fejergi Inside Dolo Dosi Dorgi Outside Tule Tulesi Tulergi Here Uba Ubasi Ubargi Ubade There Cala Casi Cargi Everywhere, Baba Babasi Babargi Every Direction Right Ici Ici Icirgi Left Hasu Hasu Hasurgi Table 1.15: Directions and their forms

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Important Roots, Notable Relations

‘Amala’ meaning “Later”, “Behind”, “After”, “Future” ‘Julen’/’Juren’ meaning “Story” ‘Den’ meaning “High” and ‘Dele’ meaning “Above”, “On top”, or “Top” ‘Tuhen’ meaning “fall”. Root of verb ‘tuhembi’, meaning to fall, or for the sun to set. ‘Ninggu’ meaning “top” ‘Wala’ meaning “Under, low, beneath” ‘Gelan’ meaning “dawn” or “wake”. Root of verb “gelambi”, meaning “to dawn”, “to wake up” or “to rise” ‘Fejile’ meaning “below”, “under”, “underneath” ‘Do’ meaning “filling”, or “internal organs/innards” ‘Tule’ meaning “Outside” ‘Uba’ meaning “Here” Root of the verb ‘calambi’, meaning to disagree or differ – literally “to be over there” ‘Ba’ meaning “place”, repeated as “ba ba” for emphasis ‘Ici’ meaning “right” ‘Hasu’ meaning “left” Table 1.16: Important roots and notable relations of direction words

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Below are glossed examples of each ‘form’ of a single direction, preceded by a brief introduction to its use, so that the reader may understand their differences, and the differences in their use:

Place (Noun) Form:

(65) a. Muse-ni gurun-de, amala amba

our-GEN nation-LOC north vast “In our country, the north is vast”

Directive (Adverb) Form:

Most commonly, the directive form it utilized to answer questions such as “in what direction is…” or “where”, acting as an adverb. Therefore, I will provide a brief glossed conversation here to demonstrate its full use:

(66) a. Abide guwa-ci hanci tulegene-re boo?

respected sir where other-ABL near outside.go-PRES room “Where is the nearest bathroom?”

b. Wasi, tere amba leose baru. westward that large building toward “Westward (to the west), towards that large building”

Locative (Adjective) Form

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The locative form is the adjective form of the direction – describing the placement of something, rather than denoting it in ‘real time’, as the directive form does:

(67) a. Si-ni gurun amargi, dadu mini gurun julergi

you-GEN nation northern but my nation southern “Your country is northern, but mine is southern”

Note: The locative (adjective) form may be used for the directive (adverb) purpose, provided it is used alongside the ablative -ci and at times the locative -de:

b. Mini boo si-ni taci-re boo-ci amargi

My home you-GEN learn-PRES house-ABL northern “My home is north of your school” (lit. “My home is further north (of, than, from) your school”)

To denote where something/someone is in respect to you, there are multiple methods: standardly one will use the word (orally a suffix) ablative -ci to imply something as being ‘from’ or ‘of’ something else. When describing something as being in a certain direction unrelated to something elses position, the direction will simply precede the target noun.

Tuwakūde:

(68) a. Mini golo ere ba-ci wargi b. Ere golo Amargi Golo se-me

my province this place-ABL west this province North Province to call-NEU “My province is west from/of here” “The province is known as the Northern Province”

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In addition to this, one must keep in mind the use of the verb bimbi (bi for the present tense) to indicate something as being ‘had’ somewhere, or the location of something

(69) a. Mini golo-de tatala tulergi niyalma bi

my province-LOC outside person have “In my province we have a lot of outsiders”

b. Dadu si-ni golo-de, guwa gala-de, hon-de tesu-ba-i niyalma bi

but.you-GEN province-LOC other hand-LOC most-LOC local-land-POSS person have “But in your province, there are mostly locals”

There are naturally some directions not denoted via the addition of ‘ergi’ and are instead supported using the possessive -de.

(70) a. Uba-de b. Ere-ba-de c. Tere-ba-de d. Ai-ai-ba-de

here-LOC this-place-LOC that-place-LOC what-what-place-LOC “This place/here” “Over here, here” “Over there” (Cargi) “Middle of nowhere”

e. Ba-de f. Ba-ba-de g. Akū-na-me

place-LOC place-place-LOC to reach-NEU “Somewhere/Someplace” “Everywhere” “Everywhere (lit ‘reaching’)”

h. Yooni-ba-de i. Waka-ba-de j. Dulim-ba-de

all-place-LOC no-place-LOC mid-place-LOC “Everywhere” “Nowhere” “In the middle, in between”

150 k. Siden-de l. Ninggu-de m. Oyo-de

space-LOC top-LOC peak-LOC “In between (lit. ‘in the space/interval’)” “On top of, above” “On top of” n. Ici-de o. Hasu-de

right-LOC left-LOC ‘On the right, to the right’ ‘On the left, to the left’

“Baktangga Buleku” in Manchu literally translates as ‘Encompassing Mirror’ into

English. Its semantic meaning, however, is “Compass”. Below are the four basic directions provided on a compass in English – translate them into Manchu to ‘complete’ the Manchu

Compass:

Baktangga Buleku:

1. North ______

______2. West (OS)31 3. East ______

4. South ______

31 “OS” here stands for “Oron Soorin” meaning ‘Placement Throne’ or ‘Vacancy Throne’ – refers to the point on a compass, or ones bearing. 151

Finally, below are some useful ‘spacial’ vocabulary items in Manchu along with their translations.

Goro – Far, distant Fejile – Under, below Hanci – Near, close Ninggude – Over/On top of/Above Adambi –To be next to Baru – Towards Ishūn – Towards, opposite (from), next -ci – From, away Bakci(la)mbi – To be opposite from another Dabali – Across, across from Bakcin – Opposite, opposite side, equivalent Cala – Over there, other side, opposite Jakarame – Alongside, along with De-ci – To and from Tembi – To live (at), to sit Ada – Something next to _____ (Ada sirende – one that is next to you in line)

Udu hanci – how close (lit. “how much close”) Udu goro – how far (lit. “how much far”) Udu amargi – how (much) north? Udu cargi – how (much) over there?

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Urebun 18: Below are sentences describing the location of something, or someone – translate them into English

Tuwakū: Mini hanci-hūncihin booci tulergi, dadu bi inde geli “My close relatives are outside the house, but I am still in it (the house)”

1. Abide sini gucu? Boo tulergi, mini gūninde.

______

2. Aniyarame, bi mini juwe doshon gucu jalu-jalan-dabali sidende

______

3. Hasude, mini doshon gucu bi…

______

4. Dadu ereci ishūn, mini icide, ere guwa, ganio niyalma bi…we ere ganio haha? Ainu i mini boode te?

______

5. Mini boo suweni booci bakcin, jugūrame

______

6. Mini goro hūncihin – dahama deheme jai jalahi geren sasari - ere baci julergi be tembi.

______

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Kicen 22: Greetings, Departures, Common Phrases and Responses to them

There are a few basic greetings and departures in Manchu, and most formalities/informalities traditionally involved in such interactions would be expressed physically, rather than verbally (Ilan oksombi, taking three steps backwards before facing away from one’s elder, sucungga gehu or initial bow; bowing prior to talking and prior to leaving – especially with elders and superiors, where this action is referred to as guguršembi, or casual nods of the head known as uju gidambi etc.).

Below are several optional Manchu language greetings, and some possible responses.

(71) a. Si sai-yūn? b. Bi sain, baniha – jai si? c. Kušun, dadu baniha

you good-INT i good thank.you and you bad but thank.you “Are you well?” “I’m well, thank you – and you?” “Badly, but thank you”

d. Si-ni beye-i arbun sai-yūn? e. Si-ni inenggi sai-yūn?

you-GEN body-POSS form well-INT you-GEN day well-INT “Is your health well?” “How is your day?”

f. Julgen sain! g. Mayan sain! e. Si-ni jugūn adisla-kini

fortune well arm well you-GEN road to bless-MAY “Good Fortune!” “Good arm! ” “May your road (or journey) be blessed”

“Si saiyūn” is perhaps the most widely used greeting – both written and in person. It is comparable in terms of its context and use to the English phrase of ‘How are you?’ or ‘How are you doing?’. You may respond to it in a number of ways, with a few possible options shown below:

154

(72) a. Sain b. Kušun c. Andala d. Fonjin-akū good bad on.the.way problem-without “Well” “Bad” “So-so” (lit. “on the way”) “Without problems”

Examples of Common Phrases/Questions in Manchu (Burtei Gisun Manju Gisunde)

Below are what the author considers to be useful, and common phrases for a beginner in

Manchu – however there are certainly others, and the author admits to any ‘localizations’ or a- traditional speech below as being products of his own speech environment, and of his own making.

