2 Jewish Emancipation Reflection Points For centuries, embraced the Jewish way and remained dedicated to ’ th fulfilling God s law. However, all this changed in the 18 century with the liberation of Jewry from the constrictions and disabilities of previous centuries. As I noted in the section on Jewish emancipation in Judaism Today, Christian polemicists such as Wilhelm Christian Dohm argued that Jews posed no threat to their non-Jewish neighbours and should integrate into Western society. At the end of the eighteenth century, the French National Assembly proclaimed that all human beings are born and remain free and equal. In the first decade of the nineteenth century, the Napoleonic Code of Civil Law established the right of all inhabitants, including Jews, to follow any trade. In 1806 an Assembly of Jewish notables declared that there is no conflict between Jewish law and French civil law. The next year, a Grand composed of and laymen confirmed the views of the Assembly. The of 1848 which led to revolts elsewhere in Europe forced rulers to grant concessions to their Jewish inhabitants, and eventually Jewish emancipation spread throughout Europe and beyond. Considering these historical developments, you should ask yourself whether Jewish emancipation was a blessing or a curse. In the past, strictly-Orthodox Jewish leaders were concerned about the repercussions of such a change in Jewish existence. In their view the end to the ghettoization of Jewry would undermine the faith. The great Hasidic , Shneur Zalman, for example, stood up in the synagogue on Rosh Hashanah to offer a prayer to God asking for help for the leader whose victory would be best for Jewry. He prayed for ‘ the Czar to defeat Napoleon. Later he explained: Should Napoleon win, the wealth of Jews will be increased and their position will be raised. At the same time their hearts will be estranged from our Heavenly Father. However, should Czar Alexander win, Jewish hearts will draw nearer to our heavenly Father, though the poverty of Israel may become greater and his position ’ lower. What do you think of such a view? Has Jewish life flourished as a consequence of the emancipation of Jewry, or has this led to the disintegration of Judaism as a living faith? Action Points  ‘ ’ Go to Google. Type in Jewish emancipation . Look for websites dealing with this subject.  Stay in Google. Click on images. Look for illustrations of leaders of the Enlightenment such as Wilhelm Christian Dohm as well as Moses Mendelssohn.  Go to Amazon. Look for books dealing with the Jewish Enlightenment.

3 Jewish Life in Eastern Europe Reflection Points As we have seen, Jewish life underwent a major revolution in Western Europe. With the advent of the Enlightenment, Jews were freed from oppressive restrictions of the past. In Eastern Europe, however, Jews continued to suffer numerous indignities. In the nineteenth century, the Jewish community continued to endure prejudice and persecution. The Pale of Settlement was in fact a gigantic ghetto which restricted Jewish movement and ownership. In Russia the conscription of Jewish boys was designed to sever their links to Judaism and foster assimilation and integration. Kehillot (Jewish communities) were abolished and Jews were placed under the authority of the state. In the middle of the century the government sought to ’ ’ forbid Jewish dress, men s side-curls and the ritual shaving of women s hair. Jews were to be categorized along economic lines. Yet, despite such policies, a number of Jews escaped from the restrictions of Jewish life and settled in St Petersburg and Moscow. Some entered the legal professions and participated in local councils. Eventually Jews began to take an active part in the professions and Russian economic life. Despite such advances, anti-Semitic attitudes continued to prevail. In the latter half of the nineteenth century, counter-emancipatory tendencies were expressed by a number of Russian writers. Thus in the 1860s the Slavonic ‘ theoretician Ivan Aksakow declared: The real question is not emancipation of the Jews, but the liberation of the Russians of the south-west from the Jewish ’ yoke. For many Russian Jews, including the intelligentsia, the Jewish presence was perceived as troublesome and sinister. The writer Feodor Dostoevsky, for example, in the summer of 1879 while undergoing his yearly cure for emphysema in Bad Ems, complained about the number of Jews he saw in a letter to the procurator of the Holy Synod: Everything is completely ’ foreign. It s unbearable. It is supposed to last five weeks. And note this. Literally half are Yids. On my way through Berlin I also noticed that Germany, ’ or at least Berlin, has become Judaized. Responding to this observation, the procurator asserted that the Jews had ‘ ’ become a dangerous force in Russia as well. What you write about the Yids , ‘ he stated, is perfectly correct. They have invaded everything ...They are at the root of the Social Democratic movement and tsaricide. They control the press and the stock market. They reduce the masses to financial slavery. They formulate the principles of contemporary science, which tends to dissociate itself from Christianity ... And nobody dares say that here the Jews ’ control everything . Action Points  Does this seem familiar? Such attitudes were of course held by members of the Nazi party in the early part of the next century. And we know where such hostility led. Surveying the history of anti-Semitism through the ages,

