Western Kentucky University TopSCHOLAR®

WKU Archives Records WKU Archives

1987 UA35/11 Student Honors Research Bulletin WKU Honors Program

Follow this and additional works at: http://digitalcommons.wku.edu/dlsc_ua_records Part of the American Literature Commons, Architecture Commons, Art and Design Commons, Business Law, Public Responsibility, and Ethics Commons, Climate Commons, English Language and Literature Commons, European History Commons, Fine Arts Commons, Gifted Education Commons, Higher Education Commons, and the Personality and Social Contexts Commons

Recommended Citation WKU Honors Program, "UA35/11 Student Honors Research Bulletin" (1987). WKU Archives Records. Paper 3204. http://digitalcommons.wku.edu/dlsc_ua_records/3204

This Book is brought to you for free and open access by TopSCHOLAR®. It has been accepted for inclusion in WKU Archives Records by an authorized administrator of TopSCHOLAR®. For more information, please contact [email protected]. ! .... I ' \ • i•

4 ...... ~ ___ • ___~ _ ... __...... ,.... ' • I t I WESTERN KENTUCKY UNIVERSITY STUDENT HONORS RESEARCH BULLETIN t 1986-87

, f • I I I

j,

, ,• WESTERN KENTUCKY UN IVEHSITY ST UDENT IiONORS HES EARCIi BU LLF:TlN 1986·87

The Western Ke ntucky Uni versity Student H III/flr.~ 1?1',~ f'(II'('h 8 uflel ill is dedicated to scholar ly involvement and student research. The ~;e papers arc representati ve of work done by students from throughout the university.

- PREFACE

As the Student Honors Bulletin continues its task of giving Western students an opportunity to publish their scholarly research and writing. it involves more and more sc hool s and departments. The 1986-87 edition bri ngs attention to work done in all four of Western's colleges and papers from eight departments. It is refreshing to know that even in the day of large lecture classes and com puter-graded examinations. professo rs are sti ll encouraging personal research and writing. It is probable that by exposing such work in th is form we can expect more such effort in the future. Professors and students are invited to submit papers by May 1, 1987 for the 1987·88 cd ition oCthe Bulletin. Papers may be of any length, on any subject. and written in accord with any of the accepted standard forms.

James T. Baker. Director University Honors Program TABLE OF CONTENTS

"Simms's Frontier Characters," by Joa n Flom presented to Walker Rutledge, English 499H.

10 "Weather Stations in the Andes: A Case Study in Mountain Climatolgy," by Joseph Schneri1!yer III presented to Michnel Trapasso. Geogr aphy 422.

12 "Recent Developments in Products Liability," by Kim Cnl.~e presented to Eugene Evans. Management 570.

15 "I s Crcativi ty Teachable?" /IY Jewel Jacksoli presented to Dorine Geeslin, Teacher Education 503.

18 "Classicism in Wester n Sculpture and Ar'chitecture," b!J Michael Pati!Jell presented to Joseph Gluhman. Art 106 H. and Janel Schwllrzkopf. English I02 H.

21 "Carson McCullers: Three Characters and her !I.'1ain Theme in Relation to her Life," IIY Nol/cul ShoJi presented to Charles Guthrie, English 102.

24 " Right-to-Work Laws,"' by Dollg FOI'd, DO I'id Gmlj and Nick Noum01/ presented to Robert Reber, Management 311.

28 "James I as King Lear," by D Olia L O{Jsdoll presented to Joe Glaser. English 381

3 1 "Personality Determinants: Research Resul ts and i mplications for Inter vention,"II!J Terrell Coble presented to Louella Fang, Home Economics and Family Living 577

35 "Through Pontormo's Eyes." by M ichael Cm!! presented to Pail'icia Trutty-Coohill. Art 401.

45 "Operating Under the Fail' Debt Collection Practices Act. b!J Jelill If a Womeldod presented to Eugene Evans. Management 300.

48 "A Glance at Phenomenology and Its Approach to Literary Criticism," by C(l l"ole 8(11))1 presented to Will Fridy, English 560. SIMMS'S FRONTIER CHARACTERS

Joan Flora

Nineteenth-century historical romancer Willi am Gilmorc too stiff and mechanical to carry either the reader's interest Simms (1806- 1870) is perhaps forever destined to fall short or sympathy. The lofty and pretentious dialogue which in the inevitable comparisons with the acknowledged master Simms wrote for them does nothi ng to mitigate this fa ult. of fro ntier fiction, James Fenimore Cooper. Since both men Simms's other literary model, James Fenimore Cooper," dealt wit h the now-familiar themes o f early American did not provide an adequate high-born hero with a common literature-men of heroic proportions pitted against a hostile to uch fo r Simms to emulate. Altho ugh the true protagonist na tive population in an unfriendly environment, events of of the " Leatherstocking Tales" is Natty Bumppo (under his national sig nificance enacted in microcosm in the wilderness various sobriquets), Si mms saw fit, apparently, to copy sett ing, and stories of pure, eternal love- comparison comes merely what were Cooper's secondary (and much less easily to literary critics. Unfortunately, much of this criticism int eresti ng) " gentlemenly" characters. Such characters is based on incomplete knowledge of Simms and hi s work . invaribly remi nd the reader o f certain "rules" wh ich, Tradition, it seems has d ictated a lack of publication of his according to Twain's " Fenimo re Cooper's Literary many novels and a disdain of the few in print. This is not Offenses," were violated fl agrantly by Cooper. Among only a disservice to a fine wri ter but also a disservice to the T wain's rules which apply very well to both Cooper and modern reader and cri tic. Much o f what Simms wrote is o f Simms are those pertaining to dialogue and depict ion of literary value, is, in fact, equal to the works of Cooper. characters: Although Simms wrote poetry, histories, literary cri ticism, and editorials fo r The Tablet or Southern Monthly Literary 5. [The rules) require that when the personages of Gazelle and , later, for The City Gazelle (which he also co­ a tale deal in conversation, the talk shall sound like published), ' it is with hi s historical romances that today's human talk , and be talk such as human beings would reader and crit ic is most concerned. Simms's novels prove be likely to talk in (he given circumstances, and have to be equally as fasci nating and rewarding as those of a discoverable meaning, also a discoverable purpose, Cooper. One aspect (amo ng several) o f Simm's romances and a sho w o f relevancy, and remain in the especiall y worthy of critical examination is his depiction of neighborhood of the subject at hand , and be the front ier character in its many manifestations. Colorful interesting to the reader, and help out the tale, and and diverse, his characters make long, dry histo rical passages stop when the people cannot think of anything more or cont rived eleventh-hour rescues palatable. Among the to say .•• , characte r types represented in Sim ms's novels are the expected- heroic office rs, nasty villains, naive heroines, and Or " Rule Number 10" : almost every other type fo und in Gothic li terature- but also the unexpected - heroes who do not fi t into the Gothic mold, 10. They require that the author shall make the ladies who are as brave and intelligent as their men, and pro­ reader feel a deep int erest in the personages of his tale tago nists who are not necessarily high-born white men. and in their fate; and that he shall make the reader Perusal o f just a few of the novels in Simms's two great love the good people in the tale and hate the bad ones . American history series, the "Colo nial Romances" and the But the reader o f the DeeTSlayer tale dislikes the good " Border Romances," reveals ma ny quite distinct and people in ii, is indifferent to the others, and wishes memorable characters. The same can be said fo r the shorter they would all get drowned together.) works coll ected in Wigwam and the Cabin (1845), whieh Contains many stories of su rprising depth and character While Twain we nt slightly overboard in his essay for satiric development . effect , he is, unfortunately, not fa r fro m the truth. Simms, Simms's heroes may be the least interest ing character in emulating Cooper, carried weaknesses as well as strengths. group in all his fi ction. Simms frankly fo llowed the ways According to Holman, this time in an article entitled "The