Sini gebu ai? – What is your name? Mini gebu… - My name (is)… Sini emuci gisun ai? – What is your first language? Sini tesubai gisun ai? – What is your native language? Mini emuci/tesubai gisun… - My first/native language (is)… Sini cin-inenggidari gisun ai? – What is your main/everyday language life? Adarame si Manju (gisun) be tacimbi? – How do you study Manchu (language)? Udu gisun gisureme bahanambi? – How many languages do you speak? Uduci duwali buda cihalambi? – Which type of food do you like? Uduci guruni buda sini jalu-yohide doshon duwali buda? – Which country’s food is your absolute favorite kind of food? Uduci duwali omingga cihalambi? – Which type of drink do you like? Sini doshon duwali buda/omingga ai? – What is your favorite type of food/drink? Tuttu arki cihalambio? Jai sini doshon duwali arki ai? – So you like liquor? And what is your favorite kind of liquor? Baniha – Thankyou Salirakū – (Your) Welcome (literally translated as “without value” or “without cost”)

155

Uduci tacire boode be tacimbi? – At which school do you study? Abide sini tacire boo? – Where is your school? We sini sefu? – Who is your teacher? Sini sefu sembio/Sini sefui gebu ai? – What is your teacher called/What is your teachers’ name? Sini doshon sefu tacin ai? – What is your favorite teacher (and) subject? Abide sini boo? – Where is your house? Sini inenggi saiyūn? – How is your day? Sini erde saiyūn? – How is your morning? Sini yamji saiyūn? – How is your evening? Sini dobon saiyūn? – How is your night? Sikse saiyūn? – How was yesterday? Cananggi saiyūn? – How was the day before yesterday?

Erde sain! – Good morning! Inenggi sain! – Good day! Dobon sain! – Good night! Yamji sain! – Good afternoon! Julgen/fulin sain! – Good fortune/luck! Mayan sain! - Good arm! (Like fulin/julgen sain) Sain inenggi bikini! – May you have a good day/May your day be well! Si dahi ereci hanci sabucina! – (I) hope to see you again soon (from now)! Bi sain inu, (jai) sini inenggi saiyūn? – I am good, (and) how is your day? Bi kušun, dadu baniha – I am not doing well, but thank you Bi andala, tuttu eici kušun eici sain waka – I’m on the way (in the middle), so neither bad nor good Tuttu ere manggi, ai arambi? – So after this, what are (you) doing? Bi ______arambi… - Im doing ______Mini bodon ere manggi… - My plan(s) after this…______Bi bodon akū – I have no plans Tatala dolbon bi ere dobon-de – I have a lot of work tonight

156

Si buda bade yabume jeki sembio? – Do you want to go (out) and eat together at a food place? Sain minde. – Good to me. Waka, dadu baniha – No, but thanks. Hode guwa erin/dobon/inenggi? – Maybe another time/night/day ____ salimbio? – How much is/are ____ Ini salin ai? – What is its price? Udu jiha baitalambi? – How much money is required? Udu Dulimbai Guruni jiha (yuwan) teheren garga Mei Guruni jiha (dular) emgi? – How much (of) Chinese currency (yuan) is equal to a single American currency (dollar)? Toyon sain! – Congratulations! Sain dolbon! – Good work! Cangka! – Wrong/far off! Tuttu oyode dahi… – So back to the point again… Tuttu inenggi duben-de, mini oyo erede… – So at the end of the day, my point in this (is)… Tere jalu-yohide (beri beri dururame) mini oyo waka kai! – That was entirely (by all standards) not my point! Mini solbireme/bodorome – According to my estimation/calculation… Tuwame/Nikeme – Dependent on, depending on, leaning on, looking (at), Tere mini buhiyen geli – That’s my guess at least Acu! Bi kokirangga ____ci! – Ouch! I (am/was) hurt by ____!

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Urebun 19: With the knowledge of previous chapters, as well as the sentences and vocabulary presented above – innovate, and attempt to create your own phrases in Manchu.

1. ______

2. ______

3. ______

4. ______

5. ______

6. ______

7. ______

8. ______

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Kicen 23: Adpositions in Manchu

Since there are frequently used in everyday speech, I thought it important to dedicate an entire lesson to Manchu adpositions, and their use. Some vocabulary here may be unfamiliar to the reader, as the primary goal of the examples here is to show how these adpositions are used, and their meanings, rather than focus on prior vocabulary.

Typically, Manchu utilizes postpositions - which are morphemes or words that follow their target words - as opposed to prepositions, which precede their target words. For reference,

English typically utilizes prepositions, rather than postpositions. Some prepositions are present in

Manchu, however they are less frequent than postpositions. Below is a brief list of more common postpositions with some prepositions, followed by examples of their use with English translations:

Emgi – With Baru – To, towards -de – In/at/on -ci – From, away, as a result of Ergide – At ___ direction Dabali – Across, (MS) opposite of (ci) Bakcin – Opposite of/from, across from Mudan-de – In turn Geli32 – Again, still, additional or extra, even, also or as well (Postposition, MS) Jakarame (-rame, -reme, -rome) – Along(side) with, pertaining to

32 In MS geli is typically a postposition as an adverb but has some ‘freedom’ regarding its placement in a sentence (it can be placed after or before its target as an adverb). Meanwhile when used as an adjective (extra, additional, etc.) it is almost always placed before the target noun, same as all other adjectives. 159

Jaka-de – Because (of), as a result of, when Turgun-de – Same as jakade (sans meaning ‘when’) Dahame – Same as turgunde Jalin – Same of turgunde Jalin-de – For the sake of Nerginde/(MS) Erinde – When (lit. “in/at the moment”, and “in/at the time”) Tetendere/(MS) Anin – Since -tala/-tele/-tolo – until, by Ele-tele/Juke-tele, Tesu-tele/Oyo-tolo – until enough, until just enough or just right, until the point (that) -kini – May it be (that) -cina – Hope (that), wish (that) Adali/(MS) Adalin – Similar, same Onggolo – Before Manggi – After Siden-de – In between, in the middle of Cang/Teile/Manggai – Just, alone Dulimba-de – During, in the middle of Songkoi – As a result of ____, due to _____. Tulgiyen/(MS) (-ci) Tulergi – Outside of ____, not pertaining to ____, apart from _____ Kai – Emphasis marker Akū – Without, lacking, not having Duben-de – In the end, at the end Isi-me – Apparently (from the verb isimbi – to be apparent or supposed) sometimes a preposition in MS Gūnin-de – Such as in saying ‘mini gūnin-de’ or “in my opinion”. Said when someone is (presumably) coming from some stance of understanding with a subject. (MS) Uju-de – ‘To me’, or ‘I think’ (without having much understanding or knowledge – not coming from a place of particular understanding, such as a saying gūnin-de), lit. “in-head” (MS) Tuttu – (Preposition) Can also be used to denote something akin to ‘in order to’ or ‘so that’

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(73) a. I i-ni takūran-de be isina-ha inu – tatala cejen emgi

he he-GEN task-LOC ACC achieve-PAST yes much upper.chest with “He indeed achieved at his task – with much pride.”

b. Te, i wandz makta-ra i-ni gucu baru

now she ball throw-PRES her-GEN friend towards “Now, she is throwing the ball towards her friend”

c. Te, I wandz makta-ra i-ni gucu-de

now she ball throw-PRES her-GEN friend-to “Now, she is throwing the ball to her friend”

d. Ere haha-ci guwa-de

this man-ABL other-LOC “From this man to the other”

e. Guwa ergi-de

other direction-LOC “In the other direction”

f. I doohan dabali gene-he

he bridge across arrive-PAST “He came across the bridge”

g. Ere ergi-ci bakcin

this side-ABL opposite “Opposite from this side”