you should ask yourself why the Jews have been so hated. This is a large subject, and there are many books written about the history and nature of Jew-hatred. Here are some books you could look at: o Hannah Arendt, Antisemitism, New York, 1968 o Michael Curtis (ed.), Antisemitism in the Contemporary World, Boulder, 1986 o T. Davies (ed.), Antisemitism and the Foundations of Christianity, New York, 1979 o Shmuel Ettinger, Antisemitism in the Modern Age, Tel Aviv, Tel Aviv, 1978 o Roberto Finzi, Anti-Semitism, Gloucestershire, 1999 o Edward H. Flannery, The Anguish of the Jews, New York, 1985 o John Gager, The Origins of Antisemitism, Oxford, 1985 o Paul E. Grosser, Anti-Semitism, Causes and Effects, New York, 1983 o Jules Isaac, The Teaching of Contempt: Christian Roots of Anti- Semitism, New York, 1964 o Gavin Langmuir, Toward a Definition of Antisemitism, Berkely, 1990 o Franklin Littell, Crucifixion of the Jews, New York, 1975 o Vamberto Morais, A Short History of Anti-Semitism, New York, 1976 o James Parkes, Antisemitism, London, 1963 o Leon Poliakov, The History of Anti-Semitism, Vol. 1, London, 1974, vol. 2, London, 1974, vol. 3, London, 1975, vol. 4, Oxford, 1985 o W.D. and H. Rubenstein, Philosemitism, London, 1999 o Joseph Telushkin and Dennis Prager, Why the Jews: The Reason for Antisemitism, New York, 1983 o Robert Wistrich, Antisemitism, London, 1981

4 The Jewish Enlightenment Reflection Points As we have noted, Moses Mendelssohn spearheaded the Jewish Enlightenment. After encountering Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, he published a series of theological studies. Later when challenged to justify his adherence to the Jewish faith, he wrote Jerusalem in which he argued that religious coercion is illegitimate. Judaism, he argued, is different from other religions in that it contains a revealed code. The Jewish people did not hear God proclaim that he is an eternal, necessary and omniscient being who rewards and punishes humanity. Rather, the mitzvot (commandments) were revealed to his chosen people: The voice that was heard at Sinai on that great day did not ‘ proclaim: I am the eternal, your God, the necessary autonomous being, omnipotent and omniscient, who rewards men ’ in a future life according to their deeds. This is the universal religion of mankind, not Judaism, and this kind — of universal religion without which man can become neither virtuous nor happy was not and, in fact, could not have been revealed at Sinai. For who could have needed the sound of thunder and the blast of trumpets to become convinced of the validity of these eternal verities.

‘ Rather at Mount Sinai the Jewish people heard the historic truth, I am the ’ — Lord your God who brought you out of the land of Egypt a statement introducing the legal code which is binding on the Jewish nation. Jews, he went on, are not at liberty to divorce themselves from their cultural connections with the countries where they dwell. Rather, they must engage in civic life while remaining faithful to their religious heritage: Adopt the mores and constitution of the country in which you find yourself, but be steadfast in upholding the religion of your fathers, too. Bear both burdens as well as you can. True, on the one hand, people make it difficult for you to bear the burden of civil life because of the religion to which you remain faithful; and, on the other hand, the climate of our time makes the observance of your religious laws in some respects more burdensome than it need be. Preserve nevertheless; stand fast in the place which Providence has assigned everything which may happen, as you were told to do by your Lawgiver long ago.

