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Astrocyte-Specific Overexpressed Gene Signatures in Response to Methamphetamine Exposure in Vitro Nikki Bortell1,6†, Liana Basova1†, Svetlana Semenova2, Howard S

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Astrocyte-Specific Overexpressed Gene Signatures in Response to Methamphetamine Exposure in Vitro Nikki Bortell1,6†, Liana Basova1†, Svetlana Semenova2, Howard S Bortell et al. Journal of Neuroinflammation (2017) 14:49 DOI 10.1186/s12974-017-0825-6 RESEARCH Open Access Astrocyte-specific overexpressed gene signatures in response to methamphetamine exposure in vitro Nikki Bortell1,6†, Liana Basova1†, Svetlana Semenova2, Howard S. Fox3, Timothy Ravasi4,5 and Maria Cecilia G. Marcondes1,7* Abstract Background: Astrocyte activation is one of the earliest findings in the brain of methamphetamine (Meth) abusers. Our goal in this study was to identify the characteristics of the astrocytic acute response to the drug, which may be critical in pathogenic outcomes secondary to the use. Methods: We developed an integrated analysis of gene expression data to study the acute gene changes caused by the direct exposure to Meth treatment of astrocytes in vitro, and to better understand how astrocytes respond, what are the early molecular markers associated with this response. We examined the literature in search of similar changes in gene signatures that are found in central nervous system disorders. Results: We identified overexpressed gene networks represented by genes of an inflammatory and immune nature and that are implicated in neuroactive ligand-receptor interactions. The overexpressed networks are linked to molecules that were highly upregulated in astrocytes by all doses of methamphetamine tested and that could play a role in the central nervous system. The strongest overexpressed signatures were the upregulation of MAP2K5, GPR65, and CXCL5, and the gene networks individually associated with these molecules. Pathway analysis revealed that these networks are involved both in neuroprotection and in neuropathology. We have validated several targets associated to these genes. Conclusions: Gene signatures for the astrocytic response to Meth were identified among the upregulated gene pool, using an in vitro system. The identified markers may participate in dysfunctions of the central nervous system but could also provide acute protection to the drug exposure. Further in vivo studies are necessary to establish the role of these gene networks in drug abuse pathogenesis. Keywords: Astrocytes, Methamphetamine, Central nervous system, Systems biology Background system (CNS) localized insults [7, 8]. These cells can initi- Astrocytes are glial cells that are involved in numerous ate an inflammatory response, which can interestingly brain functions, including interacting with neurons and both promote tissue healing and neuronal loss and dam- maintaining brain structure [1, 2], synthesizing cholesterol age, as well as control the permeability of the blood-brain [3], and controlling synaptogenesis and neuronal plasticity barrier (BBB) [9–11]. [4–6]. In addition, together with microglia cells, astrocytes Drug abuse is one of the factors that can induce the are first responders to both systemic and central nervous activation of astrocytes [12]. One such drug is metham- phetamine (Meth), which is widely used due to its strong * Correspondence: [email protected] † effects as a psychotropic stimulant and its low price. Equal contributors Meth abusers develop an enormous number of degen- 1Cellular and Molecular Neurosciences Department, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA erative symptoms, particularly in the CNS, manifested 7Present address: San Diego Biomedical Research Institute, 10865 Road to by cognitive deficits and motor dysfunction [13]. Astro- the Cure, Suite 100 - San Diego, San Diego, CA 92121, USA cytic activation is one of the most common findings in Full list of author information is available at the end of the article © The Author(s). 2017 Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated. Bortell et al. Journal of Neuroinflammation (2017) 14:49 Page 2 of 20 the brain of Meth abusers, as well as in various models Cell harvest and RNA extraction of Meth exposure [14–17], often associated with neuro- Total RNA was isolated from the cells using Trizol re- toxicity. The effects of Meth on astrocytes could be po- agent (Thermofisher, Waltham, MA), according to the tentially direct and have been attributed to its binding to manufacturer’s instructions. Total RNA concentration sigma1 receptors [18]. was measured using the Nanodrop spectrophotometer In the present studies, we tested the hypothesis that and then used for reverse transcription and for gene astrocytes, as