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Home , Discourse analysis

Studies: The Contributions in Language Teaching

Desi Yanti Sinurat English Departement Faculty of Teacher Training and Education Lancang Kuning University

Abstract:

This paper was created with the aim to focus the attention of the contributions of discourse analysis to language learning. Most researchers today are concerned with discourse analysis as an alternative way to distinguish the process of language . In this discussion will arise how the functional characteristics of sentimental element that acts as a signal for the listener in different contexts to facilitate the integration of online and discourse analysis is as a methodological tool used to adjust the functional inquiry of the speaker, as well as the process of development as we are discriminated by identifying responsible social attitudes and ideologies in observed linguistic patterns. Most teachers have a tendency to teach languages separately with their use. So that the resulting is discussed is poorly understood and the time to practice the lesson has been less tangible, and in life situations, students fail to use language and find it difficult to recognize the function guided by the speaker.

Keywords: Discourse analysis, , speech acts, functions, context, syllabus, , .

1. Introduction 1. The formal and functional

The approaches to communicating or aspect of language. speaking can be shaped from multiple The particular languages can be directions. Language approaches exist both summarised macro linguistic as biological, linguistically and non-linguistically. But cultural, and sociological an in a narrow most people in the language are not sense of , , commensurate with the appropriate , in other terms the grammatical wording. Therefore, in reality, it cannot be properties. The starting of a more scientific perfect for further understanding of the approach to language could be observed in language which is in accordance with the structural approach. Structural linguist structure of the . For the structure tried to find out the grammatical properties of the language, we can find in the book of of language: in other , the formal grammar, because the learning in the book aspect of language, sound, words, is very efficient and effective. So do not sentences are explored from many points waste time. The lesson in this book has of views and by thousands of people and become a very useful way. There are consequently those studies met at a single questions that are used to answer point. something that happened in nature. Sentences which gratuity utters in order to question or there are a billion types of Communicate, are formal contracts and questions. The essential issue to reclaim they are groups of related words in which here is that one has to ask the question grammar is the base. In fact, this common related a purpose.. anto Hamuddin (2012) thought and aim in language studies cannot points out, a linguistic functionalist is one be ignored, but there is always a need to go who tries to determine how speakers beyond these studies. In applied manage to reach their communicative ends , it is proved that grammar by means of a language and who is ready teaching does not make people speak and to classify and Hierarchies facts it any reflects the abstract side, so what is accordingly, even at the expense of formal beyond the from? Anticipate, it is ‘the identities. function’. The structural study of language helps us in understanding the functional approach. To begin with, grammatical function of The functional study of language means, language has to be studied, thus form and studying how language is used. For function have to be compared. Since instance, trying to find out what the grammar reflects the formal counterpart specific purpose that language serves for when someone says “book” and “The book us, and how the members of a language there”, may only be a very slight community achieve and react to these difference between the two. Whether one purposes through speaking, , says “book or the book, the responder and listening. About this, Simpson understands both, hence there is no need to says that “it is clear that the use of consider function in this perspective, but language is part of a what about the relationship between the channel that includes non-linguistic noun and the verb. For example “smile and behavior. Linguistic and non-linguistic baby”. When these two words are may be inseparable from the point of view organized in two different ways they of the speaker and the hearer: hand me reflect two separate meanings. One is over the and the role of nudges, “baby smiles and the other “smiles baby”. winks facial expressions, the tone of voice, When these two constructions are used in and so on. In this respect, can easily be any context the they convey to considered as an example. When a person the hearer is apparent. asks the question, the other response, but there are several ways of asking the same Examples : 1. The baby smiled to the achieved if the "smiling" and "baby" balloon examples can be replaced on triangles 2. Mother smiled to the baby nonsense except . More than the

From the first example above, where the relationship of the affected person. smiling perpetrator is the baby, while the Synthetically it is a '-' smiley effect is the balloons. Then from relationship, so love and smile can be the second example, the perpetrator of the easily applied to this triangle. Baby and smiling act is the mother and the baby who smile , baby referrals: very young gets the effect of the smile. both concepts children, smiling sedans: happy are a sign of a secure signal within a impressions in the face. semantic consisting of a marker and which Thinking or reference: what listeners are then connected with associative understand when baby and smile is said. psychology bonds, known as the triangular There are some the question: of Ogden and Richards made in 1923. 1. If the words we apply to the triangle While the Palmer states that the view of way, then whether the results will be Ogden and Richards sees its relationship as achieved that we expect? a triangle, in which linguistic symbols and 2. What is the relationship between these elements of words, sentences, references elements? and others in the world of experience. 3. What is the purpose or purpose of the Whereas thought and reference is a words they convey to the hearer? concept, according to theory there is no direct connection between symbols and From the above questions, to oppose or references (between the language and the against the theory of Ogden and Richards references), the connection is through it is impossible to answer his questions thinking and referencing the concepts of quickly. Just in terms of semantics, just our thinking. searching for the answer "for what it means" in this semantic theory is the one