’ Mendelssohn s vision of Jewish emancipation influenced a number of followers, the maskilim, who sought to integrate the community into the ’ mainsteam of European life. Yet, despite Mendelssohn s determination to remain faithful to tradition, his children abandoned their Jewish heritage and converted to Christianity. The great musician Felix Mendelssohn who

‘ ’ ‘ composed The Christmas Oratorio and the hymn Hark the Herald Angels ’ Sing was his grandson. Surveying the effects of the Enlightenment, you should consider whether the emancipation of Jews has in fact severed Jewry from its religious moorings. On the other hand, where would Jews be today if the Enlightenment had not taken place? Action Points  Go to Google. Look for books dealing with Moses Mendelssohn.  Stay in Google. Click on images. Look for illustrations of Mendelssohn.  Go to Amazon.com. Look for books dealing with the Jewish Enlightenment.

5 (1) Reflection Points Very early in the nineteenth century, reformers such as Israel Jacobson pressed for fundamental changes to Jewish life. Initially Jacobson and others were preoccupied with religious worship. Embarrassed by the lack of decorum in synagogue services, they modified the worship service and introduced a number of innovations which they believed would create a more aesthetic experience. Such changes, they argued, had been neglected for too long. In time, the reformers turned their attention to the Jewish faith itself. In Europe and America, Reform Jews championed the modernization of Jewish life. At the end of the nineteenth century, a conference of Reform rabbis took place in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and issued the Pittsburgh Platform which you will ’ find in in the section The Reform of Judaism. Let s go through these principles: It is clear that the Reformers believed in the God of Scripture. However, they were anxious to accept the discoveries of science. These, they stressed, were not antagonistic to the doctrines of Judaism. They went on to point out that although Reform Judaism accepts the moral laws as binding, ritual law needs to be adapted to contemporary circumstances. Only those ceremonies which are spiritually elevating are to be retained. Distancing themselves from the rabbinic tradition, Reformers stressed that the Jewish people should not longer be regarded as a nation. Hence, there was no reason for Jews to expect to return to Palestine, nor rebuild the Temple. Judaism, they stated, is a progressive faith; as such, there was no longer any need to retain a belief in a personal Messiah as well as the concept of reward and punishment in the Hereafter. Not surprisingly, the Orthodox were outraged by such departures. In their view, Reform Judaism was a heretical and destructive sect. What do you think? Were the Reformers right to modernize the Jewish religion? Or do you think such changes fundamentally altered the nature of Judaism? Is Reform Judaism a heresy, or a legitimate interpretation of the faith? Over the last two centuries, Reform Judaism along with other non-Orthodox movements have fundamentally altered the nature of Jewish existence. Do these rival forms of Judaism contribute to Jewish life, or do they pose a serious threat to Jewish survival? Action Points  ‘ ’ Go to Google. Type in Reform Judaism and look for relevant websites. You will find a wealth of information about the historical roots of Reform Judaism and its development as well as its central principles.  Go to Amazon.com and look for books dealing with Reform Judaism. It is important to search for critical material alongside descriptive accounts.

 If possible, try to arrange for an interview with a Reform rabbi. Ask him why he or she believes that Reform Judaism is an authentic interpretation of the tradition.

