Mediating Transitions Local Radio and the Negotiations of Citizenship in Rural Nepal Jacob Thorsen Mediating transitions: local radio and the negotiations of citizenship in rural Nepal By Jacob Thorsen A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Arts, Aarhus University, for the award of a Doctor of Philosophy degree in Media Studies at the Department of Aesthetics and Communication. Supervised by: Main supervisor: Associate Professor Poul Erik Nielsen Co-supervisor: Professor Chaitanya Mishra © 2013 Jacob Thorsen Printed by SUN-TRYK, Fællestrykkeriet for Sundhedsvidenskab og Humaniora, Aarhus University Online - AU Library Scholarly Publication Publishing Services ISBN: 978-87-7507-410-5 DOI: 10.7146/aul.236.169 Cover photo by Jacob Thorsen, 2010. 2 Content List of Abbreviations 8 List of Figures 9 List of Tables 10 Acknowledgements 11 English Abstract 13 Dansk resumé 14 1. INTRODUCTION 15 2. RESEARCH OBJECTIVE 21 2.1 PAMP in Times of Transition and the Influence of Local Radio 22 2.2 Structure 24 PART I: INITIATIONS 28 3. ANALYSING PAMP, LOCAL RADIO AND CITIZENSHIP 29 3.1 Negotiations in a Context of Transition 29 3.2 Negotiations Linking the Past, Present and Future 31 3.3 Negotiating by Habitus and Aspirations: Agency Structured by History, Aiming at the Future 33 4. POOR AND MARGINALISED PEOPLE 36 4.1 Change in Self-Perception 39 4.2 PAMP Everyday Life 45 3 5. MEDIATED DISCURSIVE SPACES 47 5.1 Local Radio in a Global Perspective 48 6. CITIZENSHIP 55 7. METHODOLOGY 62 7.1 The Construction of Knowledge 63 7.2 Fieldwork and Methods 63 7.3 The Semi-Ethnographic Case Study 67 7.4 Selection of Respondents for Qualitative Interviews 68 7.5 Interview Guide and Semi-Structured Interviews 70 7.6 Translations and Transcriptions 72 7.7 Data Analysis of Interviews 73 7.8 Participant Observation 74 7.9 Survey 75 7.10 The Researchers’ Position 77 7.11 Ethical Issues 78 7.12 Methodology in Sum 78 PART II: CONTEXT 80 8. HISTORICAL TRAITS 81 8.1 Characteristics 82 8.2 Rana Autocracy 83 8.3 Panchayat Homogenisation: the King and his Subjects 84 8.4 First Multiparty Democracy 86 8.5 The Maoist People’s War and the Royal Massacre 88 4 8.6 Jana Andolan II: Political Transition to Democratic Republic 91 8.7 Transitional Challenges 93 8.8 From Space to the Becoming of Place 96 8.9 Past to Present in Sum 99 9. CONTEXTUALISING PAMP AND LOCAL RADIO 102 9.1 Rolpa District: Remote, Poor and Influenced by Inequality 103 9.2 Rural Context 105 9.3 Urban Context and the Location of Local Radio 107 9.4 The Emergence of Local Mass Media in Rolpa 109 9.5 Local Radio and the Mediatisation of Space 112 9.6 The Influence of Bikaas on Local Radio 115 9.7 The Structure of Local Radio Broadcasting 119 9.8 Content in Programme Production 121 9.9 Representation of Bikaas in Programme Production 124 9.10 Structure and Representations in Radio Broadcasting 127 9.11 Respect, Repetition and Ritualised Performance 130 9.12 Introducing New Ideas 134 9.13 Audience Appropriation of Local Radio Broadcasting 135 9.14 Initiating Semi-Ethnographic Studies 150 PART III: EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP 152 10. CITIZENSHIP AND THE (DE)CONSTRUCTION OF HIERARCHIES 153 10.1 PAMP’s Own Perception of Poverty and Marginalisation 154 10.2 Ruralness and Urbanity: Spatial Hierarchies of Belonging 155 5 10.3 PAMP Appropriation of Bikaas – Some Paradoxes 157 10.4 PAMP’s (De)construction of Social Hierarchies 158 10.5 Hierarchies and Policies of Equality 159 10.6 Levelling Caste Hierarchies 160 10.7 Gendered Discussions in Times of Transition 161 10.8 Puja: at Times One Has to Risk Ijjat to Achieve Something 161 10.9 Kumud: Contesting Social Norms to Improve Ijjat 165 10.10 Arjun: Struggle as Means to Achieve Change 172 10.11 Goma: Wish to Teach Women to Speak in Public 180 10.12 Anjana: Wish to Decide Herself 184 10.13 Aasha: the Future Rests with the Youths 188 10.14 The Appropriation of Ideals of Equality in Sum 191 PART IV: FUTURE CITIZENS 195 11. TRANSITION, ASPIRATIONS AND A NEW NEPAL 196 11.1 Political Transition and Different Perceptions 196 11.2 Ethnicity as a Marker of Citizenship 200 11.3 PAMP’s Hopes and Aspirations 205 11.4 Durga: Wishes Education, Employment and Improving Ijjat 206 11.5 Urmila: Wishes Basic Livelihood and Youth do not Bow Down 208 11.6 Sangini: Finish Education, Do Social Work to Change Village 211 11.7 Deepak: Wish Children to be Educated and Understand Society 213 11.8 Shambhu: Wish to Eradicate Discrimination, be Recognised and Develop Society 217 11.9 Perspectives on Political Transition and Aspirations in Sum 221 6 11.10 PAMP Aspirations Obtaining Capital 223 11.11 Economic Capital: Livelihood, Employment and Income 223 11.12 Social Capital: ‘Giving Back’ to Family and Community 224 11.13 Cultural Capital: Becoming