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Neutron Stars Neutron Stars and their importance in the general scheme of physics J.R.Stone Oxford/Tennessee/Oak Ridge OUTLINE: I. Compact objects: white dwarfs, neutron stars and black holes Collapse of massive stars Pulsars II. Cooling of proto-neutron stars and formaon of microscopic make-up of the star. Possible exoc stars III. Theorecal models of neutron stars and their impact in the general context of physics. Type II supernovae core collapse: forms a neutron star or a black hole. A BIT OF HISTORY: 1931: Collapse of red giants and white dwarfs are known. White dwarfs (1910 – Henry Norris Russel, named 1922 Willem Luyten): When red giants consume all their accessible fuel, the cores of the stars shrink to a very hot very dense object – not a star in technical sense: Mass ~ 1 solar mass , radius ~ 7000 km Energy comes from gravitaonal contracSon Radiaon comes from emission of stored heat (not fusion reacSons) Example: Sirius B (Hubble image) Material Density in kg/m3 Notes Water (fresh) 1,000 At STP Osmium 22,610 Near room temperature The core of the Sun ~150,000 White dwarf star 1 × 109 Atomic nuclei 2.3 × 1017 Neutron star core 8.4 × 1016 − 1 × 1018 Black hole 2 × 1030 CriScal density of an Earth-mass black hole Final stage of stars which are not very massive (over 97% of stars of our Galaxy): I. Hydrogen-fusing (main-sequence star of low or medium mass below 9-10 solar masses) II. Helium fusing to carbon and oxygen red giant in the core by the triple alpha process III. If T too low to fuse carbon, C and O accumulate in the core, outer envelope is shedded to form planetary nebula (they return light elements back to interstellar medium) IV: White dwarf: carbon - oxygen oxygen-neon-magnesium helium V: White dwarf is supported from gravitaonal collapse by electron degeneracy pressure Electron degeneracy pressure (taken from astro.umd.edu): Pauli exclusion principle If we squeeze the box WORK PRESSURE With ever decreasing distance between electrons they have to travel with increasing speed dictated by Pauli principle, contribuSng to the pressure. When this pressure exceeds the pressure provided by thermal moSon of the electrons, the electrons are referred to as degenerate. Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar – White Dwarfs have maximum mass beyond which degeneracy pressure of electrons fails to support star against gravitaonal collapse Nobel laureate; 1910 – 1995 University of Chicago 1932: Chadwick discovers the neutron 1933: Baade and Zwicky postulate neutron star as end result of supernova (SN) explosion. SN releases: 1053-54 ergs compared with the mass-energy of iniGal star of ≈1054-55 erg Gravitaonal binding energy of an extremely compact object (Mass ≈ 1MSUN, R ≈ 10km) ~ 0.1-0.2 Gmes the mass-energy of its progenitor star. Neutrons can pack much more closely than nuclei + electrons Fritz Zwicky Walter Baade 1893 - 1960 1898 – 1974 German Swiss/Czech born in Bulgaria Goengen Caltech Neutron Stars and the Extremes of Physics “With all reserve we advance the view that super-novae represent the transiSon from ordinary stars into neutron stars, which in their final stages consist of closely packed neutrons.” - W.Baade and F.Zwicky, 1933 Classical neutron star composition in 1933 - neutrons only ! Beyond White Dwarf Masses: Amer Chandrasekhar’s mass is exceeded: -Gravitaonal collapse conSnues -Nucleon density is reached -If mass less then 2-3 solar masses: nucleon degeneracy pressure may hold the collapse all protons are converted to neutrons via electron capture (weak interacSon) and a neutron star is born with a radius about 500 Smes smaller than the white dwarf -If mass bigger than 2-3 solar masses – the collapse conSnues to a black hole White dwarfs and neutrons stars are the only possible stable configuraons between normal stars and black holes Gravitaonal collapse of a massive star: Progenitor: Nuclear fusion against gravity: Thermal runaway: Increase in T changes the condiSons in a way that causes a further increase in temperature leading to a destrucSve result. Gravitaonal collapse which starts when the H fuel is exhausted is temporarily halted by the igniSon of successive burning processes Involving heavier elements and increasing T and pressure. Each of the burning stages takes shorter Gme and leads to higher T A.Mezzacappa An.Rev.Nucl.Part.Sci 2005 Sequence of events aeer the nickel/iron core is reached (no more fusion possible) When the mass of the iron core exceeds Chandrasekhar limit: 1. Core starts to collapse under gravity – T and density increases Photo-disintegraon Neutronizaon ! + 56Fe " 13# + 4n Q=-124 MeV p+ + e! " n + # KineSc energy of electrons Electron fracSon Ye Neutrinos escape Pressure Pressure Collapse 2. Core collapse proceeds on the me scale of milliseconds inner core (homologous and subsonic) outer core (free-fall – supersonic) 3. Collapse slow compared to reacon rates approximate equilibrium and