6 Modern Anti-Semitism Reflection Points Even though eighteenth century champions of the Enlightenment sought to ameliorate the conditions under which Jews lived, others attacked Jews on the basis of misconceived rationalist and scientific assumptions. In France, Protestants influenced by Enlightenment ideas sought to counter such charges, but even they were unable to free themselves from traditional prejudice. In Germany, the rise of a sense of national identity and self- confidence fuelled anti-Semitic feelings among various writers. At the ’ beginning of the nineteenth century, Napoleon s summoning of the Sanhedrin was an attempt to improve Jewish life, but such steps were opposed by reactionaries who feared the consequences of such a policy. During the twentieth century, Jews were attacked for a number of reasons. In Germany, Jews were denigrated in various racist publications; such an atmosphere led to the creation of political parties that were anti-Semitic in orientation. These developments serve as the background to the rise of Nazism. According to Hitler, the Jews constituted a vile race intent on seizing control of political, social and economic affairs. On the basis of Nazi racism, grounded in the writings of earlier German thinkers, the Jewish community was subject to a series of restrictive measures and eventual plans for its extermination. Throughout this period the Nazis sought to bring about the total destruction of the Jewish nation. Surveying these events, you should ask yourself why ordinary Germans were persuaded of the truth of Nazi ideology about the Jews. Given the terrible events of the Holocaust, can Jewry ever feel secure in the countries in which they live? As a minority group, is it inevitable that Jews will be subject to persecution and suffering? Action Points  Go to Google. Look for websites dealing with the history of anti-Semitism as well as the rise of Nazism.  Stay in Google. Search for websites dealing with neo-Nazism.  Go to Amazon.com. Look for books dealing with the Nazi period.

7 Zionism Reflection Points With the onset of Jewish emancipation in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century, Jewish assimilationists argued that human beings were progressing towards a one-world culture. In all countries, economic and social developments led to the diminution of national characteristics. Hence it was a mistake to return to Jewish nationalism. In particular, Reform Jewish spokesmen maintained that although it was imperative to have a Jewish state thousands of years ago, this was now no longer required. Such a view led to the elimination of all references to a personal Messiah in the Reform liturgy; instead Reform Jews prayed for the realization of the messianic era in modern society. Secular Zionists disagreed. In their view, anti-Jewish sentiment is unavoidable: no reform of Judaism can eliminate Jew-hatred from Western society. According to Moses Hess, the only solution to the Jewish problem is the creation of a Jewish state which will enable world Jewry to undergo a renaissance and serve as a spiritual centre for all humanity. Similarly, Leo — Pinsker contended that Judeophobia is inextricably part of Western society the only remedy for anti-Semitism is for Jewry to reconstitute themselves as a separate people in their own land. Echoing such sentiments, Theodor Herzl espoused the creation of a Jewish homeland and undertook political steps to bring about its realization. Were the Zionists correct in their interpretation of Jewish history? Is it the case that Jews are inevitably insecure if they constitute a minority group in a majority culture? Is anti-Semitism inevitable? Pondering these questions, you should think about the growth of rabid Judeophobia in Nazi Germany. Many Jews believe that the Holocaust proves the truth of Zionist claims about the position of Jewry in Western society. What do you think? If you agree, then is the creation of a Jewish state in the Middle East an ultimate insurance policy? Action Points  Go to Google. Look for websites dealing with Zionism as well as the creation of modern Israel.  Stay in Google. Search for websites dealing with Zionism.

8 The Nazi State Reflection Points How can one account for the incredible success of the Nazi Party? From its beginnings as a tiny splinter party, it rose to become the major force in German political life. There is no question that Hitler was the driving force behind its growth and ultimate victory. With an uncanny sensitivity, Hitler was able to put into words the thoughts and feelings of the average German. Throughout his political career, he brought his listeners to a state of ecstatic ’ enthusiasm. Audiences were transfixed by Hitler s delivery, and spontaneously burst into applause amid cries and uncontrolled sobbing. ’ Hitler s skill as a speaker thus had a crucially important impact on the Nazi rise to power. Who were those who initially became the rank and file of the Nazi party? From the beginning the party appealed to the socially and economically disenfrancised classes of the post-war period consisting of demoralized members of the lower middle classes, demobilized and declassed soldiers, alienated students and intellectuals, upper-middle-class professionals and business owners frightened by the rise of Communism, and those on the margin of society with few employment prospects. In the development of Nazi ideology, racist doctrines were of fundamental ’ importance and had a crucial impact on German society following Hitler s ascendancy to power. From 1933 to 1945, Germany became a racial state enacting legislation designed to protect Aryan blood from contamination by undersirables within society. On the basis of such ideas, the Nazis embarked on a policy of extermination. For Nazi executioners the elimination of undesirable segments of the population was a glorious task. Unrestrained by moral compunction, the Nazi onslaught against the Jews was facilitated by the creation of death camps in which innocent victims were gassed. This task was to be carried out bravely in the quest to create an Aryan civilization which would endure for over a thousand years. Surveying these tragic events, you should ask yourself whether you believe that such an onslaught against the Jewish people could ever occur again. Many Jews believe that the Holocaust demonstrates that Jews will never be secure in countries where they are in the minority. For this reason, there must be a Jewish state. Do you agree? Action Points  Go to Google. Look for websites dealing with Nazi Germany and anti- Semitism in the modern world.  Go to Amazon.com. Look for books dealing with these topics.