a Citizen 226 11.14 Symbolic Capital; Status, Ijjat and ‘Middleclass-ness’ 226 11.15 Citizen Aspirations in Sum 229 12. CONCLUSION 232 12.1 Historical Legacy of Citizenship Ideals and Practices 233 12.2 Concurrent Reproductive and Reforming Citizenship Ideals 234 12.3 Political Transition and Aspirations for Change 235 12.4 Rethinking PAMP, Local Radio in Political Transition Through Citizenship 237 12.5 Implications 242 APPENDIXES 243 Appendix 1: Fieldwork Overview 244 Appendix 2: Questionnaire for Survey 247 References 260 7 List of Abbreviations ACORAB Association of Community Radio Broadcasters Nepal AM Amplitude Modulation BBC British Broadcasting Service B&C Bahuns and Chhetries CRSC Community Radio Support Centre DAO District Administration Office DFID Department For International Development FNJ Federation of Nepali Journalists FM Frequency Modulation HUGOU Human Rights Good Governance Programme HURAC Human Rights Awareness Centre ICG International Crisis Group ICT Information and Communication Technology INSEC Informal Sector Service Centre NC Nepali Congress NGO Non-Governmental Organisation NPI Nepali Press Institute PAMP Poor And Marginalised People SLC School Leaving Certificate SMS Short Message Service VDC Village Development Committee UML United Marxist Leninist UN United Nations UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific, Cultural Organisation YCL Young Communist League (Maoist youth wing) 8 List of Figures Figure 1: Geographical location of selection of respondents ........................................ 65 Figure 2: Map of Nepal and radio signal propagation map as of August 2007 .......... 103 Figure 3: Photo of Libang and surrounding areas ...................................................... 107 Figure 4: Photo of Radio Jaljala’s studio ..................................................................... 109 Figure 5: Photo of solar power system used for radio ................................................. 111 Figure 6: Maoist poster on Indian influence in Nepalese affairs ................................. 133 Figure 7: Caste groups’ most important source on local issues ................................... 138 Figure 8: Rural age groups’ most important source on local issues ............................ 140 Figure 9: Urban age groups’ most important source on local issues ........................... 141 Figure 10: Educational background and those never listening radio .......................... 142 Figure 11: Age groups and those never listening to radio ........................................... 142 Figure 12: Urban access to media based on educational background ........................ 143 Figure 13: Rural access to media based on educational background ......................... 144 Figure 14: Discussing and sharing information from media ....................................... 145 Figure 15: Those with radio never discussing and sharing information from media . 146 Figure 16: Time listening to radio ............................................................................... 147 Figure 17: Location listening to radio ......................................................................... 148 Figure 18: Age groups’ improved situation post 2006 Janaa Andolan ....................... 198 Figure 19: Caste groups’ improved situation post 2006 Janaa Andolan ..................... 199 Figure 20: Gender improved situation post 2006 Janaa Andolan .............................. 200 Figure 21: Caste groups’ perception of ethnicity as maker of citizenship ................... 201 Figure 22: Photo of ‘Deepak’ ...................................................................................... 216 9 List of Tables Table 1: Respondents in 2009 field interviews ............................................................. 68 Table 2: Codes of condensed extracts ........................................................................... 74 Table 3: Number of households by Ward ..................................................................... 76 Table 4: Periods of rule and their related ideals, mass media, citizenship discourses . 100 Table 5: Organisational characteristics of Radio Rolpa and Radio Jaljala ................ 114 Table 6: Categories of radio programmes. Weekly hours broadcasting ..................... 120 Table 7: Content in-house produced news stories ...................................................... 121 Table 8: Angle on in-house produced news stories ..................................................... 122 Table 9: Source of in-house produced news stories .................................................... 123 Table 10: Location of in-house produced news stories ............................................... 123 Table 11: Most important source on local issues