But for the opinion of Ogden and used the meaning of the words that Richards, the relationship of thought exists are spoken according to the purpose or in the minds of people, but in the opinion purpose of certain events. The meaning of of Ogden and Richards, it is not explained these words is the small or or focused on how that meaning is context in which they are used. As an illustration of brown and Yule states: in recent years, the idea of linguistic strings comprehension is considered in a text, (a Sentence ) can be fully analyzed social, and psychological contexts, so regardless of 'context'. This question has meaningful and understandable to them been seriously questioned. If Grammar that it can be used. Brown and Yule state: wants to criticize delivery in Language. an appropriate discourse analysis of Whatever in the delivery of Language or language analysis is used, and therefore words in accordance with the term of language analysis is not limited to the actual Grammar. And what we do when unexplained linguistic form of purpose and asked "what is certain intention function that everyone's mind has acceptable?" and whether we are prepared accepted. to build some circumstances where the For Fairclough: There is a reciprocal sentence can be used properly. relationship between language and society. Language is part of society, the linguistic Sometimes in the delivery of a word or phenomenon is a social phenomenon of a phrase, there is a different delivery special kind and a social phenomenon is a according to the purpose or purpose of the linguistics phenomenon. Schiffrin speaker. As pointed out by Alberto, the expressed his opinion: a language main point about "function" that definition is the use of a language essentially separates them from all other consistent with its function in general. important units. Here the meaning of Discourse is seen as a system in which "function" the purpose of language usage, certain functions are realized which are of but this term cannot be equated with great concern. The definition of "usefulness" only. This should be functionalist discourse makes analysis considered in the context of learning in away from the structural basis of orderly discourse analysis. and needy focus. In contrast, in speech patterns, it is used for certain purposes in certain contexts and how the results of the capture and understanding have been 3. Formal and functional conveyed. Communicative-based paradigms in discourse. strategies tend to use various analytical To begin a discourse then we need to methods as well as quantitative methods define the term in the discourse that we derived from the social, scientific will pass on. For word processing: approach, and how to interpret the more discourse analysis examines how language humanist to replicates the purpose of the speaker itself. Therefore language users of how a listener interpreted the true intent need grammar to deliver a sentence. which is conveyed ?. It does not mean that discourse is learning about the use of There is a language that cannot be sentences. The sentence is the path to a understood directly, so it takes time to goal. As shown by the crystal: discourse is understand the intentions of the language a term used in linguistics to refer to a conveyed. Hence the need for an continuous textual language more widely assessment of discourse analysis. than sentences. In general, discourse is a Widdowson states: we can now use label unit of behavior that has a pre-theoretical discourse analysis to refer to the status in linguistics, it is a series of investigation of the way sentences are which is a speech event which is applied communicatively. In the execution recognizable of the social action, the discourse is defined roughly by the user of the The core of the previous discussion of the sentence. For another opinion Stubbs says: purpose of studying discourse analysis is discourse analysis is a very ambiguous to eliminate the structure of the term. I will use in this book to refer to a that occurs in the context it linguistic analysis by naturally delivering should be. Coulthard argues for the spoken or written lectures. This directly importance of discourse in language refers to attempting to study the organizing learning that the main consequence in of language over sentences, and for that, discourse analysis is the relationship we need to study larger linguistic units, between discourse, speaker, and listener such as exchange of or and for whom the discourse produced. It written texts. Thus discourse analysis can can be concluded that how the speaker be understood in the language used in takes over the role of the speaker in which social, especially in interacting dialogue in this discourse social role influences the between the speakers. choice of discourse in terms of who speaks when what they are talking about and how And Coulthard also argues: to characterize the non-verbal signals are, and whether the the structure of discourse in terms of discourse matches the social relations functional, must be in accordance with the conditions among the participants. Of each problem of grammatical realization, and question and answer can be the starting there are 4 main types of declarative, point of the analysis. imperative, interrogative, and without feeling and realize it too diverse. Because Example: (Two friends are talking at the cafe after how to respond differently from each school.) other. First, that should be done is to understand the grammar and vocabulary A: Are you coming to the cinema with us used in building sentences that form a text. tomorrow? But Nunan argues: we are more in need of B: I don't think so. understanding, because every understanding is different, because every From the existing answers in mind, there grammatical is unusual, so it is obviously are different ways of asking and answering not a grammar that explains the Speaker 'A' can utter his question in peculiarities of its text. Something different ways, such as: sentences that form text need to be 1. Would you like to come to the cinema grammatical. But grammatical sentences tomorrow? alone will ensure that the text itself makes sense. What makes them unique and 2. Is tomorrow okay for cinema? different is the purpose and function. 3. Cinema, tomorrow? Here are some example sentences and their 4. We are going to the cinema tomorrow. functions. Will you come? Examples: In the same way, speaker 'B' can respond Functions: in different ways. ı. Give me that book! ORDER 1. No, I am not going to come with you. 2. Pass the salt, please. 2. I can't stand it. REQUEST 3. Take the second on the left. 3. I hate cinemas! INSTRUCTION 4. No, I will not. 4. Come round on Monday to Jimmy's