of the writer C. Hugh Holman called " the Scotch master ,"I Influence of Scoll and Cooper o n Simms," I I ••• Simms's Sir Walter Scott . As Holman stated in his Introduction to greatest weaknesses are in those places where he is least like Simms's Views and Reviews In American Literature. History Cooper [emphasis mjne). Had he imitated the Northern and FiCtion , "Sir Walter Scott was for Simms ... a master novelist in shift ing interest away from the aristocratic lovers and a menlor . . . [He] echoes Scott 's formulas and strictures to more robust central figures, the individual books would a~in and agai n . ... ") Unfortunately, this severely limited have had far greater unity and interest."· Again, Holman t he de pth and dimensions of his single most important is correct in hi s assessment, and an examination of several [ '.' '", ,., '". ,""". ~•. ",',,"' '"- o f Simm's heroes undoubtedly supports this. The hero of Simms's best-known work, one pari of the the prose which could unite the elements is usually lackina. "Colonial Romances" series, readil y fa lls into the Gothic­ Simms at his best excels, as in Chapter XX, which CO uld hero pattern described above. Charles Craven (or "Gabriel be called " Bess Meets a Rattlesnake." but even th;s ella,'t" Harrison" as he is known throughout most of the book) is memorable not so much for character or action as of The Yemassee (1 835) was historically the Governor of Simms's near-prophetic tone and surprisingly effective South Carolina du ri ng an Indian revoh, " The Yemassee imagery. War," during the first decade of the eighteenth century.' One other poi nt must be made about Gabriel Harrison Craven is perhaps the perfect aristocratic hero, but he is also in particular and Simms's heroes in general. As mentioned the weak central figure in a powerful story. Craven walks above, Simms's characters-his heroes-speak in a rather through the novel, appearing in the right places. disappear­ stilted fas hion when under the influence of deep emotion. ing fo r tete-a-tetes with the insipid heroine , and generall y Such words as "thou," "wilt ," " thee," and "hast" and annoying the reader with his lofty dialogue and painfull y awkward phrases and phrasing creep into the hero's dialogue stal warl demeanor. Simms's description alone is enough to and distract the reader. Surprisingly, deep emotion does not warn the reader of the character which will emerge: "The come across during the love scenes, and, therefore, few stranger was about thirly years old , with a rich European "thees" and "thous" are present. complexion. a light blue eye, and feat ures moulded finely, This is especially true of the first vol ume of Simms's so as to combine manliness with as much of beauty as might "Border Romance" series, The Partisan (1835). The title we ll co mport with il.'" It is Craven's manner, however, character in this American Revolutionary War saga is Ma­ which forever dispells the possibility of empathy between jor Robert Singleton, a man who never becomes the least reader and character. A typical exchange might be the bit stilted in the presence of his love . He does, however, turn following in which Craven, or Harrison, meets an adver­ to the lofty phrase when under the influence of the emo­ sary in single combat: tion which has the greatest power to move him-patriotism. Needless to say, he has many opportunities to fa ll under the Harrison grappled his assailant, and Slruggled with innuence of this emotion throughout this heavy historical powerful limbs, in his embrace. crying out, as he did melodrama. so: Singleton fits perfec tl y into the prescribed mold. By "Ha! why is this? Who art thou? Would'st thou Simms's description, he is " ... a tall well-made youth, pro­ mu rder me, ruffian?" bably twenty- four or five years of age ... ," with a "per­ "Ay! murder is the word! Murder! I would have son" that is "symmetry itsel f .... " He is perhaps not quite thy blood. I wou ld drink it! " as good-looking as Harrison since his face, although Such was the answer of the madman, and the knife "significant of a character of command, besides being finely nashed in his grasp. inlelligent" is only "tolerably handsome."'· He also " Horrible! but thou wi lt fight for it, murderer ," was possesses the weaknesses of character described above with the reply of Harrison; while, struggling with prodigious the addition of a poss ibly more-damning flaw, effort, though at great disadvantage from the closely bewilderment. pressing form of Grayson. whose knee was upon his Un like Harrison, who is always in command of himself breast, he strove with one hand, at the same moment (by both his rank and the flo.w of th e plot), Singleton seems to free his own knife from its place in his bosom, while to initiate litt le action (outside of retaliat ion during aiming to ward off with the other hand the stroke of swampland skirm ishes with the British). He is an extraor­ his enemy. dinarily passive character who controls his men through "Thou hast erred, st ranger. I am not he thou some fo rm of inner strength which is described by Si mms seckest." but never truly demonstrated. Passages such as the fo llow­ "Thou ]jest," was the gri m response of Grayson.' ing serve only to emphasize this flaw: " ... the fo rm of the stranger was elevated dul y as he spoke, and his eye was Reasoning fails wit h the "madman," and it is only a sud­ lighted up with scornful fi res " " den and un likely change in the assailanl 's mood which saves While bOlh Harrison and Singiewn are lacking in the Harrison's li fe. The above scene illustrates several impor­ qualities which would make them compelling tant points about Simms's style and characterization. In the characters, there can be no doubts about their qu"hr."t;o,' first place, Simms's heroes tend to speak in a pseudo­ asJronriercharacters. Each man exh ibits the requisite Shakespearean manner during periods of great stress or emo­ to survive and subdue the wilderness; courage, a cool h~ tion (a point taken up at greater length below). In the se­ in the midst of chaos. knowledge of guerrilla warfare, cond place, it is obvious that the phrase "eleventh-hour fi rst-hand knowledge of thei r respect ive environments rescue" could ha ve been coined just for Simms. His heroes all a part of their make-ups. None of these qualities has sometimes fight their way out of situations, but quite fre­ power. unfortunately, to fuse with their personalities quently they are miraculously saved. A third, less-obvious create a unique and memorable character. point concerns Simms's action seq uences. On the whole, These criticisms do not apply to the hero of a later they are nOI action-filled . The clements are present which. of the "Border Romance" series. In Colonel Clarence could summon up vivid images in the reader's mind, but way of The Scout (1854), Simms has an almost

l gonisl and an engrossing frontier character. Conway he excels in his knowledge of the environment and his fresh ~rO(~(her leader in the Carolina resistance movement dur­ "New World" approach to life. Clarence Conway is, then, ~s an (he Revolution, but he is a multi-dimensional Simms's most memorable aristocratic hero. c"h',acter , - far superior to H. arrison and Singleton. This hero No discussion of this author's characters would be com­ . capable o f strong emotIOns: loyalty, love, and hate arc plete, though, without the inclusion of the unique Porgy. ISngendCred and exposed by situations wh ich threaten to Whether a lieutenant and admittedly minor player in The ~eSlrOY both his career and his sanilY· Partisan or a captain and the central fi gure in Woodcraft ( Certain reliable plot devices are effectively used by Simms (1856), Porgy is always a commanding presence and a truly in order to bring out Ihese multiple emotions. The plot, a distinct frontier character. J. V. Ridgely, writing about The familiar one, is thai of two diametrically-opposed brothers Partisan in hi s biography of Simms, made some revealing _ on opposite sides in love and war. The si tuations which comments about the man sometimes known as "The arise because of this simple premise are those which allow­ American Falstaff" '): ed Simms [0 expand and incorporate all clements of Clarence's personality. The mixture of wilderness and the Somewhere in between Singleton and his men stands faint beginnings of civilization al so contribute to his tur­ the character who has been cited as Simms's most bulent character. striking individual creation, Lieutenam Porgy. The major clement of that character which separates ···Since he is a fabu lous but epicurean eater, a lover Clarence from Simms's other heroes is developed early in of conviviality, a spinner of verbal fancies, and is gross the novel. Clarence has serious doubts about the loyalty and of body (though not in mind), he has reminded near­ morality of hi s ha lf-brother, Edward, who is rumored to ly every reader of Shakespeare's Falstaff. But the be an associate of the Tories. These doubts are fa r mOTe resemblance is only a superficial one, and insistence serious than any ever experienced by Harrison or Singleton. upon it only obscures Simms's basic intention in They carry the potent ial to destroy both men and perhaps creating him. " hinder the cause of freedom. Clarence must continually fight to dispel! the "cloud of anxiet y"'l which surrounds his rela­ What was Simms's intention in creating Porgy, a man he tionship with his brother; these doubts, plus the unease described in Woodcraft as a "soldier, not less than a bon generated by the times in which they live, provide the basis vivant and gen tl eman"?" Did he merely make use of Porgy for much of the inner conflic!. as a central figure for the pro-slavery Woodcraft? Was he In a surprisingly astute move, Simms made Clarence less using Porgy to point o ut to his Northern readers Ihat jovial settled and assured than most of his other heroes. H is youth Southern gentlemen can be hard and determined and immaturity create feelings which the confident and staid underneath? Was Porgy just an amusing change-of-pace heroes mentioned earlier would not experience. One of these character for a writer perhaps bored with stuffy, establish­ feelings is jealousy-over any possible rival's int erest in the ed heroes? The answer to all of these questions is a qualified beautiful and patriotic Flora Middleton. Whenever her name yes. These do not represent the on ly or most important is mentioned, Clarence becomes agitated and rash in his reasons for the invention of such a character. One much words and actions. During a scene in which he has been cap­ more significant reason for the creation of Porgy is that, tured by the "Black Riders," a notoriously malicious group considering the dozens of major characters he created, not of Tories, Clarence becomes incensed when Edward (mas­ one more fully represents or is more truly comparable to querading as a fe llow captive in order to preserve his Simms himself. anon ymi ty) casuall y mentions Flora. " 'You have named Throughout Woodcraft, Simms tried to convince the Flora fvliddleton. Edward Conway. With me that name is reader that Porgy was not another hero who, because of sacred. l owe it to my own feelings, as well as to her worth, looks and abilities, must be admired, but rather a man who that it should not be spoken with irreverence.' " " Such out­ has actually earned the right. Appearances, he emphasiz­ bursts, while contributing to Clarence's appeal as a sym­ ed, do not always tell the true story. Porgy, according to pathetic character, also allow him !O be manipulated by the Simms, had a mouth "rather feminine and soft" and yet cunning Edward. his chin was "well defined and masculine." )O JUSt by this Simms apparently wished to represent more than fron­ brief description of Porgy's face, the reader is made aware tier types with his portraits of Clarence and Edward; he of the inherent contradictions of the soldier's appearance Wished them to be seen as personifications of Good and Evil . and nature. Quite similar conflicts of appearance and nalUre The irony innate in this analogy comes from the over­ can be found within the context of Simms's writings. At the POwering resemblance between the two men, a resemblance time they were written, few recogni zed the deep political , ",:hich, according to Simms, only serves to "illustrate the statements which ran through the works. They ignored the Vllal differences in the two characters ... .'''. implications of a writer turning from nationalism to "in­ ( The combination of youthful nature, position of authority tense sectionalism" over a period of years and over a series t~Urprisingly that of Colonel), his relationship to the vi llain, of novels.) ' This was not wise, for in Simms's gradual nar­ ...t love triangle, and the rather cosmic importance allach­ rowing of interests, one could discover the trend of the mid­ "lto h' ...... h' IS Struggles make him the perfect hero for The Scout, century South. 11 Its plot of betrayal and revenge . As a frontier character, Many more aspects of Porgy's character reveal links to

