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Asia and the Arctic Narratives, Perspectives and Policies Springer Geology Springer Geology Vijay Sakhuja Kapil Narula Editors Asia and the Arctic Narratives, Perspectives and Policies Springer Geology [email protected] The book series Springer Geology comprises a broad portfolio of scientific books, aiming at researchers, students, and everyone interested in geology. The series includes peer-reviewed monographs, edited volumes, textbooks, and conference proceedings. It covers the entire research area of geology including, but not limited to, economic geology, mineral resources, historical geology, quantitative geology, structural geology, geomorphology, paleontology, and sedimentology. More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/10172 [email protected] Vijay Sakhuja • Kapil Narula Editors Asia and the Arctic Narratives, Perspectives and Policies 123 [email protected] Editors Vijay Sakhuja Kapil Narula National Maritime Foundation National Maritime Foundation New Delhi, Delhi New Delhi, Delhi India India ISSN 2197-9545 ISSN 2197-9553 (electronic) Springer Geology ISBN 978-981-10-2058-2 ISBN 978-981-10-2059-9 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-2059-9 Library of Congress Control Number: 2016946626 © Springer Science+Business Media Singapore 2016 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. Printed on acid-free paper This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature The registered company is Springer Science+Business Media Singapore Pte Ltd. [email protected] Foreword 1 The name ‘Arctic’ is derived from the word ‘Arktos’, which in Greek means ‘bear’ and it is one of the defining characteristics of the Arctic. The Arctic region stretches over 14.5 million square kilometres and includes the northern territories of the Alaska (United States), Canada, Greenland (Denmark), Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Russia and the Arctic Ocean. Sea ice, permafrost, glaciers and ice sheets are the characteristics of Arctic’s physical terrain. It is a unique area among earth’s ecosystems and the flora and fauna in the Arctic is shaped and defined to varying degrees by the processes of freezing and thawing of ice, which gives the region a distinctive nature. The Arctic supports terrestrial, freshwater and marine ecosys- tems. Some two to four million people live in the Arctic today, which include Inuit, Saami, Yupik, Aleut, Chukchi, Nenets and others indigenous people who have adapted to the extreme conditions of the region over time. The region holds a significant amount of the planet’s freshwater in the form of polar ice caps, conti- nental ice sheets and glaciers and this ice plays a vital role in the global climate. Apart from the regulatory role in the earth’s climate and in shaping weather pat- terns, the region is important for preserving the genetic biodiversity of the planet and for supporting native people and societies. It is also important from the strategic perspective of different counties who have competing interests in the region. Changing Dynamics in the Arctic The Arctic region is currently going through a change which may well be irre- versible and is impacting the entire globe. This region is therefore emerging as a central arena for scientific research, geopolitics and commerce. The main driver of this change is global warming induced climate change which has resulted in the melting of ice in the region. Records show that the average temperatures in the Arctic region are rising twice as fast as they are elsewhere in the world and the Arctic sea ice extent is declining at the rate of 3.4 % per decade, relative to the 1981–2010 average. Scientific observations over the last decade and a half have conclusively established that there has been a thinning of the Arctic sea ice, melting of the Greenland ice sheet, and thawing of the permafrost. This change brings along with it various challenges and opportunities, each having its own inherent v [email protected] vi Foreword 1 dynamics. Melting ice has also led to the opening of new shipping routes for trade, has increased the feasibility of exploration for mineral resources and offshore extraction of oil and gas, has led to an increase in the fishing season and has opened up a host of tourism related commercial opportunities. Emerging Opportunities The insatiable need for energy and mineral resources is fueling strategic compe- tition among Arctic littorals for exploiting the resource-rich Arctic. This region, which is expected to contain up to 10–20 % of the world’s oil and nearly 30 % of the world’s unknown natural gas reserves, is therefore a rich repository of resources. Based on the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) in 2008, it is estimated that the “undiscovered, technically recoverable” reserves of hydrocarbons include 90 billion barrels of oil, 1670 trillion cubic feet of natural gas, and 44 billion barrels of natural gas liquids. Other potential sources of energy include huge quantities of methane hydrate deposits which are found on continental shelves in the Arctic. Apart from hydrocarbons, the Arctic has large mineral reserves, ranging from zinc, lead, nickel, coal and other precious metals such as gold, diamond and platinum. The Arctic seas contain some of the world’s oldest and richest commercial fishing grounds which have not yet been exploited. The relatively ice-free summers in the recent past in some parts of the Arctic have also attracted the interest of commercial shipping operators. The opening up of Northern Sea Route (NSR) and the North West Passage (NWP) is a boon for the shipping industry. While the NWP considerably shortens the distance for travel from Scandinavian countries to the west coast of the United States, the NSR has great strategic and commercial importance as it bypasses the choke points in the Indian Ocean. These routes also provide significant commercial opportunities to transport minerals and energy resources from the Arctic and to bring back finished products. Although these sea routes save fuel and time, they are currently niche trading routes as it is ice free only for few months in a year. The NSR has witnessed continued growth in traffic from 2009 to 2013, but this was followed by a steep downturn in 2014 and only 23 vessels undertook the full journey, as against 71 vessels in 2013. This might however be a temporary phenomenon and shipping through the Arctic may recover quickly to emerge as an economically viable alternative to traditional sea routes. Challenges Confronting the Arctic While there are significant opportunities, the Arctic also presents a host of chal- lenges which will need to be overcome in the near future. Key amongst these are resolution of overlapping claims and demarcation of EEZ boundaries, the threat of [email protected] Foreword 1 vii militarization, Arctic governance, protection of rights of indigenous people, envi- ronmental protection and securitization of the Arctic amongst others. Other chal- lenges include the harsh climatic conditions, infrastructure constraints, technology limitations, shortage of qualified personnel and an incomplete understanding of the environmental risks in the Arctic. Although the land boundaries between the Arctic countries are agreed upon, there are overlapping claims in the oceans. While some of the maritime boundary disputes have been resolved bilaterally, others are in the process of resolution with ‘equity’ being the guiding principle. However, beyond the 200 mile EEZ limit, five Arctic countries lay a claim to the seabed resources by attempting to prove that the seabed is an extension of their continental shelf. While Russia submitted its claim in 2001, Norway (2007), Canada (2013) and Denmark (2014) too have submitted claims for an extended continental shelf to the United Nations Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS). The issues of ‘Internal Waters’ and ‘Svalbard’ also contribute to the maritime disputes in the Arctic. While maritime disputes primarily flow from economic interests, they are being resolved in the spirit of cooperation and within an institutional framework under the 1982 UNCLOS. However, the strategic importance of the Arctic extends beyond resources into the security regime and therefore plays an important role in the region. Although the threat of militarization has significantly reduced after the end of the Cold War, each country continues to maintain military presence in the Arctic, in line with its threat perception, while significantly collaborating to enhance sta- bility through confidence-building measures. Institutions play a vital role in evolving mechanisms for governance. The Arctic Council, which was formed in 1996, is a high-level intergovernmental forum that addresses various issues and makes policy decisions in the Arctic. It currently has 8 full member countries, 12 permanent observers and 6 ad hoc observers. Canada is the current chair of the Arctic Council and has significantly consolidated the pro- cess of confidence building apart from demonstrating a leadership role in the protection of environment and support to the rights of the indigenous communities. It completes its term in May 2015 after which the United States is scheduled to take over the chairmanship of the Arctic Council.
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