5. Tomorrow is impossible. INVITATION 5. Try to relax! As in the example above, there are SUGGESTION several ways to ask questions and how to respond. But the examples above is a Functionally these lessons cannot be partial example, in fact, there are many separated from topic "forms" such as tone other examples. But each question and stress, and the intonation is in its functional learning. The wording of the To better understand the functional value phrase reflects the way the message is of communication, the following examples can be: delivered. In this case, we need to learn the functions of , morphology, and Example 1: semantics for understanding what is being "Gary: It's cold, isn't it? said and what is meant in every language Brian: Yes, it is not very warm . . . that is delivered. From the above example, it is required It's time to set an example of a that the listener must agree with the conversation where the function of the ultimate pause is true. Sometimes the main interrogative is studied. Everything must clause is true, for example: in be explained, the purpose is to examine the conversation, both conversations know function of the interrogative. But the that today is cooler but this tag is not really following conversations will give us a a request for information, but an invitation good chance to see how the language items for a freshener to boast. may change different contexts because Example 2: their grammatical structure is the same the (Sue and Ellen are at a jazz concert. They next example should also be accepted as a surprisingly see that Tom is dating with tool that emphasizes the importance of the Janet.) context in the teaching of a foreign Sue: He is Tom, is he? language. Ellen: Yes, he is. Each question and answer can be the Eastwood argues about this tag: in this tag, starting point for discourse analysis. As the it asks the listener to agree that the recognized opinion, question and answer statement is true, and also suggests that the play an important role in building accurate speaker only learn, be aware and remind and functional communication in both the information. written and unwritten format. Therefore in this article, it is suggested for functional Example 3: analysis in the question and answer pattern (At the meeting room, Heutenant Gary from the discourse perspective will give a tries to express his ideas about the new better understanding of the functional electronic defense system, but the colonel interpretation of communication. orders.) 4. Functional analysis of examples Conversation. Colonel: Sit down, will you? Lieutenant Gary: No, i won't! Colonel does not ask this question to Analysis of Conversation between Andy expect confirmation or rejection of and Brian. Andy has some problems, but information, but is used as a command. she does not want to tell it to Brian, on the The Colonel also tried to give a message other hand, Brian insists on learning it and that if Lieutenant Gary was not sitting, asks the question. The purpose of asking something bad would happen. these question are: Example 4: ı. Make Andy talk. (The servant asks Mr. Robert for a drink at 2. Receive a confirmation or denial from breakfast.) Andy. Servant: Will you take coffee or tea for In this case Brian tries to guess the problem and express his thoughts by breakfast. sir? declaring a declarative question. As a Mr. Robert: I’ll have coffee with little result, he gets the information and answers in the end. sugar in it, please. The information which Mr .Robert Example 6: supply is one of the choices represented by (Two girls are waiting for their dad's the servant and it is asked to get the arrival at the train station.) necessary information from Mr. Robert. Andy: It's five o'clock. Example 5: Claire: What did you say? (Andy and Brian are in the office on a hot Andy: I said it was five o'clock. Monday morning.) Claire: I'm sorry, but I'm afraid I cannot Andy: Bah! What a day! hear you! Brian: Then you think the work is hard? Andy: that's five! Andy: No, I didn't mean that. Function: In this example, the message 'at Brian: So you admit something,! is five' is repeated several times for difficult? clarification of meaning. Andy: Oh, no . . .no. Example 7: Brian: Well. Weren't you satisfıed with the Birling: Well, when he comes back, you'll increase in your salary yesterday? probably suck it up. And you can promise Andy: Of course not. It was yesterday. that we '' try not to get out of trouble for You know that I came over that problem. the next few months. Brian: Yes, I know. Would you please start They both laughed. talking? What's the matter with you? ERIC entered Andy: Nothing, but the room. It's too hot Eric: What's the joke? Start telling stories? inside. Birling: No, Want another glass port? boutique.) Function: Sarcasm. Store owner: will you try this one? Example 8: Customer: Oh, no thanks. I want to buy Mrs. Birling (worried): Have you ever this one. been to her room? Shopkeeper: Sure. Birling: Yes. And I called the two Function: Request polite. landings. It must be Eric we hear out right Example 12: then and