J b Simms. In the first place, Porgy is, as Ridgely noted, an who stand in direct opposit ion to the heroes: the . aristocrat who is careless of his breeding and birth; he never This might be the logical course, but it is cert ai nly not acts in a rough or uncouth man ner, but nei ther docs he wisest. Si mms's vi llai ns are more int eresti ng than his forever maintain drawing-room manners. To quote Ridge­ only in that they are allowed to say and do things ly, " Porgy is an unusual type in the Simms canon: he is the the heroes cannot. Often they are just caricature relaxed aristocrat, the gentleman who, because of personal found in any nineteent h-century melodrama. There inclination, has chosen to place himself just below the more some, such as Edward Conway. who are fu ll y developed sober-minded leaders. "11 This is something which Simms, multi-dimensional characters, but most remain locked int~ " not by birth a member of the Charleston merchant-planter the nat pages of the novels. One villai nous character does society" (as Brooks and others phrased it)," would have deserve men tion, though, because of the fact that he is SO given anything to have been able to do. Many critics cite much a part of the wilderness and is just plain weird . " Gog_ his lack of family connections and the infe riority generated gle" Blonay is a vi le, disgusting creature, what Ridgely refer_ by th is as a factor in Simms's immense producti vity. In the red to as an example of Simms's "continuing bondage to second place, Porgy excels at soldiering and conversation­ earlier Goth ic fi ct ion, his old delight in the bizarre and two fa vo ri te occupat ions-but can not succeed at his peace· melodramatic. " 11 With hi s strange, protruding eye and his time occupation, being a plantation owner. Simms, too, was abi lit y to disappear int o the muck, Goggle is ce rtainly most good at what he loved doing but was a failure in the role bizarre . He serves a useful purpose in The Parrisan in spite give n to him by the society he married int o: running a pro­ of the deliberately freaky nature of his character: he fitable plantation . Clemont Eaton, in his Growth of represents all the malevolent undercurrents of the swamp. Southern Civilization, 1790·1860, quoted a lett er written by He is lik e the snak es th at slip in and o ut of the mire; he is one of Si mms's frie nd s to the novelist in 1857: " ' I don't dark and unkempt like the moss-covered trees; his nature know whether it is the lands, negroes, or management, or is like the stunted undergrowth which has seen nothing all combined but certainly your planti ng for many years has beyond the gloomy twilight of even the brightest mid-day been all - pardon the word- a farce.' .. " Porgy simply turns in the swamp. The swamp. as Goggle serves constantly to over the management of the plantation to his ex-sergeant, remind the reader, may provide protcction for the Partisans a man named Millhouse, who takes complete control of the from the British, but it also has its unhealthy aspects which place. In answe r to a question from Porgy concerning some can warp the men even while it shelters them. detail or other, Mill house refu sed comment-or consulta­ Si mms had uniq ue ways of deali ng wit h what is perhaps tion:" ' Don't you mind, cappin. I'm overseer, ain't I? ' " 11 the favorite frontier character. the American Indian. Simms Si mms, with no Millhouse, presumably kept writing to depicted him best in his "natural" environment, free from finance the aili ng Woodlands. Finally, Porgy and Simms the innuence of whites. To him, Indians were intelligent, arc alike in their treatment of thei r slaves. Eaton called compassionate human beings who simply had a less-civilized Sim ms " a kind and in dulgent master" who allowed each cultu re than the whites. Unfortunately for the Indians, Negro to have his own garden and even provided him with Simms's phi losophy also dictated that since their culture was entertainment! Porgy's treatment of his slaves is evidenced in fe ri or, it had to give way before that of the whites. by their reactions upon his return from the war: " Their Simms's philosophy was outlined in the story "Oakati bbe, fam iliar features, and affectionate assurances of love touch­ or the Choctaw Sampson." Just one of many stories of ed the soul of . . . the soldier . . .. " 17 These are only a few interest in Wigwam and the Cabin (1845), "Oakatibbe" is of the ways in which th e two arc al ike and only a few of a compelli ng and eloquent story of honor and understand­ the reasons why Si mms wrote about such a man and devoted ing. Simm s genuinely tried to be enlightening with a com· an entire novel to a definitio n of his charact er. passionate view of Indians rarely seen in the fi rst half of An overview of Si mms's heroes demonst rates several im· the nineteenth century, and he created an extraordinarily portant conclusions about both the writer and his front ier sympathetic ti tle character. The tall, handsome, strong, cha racters. Most importantl y, it is apparent that when young, noble Oakatibbe ("Slim Sampson" to the whites) Sim ms bowed to the pressures of pleasing an audience with eloquently embodies the debate which occurs throughout the conventional characters, he created heroes that were too stiff story between one Colonel Harris and a stranger who is and lofty to inspire sympathy or empathy. When he chose visiti ng his plantation. The stranger comments upon Har­ to ignore these con-.oen lional patterns, as in the case of ris's usc of Indians to supplement his black slaves in the Col­ Porgy. the results are often surprisingly original and ton fields; he does nOI bel ieve thai Ihe Indians will work memorable. Also it must be apparent that Simms's heroes fo r very long since they squander their pay on alcohol­ are not tied to the frontier. Men like Harrison and Singleton mak ing them unfit for work- or have their pay taken fronl fit into any action setting- not just a front ier seHlement. them by husbands, fat hers, or brothers. The Colond They do lillie to civilize the environment; they merely create disagrees. and the debate over the Indians' civilization en· the correct atmosphere for civ ilization, which is, admilled­ sues . Three lines of thought emerge: the Indians could be Iy, no slight accomplishment. For the mosl pan, however considered as red slaves; they could be assimilated by the the heroes Simms created are never as memorable or endur­ white culture, or they co uld be allowed to maintain I ing as his oth er characters. separate, yet equal, culture. It might be logical at this point to turn to those characters