constant entropy S~1 and the Fe core remains ordered during the collapse 4. As T and density keep rising: neutrino interacSon are stronger and free mean path shorter - origin of neutrino trapping 5. Low entropy – lihle nuclear excitaGons increased density results in nuclei touching each other macro-single-nucleus is formed Pressure increases dramacally by the repulsive NN interacSon at short distances 6. As the transiSon to nuclear maer (with sSff equaon of state) progresses nucleon pressure starts to dominate lepton pressure 7. Rebound: dramac change in pressure makes the core incompressible; the in-falling layers crash into the core and rebound sending a reflected pressure wave outwards Pressure wave propagates outwards with the speed of sound – creates a shock wave BUT – THE SHOCK WAVE STALLES!!! Proto-neutron star – hot, fast rotating and magnetized! Simulation! Crab Nebula (constellation Taurus)! remnant of 1054 core-collapse SN! Composition of the star is created at this stage.! Models of Neutron Star composition in 2004! F. We b e r Prog.Part.Nucl.Phys. 54, 193 (2005)! Neutron Stars are ExoSc! • Of order 1 solar mass • 10km radius • Average density 1014-15g/cm3 • 1010 humans on Earth @ 50,000g each = 5×1014g • Compress them all into a sugar cube and we reach neutron star density! • g ≈ 1012 ms-2! • Neutron Stars are test bed for exoSc physics under extreme condiSons • A Brief Story of Observaon of Neutron Stars • Problem: - No energy generaon aer formaon - Small surface > rapid iniSal cooling and low opScal luminosity Can the theoreScal concept of neutron star to be idenSfied with the observaonal phenomena of pulsars? • 1967: • Hewish and Bell: • Pulsed radio emission from object way outside solar system - P = 1.337s: Must be compact object (WD or NS) - Period gradually increasing: rotaonal period rather than oscillaon period • 1968: • Crab and Vela pulsars - SN remnant associaon - Crab period 33ms: must be NS - From spin down rate, Crab pulsar energy loss ≈ 1038erg/s Susan Jocelyn Bell Burnell, DBE, FRS, FRAS (born 15 July 1943) Antony Hewish Dame Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the Bri(sh Empire (DBE) 1924 (age 87) Brish Cambridge Nobel price 1974 with MarGn Ryle • Crab nebula: remnant of 1054 SN - Radiang in opScal, radio, X-ray - energy input to nebula ≈ 1038erg/s - The center of the Crab Nebula shows ragged shreds of gas that are expanding away from the explosion site at over three million miles per hour The radiaon emission is observed in pulses The Crab is arguably the single most interesSng object, as well as one of the most studied, in all of astronomy. The image is the largest image ever taken with Hubble's WFPC2 workhorse camera. CHANDRA X-RAY OBSERVATORY At the center of the Crab Nebula is a city- sized, magneGzed neutron star that spins 30 Gmes a second, where ring-like structures emit x-rays as high-energy parcles slam into the nebular material Being relavely young, the Crab Pulsar was the first known example of a neutron star which was located at the site of an opcally visible object. The inner part of the ring surrounding the Crab Pulsar spans a light-year, hiding the neutron star l Approx. dipolar B field, axis offset from spin axis l RotaGon induces strong E quadrupole field, accelerates charged parScles off surface into 12 magneto-sphere Fel/Fgr ~ 10 l Conducon of material is strong along B lines, low perpendicular to them: parScles forced into co- rotaon l Light cylinder: v =RLω = c – parScles forced to cones above magneSc poles l Emission mechanism: probably curvature radiaon (radiaon of a charged parScle accelerated along a curved field line) l Coherent emission to explain high brightness of small eming region: bunches of parScles moving in the same direcSon and radiang in phase If the magneSc and rotaonal axes of the star are not aligned the bi-polar beam sweeps out two opposite areas of the skies observer at one of these areas – always sees pulses when the beam sweeps his line of sight Emits radiaon with almost every wavelength 2007 – new observaon of secondary pulses, possibly connected to FOUR magneSc poles as the secondary pulses are radically different from the primary ones Lovell telescope at Jordell bank in Cheshire, England At 76 meters in diameter this is the world's 3rd-largest fully-steerable telescope. Detects radio-signals from pulsars PSR B0329+54 PSR B0531+21 (CRAB) PSR B1937+21 • 1.4 rotaons / sec 30 rotaons /s 642 rotaons / s Pulsars irregularies: DetecSon of Sming irregulariSes in pulsed emission requires dedicated observaon of many pulsars to increase the possibility that irregular rotaonal behavior is found. Two types of ming irregularies in pulsar ming: "ming-noise" which is random phase wandering in pulses relave to the general slow-down model, "glitches" which are disconSnuous changes in the rotaon period, accompanied by quasi-exponenSal recoveries with Smescales of hours up to years.
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