there. Taxi man: Can I drive you and women Mrs. Birling: Silly boy! Where can he anywhere, sir? also? (They begin to split) Birling: I cannot imagine it. But he liked Liza: Oh, Freddy, taxi. That very thing. the strange weird atmosphere, and though Freddy: But, shit, I have no money. we did not need him here Function: Permission. (Informal) / (Offer?) Functions: Search information, ask for Example 13: someone's place and satire. Beatrice: Ay, put it, William. What is the problem? Say that the cat eats it. Example 9: Ernest (undecided): should I? Pickering: Forgive the real question, Beatrice (elbow elbow): Ay, come on. Higgins. Are you character good in which Function: Suggestion. (Doubt?) women are noticed? (a) Example 14: Higgins (moodily): Have you ever met a Blackmore: Will you come with me? (A) man with a good character in which the Mrs. Holroyd (after a reluctant pause): woman is concerned? (b) Where? Blackmore: To Spain: I can have a Pickering: Yes: very often. job there, in a decent place. You can bring Function: children. (a) Sarcasm and confirmation. (Doubt?) (The figure of people who sleep soundly (b) Sarcasm and confirmation. restless they see it.) Example 10: Blackmore: will you? (b) (John is in a hurry and asks for a request.) Mrs. Holroyd: when will you go? John: Can I borrow a bicycle? Blackmore: Tomorrow, if you like. Jack: of course Function: Function: Request polite but informal. (a) the Offer. (Invitation?) Example 11: (b) Offers and Doubts. (Customers and shop owners speak at the Example 15: teaching, original material preparation, and Liza: Do my clothes include! For me or to improved communicative testing. Colonel Pickering? 5. Contributions of discourse Higgins (back in the room as if the analysis to language teaching. question is a climax of irregularity): 5.1. Emphasis on Language Teaching as What's the use of the devil against Communication Pickering? From the traditional point of view, the Liza: He might want them for the next girl purpose of teaching language as a you'll try. communication is to teach a formal Function: The question represents two perspective. It is also suggested that choices, and Higgins must provide a clear grammar can get learners to speak answer. It has an information retrieval accurately in the target languages. For function. example, the method of grammatical From the example above reflects that translation. The teacher usually gives ideas in are detailed explanations of the ins and outs necessary and understand the and hints used to focus on forms communicative value of all languages. In and words that are not flexible. But addition, it is also suggested that the indirect methods, the communicative value functional value of communication is of language begins to be more attention determined by various circumstances such than the form and grammar are taught as setting, speaker mood, listener, and inductively. The students usually never purpose. Only plays a key role in natural experience explicit grammatical rules. A verbal , but also in syllabus is based on a topic or situation. language classes. The functional approach Linguistic rules are used as a means of to language explanation is directed by communicating meaning in certain some question and answer patterns that situations. In the lingual Audio approach, make communication meaningful more linguistic structures are not considered to precise for purpose and accurate in class. be extinct from their usefulness. The cost The syllabus formation serves as the best is more naturally occurring in the context. starting point to emphasize the need for The main purpose of this method is To meaningful teaching. The syllabus is also Teach the language for communicative functional not only in terms of course and purposes. In addition, in the cognitive code interactive objectives, but also paves the approach as B Hamuddin says: grammar- way for student-centered language translation is a cognitive code assumption students must be trained accordingly. in conscious learning that everyone can Therefore, teachers must turn this principle achieve, that all arrangements can be into action by using a functional syllabus learned and that conscious knowledge in their language class. must be readily available. The cognitive 5.2 Using functional syllabus and its approach studies pharmaceutical language contributions to communicative teaching. acquisition of rules. As a result of the emergence of Applied It is possible to duplicate the above Discourse Analysis in Educational example. Because this method is primarily Linguistics, the need to use functional concerned with grammar, students can syllabus has emerged. About this learn the rules of grammar and when it Cunningsworth claim, "In the functional happens: To adapt this knowledge in syllabus, functions are selected and practice, they are 'difficult in manipulating ordered according to their usefulness to the language for communicative purposes. The leader, to what extent they meet the result, therefore, is the failure when communicative needs of leader ... Some of communicating. the advantages of the