4 ks

5 D story is Simms's objection to the designation of "good" and me was true, and now I suspicious (sic] every smooth "bad" Indians. Simms implied that some Indians just get speaker I meet, as if he wor [were) no better than a along better than others with whi tes, and the same applies snake in the grass. " in reve rse; there are "good" and "bad" Indians just as there are "good" and "bad" whites. Jack points out on the same page that one of the reasons These, then, are rine examples of Si mms's Indian for hi s dist rust of Edward is that they" ' hav'n't fou't characters. With a few exceptions, all of his Indians are together, and bled together, .. and sta rved together .• depicted as human beings and not just savages or children. . .' " Jack bases his opinions on experience rather than On As John Erskine said it. " More heroic, certainly, are hearsay. Cooper's red men ... but Simms endows his warriors with Simms had nothing but praise for his best of scouts, at a nat ural hum anity that has its own charm . "). times referring to his "virtuous erectness " of bearing. A full After Indian characters, Simms seco nd-most popular description of Jack is given early in the novel. frontier creations must be his faithful lieutenants. Where would the hero be without his "right-hand man" or his This was a man of middle size, stout. well. made, intrepid scout? Simms only problem with this group comes coarse in feature. strong of limb, acti ve of movement , from their high quality; some arc so good that they apparently without the refining innuences of society overshadow his weak heroes. For the most part, they arc and education, and evidently from the lower orders an act ive, Quick-thinking group of men who are the true of the people. Let not this phrase, however, be tamers of the wilderness. understood to signify anything base or unbecoming. n The Partisan conta ins the two best exam ples of the fait hful lieutenant: bot h characters are still in developmental The character of Jack Bannister is juxtaposed wi th that stages as they are introduced in this work: both become full ­ of another, less-savory scout, Watson Gray. Gray is rash nedged characters in later works. The first of these to be and cruel; Jack is thoughtful and caring. When Jack discussed is "Supple" Jack Bannister, a man wise to the accidentally kills his former childhood sweetheart, who is ways of the wilderness and an extremely astute judge of the dressed as a "Black Rider," Gray merely says, " 'Do not ways of men. Bannister is worthy of note for several reasons. let it afflict you so much. It can't be hel ped, and these things First. his story forms the most important secondary plot in are common enough.' •• Jt The " Black Riders" need the skills The Seoul. The reader might speculate that the excellence of Gray to counterbalance those of Jack. Simms provided of th is character and his populari ty persuaded Simms to this nasty in order to maintain the perfect balance established change the tit le of this work from it s original name, The by the similarities of Clarence and Edward. In the process, Kinsmen. Second, Bannister is anything but a stoic observer he created an almost-legendary frontier character who could of the act ions which take place, and hi s emotions are both "swim like an otter" and who wa s a "sturdy counce llor," simple and deep. Third, he could easily be compared to a "worthy scout ," and a backwoods phi losopher.·· Cooper's Natty Bumppo on the basis of his frontier The other example of faithful lieutenant mentioned above knowledge and the depth of his character. is fou nd first in The Partisan and later in Woodcraft. In Jack Bannister is an int riguing figu re. He is a man of The Partisan, Lance Frampton undergoes hi s test of remarkably high standards who docs things which he manhood and becomes a devoted fo llower of Robert disapproves of beca use of duty and affection for hi s Si ngleton. In Woodcrafr. he is a pleasant, if a bit subdued, commander, Clarence Conway . Since they were childhood lieutenant of Captain Porgy. playmates (althought of different stations in life), Bannister Lance Frampton is at his most in teresting while takes the liberty of ca lling Clarence by his given name and undergoi ng his coming-of-age test. This test of matu rity is giving him sage advice when they are alone. Bannister knows detailed in chapters thirteen through sixteen of Volume Two. exactly what kind of man Edward Conway is long before These chapters are well-written and believable, surpri singly Clarence ever allows himself to see the evil in hi s brot her. free from an excess of the lofty dialogue th at Simms When Edward tries to silence Jack with his unct uous generally placed in the mouth of Robert Singleton, a manner, the perceptive scout will have none of it. This prominent innuence in the development of the you th and, passage illustrates both Jack's plain speaking and his general therefore , a prominent player in this part of the drama. philosophy. In the passages that deal with the boy's emotions and the Major's responses, Simms actually rings true, offering the Ti mes change and we change, and it 's on natural reader sentiment wi thout sentimentality. The development (unnatural) to expect to keep the same face in all occurs naturally over the course of the rebels' att ack on a weathers. I know there's a mighty great change in me, Tory hanging party. Recently, Lan ce has been experiencing and I'm thinking there's the same SOrt of change going increased desires to be a real part of the troop. on his own on in a'most (almost) everybod y. I used to be a quiet merit, and not because he has no where else to go (his mother peaceable son of person, that wouldn't hurt a kitten; is dead, his father is mad, and his elder brother has no time and now I' m wolfish more than once a week, and for him). He longs to do a man's part of the fi ght ing even mighty apt to do mischief when I feel so. I used to though he is just sixteen . Most of this longing comes fro m believe that whatever a pair of smooth lips said to observation of Singleton, who has become both father and

6 (he poor yo uth." ' How I wish I was like him!' said the two men profiled above. olO per 10 himself .... 'If I was only sure that I could fight The final group of Simms's frontier characters to be the bOh.mY and not feel afraid. when the lime comes!' ... , At examined contains some of his best portraits, and it is, ['I::e L , 1 Singleton misinterprets the boy's nervousness as fear assuredly. his most diverse set of characters. Nearl y every firsl;" coming co mbat. He orders him 10 the rear with a type of front ier woman can be found in Simms's works: the I of ~fness that only just disguises his disappointment, for strong-willed patriot and the sheltered plantation miss, the gru great hopes for the promising boy. Lance does no! had lower-class pioneer wife and the frail. doomed beauty, the ( ~:aIlY knoW how 10 ex p~e ss his f~ar~; but he fina ll y ~et s i ~ " fallen" woman and the typical squaw, the saucy bar-maid OU[:" 'Oh, sir, I'm afraid I shan I fIght as I want to fight. and the stereotypical black "mammy." Simms's heroes may .. ., Singleton then understands the true state of Lance's lack the personality of the certain spark of humanity which feelings and assures him that he will be able to kill when makes them believable, but his heroines always strike the the lime comes. They work out a system whereby Lance will reader with their vitality. His heroines, in fact all his fe male fire when Singleton gives the command and that Lance's characters. consistently prove to be lively, well-w ri tten shot will be the one to lead off the volley-the first shot characters that work within their settings. Simms seems to and of great importance. All goes according to plan, and have developed fully whichever female character he was Lance acquit s himself admirably. working with prior to the actual writi ng. He did not develop them as he went along. It is as if he saw Emily Singleton " Ha, boy!" said Singleton; "you have dOlle well­ in his mind, knew her every dimension, then put it down yOU have behaved like a man." on paper. The reader may not be overly fond of lhi ~ purely "Oh, si r, tell me," cried the boy, " ... can this be ni neteenth-century, overly-senti mental character, but he the bullet hole from my fine?" must admit that she is perfect in every detail. "It is; ... your bullet was in the right time." Simms worked exceptionall y we ll with his patriot heroines '····But I feel so strange!" of the " Border Romance" series. Flora Middleton of The " How, boy?" SeoUl may take a while to make a decision but her sentiments " I have killed a man: what would my poor mother "she dedared wi th eq ual modesty and firmness, whenever say , if she was alive and knew it"" their expression became necessary; and, keen as might be "Go, go, boy, you have done well; you have shot her sarcasm, it bore wi th it its own antidote, in the quiet,