161 h. Te ere gūnin bi mudan-de

now this opinion have turn-LOC “Now I in turn have this opinion” i. Inu, ese buda geli yes these dish as.well “Yes, these dishes as well” j. Waka, i-ni guwa madaga-rame

no he-GEN other interest-pertaining.to “No, pertaining to his other interest” k. Waka, guwa bira-rame no other river-along “No, along (side) the other river” l. Ese juwe kulge siden-de

these two car space-LOC “In between these two cars” m. Tuttu ineku-(ci) manggi…

so today-(ABL) after “So after today…” n. Inu, aniya ere-(ci) onggolo

yes year this-(ABL) before “Yes, the year before this”

162 o. Si-ni gūnin adali

you-GEN opinion same.as “Same as your opinion” p. Ishūn oyo-tolo, ishūn aniya-tala… next peak-until next year-until “Until the next peak, until the next year…” q. Si-ni jugūn adisla-kini

you-GEN road bless-may “May your journey (road) be blessed” r. Si si-ni takūran dube-me bahana-cina

you you-GEN task finish-NEU able.to-hope “(I) hope that you are able to finish your task” s. I-ni ilin gukubun furdan-de songkoi, i be buce-he

he-GEN standing destruction pass-LOC as.a.result.of he ACC die-PAST “As a result of his role (stand, standing) in the massacre at the pass, he was killed” t. Tere baita turgunde… that affair because.of “Because of that affair…” u. I o-ho kušun haha. Dadu ere mini gūnin manggai, i umesi burtei waka, mini uju-de

he be-PAST bad man but this my opinion just very common not my head-LOC “He was a bad man. But this is just my opinion, its not very common, I think”

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Kicen 24: Manchu Names and Naming Tradition (Manju gebu jai gebulere-ulan) Afaha-Terei Gisun Afaha (Chapter Specific Vocabulary List) Gebu – Name Šangnaha gebu – “Bestowed name”, given name Colo - Nickname Gūsa – Banner Gulu – Plain Kubuhe – ‘Bordered’ (Past tense of verb ‘to border’ or ‘to trim’) Dergi Ilan Gūsa – Upper Three Banners Wargi Sunja Gūsa – Lower Five Banners Gulu Šanggiyan Gūsa – Plain White Banner Hala – Clan Mukūn – Vice clan/cadet clan, clan branching Garga – Branch (here used in speaking of clans – literally meaning ‘branch’) Wanggiya – Royal Clan of the ‘Earlier’ Jin Dynasty (1115-1234) Aisin Gioro – Royal Clan of the ‘Later’ Jin (1616-1636) and Qing Dynasties (1636-1912) Irgen Gioro – A mukūn under the Aisin Gioro family Hafan Jergi – Title and Rank (status) Boo – Household, House Elen/Amala hūncihin – Descendants/ “Future relatives” Mafa/Mefe – Grandfather/Grandmother Ama/eme – Father/Mother Gege/Non – Older sister/Younger sister Ahūn/deo – Older brother/Younger brother Uksura – Ethnicity, tribe Senggi Fujuri – “Blood Origin”, race Alhata – Mixed Mukei/Dersen – Pure Susu – Home, homeland Susugurun – Home country (also “Fujuri Gurun”)

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Context: Culture behind Names, Banners, and Clans (Gebu, Gūsa, jai Hala) All Manchus traditionally have three associations (two of which always have names/denotations) – in order from smallest to largest: Banner (Gūsa), Clan (Hala) and a

‘splitting within a clan’ (Mukūn).

Many hundreds of Hala may be organized under a Gūsa, and within each Hala exists many mukūn, and boo (dependent on the size of the clan). A Hala organized under a Gūsa is an integral part of that Gūsa, and those descended from a specific Hala are therein members

(nowadays purely by descent) of that Gūsa. Very few clans - particularly the Aisin Gioro - have related, sizable ‘vice’ branches (SM: Ilhi garga) such as the Irgen Gioro and Silin Gioro, which are alongwith the Aisin Gioro descended from the original Gioro clan.

The importance and the hala and gūsa today have diminished greatly (a result of the fall of the dynasty, and therein the banner system and the social structures surrounding it)– with most

Manchus being either unsure, or entirely unaware of their mukūn, hala or gūsa, which with the absence of specific paperwork handed down in the family can only be determined via oral tradition, conjecture on the basis of the Mandarin equivalent, or rumor33.

Hala and Gūsa themselves carried, at one-point, different degrees of platitude in Manchu society - some Gūsa (Dergi Ilan Gūsa/Den Gūsa, literally “Upper Three Banners” or “High

Banners”) were commanded directly by the emperor and were therein more socially prestigious.

The Hala of these Gūsa, and therein their members and their enen/amala hūncihin

(descendants/future relatives), would have during the Qing been of a higher social stratum than

33 While many today may not know their clan, Manchuifing ones own Mandarin family name to establish a Manchu hala is not unheard of. There are many Manchu clans of Han Chinese origin, whose hala in Manchu are either direct, unchanged loans from Mandarin (Rao Hala, Pang Hala, Fang Hala, Piao Hala), or Manchuified forms of original Han Chinese family names (Meigiya/Mei+-giya, Panggiya/Pang+giya, Piaogiya/Piao+giya, Fanggiya/Fang+giya). 165 those found in the Lower Five Banners, or (Wargi Sunja Gūsa), which were usually under the control of various ejen and beile (lords and chieftains) rather than IH. (ini horon; his majesty) the emperor (Elliot, 2001).

Therefore, during the Qing, knowledge of ones hala or gūsa was not important simply for genealogical record keeping, but also for knowing where one was in the social pecking order compared with others. With the fall of the dynasty, and therein the main purpose of the existence of the eight banners (Jakūn Gūsa)- which were first and foremost defenders of the Qing and the royal family - too brought on the fall of the banners, and the banner system as a whole, and the socio-economic significance of the bannermen themselves: which meant the end of the bannermen, and therefore the Manchus, as a socio-economic class apart from the citizens

(irgen/kutule) and Han Chinese (Nikan), which were lower in class than the Manchus themselves during this time period (Elliot, 2001).

Despite this decline in purpose, however, some Manchus today are still aware of their hala and gūsa, although traditional naming conventions concerning the hala among some has changed.

Manchu Naming Customs and Conventions (Manju-Gebulere Doro)

Before I discuss the traditional manner in which Manchu names are developed, I will first discuss the structure of a Manchu name itself.

While individuals were traditionally known primarily (and solely in some cases) by their first name (as opposed to Han Chinese custom of referring to others by their family name when not as well acquainted), a plethora of Manchus have, and had ‘hala’, or ‘clans’ – and all hala

166 have names. The Hala of the ruling family (SM: Kadalara uksun) of the Qing Dynasty, for example, was “Aisin Gioro”, translating as ‘Golden Gioro’ in English.

Akin to most East Asian cultures, when applicable, the family or clan name of a person precedes the given name or surname in a written context. Therefore, Pu I, also known as Puyi, the last Emperor of the Qing Dynasty, would be known as “Aisin Gioro Halai Pu I”, literally

‘Aisin Gioro clan’s Puyi’ – with the ownership of the person ascribed to the clan and represented using the possessive -i.

However, Pu I, being a noble, had the title of Han, ‘king’ or ‘khan’, or ‘emperor’, here denoting an emperor. Such a title traditionally follows the given name of an individual, so the

Jurchen chief (beile) Nurgaci, for example, prior to becoming a han in 1616, could be referred to as “Nurgaci Beile” or ‘Nurgaci Chief’. In addition, traditionally when referring to an emperor one would often utilize the honorific (ini horon IH, ‘his majesty’).

So, what would Puyi’s ‘full’ Manchu name, titles and clan all, be?

(74) a. I-ni Horon Aisin Gioro Halai Pu I Han

he-GEN majesty Aisin Gioro clan-POSS Pu I khan “His Majesty Aisin Gioro clan’s Emperor Puyi”

Full Manchu Name in Correct Order:

Red – Clan Name (Halai gebu) Gold – Clan (Hala) plus the possessive -i, attaching ownership/membership of the person to the clan Blue – Given name (Šangnaha gebu, or bestowed name)

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Purple – Title or rank (Hafan-Jergi/Jergi), or honorific

This order remains constant for all persons of all clans and ranks – without exception. A han of the clan Wanggiya with the personal name Wulu for example, would be known traditionally (not keeping in mind Temple names/Regin names, etc.) as “Wanggiya Halai Wulu

Han”, or “Wanggiya Clan’s Khan Wulu”

(75) a. Wanggiya Halai Wulu Han b. Irgen Gioro Halai Ahadan Han (example name – not a historical figure) c. Aisin Gioro Halai Nurgaci Beile

For an example that is less historical, my own hala is Fang (Fang Hala, of Tai Nikan origin). As with most Manchu clans and descendants, my mukūn has no name, and my personal name in Manchu is Niohe. Thus, my full name would be Fang Halai Niohe.