9 Holocaust Denial Reflection Points A number of Holocaust deniers maintain they are not anti-Semites. Rather, they portray themselves as serious historians in pursuit of the truth about the events of the Second World War. Yet, there are serious difficulties with the arguments presented by these writers concerning the existence of the gas chambers as well as their refusal to accept the mass of evidence about the evils of the Nazi regime. Given that similar testimonies were given by both Jews and non-Jews, such eye-witness accounts appear to constitute incontrovertible evidence about the victimization of those departed to the camps. With regard to the gas chambers, Holocaust deniers repeatedly call for proof of the existence of such facilities. Yet they systematically dismiss the reliability of all accounts, whether given by Jews who claim to have witnessed such killing operations or first-hand testimony by the SS. Such refusal is based on the paradoxical conviction that because these accounts corroborate one another, they are likely to be fabrications. Given the mass of evidence which undermine the claims of Holocaust deniers, it might be thought that they would have abandoned their position. This has not happened, because Holocaust denial is in many cases politically motivated despite any claims to the contrary. The founder of the Institute of Historical Research, William Carto, for example, was also the founder of Liberty Lobby, an ultra-right-wing organization. According to the Anti- Defamation League, the Liberty Lobby is at the helm of a publishing complex ’ that has propagated anti-Jewish propaganda for decades. Willis Carto s political vision was based on contempt for Jews, the belief that the government needs to protect the racial heritage of the United States, and the conviction that there currently exists a conspiracy to undermine the Western world. What do you make of Holocaust denial? Do you think any attention should be paid to their views? Do they deserve serious consideration.? Or, as some Jewish historians maintain, should they be dismissed out of hand because Holocaust denial is in fact a modern form of Jew-hatred? You should look at relevant websites on the internet dealing with Holocaust denial. Look for those produced by the deniers themselves so you can gain an idea of their claims. Then look for websites created by critics of Holocaust denial. Once you have such material, you will be in a position to make an informed judgement. Action Points  ‘ ’ Go to Google. Type in Holocaust denial and look for relevant websites.  Go to Amazon.com and look for books produced by Holocaust deniers and their critics.