him in a good cause , and have saved innocent life subdued, ladylike to ne in which it was uttered .... " H besides. " You could not have done better-but don't Simms described her as "one of those youthfu l beauties of think of it." Carolina, whose wit, whose sentiment, pride and patriotism " I can' t help thinking of it, sir ," said the boy .... " (werel acknowledged equally by friend and foe .... "" Flora Middleton is outdone, however, by the heroine of It is now Singleton's turn to fee l insecure, to wonder whether The Partisan, Katherine Walton. Simms liked her so we ll he has done the right thing by the boy, as he recalls his dying that hc named one vol ume of the series after her. This lady sister's words: " He thought of Emily. of her prayer for has everything that Flo ra has, plus the ability to hold off peace, her denundation and her dread of war ... the the advances of a British officer wh ile still saving her father's thought that she might be a silent watcher from the plantation from destruction. Kate Walton is nO! another heavens, was enough to persuade him to an effort to quiet Bess Matthews, dropping into a faint on the slightest pretext. the fierce spirit at work within the bosom of the boy ..... Kate does nOI wilt in the face of danger, possessi ng (in Lance's spirit cannot be quelled, si nce he has seen the same Simms's words) many "manly" characteristics: she is forces at work in the fa ce and heart of Singleton during the compassionate, loyal, fierce, and efficient. She can be heat of batt le. Singleton tries to caution Lance against liking sarcastic as well-even with Robert Singleton! Whcn Robert to kill. He tells the youth that it is a repulsive, yet necessary, tries to make passionate love to her, for instance (using the side-effect o f the fi ght for freedom, but he must not grow old argument about neeting youth in time of war), "[slhe to enjoy it - .. , ... remember, boy, war is not a sport, but SlO pped him with a cool, sarcastic speech, concluding Ihe a duty, and we should not love it.' "'1 Lance is not lTuly sentence for him in a manner most annoying-'Drop a tear convinced and neither is the reader, for what is honor for me when I am dead.' "., Kate refuses to compromise without opposition and oppositio n wi thout con met? her love of the cause for her love o f Robert. Kate remains The chapters do represent one o f the tightest and swiftest defiant to Colonel Proctor, the British army officer who sequences of eve nls in The Partisan, and the change from wishes to court her, even though the WaJtoos, as mentioned boy to man is most interesting to behold. Boys become men above, are allowed to remain unmolested because of the quickly in primitive circumstances, and Simms captured colonel's innuence. Proctor has for many weeks tried to many o f the feelings and images o f such a transition period. persuade Wahon to join a British regiment; he actually h is fascinating for the reader to watch the actual creation presents him with a commission. When Walton refuses to of a devoted follower and worthy man. accept, Proctor is slightly affronted and declares that there Other faithful lieutenants arc sprinkled throughout is nothing wrong wi th wearing a British uniform. Defiant Simms's novels, but none are more representative of the Katharine intervenes, excusing hersel f, but saying that she frontier spirit and the novelist's abilit y to capture it than regards Proctor's uniform as .. ' ... having received its

7 unnaturall y deep red from the veins of (her) '·Wi lliam Gi lmore Simms. The Par/ison: A Tole of Ihe R~VOI141'­ countrymen.' ••• , (Harptr and Bros .. 183S ; rpl. Ridgewood. N.J.: Gregg Press. (968). I. 21 . Mary Granger of Th e Yemassee is another of Simms's "Simms. The PartiJun, t. 3S. " William Gilmore Simms, The Seoul (n.p.: W.J. WiddlclOn . IS54: rill. heroi nes who stand defiant in the face of danger. In Mary's Ridge ..... ood. N. J.: The Gregg Press. 1965). pp. IS·20. case, the danger is quite immediate and bodil y. The wi fe "Simms. The Scout. p. 21. of the trader, Mary is trapped in the Block House wi th the "Simms. The SeoUl. p. 87. rest of the settlers when the Indians attack. Although panic "Simms. The SeoUl. pp. 18·20. and fear would have been natural under such circumstances, "Simms. The SeoUl. p. 40. "Simms. The Seout. n.p. Mary's st.rong, compassionate presence keeps these emotions " Joseph v. Ridgely. Williom Gilmore Simml (New Haven. CN: Col. under control. lege and Univershy Press. ]962). p. 65. " Will iam Gi lmore Simms. Woodcrujt; or Ho ... kes About the Dovecote In reason, there was reall y but a single spirit in Ihe (1856; rpl. Rid gewood. N.J.: Gregg Pres§. (968). p. 14S. Block House, sufficiently deliberale for the occasion. '"Simms, Woodcrtifl. p. 49. "c. Hugh Holman, "Anolher Look at Nineteenth·Century Southern Thai spirit was a woman's-the wi fe of Granger. She Fielion." Sou/hem Humunities Revie .... 14 (1980). 239. had been the child of pove ny and privation-the severe " Ridgely, p. 66. school of th at best tutor, necessity, had made her " Cleanlh Brooks and others. ed .. Amerl(tln Literu ture: The Mokers und equable in mind and intrepid in spirit. She had look­ the Muking. Vol. I (New York : SI. Martin's Press . 1973). p. 272. ed suffering so long in the face, that she now regard­ "Clemont Eaton. Gro ... th of SoUl hem Civili~ution, 179Q. 1860, TIle (New York: Harper and Row. Pub .• (961). p. lOS. ed it without a tear. JO " Simms. Woodcroft. p. 297. " Eaton. p. 106. This could be Simms's most accurate pomait of the pioneer " Simm§, Woodt:roft. p. 132. woman. a woman who must protect herself. her family. " Ridgely. p. 66. and her home from danger. " Brooks and others. I. 273. '·Will iam Gilmore Simms. Wig wam ond the Cabin (Life In America) Simms's frontier women constitute his si ngle-most im­ (Harper and Bros .. 184S; rpl. Ridgewood, N.J.: Gregg Press . 1968). pp. pressive group. They are everything except dull. and they 22S·26. stand out for thei r wit, inlelligence , beauty, and charm. "Simms, The Yemo.fStt (1964). pp . 2])· 14. Simms's heroes, villains. Indians, scouts, and women are, " William Gil more Simms, " The T ..... o Camps. A Legend of Old NOrlh as stated, a colorful and diverse set of frontier characters. Slate." in Wirwom ond the Cubin (Life In Americu) (Harptr and Bros., 1845; rpl. Ridgevo·ood. N. J.: Gregg Press. 1968). p. S9 . Whether discus si ng the hero of (a man who The Yemassee " Simm§. " The Two Camps," p. 76. " moves th rough the narrative with a rather too evident '·Simms. " The Two Camps," p. 77. superiority complex"" ) or the young Indian of "The Two " Si mm s. "The Two Camps." p. 78. Camps" (who radiates sincerity and nobility), all are distinct " Erski ne. p. 144 . and memorable representations of many aspects of the fron­ "Simm§. The Scout. p. 36. "Simms. The SeoUl. p. 20. tier mind and spirit. A quotation from Ridgel y's biography " Si mms. The ScOUI , p. 3H. of Simms neatly expresses this observation: Simms's heroes '"Simms. TIle SeoUl. pp. 3H. 30. 228. and heroines, scoulS and Indians are " ... more carefully ·'Simms. The Porr/.rQn, II , 122 . drawn and differentiated than is commonly admitted.; Simms "Simm~, The PorlilOn, II . 124 . makes them stand , in their various ways, for cenain pro­ "Simm§. The PUrlllon. It. 139. " Simm s. The Portison. 1I , 146. blems in the Southern character. " .1 For the most part, "Simms. The POl/isun, II. 147 . Simms succeeded in this objective. ., Si mms. The SeoUl. p. 175. "Simms, The SeoUl. p. 175. NOTES "Simms, The Partison, I. 174. 'lohn Enkine. Leadinr AmeriC"tln No,·e/ists(Fretporl . N. Y.: Boob for "Simms. The PorriS(1n. I . 14 1. ( 1964). 338. Libraries Press. 1910 and 19(6). pp. \36-37. '·Simm s. The Yemu.fSH p. 'C. Hugh Holman. "The Influen« of ScOIl and Cooptr on Simm§." " Lucy Lockwood Hazard, Frontier in American Lill'rotuft. The (New & 1941 ; Americun Literutuft, 23 (l9SI). 2 18. York: Barnes Noble. tnc., rpl. New York: Frederick Ungar Pub. Co .. Inc .• 1961). p. n. 'C. Hugh Holman. ea .. Vie ...l und Revie ...l in Americun Literoture. /lillory ond Ficlion, Fim Striel. by William Gilmore Si mms (Cambridge. " Ridgely. p. 61. MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard Uo iv . P res ~ . 1962). p. xxx iii. BIBLIOGRAPHY ' Hol man, ed .• V~"'l ond Revie ...l. p. xix. 'Mark Twain, " Fenimore Cooper's Li terary Offense~." in A mericon Brooks, Cleanth and others. ea. American Literature: The MuktrJ ond tM Lilero/ure: TIle Mokerl ond /he Moking. Vo l. II, ed . Cleanth Brooh and Making, Vol. I ond 11. New York : SI. M arlin'~ Press. (97). o th er~ (New Yo rk : 51. Martin's Press. 1973), pp. 1329· 30. Eaton, Clemont. Gro ..... ,h of Southern Ci vili ~olio n. I79Q.J8tW. The. New ' Holman. " The Innuence of ScOll and Cooper on Simm~ '" p. 218. York: Ha rper and Row. Pub., 196 1 'David D. Wallace. South Corolino: A Shorl History (Columbia. S.C. : Erskine. John. Ltadinr Americon No~·elillS . Ftetport, N.Y .: Books for Univ. of Soulh Carolina Press, 1969), p. 86. U braries Press, 1910 and 1966. 'William Gilmore Simms. The Yemll5sn: A Romunet of Curolino Hazard. Lucy Lockwood. Frontier in American Lilerolwft, TIw. New York: (Chicago: Donohue. Henneberry. &. Co., 1890. 1898), p. )7. Barnes&. Noble. Inc .• 1941; rpt. New York : Frederick Ungar Pub. Co .• ' William Gi lmore Simms. The Yema.fStt: A Romonce of Curolino. ed. Inc .. 196 1. Joseph V. Ridgely (New Haven. CN: College and Uni\· ersil~ Press & Twayne Holman, C. Hugh. " Anolher Look at Nineletnlh·Cenlur~· Somhern fie­ Pub .. In c .. 1964), p. 2Sl. lion." Sowlhun Hwmonities Review, 14 (I980), 23S·4S.