Manju Emuci Gebu (Manchu First Names)

First names in Manchu vary greatly, and can have many origins – most popularly, a name will be an endearing description of an individual (Mergen, Baturu, Akdacun) or perhaps a name of a specific animal or plant (Dorgon, Dorgiden/Niohe, Ahadan, Ilha) possibly followed by a adjective-modifier, to imply that the individual ‘has the qualities of’ the noun (Lefu-ngge,

Baturu-ngge, Ma-ngga, Šolo-nggo) in native Manchu, while the Mongolian loan of -tai, also imlying one to have the qualities of something, can be used as well (Menggu-tai, Namu-tai,

Cargi-tai, Hūlha-tai). Some names may also be numbers (Sunja, Nadan, Jakūn) sometimes themselves with modifiers (difficult to translate directly) implying a ‘title’ of sorts (Sunja-tu,

Nada-tu, Mingga-tu). Therefore, Manchu names may be several things; numbers, animals, plants, ideas/titles, or qualities – and much more, as these are just a few examples (Elliot, 2001).

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Worth adding is the tradition of “Sino-Manchu” (MS: Nikanju/Mankan) names, as well as traditional Manchu names themselves. Many of the Manchu emperors of the Qing had

‘Manchu’ names that were in fact direct loans from Mandarin, themselves having no meaning in

Manchu. IH Aisin Gioro Halai “Hiowan Yei” (Kangxi), for example, takes his name from the native Mandarin ‘Xuanye’ or ‘玄燁’, IH Aisin Gioro Halai “In Jen” (Yongzheng) takes his name from Mandarin “Yinzhen”, or ‘胤禛’, while IH Aisin Gioro Hala “Hungli” (Qianlong) takes his name from the native Mandarin ‘Hongli’, or ‘弘曆’.

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Afaha Duin: Ashan jai Gisun Afaha: Appendix and Word Lists Chapter

Here I provide organized and categorized “word lists” (gisun afaha) that introduce additional, basic vocabulary items that were deemed necessary to introduce, but were not provided their own unique chapter in the tacire afaha of this work. Here I cover elements, senses, topographical features, body parts, emotions, measurement words, types of territories, regions and settlements, topographical features, basic household objects, everyday tools, familial relationships, hunting terminologies, food and kitchen, animals/plants and more. Most of the vocabulary provided are nouns, however there are several verbs, adjectives and phrases provided as well. While there are no additional practices provided, it is still recommended that this “extra” (geli) or “surplus” (fulu) vocabulary is practiced alongside what has already been learned for those that wish to expand their knowledge of

Manchu.

Feten (Elements) Feten Element Boihon Earth, soil Muke Water Edu Air Tuwa Fire Singgi Sand Noo/Moo Wood Berten Mud, dirt Nimanggi Snow Juhe Ice Aisin Metal Abka Sky

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Tugi Cloud Suma Mist Na Ground, soil, earth Helmen Shadow Uran Echo Filga Sound Wang/Wangga Smell Amtan Taste Sabun Vision Serebun Feeling, discovery, experience (from “Serebumbi” to experience, to feel, or to discover) Meksin Experience, memory Gūnin Opinion, thought, belief, feeling Notho Skin, flesh (of animal, plant, fruit, tree, etc.), bark Funiyehe Hair Furdehe Fur Simen Vital bodily fluids Oori Essence, vital bodily fluids, soul Do/Dosi Filling, insides Senggi Blood Untuhun Space, emptiness, nothing, empty Teišun Bronze, copper, rust Sele Iron Abka Sukdun Weather (lit. “Sky gas”)

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Beyei Ubu, Yabun, jai ini Simen (Body Parts, Actions, and its’ Vital Fluids) Beye Body, self Giranggi Bone Senggi Blood Notho Skin, flesh Sube Muscle, tendon, nerve Jun Vein Me Pulse, vein Kemin Bone marrow Do Innards, Organs, Guts Tarhūn Fat, Lard Funiyehe Hair Uju Head Dere Face Oforo Nose Angga Mouth Ilenggu/Lenggu Tongue Gūngkan Adam’s Apple (MS) Adami Pinggu Adam’s Apple (MS) Jilgan Hose Voice Box, larynx Yasa Eye(s) San Ears Fulcin Cheeks Salu Whiskers/Beard Hūse/Hūsa Beard (larger than a salu) Monggon/Bilga Throat Meifen Neck Meiren Shoulders

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Halba(sa) Shoulder Blade(s) Fisa Upper back Dara Lower back Cejen Upper chest Tunggen Chest Kenggeri Diaphram Hulhu/Huhu Breast Tumiha Nipple Mayan Arm Dabsi Upper Arm Gala Hand Nujan Fist Simhun Finger, toe Ferge Thumb Hitahūn Nail (of a finger, toe) Simhun Hefeli Palm, sole (of a foot) Hefeli Belly, sole, palm Hefeli Jalukiyambi To fill ones belly (slang for eating profusely) Ajige Hefeli Under Belly, Lower Belly Hefeli Temgetu Bellybutton (lit. “Belly mark”) Buhi Lap, waist Beye Fejergi Under Body, lower body, crotch Ura Buttocks Coko/Ergen Penis Jinjaha Testicles Simen Vital fluid, semen Ushe Semen Fefe Vagina

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Siten Urine, piss Sitembi To urinate Bethe Leg, foot Suksaha Thigh Tobgiya Knee Ajige Bethe/Wargi Bethe Lower legs Singgeku Organs (pemeators/saturators/digestors) Fahūn Liver Mujilen Heart Bosho Kidney Ufuhu(se) Lung(s) Sifulu Bladder Duha Intestines Ajige Duha Small Intestine Amba Duha Large Intestine Yafahalambi To walk Fekšin A run Fekšimbi To run Genggen Fekšin A ‘soft run’, i.e. a jog Genggen Fekšimbi To ‘soft run’, to jog Tembi To sit Ilimbi To stand Mukdembi To rise Saduran Sleep Sadurambi To sleep Tolgin Dream Tolgimbi To dream Gelan Wake, awakening

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Gelambi To wake, to dawn Sambi To understand, to know Tuwa Stare, look, observation Tuwambi To look, to observe Sabun Vision Sabumbi To see, to envision Hendumbi To say, to speak Gisuremb To speak Jilgambi To say outloud, to shout, to exclaim Jilgan Shout, exclamation, accent Murta Shout, call-out, beckon Murtambi To shout, to call out, to beckon Aššan Move, movement, behavior Aššambi To move Injembi To laugh, to joke, to jest Injen Joke, laugh Injeku Joke, funny, amusing Nimeku Sickness, pain, ache Nimembi To be sick, to be in pain/to hurt or ache Du Hit Dumbi To hit Mishan Dodge Mishambi To dodge Tukiyembi To lift Fekcen Jump Fekcembi To jump Maktambi To throw, to toss, to pass Deyembi To fly

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Kemnere jai Bodoro Gisun Afaha (Measuring/Calculating Words List) Urgen Width (in length), wide Kuru Height, elevation Kemnen Measure, measurement, weight Den Tall Eki Short Ajige Small, little Amba Large, vast Onco Wide, generous Fišin Wide, thick Masikan Robust, heavy in weight Weihuken Thin (lit. “Sort of living”, Weihu “life, living” + - ken “-ish, sort of, somewhat) Weihuliyen Deathly thin, ill, (lit. “barely alive”) Gadahun Thin Kemnembi To measure Bodombi To calculate Kimcimbi To determine, to analyze, to explore, to examine Kemneku A measuring tool, a clock Bodotun A ‘calculator’, a tool for calculations (Bodon “Plan, strategy, calculation” + -tun, describing a tool or application pertaining to the root word