important first responders, may develop array (below). phenotypic changes that can contribute and be associ- ated to neurological decline and multiple disorders com- Gene expression array monly found in Meth abusers. We evaluated whether The integrity of total RNAs was examined in an Agilent Meth can affect astrocytes by producing changes in gene Bioanalyzer 2100 (Agilent Technologies, Santa Clara, CA, expression and whether such changes can be critical at- USA). Total RNA concentration was measured using the tributes in the development of CNS disorders. We ex- Nanodrop spectrophotometer. The mouse Agilent micro- amined genes that were upregulated following Meth array service was performed by Phalanx Biotech (San exposure, with an in vitro approach using primary cor- Diego, CA). A total of 4 μg Cy5-labeled RNA targets were tical astrocytic cultures. Using systems biology, we have hybridized to Gene Expression v2 4x44K Microarrays integrated the expression changes caused by Meth and (Agilent Technologies, Santa Clara, CA), according to the have identified important astrocytic patterns, finger- manufacturer’s protocol. The data were analyzed using the prints, and pathways among genes that are transcrip- provided manufacturer’s protocol. Following the tionally enriched by the exposure to Meth. Although the hybridization, fluorescent signals were scanned using an analysis is limited to upregulated genes, these changes Axon 4000 (Molecular Devices, Sunnyvale, CA, USA). could have important implications in the development Three replicates per condition were used. Microarray sig- of neurological symptoms commonly associated with nal intensity of each spot was analyzed using the GenePix drug abuse. 4.1 software (Molecular Devices, Sunnyvale, CA, USA). Each signal value was normalized using the R program in Methods the limma linear models package (Bioconductor 3.2, Primary rat astrocyte cultures https://bioconductor.org). E18 embryonic Sprague Dawley rat cortical astrocytes (BrainBits LLC, Springfield, IL) were cultured on poly- Gene expression analysis D-lysine-coated coverslips and were maintained in Raw data was loaded into ArrayStudio (Omicsoft Neuro basal medium (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA) with Corporation, Cary, NC) and first filtered based on a 10% horse serum and 3 mM glutamine (Invitrogen), built-in ANOVA, as well as a t test, applied to fold until confluence was reached (day 12). changes between experimental and control conditions. Significant changes had a p value <0.05. In addition, Methamphetamine treatment maximum least-squares (Max LS) mean ≥ 6 and a false (+)-Methamphetamine hydrochloride (Sigma-Aldrich, discovery rate by the Benjamini-Hochberg correction Saint Louis, MO) was added to the confluent astrocytic (FDR_BH) <0.01 were applied. Using this method, we cultures, at the final concentrations of 1, 10, and found many genes with raw p values <0.05, but if the 100 μM, diluted in PBS. The drug was maintained in the FDR_BH did not reach <0.01, they were discarded. In cultures for 24 h prior to the harvesting of the cells. this particular analysis set, the genes were further fil- Control cultures were incubated with PBS vehicle. All tered to express a robust fold change above 4 between results derive from three independent experiments, each control and experimental cultures. These filters allowed one performed in duplicate. the identification of significant, above background gene expression changes. The list of genes that were signifi- Apoptosis detection cantly upregulated by Meth in astrocytes, following the The rat astrocytes were tested for development of described criteria, were loaded into Cytoscape 3.3 apoptosis 24 h after Meth treatment, using the ter- (http://cytoscape.org), using GeneMania [19], to identify minal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP (TdT) in significantly changed interaction networks of genes and situ TACS Blue (R&D systems), following the manu- relevant pathways. Pathway enrichment was examined facturer’s instructions. Counterstaining was performed using iPathwayGuide (Advaita Bioinformatics, Plymouth, with Gill’s hematoxylin (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MI) platform [20] and DAVID Bioinformatics data- MO). Coverslips were applied over Cytoseal 60 base [21] (https://david.ncifcrf.gov), which utilize the mounting media (EMS, Hatfield, PA), and cells were Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) inspected in light microscope. (www.genome.jp/kegg) and in Gene Ontology (GO) Bortell et al. Journal of Neuroinflammation (2017) 14:49 Page 3 of 20 terms (http://geneontology.org/page/go-enrichment-analysis). with PBS containing 0.1% Triton X-100 for 15 min at Diseases
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