8 ___. "The Influence of ScOIl and COOper on Sim ms." American . . Woodcrafl; or Hawkes Abooul Iht Dol'ffole. 18.56: rpl . LirtrOlllre. 23 (1951 ), 203 -18. R\dgewood, N. J .: Gregg Press. 1968. r Ridgel)" Joseph V. William Gilmort Simms. New Haven, CN: College and _--'-'--_'-.' Tht YemaSStt: A Romunc:t' ojCuroUnu. Chicago: Donohue Uni"crsity Pr ~s, 1962. H e nne~rr y. &. Co., 1890, 1898. ' Sirnrll§, William Gilmore. Tht Parlison ; A Tolt oj Ihe Rello/ulion. Harper ____ _ . Tilt YtmlUS«: A Romunct1 ojOlroliNl. Ed. and IntTO . J O$CJ)h and Bros., 1835; rpl. Ridgewood, N.J .: Gre" Pres$, 1968. V. Ridgely. New Haven. CN: Collqe and Uni versity Press &. Twayne I __-':-' The Sroul. N.p.: W.J. Middleton, 18~: rpI. Ridgewood, N.J .: Pub., Int., 1964 . - The Gregg Press, 1968. T"·ain. Mark. "Fenimore Cooper's literary Offenses." In American ( ____. Views and Rel'iews in American Liltralurl', His/or, and Fie­ UlerOlUrt: Tht Milk ers lind Ihe Making, Vol. I/. Ed. Cleanth Brooks - 'ion. Firs! Series. Ed. C. Hugh Holman. Cambridge, MA : The Belk nap and mhers. New York: 51. Mart in's Press, 1973 , pp. 1329-35. Press of Harvard Univ. Prcss. 1962 . Wallace. David D. Soulh Carolina: A Shorl Hislory. Columbia, S.c.: Univ. lYig ""I1m ond Ihe Cabin (Life in Amt rica). Harper and Bros., of South Carolina Prcss, 1969. 1845: rpt . Ridgewood, N. J .: Gregg Press. 1968.

9 WEATHER STATIONS IN HIE ANDES: A CASE STUDY IN MOUNTA IN CLIMATOLOGY

Joseph Schneringer III

Of all the climatic groups in exis tence, mountainous ly). The basin is also surrounded by high volcanic peak s (eg. climates are the most complex (Hidore and Oliver, 1984) , Mt. Chimborazo at 6310 meters and Mt. Tungurahua at Here the atmosphere is channeled through canyons and 50 16 meters above sea levcl). This area perfectly exemplifies mOUn(ain peaks, climbing to heights of condensation and the confusion involved in mountain climatology. nowing downward into dry mountain basins. Th roughout Five stations were uti li zed in this study. The first is Am­ this topographic labyrinth a variety of microclimates exist. bato, with 19 years worth of data records. It is located at A .5 km trek in any direction will likely bring about a dif­ 01 IS'S and 78 37'W at an elevation of 2540 meters above ferent microclimate (Trapasso, Personal Communications. sea level. Banos is the second station, located at 01 24'S and 1985). 78 37'W. This station lies 1843 meters above sea level and This report foc uses upon a region in the Ecuadorian it too has a 19 year data record. Thc third station is Ccvall os. Andes . The region surrounds the Ambato Basin in This location has the shortest data record (4 years). It is at Tungurahua Provi nce (see Figure I). This intermontane 01 22'S and 78 37'W and lics 2930 metcrs above sca Icvcl. basin lies between the Occidentals (Western chain) and Patate, thc fou nh station, lies at 2360 meters above sea level. Orientals (Eastern chain) of the Andes (Robinson, 1967). At 01 19'5 and 78 30'W Patate offers 18 years worth of data. The Ambato Basin is a complex arrangement of deep river The last station is Pillaro with a data record of 17 years. canyons (eg. Rio Cutuchi and Rio Ambato have eroded This station is located at 01 10'5 and 78 33'W and 2805 valleys wh ich are 1100 to 1200 meters in dcpth, rcspectivc- meters above sea lcvel . Thc data utilized in this paper was su pplied by Mr. Tomas Aguerrero, Agricultural Program Manager for the Peace ECUADOR Corps in Quito, Ecuador, and by Dr . L Michael Trapasso, Department of Geography and Geology, Western Kentucky University. The data were collected by the Instit uto Nacional De Meteorologica Y Hid rologica (lNAMHI ), this is the equivalent to the Ecuadorian Weather Service. The analysis was completed using basic statistical and graphic software for the Apple IIc. Graphs of the data ap­ pear as Figurcs 2 and 3. Data summaries for temperature and precipitation charactcristics arc found in Tables 1 and 2. The keys to understanding the varied microelimates in a mountainous region are elevation, oriemalion, cloud co ver, and the orographic precipilOlion mechanisms (Hidorc and Oliver, 1984). Near the equator, low pressure systems with 50JTM AA£flCA cold fronts and warm fronts (as we often find in Kentucky) are non-existent (Trewartha, 1968). The study area lies in a climatic sector callcd Tierra Fda (cold ground found 1» • tween 1800 and 3100 meters above sea lcvel). In thc Tierr. Fria, convcctive precipitation mechanisms of warm humid regions (eg. summertime afternoon thunderstorm mechanisms in Kentucky) are also non-cxistent (Lutgens and Tarbuck , 1982). In essence, the type of meteorology in the study area is quite different from the meteorology whidl controls our weather in Kentuck y. Temperatures, as displayed in Figure 2 and Table 1, sho" thc obvious relationship with elevation. As one leaves thl earth's surface and rises aloft in the troposphere (layer of the atmosphere where all weather phenomena ta ke place) temperature decreases. In the Ambato Basin, a horizontal o :w 1D0 150 200 250 300 350 400 trek in any direction will cause a vcrtical displacemenl F1 CU RE 1 SCALE t1KILOI.'ll:TERS a higher or lower elevation. This elevation fact or is of

10 . pOrtance her~. On Table I the only ~isruPtion to this rela­ oriented to othe r direct ions (El lnstituto Geographico, 1978). I~ nsnip lies m the absolute maxI mum and absolute AI firs t gla nce, the climates of a mountainous region lI~nimuJll temperatu res which arc offsct between Pillaro and appear to be confusi ng. In th is re pon, data from five sta­ ~cval1O s. This discrepancy is due to cloud cOI'er variations. tions around the Ambato Basi n or Tungurahua Provi nce AS anywhere on earlh, cloud cover during the day will in Ecuador, South America, were compared and contrasted. I decrease surface exposure 10 incoming solar energy radia­ Using standard statistical and graphic techniques, several ,ion (Le. visible light. ultraviolet and infrared radiation). very important cli matic factors were revealed. They were: t-I owever, cloud cover at night tends to warm the surface station elevation, o rientation, cloud cover, and orographic by keeping the earth's warmth (i.e. thermal infrared radia­ uplift. Though these factors alone cannot unravellhe total tio n) fro m escaping into space. picture of mountainous microclimates, their discovery, Precipitation is less dependent upon the elevation of the however, constitutes an important first step to the understan­ station and more dependent upon the orienlalion of the ding of this rather complex climatology. nearest mountain slope. In the cq ua LO rial region the winds are light and variable (Ihe Doldrums). The Trade Winds in Non:s th is part of the world would cause a dominant easterly wind direction (opposi te to the Westerlies which dominate the con­ EI Instituto Gtografico. 1978, "'Iapa Fi sico Dcl Ecuador.