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Mujin jai Banin Afaha (Emotions and States of Being List) Mujin Emotion, Feeling Meksin Experience, memory Meksimbi To experience, to remember, to have memory of Meksinakū Without memory, not recollecting something Doshon Favorite, favor, love, favorite individual Doshombi/Dosholombi To favor, to love Serebun Experience, discovery, feeling, sense Serembi To feel (that), to experience Serebumbi To cause feeling, to bring about an experience, to discover, to feel Muten Skill, ability Mutenakū Without ability, unskilled, worthless Mergen Skilled, intelligent Dacungga Sharp (may be slang for intelligent) Urgun Joy, happiness, happy Urgungge Joyous, happy Urgumbi To be joyous or happy Urgubumbi To bring joy, to bring happiness or good feeling Urgunakū “Without joy/happiness”, unhappy Andala “Midway”, in the middle, so-so Aka Sad Akacun Sadness, grief, being pitiful Akacuka Sadness, grief, being pitiful Akambi To be sad, to be in grief, to be pitiful Akabumbi To bring sadness, grief, or pitifulness Guculen Friendship Guculembi To promote a friendship, to act as a friend, to be friendly, to develop a friendship

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Gucu Arambi To act as a friend, to be friendly, to promote friendship (similar to guculembi) Gucu Falimbi To make a friend (lit. to tie a friend – from falin, a tying) Andalan Friendship (best friend-ship) Olhocun Fear Gelhun Fear Gelembi To fear Olhombi To fear Gelebumbi To cause fear, to bring about fear Olhobumbi To cause or bring about fear Gosin Pity Gosicun Pity Gosimbi To pity, to feel for Usha Anger Ushangga Angry Ushacun Anger, rage Jili Anger Jilimbi To be angry Jili Banjimbi “To live anger”, to be angry Ushambi To be angry Jilibumbi To bring anger, to cause anger in another Ushabumbi To bring or cause anger in another Ibiya Loathing, disgust Ibiyacun Loathing, disgust Ibiyangga Loathful, disgusting Ibiyambi To loath or detest, to be disgusted Ibiyabumbi To cause loathing or disgust Seye Hate

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Seyecun Hatred Seyembi To hate Hairan Love, compassion, tenderness Hairambi To love, to care for Cihan Want, desire Cihalan Like, liking, wanting for, desire Cihalambi To like, to want for, to desire Doshon Favored, favorite, preferred Doshombi To favor, to prefer Kiyakiya Surprise, amazement (from the causative of Kiyakambi, to click one’s tongue in praise, surprise, or amazement) Kiyakiyabungge Something amazing, praiseworthy, or surprising (comparable to ‘awe inspiring’ in English) Kiyakiyabumbi To cause one surprise or amazement, to surprise another Kiyakiyambi To be surprised or amazed (lit. “to click ones tongue in amazement or surprise”) Silhi Jealousy, envy Silhingga Envious or jealous Silhidambi To envy, to be jealous Silhidabumbi To cause envy or jealousy in another Silhidaku One that is jealous of another Silhidabuku One that causes other to become jealous, a rival Gucihiyerembi To be a rival, to be jealous Gucihiyereku A rival, someone to be jealous of Gucihiyerebumbi To cause a rivalry, to cause jealousy (i.e. to make someone jealous) Gucihiyerebuku One that causes rivalry or jealousy, one to be jealous of Elembi To have/be enough, to suffice

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Akūmbi To lack, to die Weihumbi To live, to exist, to be Banjimbi To live, to exist, to be born, to develop Bucembi To die, to pass away Usambi To be without hope Mandumbi To mature, to develop, to age, to grow up Mandu Mature, maturity Mandubumbi To give maturity to, to raise, to develop (another) Ciksimbi To be an adult, to mature, to grow uo Ciksin Mature, adult Ciksicilambi To act grown up, to act as an adult, to act mature Juicilambi To act as a child, to be immature, to be childish Turimbi To sprout, to grow, to grow up Badarambi To expand Beye Badarambi To expand oneself, to grow up, to improve

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Ba, Bana, jai Baising Afaha (Lands, Territories, and Settlements List): Ba Land, place Na Earth, ground, soil Tesu Local, locale, native Tesuba ` Native land, local land Tesubai That which pertains to/is of/belongs to the native land Bayan ba Fertile Land Bayan bana Fertile Territory Bana Territory, Region (lit. “Ba”, Land, + “Na”, earth, soil) Beye Dasangga Bana Self Governing Territory (Beye “Self”, Dasan+ngga “Governing”, Ba+na “Territory” Golo Province Gemun Capital Gemun Hecen Capital City Baising Settlement, City Dorgi Baising Inner Settlement, Inner City Tulergi Baising Outer Settlement, Outer City Hecen City, city wall, settlement (MS) wall Beye Dasangga Hecen Self Governing City Tokso Settlement, Town, Village Gašan Hamlet, small town Gurun Country, Dynasty Abkai Gurun “Heaven’s State” – an Empire Encu Gurun Foreign State Susugurun Home country (from Susu “home” and “gurun”, nation) Fe Gurun Old Country Ice Gurun New Country

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Fu District Siyan District Beye Dasangga Fu Self Governing District Imiyangga Fu Assembled/Organized Districts, merged districts Imiyan Organization Imiyambi To organize, to assemble

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Banainirugani Banin (Map’s Features, Topographical Features)

Banainirugan “Land-Soil-POSS-Picture”, Territory’s Picture, a Map (Bana “Territory”, “-i” possessive, “Nirugan” picture, drawing, outline Tun Island, exit Singgi lit. ‘Sand’, an islet Angga Mouth, mouth of a river, a river end or exit (MS) Ambatun “Vast Island”; a continent (MS) Nadan Ambatun The Seven Continents (MS) Ambatun-dabali Continental (lit. “Across the Continent”) Ala Hill Alin Mountain Kūngga Valley, Canyon Fudaran Scar (in the land), pass Dung/Dungga Hole, Cave, Cavern Yeru Den Muke “Water” (a small body of water, small river, or lake)’ Tenggin Lake Namu Ocean Mederi Sea Bira Large River Ule/Ula Smaller River Gobi Desert Den Gobi High Desert Fejile/Wala Gobi Low Desert Niyoo Swamp Dethe Swamp Tala Plain, Steppe, Plateau, Peninsula, Wasteland

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Bigan Wilds, Wilderness Bujan Woods, Forest Noo “Woods”, Forest Taiha Taiga Orho “Grasses”, in the bush (like bigan) Jase Frontier, Boundary Jecen Frontier, Border Jase-Jecen Frontier, Border Yalu Boundary between two countries

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Hūncihin jai Guwa (Relatives and Others) Boo House, Household Boigon Family Hūncihin Relatives Goro Hūncihin Distant Relatives Hanci Hūncihin Close Relatives Geli Hūncihin Extra Relatives, very distant relatives Amala Hūncihin “Future/Later Relatives”, descendants (like enen) Ama Father Eme Mother Mafa Grandfather Mefe Grandmother Sargan Wife Eigen Husband Holbon Marriage, Pair, Relationship Holbombi To get married, to get paired, to get in a relationship Holbonggo/Holboho Married, paired, in a relationship Holbobumbi To pair/marry others, to join others, to be joined Holbobuku One that pairs others together Jui Child, Boy Sargan Jui Child, Girl (lit. “Wife Child”) Iki(ri) Twin(s) Kaba Pair Kabajui Twins (from Kabalambi/Kabambi, to pair) Mafari Ancestors (“Mafa” grandparent/grandfather, “-ri” familial plural) Ungga Elders, those from older generations Dangga Elder, those from older generations Ahūn/Deo Older/Younger Brother 185

Gege/Non Older/Younger Sister Jalahi Cousin Deheme Aunt Dehema Uncle Enen Descendants Anda Brother, blood brother, best friend (unrelated) Neku Sister (best friend to a girl, unrelated) Gucu Friend Guwa Other, another, stranger Encu Stranger Umudu Orphan Ada boo Neighbor Dalji Relation Daljikū Without relation, unrelated, no connection Daljimbi To be related, to have relation with, to be connected Daljibumbi To make a relation, to establish a connection Ilin “Stand” or “Standing” – similar to dalji in the context of family/friends Guwa/Doshon/Beye/Haji Other/Love/Self/Dear, endearing terms for significant other Dere “Face”, how others perceive you, your status/standing with others Dere be bargiyambi To preserve face, to save face