functional syllabus Toward the end of the 1970s, teachers are learning objectives can be identified in changed their direction to teach the terms that make sense to leaders itself. "As language as communication. Studies in Cunningsworth stated above, in the Discourse Analysis (text, context, original functional syllabus, functions are selected text, speech analysis function) and and sorted in such a way as to meet the pragmatics (speech acts, psycho needs of leaders. Here, a structure is used pragmatics, prerequisites, pragma as a tool for delivering messages linguistics) paved the way for such change accurately and effectively to the listener. to occur. It has become clear that leaders In this case, the goal of the teacher is to must have a form with a function to make the student aware of what use bodies provide accuracy and fluency in the target in real life situations. language. As Widdowson mentions, The application of the functional "Knowing language does not mean syllabus brings many advantages in understanding, speaking, reading and language teaching. Some of them are: writing sentences, it means knowing how a. The main purpose of the functional sentences are used to communicate syllabus is to encourage students to effectively." Since the goal is to accept the communicate in a foreign language. language of the communication tool, the Thus, student-centered language teaching can contribute to achieving testing, contrary to discrete point this goal. By reducing the teacher's testing, tries to take this into account dominance in the classroom, by testing the ability of students to student-centered language teaching appear in communicative situations, increases the level of student using various sources and participation in the classroom. In combinations of skills and abilities if this regard, it is important to note required. Again as Cunningsworth that teachers should give praise and mentions, communicative testing encouragement to the positive assesses larger and more complex aspects of the student's work. language pieces, using global tests b. The functional syllabus utilizes the (such as cloze and dictation, and Graduated Materials and gives relies on a more subjective students the opportunity to assessment of the tester assisted by experience natural language from the Deccan description checklist of various sources. The text of selected performance descriptions. again that newspapers, magazines, radio and the results of such applications in television programs gives students language testing rely on more an opportunity to read and hear the realistic data that paves the way for actual language. Thus, students further advancement in foreign become aware of functions such as language abilities of the learner. advertising, speech, apology, etc. At present, it is good to state that c. Functional language teaching also such tests and assessment allows communicative testing. As procedures receive many awards suggested by Bachman, "Language from teachers and students. Thus, Testing almost never happens in teachers are given the opportunity to isolation, it is done for a particular test the students' knowledge from purpose and in a specific context." different directions by utilizing four When students are given a test, their appropriate skills as per the knowledge of the subject area is objectives. tested. There can be no doubt that 6. Conclusion linguistic items (words, phrases, During the execution of this paper, it is sentences) can arrive at different hypothesized that every single utterance is meanings when used in different valid and has a function in the language contexts. Thus, communicative under certain circumstances because it is distinct dimensions in the language and produced for purposes if it is deemed there may be differences between inappropriate to the context. Thus, the functional interpretations and the same importance of focusing on the functional form in English. This factor must be interpretation of the language in the strongly considered while teaching English context of the teaching situation is the and to avoid problems is expected at a focus on emphasis. It is observed that the pragmatic level. Therefore, the emphasis same form can come to different meanings on teaching foreign languages is to in different contexts. communicate through the functional Thus, to avoid pragmatic difficulties in syllabus by leveraging the integration of language teaching, language discourse four language skills with the help of must be carefully studied by teachers and student-oriented classes, original texts and students. The study of form and function applying communicative testing principles should not be separated, but too much to teaching. Thus, the target language's structuralism should not overshadow discourse function should be clearly functional studies. Languages should not understood and taught to students to enable be used separately with their use. effective and smooth communication. This study proves the main emphasis of this paper: The form and function are two

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