tiguouS United States). In this case, cast facing slopes are Hidorc.lohn J. and John E. Qlil'er. 1984. Climatology: An flllrodll('lion, windward (i .e. they face the wind). As a moist air mass is Charles E. Merrill. Columbus, Ohio, 38 1 p. forced up a slope (Orographic Up/ifl) the ai r can reach a le vel of condensation; this process will in itiate cloud cover L urg~n~. Frederick K. and Edward J. Tarbuck, 1982, The ATmosphere, and preci pitation. As ai r reaches a mountain peak and !'rcnlicc-Ha lt. Englcwood Cliffs. 47 g p. descends Ihe other side (leeward side which faces away from Trapasso. L Michael. ' 98~. Personal Communications, Departmenl of the wind) it warms, dries and creates an arid cl imate. Arid Geography and Otology. Western KCnlu cky Un;'·ersity. areas created by this mechanism are called rainshadows. In Table 2, Cevallos lies in a rainshadow while Banos occupies Trc"·arlha. Glenn T., 1968. An fnlroduClion 10 e lm'Ule. ,\-IcGra,,·· Hill , a wi ndward slope. Palate, Ambalo and Pillaro occupy slopes Nc'" York . 408 p.

Ti\I~LE 1 TABLE t

ANNUAl. TEMN:nATU RE CHARACT F. !H STI CS ANNUAl. I'HEC IPI T A T [Q~ CI1A!(Acn: HtSTICS

(T EMl'EltATUHE "C) t M I ['L1 M F. T E HS) NumtJ.er of Max. Min. AUS ABS Sumof Ma xi mum I)a)' ~ With Station Elevation Mean Mean Mean Maximum Minimum Station Elcvation Precipitation t <, hou rs Precillitation

Ha nOI! 1.8>13 meterll w.9 22.7 1:!.0 :.!6.5 9.' Bano. 1.84:1 Illeter ~ 1~58.7 mm a5.1 mm Patate 2.360 meters 16.1 21.8 11.0 26.0 6.8 P"I>I\" 2.~t;0 meter, 547.1 Imn 19.D mm Am hato Z.f,'IO mctcrs 13.0 19.0 9.1 2,1.2 3.7 Ambato 2 ..')40 l1\eter ~ 59;;,7 mm 15.1 mm I'illaro 2.805 meters 12.9 18.9 8.2 24.1 I., i'i11aro 2.805 mcter ~ 671.0 mm :-I:(Omm Ce"allos 2.930 meters 12.5 18.6 7.8 26.0 1.8 CC"allos 2.9:«) nl"tcrs :~ t; l.l mm :l:U mm

FIGURE t

MEAN TEMl'EHATURE MEA N TOT ,\ L PUE CI l'lT ,\ TIOK " :: I I',~ ,. ;' "e " ~ ~ I~I ( .. - I • . , .... ," / ' , ," • " :t '" ~ I' .• " '" ' - " ".'" I / .. ".' '" ! " • .- ~lll ~RO " ! I • .• .. " -. u ! " .. " .... CUALLC 5 • " " H.," " " " L-,_.." .;;--- ....-..--....-- M- .....-...... , ... OC' "

~el lTltS

11 b RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN PRODUCTS LI ABILITY

Kim Crose

The recent multitude of products liability cases presents determining the amount of punttlve damages awarded. a source of concern fo r many groups in society today. Juries usuall y consider the degree of reprehensibility of the Manufacturers risk the problem of facing multi-billion dollar defendant's conduct, the nature and extent of the plaintifPs liability suits, and insurers complain of massive losses which injury, and the amount of the defendant's wealth." arc contributing to insurance commercial li nes insolvency.' However, jurors who sympathize wi th defendants may The cost to the manufaclUrer is passed o n to the consumcr erroneously award large amounts. Concrete justification fo r in the form of higher prices. Eventually the taxpayer, who these enormous amounts is seldom offered, which discredits ofl en has no involvement with the product, must pay the the system as it presently exists. costs of extensive court li tigation. Following is an The evidence permitted in products liability cases further explanation of current problems exisitng in products liability confuses the process. Proof of an alternative safe design may litigation and recent proposals for remedying these infer a product defect. >l However, the abuse of such problems, foc usi ng upon the Products Liability Act as a evidence may provide a disincentive for the ma nufacture of possible sol ution. new designs, curtailing innovat ion. If a new, superior design Recent punitive damage awards have been exorbitant, the proves safer than the old design, the new design could most amazing being the $ 125 million punitive damage possibly be subm itted as evidence against the old design. amount in the Grimshaw case. t The Johns-..1a nvil\e Manufacturers could become hesitant to produce new Products Corporation was the defendant in about 16,500 designs, given the possibility of products liability litigation. asbestos suits and anticipates further liability in 40,000 more In this situation. the court possesses the power of product cases, totalli ng $2 bill ion in damages. 1 Although both recall of the inferior design . An issue of jurisdiction arises companies were proven liable, the irony of these incredible as the practice of product recall is ordinaril y considered an awards is that only $.10 to $.25 of every dollar awarded goes administrative function. 11 Thus the use of an alternative safe to the plaintiff! Transaction costs of the legal process design as evidence presents ramifications beyond the consumes the majority of the award. In fa ct. reports claim products liability case itself. that $.77 is spent in legal costs for every $.66 in injured claim Products liability cases impose a burden upon interstate receipts. 1 The injustice extends to t he taxpayer, as a federal commerce as well. Some states have promulgated products court case costs the government $1740, a state case $400. ~ liability laws which present problems for manufacturers These punitive damage awards have led to bankruptcy and conducting busi ness in more than one state. Connicts unemployment. Three major bankruptcies have resulted between federal and state government resu lt. Dawson v. from the asbestos cases; UNA RCO, AMATEX and Johns­ Chrysler Corporation" examplifies the unfairness of Manville.' The bankruptcy filing of Johns-Manville upon applying state rules to a product marketed nationall y, anticipation of massive liability suits has raised mu ch Although the Chrysler vehicle in question complied with controversy. At issue is whether a healthy, solvent federal safety standards, the state court ruled that the design corporation may use bankruptcies as a refuge from products was defective because it was not rigid enough to withstand liability claims. If permi!led, th is may present a solution for side impact. The ambiguity regarding what law prevails in manufacturers. but it denies comi>ensation to the injured products liabili ty contributes to inconsistency of puniti ve party. damage awards. Several reasons exist fo r these exorbitant punitive awards. As a consequence of these enormous awards, insu rance First, a wide variety of legal remedies are available to prem iums for products liability insurance have skyrocketed. products liability plaintiff!, including strict li ability, The subjecti ve insurance ratemaking process establishes the negligence, breach of express or implied warranty, fai lure basis for these high premiums. ,I However, the rate increases to warn or instruct, misrepresentation and fraud. I A plaintiff are understandable considering that the number of fedetaJ may claim damages ftom several remedies for the same products liability cases has tripled since 1973." The incident, ahering to the procedures regarding each claim. insurance expense to the manufact urer is passed on to the There are currently 51 different sets of product liability co nsumer, which appears justifiable by the argument that rules" Confusion resu lting from these legal differences leads the one benefiting from the product should pay for its total to drastica ll y inconsistent standards used to determine cost, including liability. liability. The Grimshaw case serves as an example of this, As indicated by these problems of ambivalence. action as the trial court used "malice" as a criteria, while the Court towards a comprehensive solution is long overdue. Yet a of Appeals emphasized the probability versus the possibili ty majority of the proposals recommended appear 10 be of the inj ury. " piecemeal approaches, which are too speci fic effectively to The ambivalence of products liability outcomes is improve the cu rrent products liabi lity situation. Requiri .... exacerbated by a lack of measurement and control in state products liabi li ty acts would only contribute to the