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Etuku (Clothing) Etuku Clothing Mahatūn Hat (MS) Bolisi Glasses Hodz Jewlery Dehelen Jacket Cimci Shirt Gahari Shirt Fakūri Pants Ajige Fakūri Shorts Umiyesun Belt, Sash Coho Socks Sabu Shoes Gulha Boots Funiyehe Etuku Fur clothes Tašan Funiyehe Etuku “False fur clothes”, faux fur clothes Sabu Siren “Shoe string”, shoe lace Sabu Falimbi To tie shoes Etumbi To wear Sindambi To put on (in the context of clothing – literally “to place” or “to set”)

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Booi Ubu, Inenggidari Agūra (Parts of the House, Everyday Tools) Boo House, room Giyan Room Oyo Roof Falan Floor Hecen Walls Bedergin Bed, bedroom Haša Garage, tool shed, tool room Yafan Garden Yafambi To garden Bargiyambi To harvest, to preserve, to protect, to store, to reserve Usimbi To farm, to raise livestock Usisi/Usici Farmer Anja Plow Uce Doors/Doorways Fa Window/Windows Neimbi To open, to enter Tucimbi To leave, to close Neiku Opening, entry Dere/Deretu Tables (Short vs. Long) Beren Chairs Tembi To sit, to remain, to stay (at) Budaiboo Kitchen (Buda+POSS+boo) Ebišere Boo Cleaning Room (Bathroom) Oton Boo “Tub Room”, bathroom Tulegenere Ba/Boo Outside-Going Place/Room, bathroom - outhouse Ebišembi To clean Bertembi To dirty, to sully, to smudge (with dirt) 188

Inenggidari Booi Agūra Everyday Household Tools Širgiyaku34 Brush Širgiyambi To brush, to rinse Uman-Weihe Širgiyakū Gums/Teeth Brush (Tooth Brush) Funiyehe Širgiyakū Hair Brush Notho Širgiyakū Skin Brush Falan Širgiyakū Floor Brush Notho Jaka Skin Products Funiyehe Jaka Hair Products Funiyehe Ebišeku Hair Cleaner Funiyehe Kataku Hair Dryer Feisu Soap Halman Face Soap Dere Feisu Face Soap (same as halman) Beye Feisu Body Soap Simeku Conditioner (Moisterizer, from Simembi, to moisten or make wet) Jafu Blanket, towel Gala Jafu Hand Towel Dere Jafu Face Towel Agūra Tool Tetun Tool Baitalan A necessity, something to use, something required, use Baitalambi To use Erikū Sweeper, Broom Erimbi To sweep

34 Also written as ‘Šilgiyakū’ 189

Berileku Drill Berilembi To drill Mala Hammer Malambi To hammer Hadahan Nail Hadambi To nail (also to sting, like Šešembi) (MS) Argangga Jeye Saw (Fanged Blade) Hose Box Hohon Barrel Hithen Chest, Trunk, Coffer Šudun Shovel, also can be an insult Šudumbi To shovel Fajan Šudun “Shit shoveler”, an insult Ne Agūra Modern Technology Genggen Agūra Software (lit. “Soft Tool”) Hatan/Mangga Agūra Hardware (lit. “Hard Tool”) (MS) Fi’deo Video (MS) Fi’deo Efin Video Game (MS) Fi’deo Efimbi Video Gaming (MS) Asu-de Efimbi Online Gaming, to game online (lit. “On-the-net Playing) (MS) Fi’deo Mulfiyen Video Disk (DVD) (MS) Fi’deo Feise “Video Brick”, VHS (MS) Tele’fisin Television (MS) Tele’fisin Tuwambi To watch television Sejen Vehicle (Also cart/wagon/carriage) Sejen-de Tembi To ride (in a vehicle) Sejembi To ride/drive a vehicle Sejesi Driver/Rider 190

Sejen-de-tesi Passenger Kulge Car, vehicle Kulgembi To drive, to ride (MS) Sukdun-Kulge Gas Car (MS) Talkiyan-Kulge Electric Car (MS) Talkiyambi To electrocute, to surge electricity through somethine else (MS) Talkiyan Agūra Electric tools (MS) Talkiyan Namu Angga Electric Port (electricity port for plugs) (MS) Cisu Juwen Private Transportation (MS) Sideni Juwen Public Transportation (MS) Gurun-dabali-juwen National Transportation (lit. Across the Nation Transportation) Juwen Transportion Juwembi To transport, to move, to transfer Deyembi To fly (MS) Edusejen “Air Vehicle”, Airplane (MS) Edusejen Deyembi To fly a plane (MS) Edusejen-de Tembi To ride a plane, to travel by air Cuwan Boat Alambi To inform, to report, to relay, to tell Mede/Mejige/Medege/Meji News, Media (MS) Mede Hoošan Newspaper (MS) Talkiyan Medege News Online, Radio, News relayed electronically (MS) Talkiyan-Alaku “Electricity- Reporter”, Radio

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Abalara Hajun jai Agūra (Hunting Weapons and Implements) Abalambi To hunt Abalan Hunt Abalaku Hunter Abalarba Hunting grounds (Abalara+Ba) Abalasi Hunter Baksan Group, squad, party Abalara Baksan Hunting Party Abalara Baksanda Head of a hunting party (“Da” here denotes a chief a head of something) Buthambi To hunt and fish Tatan Camp Tatan Sindambi To set up camp (MS) Tatani Hetu Baita “Camp’s Peripheral Affair”, Camp Gossip, idle talk while camping (MS) Tuwa Tucimbi “To leave the fire”, to leave camp Adislaha Abalan A blessed hunt Adistit Blessing Adislambi To bless Asu Net Asumbi To net Butu Asu Hidden net, hidden snare Beri Bow Niru Arrow Uli Bowstring Uli Sindambi To place a bowstring onto a bow Gabtambi To shoot arrows Miyoocan Rifle Miyoocalambi To shoot rifles, to fire rifles

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Hiyanci Hunting Rifle Abalara Miyoocan Hunting Rifle (MS) Dahikū (Miyoocan) Repeater (Rifle), from dahimbi – to repeat (MS) Garga Tata Miyoocan “Single Pull Rifle”, single shot rifle Miyoocalara Simhun Trigger finger (“Shooting finger”) (MS) Tatara Simhun “Pulling finger”, trigger finger Tuwai Agūra “Fire’s Implements”, firearms Ilenggu/Lenggu “Tongue”, trigger, trap (MS) Ilenggu/Lenggu Tatambi “To pull the tongue”, to pull the trigger, to activate a trap or snare (MS) Ilenggu/Lenggu Sindambi To set a trap (lit. “To set a tongue”) Tuwa Okto/Kara Okto Gun powder (Fire Powder/Black Powder) Unggala Barrel Fesin Stock, handle, grip Jafambi To hold, to hold onto, to grip, to wield Miyoocan Jafambi To wield a rifle, to handle a rifle Jafakū Grip, handle Toldohon Handle Garin Guard (of a tool/weapon) Burgin Pommel Jeye Blade Usiha Front sight of a rifle Senji Back sight of a rifle Sabun Sain Vision is good Sabun Kušun Vision is bad Sabun Cinggiya Vision isn’t good enough (for) Sabun Sumai Vision is ‘misted’, blurred, unclear Gida Spear Loho Sword 193

Loholombi/Lohombi To sword, to slash Abalara Huwesi Hunting Knife Fuyembi To skin Fuyeku “Skinner”, a knife for skinning animals, or one that skins animals Fuyehuwesi Same as fuyeku Uyembi To tan (hide), to cure (hide) Uyeku Tanning tool Juktelembi To cut Tabukū Hook Nimaha Tabumbi To hook fish, to fish Nimaha Asu Fish Net Sampa Asu Shrimp Net Katuri Asu Crab Net Mergen Skilled hunter, skilled fisherman Holdon Signal Fire Solbin Estimation, guess Solbimbi To estimate, to guess (MS) Gūnin Efimbi To play (with) an idea, to experiment with a thought (MS) Gūnin Efin Thought play, a theory Solbin Cendembi To verify an estimation Bodon Calculation Bodombi To calculate Toron Torch (MS) Talkiyan Toron Flashlight (lit. “Electric Torch”)