10 Holocaust Theology Reflection Points As we can see, there are a wide range of religious responses to the tragic events of the Holocaust. Yet, what is surprising is that none of these writers appeal to the concept of eternal salvation which sustained the Jewish people through centuries of persecution. Such a shift in orientation is in part due to the fact that the views expressed in rabbinic literature are not binding. All Jews are obliged to accept the divine origin of the Law, but this is not so with regard to theological concepts and theories expounded in rabbinic sources. Thus, it is possible for a Jew to be religiously pious without accepting all the central beliefs of mainstream Judaism. Given that there is no authoritative bedrock of Jewish theology, Holocaust theologians will no doubt have felt fully justified in ignoring various elements of traditional rabbinic eschatology which have ceased to retain their hold on Jewish consciousness. The doctrine of messianic redemption, for example, has been radically modified in contemporary Jewish thought. In the last century, Reform Jews tended to interpret the new liberation of the Western world as the first step towards the realisation of the messianic dream. Messianic redemption was thus understood in worldly terms. The original belief in resurrection was an eschatological hope bound up with the rebirth of the nation in the days of the messiah. But as this messianic doctrine faded into the background, so also did this belief. For most Jews, physical resurrection is simply inconceivable in the light of a scientific understanding of the nature of the world. The late British Chief Rabbi, J. H. Hertz, for example, argued that what really matters is the doctrine of the immortality of the soul. In the Reform community, a similar attitude prevails. ‘ The Pittsburgh Platform, for example, states that Reform Jews reassert the doctrine of Judaism that the soul is immortal, grounding this belief on the ’ Divine nature of the human spirit . The belief in eternal punishment has also been discarded by a large number of Jews partly because of the interest in penal reform during the past century. Punishment as retaliation in a vindictive sense has been generally rejected. The value of punishment as a deterrent for the protection of society is widely accepted. But the emphasis today is on the reformatory aspects of punishment. What do you make of these changes? Arguably the erosion of the central tenets of the Jewish eschatological hope has made it more difficult to understand the tragedy of the Holocaust. Do you think any of the explanations surveyed in Chapter 3 provide an adequate response to the religious dilemmas posed by the destruction of six million Jews by the Nazis? Is any explanation possible? If not, does this undermine the basic beliefs of Judaism which we surveyed in Chapter 1?

Action Points  ‘ ’ Go to Google. Type in relevant topics such as Holocaust theology , ‘ ’ Holocaust and religious belief , etc. Look for websites which explore the range of religious responses to the Nazi period.  Go to Amazon.com. Look for books dealing with the religious problems posed by the Holocaust.  If possible, speak to a local rabbi about the religious dilemmas posed by the destruction of European Jewry during the Second World War. Ask what challenges this poses to the future of Judaism as a living faith.

11 The Jewish State Reflection Points The quest for a Jewish state was set in motion by the events of the nineteenth century. Following the inspiration of early Zionist leaders, the First Zionist Congress met on 29 August 1987 in Basle under the leadership of Theodor Herzl. Subsequently, Herzl cultivated important figures in Turkey, Austria, Germany and Russia to further his plans. In 1902 Herzl appeared before the British Commission, declaring that further Jewish immigration to Britain should be accepted but that the ultimate solution to the refugee problem was the recognition of the Jews as a people and the finding by them of a legally recognized home. ’ After Herzl s death, David Wolffsohn became the leader of the Zionists and continued to agitate for the creation of a Jewish national home. When Arthur Balfour was appointed Foreign Secretary, the Zionist cause was given a more sympathetic hearing. In the same year, the Balfour Declaration provided a basis for the creation of a Jewish national home. However, with the rise of Arab nationalism, the Jewish settlement in Palestine was increasingly threatened. In March 1920, the Arabs attacked Jewish settlements in Galilee; this was followed by further riots in Jerusalem. Eventually British policy changed, and by 1939 a White Paper restricted Jewish immigration to Palestine. Despite this setback, the United Nations proposed a plan of partition which provided a framework for the creation of a Jewish state. The Arab world, however, refused to accept the existence of Israel, and from this period to the present Arab nations have continually been in conflict with Israelis. Chapter 3 outlines this ongoing conflict until the present day. With one voice Arab nations have proclaimed that the creation of the State of Israel was at the expense of the Palestinians. The indigenous Arab population of Palestine, they maintain, has been systematically discriminated against since the Balfour Declaration of 1917 which created Israel for the Jews at the expense of a native population which has been denied its own nationhood and has become a dispossessed, marginalized people. What do you make of this conflict? Do you agree with the Palestinian view? Or do you think the Jews had a legal and moral right to settle in the Holy Land? Action Points  Go to Google. Type in topics related to Israel. Be sure to look for websites that present the Jewish view, and others which put forward Palestinian claims.  Go to Amazon.com. Look for books dealing with the Arab-Israeli conflict. A good starting point is: Dan Cohn-Sherbok and Dawoud El-Alamai, The Palestine-Israeli Conflict, Oneworld, 2009