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Burtei Duwali Leose jai Kuren (Common Kinds of Buildings and Establishments) Leose Building Boo Home, Household Asari Tower (MS) Abka Asari Sky Tower, skyscraper Anafu Garrison (particularly along borders) Sancin Fortress, Castle Kūwaran Camp, encampment Tatan Camp Kuren Office, Establishment Kunggeri Bureau Hargašan Palace, Court Yamun Office, main office, headquarters Kadalara Yamun Chief Office/active headquarters (lit. “Governing Office”) Giyamun Tavern, Inn, Station, Post Andala Giyamun A station, post, or inn on the way to somewhere else, (lit. Middway Station/Inn/Post) Namun Storehouse, Vault Ku Warehouse, Storage facility Uksingga Namun Armored/Reinforced Vault Calu Granary Jeku Kuren Granary (lit. “Grain Establishment”) Bithe Kuren Library Hajun Kuren Arsenal Hajun-Uksin Kuren Arsenal/Armory Tacire boo School Tacikū School Tacire Kuren/Yamun Teaching Center

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Erde Tacikū Pre-School Ajige Tacikū Elementary School Dulimba Tacikū Middle School Den Tacikū High School Amba Tacikū College/University Geli Tacikū Additional schooling, extra school Nahan “oven-bed”, native Manchurian lodge more frequent during the Qing and prior Kūwaran In older Manchu, denoted a military encampment or a base, but may also denote a headquarters, facility or factory Tacimbi To learn, to study Tacibumbi To teach (lit. “To give study/learning”) Aisilembi To help, to assist Aisilen Assistance, help, support Jabumbi To answer Jabun Answer Inu/Uru Correct, indeed, right, yes Waka No Sain Waka Not good, no good Sain Good Teheren Equal Teherenakū Unequal Teherembi To be equal, to be the same, to be even, to match, to correlate Teherebumbi To equalize, to make equal, even, matched Ilgambi To differentiate, to be different Ilgaha Different, differentiated, abberant Fakcan Splitting, separation (MS) faction Fakcangga Different

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Adalin Same, similar Adališambi To be similar, to be the same, to correlate Fonjin Question, problem Fonjimbi To question, to inquire Balcitambi To vouch (for), to support Balcit Vouch Beye Balcitambi To vouch for oneself Bahanambi To be able to, to have the ability to Ufarambi To fail Ufaran Loss, failure Ufaracun Failure, loss, mistake Isinambi To succeed, to arrive Deribumbi To begin Deribun Beginning Dubembi To end Duben End Ejembi/Ejelembi To lead, to govern Ejen Leader, lord, master Kurku Leader Tacire-jui “Learning child”, student Šabi Student (from root “Ša”, meaning ‘understanding’ or ‘knowledge’) Sefu Teacher Baksi Scholar Tacire Giyan Classroom (Lit. “Teaching Room”) Tacikū Bana School grounds (MS) Udara Kuren “Buying Establishment”, Shopping Center

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Buda, Omingga, Budaiboo jai Teoden (Food, Drink, Kitchen and Trade) Buda Food, meal, dish, cuisine Erdebuda Morning Meal (Breakfast) Dulin Inenggi Buda Midday Meal (Lunch) Yamjibuda/Dobon Buda Evening/Night Meal (Dinner) Budaiboo Kitchen (Food House) Budagiyan Kitchen (Food Room) Amtalambi To taste, to try something (edible) Amtangga Tasty Amtanakū Tasteless, not tasty, bland Obdombi To become tasteless Obdonggo Something that has lost its flavor, tasteless, stale Sabka Chopsticks Sabkambi/Sabkalambi To utilize chopsticks Kuini Spoon Buda Huwesi Food knife Budaiboo Huwesi Kitchen knife Šolon Fork Fila Plate Mucen Bowl Maša Ladle Mašambi To ladle, to dip Omingga Drink Omimbi To Drink Jembi To Eat Bujumbi To cook, to boil Carumbi To fry (MS) Butucarumbi To ‘deep’ fry

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Juktelembi To cut/slice finely Bujuhe Cooked, boiled Caruha Fried Butucaruha Deep Fried Juktelehe Cut/sliced finely (into pieces) Farsi farsi Into slices, pieces, strips (cut, sliced – lit. ‘pieces pieces) Suwaliyasun Spices Suwaliyasumbi To spice, to add spices Suwaliyasun Sindambi To add spices Suwaliyasungga/Suwaliyasuha Spiced Suwaliyatambi To mix, to blend, to whisk Suwaliyata Mixed, blended, whisked Okto Powder, medicine, poison Halhuri Pepper Dabsun Salt Kara Halhuri (Okto) Black pepper (powder) Satan Sugar Ufa Flour Yali Meat (MS) Tašan Yali False/Fake Meat Sogi Vegetable Tubihe Fruit Handu Buda/Lala Buda Rice Hangse Noodles Misun Sauce (MS) Misumbi To sauce, to add sauce Monggo Buda Soup, porridge (lit. “Mongol Food”) Efen Bread, pastry 199

(MS) Juwefen “Two bread”, sandwich Saise Cookie Loodz Oven (MS) Juhe Hose Ice box (Fridge) (MS) Maikarafi Microwave (MS) Maikarafimbi To microwave (MS) Maikarafikata Microwave snack (Maikarafi+(kete)kata) (MS) Maikarafi Buda Microwave meal, microwave food Ketekata Snack (MS) Caikata Tea Snacks (Cai+(kete)kata) Cai Tea Caidoro Tea Custom, Tea Ceremony, Tea Time Muke Water Šugi Fluid Šula Juice Tubihe Šula Fruit juice Sogi Šula Vegetable juice Juhe Ice Malu Bottle Dere Table Deretu Long table Dere Sindambi To set the table (MS) Falan Sindambi To set the table/eating place (lit. ‘to set the floor’) Suimbi To mix dough (MS: To mix generally) Suihe Mixed Arki Wine, liquor (MS) Genggen Omingga Soft drink (MS) Hatan Omingga Hard drink (Arki, Liquor)

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Suitambi To pour, to drizzle, to spill, to splash (MS) Kafi Coffee (MS) Suda (Obonggi Omingga) Soda, Bubbly drink (MS) Budahudaboo Restaurant (Buda+Huda+Boo, Food Business House) (MS) Budamaiman Restaurant (Buda+Maiman, Food Business) (MS) Jugūn Buda Street food (MS) Caikuini Teaspoon (Measurement) (MS) Kafikuini Coffeespoon (Measurement) (MS) Derekuini Tablespoon (Measurement) Heni Pinch (Heni dabsun – ‘pinch of salt’) Hontoho Heni Half a pinch (Hontoho heni dabsun – half a pinch of salt) Heni heni Very little of, a very small pinch of Hefeli jalu Stomach is full Hefeli untuhun Stomach is empty Maiman Business Teoden Trade Teodembi To trade or exchange (Duwali) Jiha Teodembi To exchange (types) of currency Udambi To buy, to pay (for) Hūdambi To sell Salin Worth, value Salimbi To be worth Jiha Currency, money, cash, coins Yuwan Chinese Yuan (MS) Dular Dollar (MS) Besu Peso (MS) Yoro Euro

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Duwali Faksi (Types of Specialists) Faksi Craftsman, Specialist Buda Faksi Cook, chef Efen Buda Faksi Pastry Chef Aisin Faksi Metal worker, gold worker, blacksmith Menggun Faksi Silver worker Sele Faksi Iron worker, blacksmith Teišun Faksi Brass-smith, bronzesmith, coppersmith Bolo Faksi Steelsmith Jerin Faksi Anvil worker, a smith Furdehe Faksi Pelt worker, a tanner Wehe Faksi Stone worker Wase Faksi Roofer, tile worker Uyere Faksi Tanner, leather worker Hajun Faksi Weapon craftsman Miyoocan Faksi Rifle maker Beri Faksi Bowmaker Huwesi Faksi Knife maker Uksin Faksi Armorer, armor craftsman Etuku Faksi Clothes maker Jodoro Faksi Weaver (from Jodombi, meaning to weave) Agūra Faksi Tool craftsman (MS) Leose Faksi Construction worker, building maker (MS) Talkiyan Faksi Electrician (MS) Ko Faksi Plumber, drainage worker (Ko ‘sewer’)

202

Gurgu jai Orho (Animals and Plants) Gurgu Animal Bigan Gurgu Wild Animal Usin Gurgu Farm Animal Namu Gurgu/Mederi Gurgu Ocean Animals/Sea Animals Adun Herd, swarm Sogi/Orho/Tubihe Plants, Grasses, Fruits Dobi Fox Kesike Cat Indahūn Dog Singgeri Mouse, rat Šanggiyan Singgeri White mouse Honin Sheep Niman Goat Morin Horse Kuluk Mule, horse Lorin Mule Eihen Donkey Ulgiyan Pig Yelu Boar Ihan Cow Buha Bison Muke Buha Water Bison Tala Buha Plains Bison Temen Camel Coko Chicken Usini Gurgu Farm animals (lit. “Farm’s Animals) Bigani Gurgu Wild animals (lit. “Wild’s Animals)

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Arsalan/Erselen Lion Yaha Panther, leopard Tasha Tiger Niohe Wolf Dorgiden Wolf Lefu Bear Fijirhi, Ujirhi, Lejirhi Wildcat Yeru Den (of Dorgiden, Tas’ha, Yarha, Erselen, Lefu, Fijirhi, d.d.) Furfu Ape Bonio Monkey Sufa/Sufan Elephant Meihe Snake, serpent (MS) Caksin Meihe Rattle Snake Aršu Quail (MS) Soncoho Cecike “Queue Bird”, quail Cecike Birds (smaller) Gasha Birds (larger) Feye Nest (related to “feyelembi” – to nest/make a nest) Niongniyaha Goose Dekderhun Seagull, Sea Bird (from Dekderilembi – to rise high) Gaha/Kara Gasha Black birds, Ravens, Crows, Corvids generally Damun/Damin Eagle Songko Hawk Laman Cecike Blue bird Ucun Cecike Song Bird Nimaha Fish Namu Nimaha Ocean fish

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Mederi Nimaha Sea fish Tenggin Nimaha Lake fish Bira/Ula Nimaha River fish Tenggin Nimaha Lake fish Dabsun Muke Nimaha Saltwater fish Mukei Muke Nimaha Fresh Water fish Dulan Nimaha Shark Kalimu Whale Horo/Holo Eel Mederi Dorgiden/Indahūn Seal (lit. “Sea Wolf”, “Sea Dog”) Mederi Ihan Sea cow Mederi Erselen/Arsalan Sea lion Sampa Shrimp Katuri Crab Šuru Coral Mederi Gasha Sea bird Umiyaha Insect, Worm Yafahan Umiyaha Ant (lit. “Infantry Insect”, Pedestrian/Walking Insect) Yafahan Umiyaha Ala Ant hill Yafahan Umiyaha Katun Ant queen Fiyotoku/Uksingga Umiyaha lit. “Farter” or “Armored Insect”; Beetle Asuci Spider (lit. “Webber”) Helmeku Spider (lit. “Web Spinner”) Helmehen Spider (lit. “Spun a Web”) Kara Anggasi Black Widow Šešempe Wasp (lit. “Stinger”) Hibsu Ejen Bee (lit. “Honey Lord”, “Honey Master”) Kiya Honeycomb 205

Hibsu Ejen Katun “Honey Master Queen” – queen bee Boihon Umiyaha Ground worm (lit. “soil insect”, “earth/ground insect”) Hefeli Umiyaha Stomach Worm, tapeworm (also known as “Šanggiyan Umiyaha” or ‘White Worm’ Tanggū Bethe Umiyaha Centipede (lit. “One Hundred Legs Insect”, or Hasaha Umiyaha, “Scissors Insect”) Tumen Bethe Umiyaha Millipede (lit. “Ten Thousand Leg Insect”) Heliyen Praying Mantis (referring here to a pounder for a pestle or grain)

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Arbun (Forms, textures) Hatan/Mangga Hard Genggen Soft Halfiyan Flat, thin Onco Thick Hadangga Craggy, rocky (from hada, meaning crag) Dacungga Sharp Malai Blunt (from Mala, hammer, and Malambi, to hammer or beat) Tugingge Soft and fluffy, cloudy (from tugi, meaning cloud) Fiktungga Cracked, having many unnatural fissures (from fiktu, meaning crack or fissure) Kambuljangga Something swampy, marshy, wet, damp, having the consistency of a swamp or marsh – from Kambuljambi, meaning to be swamp like or marsh like in consistency Kambulja35 Something swampy or marsh like in its consistency – soft, wet, soggy Miyeguken Somewhat crusted, crusty Cukcaha Jutted/jutting, protruding (Cukcaha weihe = buck tooth, for example) Cukcangga Same as cukcaha Simengge Moist, wet (From Simembi, to moisturize) Olhon Dry Kataha/Katangga Dry, dried (from Katambi, to dry) Simekū (Simen akū) Lacking moisture, dried, dying Arbukū (Arbun akū) Without form, lacking form or texture Jeyengge Edged, bladed, having a blade Durbejengge Square (in shape)

35 Possibly the origin of the name for the “Kombucha” drink, which is often claimed as being from Manchuria. 207

Gisunci-Daljingga Gisun (Language Pertaining to Language) Gisun Language Gisun Boigon Language Family Cin Gisun Boigon Primary Language Family Mafa Gisun Ancestor Language Da Gisun Source Language Sekiyen Gisun Source Language Fujuri Gisun Origin language, heritage language Garga Branch Baigisun Local language, dialect (Ba+i+gisun) Tesubaigisun Native language (Tesu+ba+i+gisun) Tulergi Gisun Outside language, foreign language Encu Gisun Strange language, foreign language Daljingga Gisun Related language, familiar language Gisun Dalji Language Relation Tungse Translator, interpreter Tungseren Translation, interpretation Tungserembi To translate, to interpret Gisun Takacun Language Familiarity (one’s familiarity with a language) Jilgan Accent, voice Jilga Shout, exclamation Filga Sound, noise Genggen Filga Vowel “soft sound” Hatan Filga (Mangga Filga) Consonant “hard sound” Genggen Filga Acabun Vowel Harmony “Soft sound harmony” Filgarbun Sound form, sound structure (Filga+arbun ‘structure, form, appearance’) Siren Sentence (lit. ‘line’, ‘wire’)

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Toktobuha Gisun Sentence, utterance, phrase (lit. ‘Established language’ from verb toktobumbi, to establish) – additionall may denote an ‘attested’ (established) language. Siren Arbun Sentence structure Gisun Bargiyan Language preservation Gisun Aitubun Language revitalization, language revival Cin Gisun Primary language, main language Juweci Gisun Second Language Geli/Guwa Gisun Additional/other language(s) Burtei Gisun Common language, universal language Toosei Gisun Dominant language, language of authority Ilhi Gisun Subordinate language, lesser language Fehi Gisun “Mind Language”, the language one thinks in Sultei Gisun “Oral Language”, spoken language Anggai Gisun “The mouth’s language”, same as sultei gisun

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Uncehen-Yarun (Citations) Tao, Jing Shen (1976), The Jurchen in Twelfth-Century China. University of Washington Press, Crossley, Pamela Kyle (2002), A translucent mirror: history and identity in Qing imperial ideology, 1st Edition, Berkeley: University of California Press. Mark C. Elliott (2001), The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China. Stanford University Press. Eberhard, David M., Gary F. Simons, and Charles D. Fennig (eds.). 2019. Ethnologue: Languages of the World. Twenty-second edition. Dallas, Texas: SIL International. Online version: http://www.ethnologue.com. Hammarström, Harald & Forkel, Robert & Haspelmath, Martin. 2018. Glottolog 3.3. Jena: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History. (Available online at http://glottolog.org, Accessed on 2019-03-12.) Aisin Gioro, Puyi and Francis, William John (1987), From Emperor to Citizen: The Autobiography of Aisin-Gioro Pu Yi. Translated by William John Francis Jenner (illustrated, reprint ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0192820990. Retrieved 10 March 2014. Ramsey, S. Robert. (1987), The Languages of China, Princeton University Press, Edward J. M. Rhoads, Manchus & Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928. University of Washington Press, 2000. Pages 52–54 Möllendorff, Paul Georg von, A Manchu Grammar: With Analysed Texts. American Presbyterian Mission Press, 1892. Norman, Jerry, (2013). A Comprehensive Manchu-English Dictionary, Harvard University Asia Center https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Manchu

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