12 . isdictional confusion. Eliminating punitive damages of distribution. This lack of knowledge would have ,:T old require resorting 10 criminal law as punishment. As prevented recovery in Bickler v. Eli Lilly because the cancer 'Odenced by widespread corporate crime, such laws are causi ng side effects of this drug was unknown in 1953, the eVI . . effective deterrents, " Another alternatlve would be 10 year of distribution. !> I~IOW judges to determine the amoun! of pu nitive damages T he knowledge requirement would drasticall y change I and encourage them to consider less expensive alternatives curren! rulings regarding toxic substances. For example, in :uch as summary judgements," the recent asbestos case, Beshada v. Johns-Manville t Market share liability, as established in Sindel v. Abbott Products Corporation. lack of knowledge is not recognized Laboratories, introduces an innovative method o f as a legal defense against the manufacturer's dut y to warn. II establishing the amount of liability in cases where the Also regarding duty to warn, the learned intermediary defendant cannot be determined.'t This case held all drug doctrine regarding pharmaceuticals imposes upon the manufact urers liable for their respecti ve market share at the manufacturer a duty to warn the physician and also supply lime of the incident. This concept appears an equitable him with information on reasonably foreseeable treatment method of apportioning damages in the event liability cannot of side effects. n Duty to warn cases have expanded to pinpoint one defendant. require post-sale obligations, even if the manufacturer has The Interagency Task Force on Products Liabili ty not assumed the obligation." Suggested improving methods of insurance rate The Products Liability Act assert s the use of comparative determination through ISO, (he national Insurance Services responsibility 10 apponion damages on the basis of relative Office. 1o Nationali zing rates would reduce subjective fault. The practical application of this concept is the case rat emaking and distribute the risk throughout the nation, Jome v. Clinton Crop Service," which applies the Michigan adhering to the insurance principle of large numbers to Act doctrine of comparative negligence. A farmer injured minimize Ihe exposure to anyone company. A national on a crop sprayer rented from C li nton Crop Service was product liabili ty pooling system at both a primary and determined to have assumed 22 .5'/0 of all negligence in the rei nsurance level would accompany the nationalized rates, accident . As a result his damages were decreased from requi ri ng all companies to share equall y in the 10ssesY This $200,000 to $ 155,000. system has proven applicabilit y in assigned risk worker's Damage amounts would be limited by several provisions compensation, whereby those extremely high risks are shared o f the Products Liability Act. Plaintiffs who may also collect equall y by participating companies. Another suggestion Workmen's Compensation must pursue those remedies and involved a no-faull compensation arrangement, similar to subtract them from subsequent products liability awards.ll automobile no-faull, to avoid excessive litigation. Improving The Shumway version of the bi ll would limit punitive products liability prevention techniques using the Consumer damages to the lesser of SI million or twice the Product Safety Commission and OSHA was another task compensatory amount. II A statute of repose would disallow force recommendation!1 The Interagency Task Force the hearing of most cases brought 25 years after the date proposes federal solutions, which offer the best approach of product delivery, which also limits potential damage to reducing inconsistency. However, these proposals address awards through limiting the number of cases." specific issues such as insurance rates and claims procedure. The Products Liability Act provides more concise criteria A substantive revision of products liability law would for determining assumption of risk. The plaintiff must provide a more encompassing remedy to the current assume a comparative portion of the risk if injured by a dilemma. defective condition which would have been apparent to a The Products Liability Act offers such a comprehensive reasonably prudent person, a known defective product was SOlution. This Act is a bill proposed by Representative voluntarily used or the product was misused, altered or Shumway (R-Calirornia) a nd Senator Kasten (R­ modified. " Such criteria contribute toward a more Wisconsin).l1 The overall effect of the Act is to unify expedient, effecti ve and just trial as opposed to the current prod ucts liability law and relieve the manu facturer of ambiguity. excessive liability by sh ifting the burden of proof upon the O pinions favoring the Products Liability Acts applaud the plaintiff. This Act would pre--empt all state law, thereby unifi cation of products liability action. The Products eliminating jurisdictional conflict. Manufacturers would Liabili ty Alliance, composed of 200 manufacturers, incu r strict liability for product construction defecls and insurance companies and other businesses, support passage breach of express warrant ies. H Yet strict liabil ity would be of the bill to rel ieve the immense liability paymenls to which eliminated from design defect and fai lure to warn cases. 1! they have been subject. U Declaring strict liabili ty to be The procedure replacing strict liability fo r design defect unworkable in design and warning cases, the supporters of and fai lu re to warn cases requires the vict im to prove that the Act advocate the new standard set wi thin the bill . the manufact urer knew or should have known about the Opponents of the Act disagree with alleged federal danger based on knowledge that was reasonably accepted intrusion upon states rights. Jack Pope, Chief Justice of the in the technological or scientific community.u This Texas Supreme Coun, indicates that the Act would knOWledge requirement could prevent recovery in drug overburden the U.S. Supreme Court and serve to nationalize products liability cases. Due to improper testing, no the state judiciary. I! The Association of Trial Lawyers hazardous drug side effects may be discovered at the time suggested federal codification of common law would result

13 in compromise and sacrifi ced qualit y for political ' P o~. Recent Product Liability Cases Af/ecting the PharmO("f'UIiC'lll expediency. They also oppose the repudiation of the Industry, 38 FOOD DR UG COSMET IC LAW JOURNAL 624 (1983). "accumulated knowledge, wisdom and experience of 'Anderso n. p. 3. 'U.S. Congress, Senatc, Commiuee on Commercc. Science and lawmakers. " II by pre-empting the tort system . " Diversity Transport a!ion, The Products Liobiliry Acr, llearillgs b(jore t'" is no vice, uniformity no virtue U according to the lawyers, subrontmillU on Ihe COll5llnter on S.44. 98!h Congress, 15! sess .. APTil who indicated the need of multiple remedies to the 6 and 27, 1983, p. 2. disadvantaged claimant. Shifting the burden of loss to the ' Anderson. p.2. claimant is unsound in their opinion, considering an injured 'IHID. 'U.S. Congress, p. 6. claimant unable to collect fo r damages would eventuall y be ' Product Liability. The MaeNc:iI ·Lehrer Repor!, Air Oa!e: May S, 1983, supported by the taxpayers through welfa re programs. The Educa!ional Broadc a ~ t ing Corporation and GWETA. p. 4 (1983). manufacturer more appropriately deserves this liability in '''Owen, Probl/':ms in Assessing Pun ilil'e Dumuges AguitlSt MomiflJCturf!r"S the opinion of the lawyers.·o of Deft'C'ti "e Products. 49 UNIV. OF CHI CAGO LAW REVI EW 10 (1982). The AFL·C IO disapproves of the workmen's " Owen p. 9. compensation clause as an unjust reduction to a worker's " Owen p. 39. " Schwanz. Posr·SlJle Dury /Q WOfll: T ....o U'1!ortunole Forks in Ihl' Road entitled award for damages. Therefore. the Act does not to Reasonuble Doctrine, S8 NEW YORK UN IV. LAW REV tEW 901 serve the best int erest of the worker. but fa vors (t983). manu facturing management. States rights arc also promoted " Atkeson and Neidic k. A SlUtus Report e}l/ Proposuls/or 11 rooero{ by the AFL·C IO." Products LiubjlilY A C/, 38 IJ US INESS LAWYER 623 (1 983). Despite these opposing arguments, the Products Liability " Frumer ahd Fried man. PRODU CTS LlAIJILlTY, U.S. Dcpl. of Commeree, lnlerogenc), Tusk Farel'on Product Liobility Britflng Report, Act has received the endorsement of the Reagan Washington, D.C. p. S9 1 (1971 ). Administration. It must now be passed by Congress. The "Cong r es~. p. 2. problems wit h products liabilit y-exorbitant punitive "Schm ill. p. 217. damage awards, inconsistency, evidence, jurisdictional " Owen , p. SO. disputes, skyrocketing insurance premiums-appear most " Popc:p. 301. " Frc:erm... r & Friedman. p. S94. comprehensively answered by the Product Liability Act " IBID., p. S9S . reform of tort law. Nationalization of these standards wo uld " IBID. improve uniformity and remove much ambiguity in the law. " A!k c!Kl n & Neidic k, p. 623 . However, one could surmise that the products liabil ity '·C0l1l1rc51. p. 39. problem is caused by the ubiquity of short-term management "Conllrc)s, p. 31. " IBID., p. 39. policies wi thin U.S. corporations.') Fail ure to manage " P ope, ~ . 300. product ion in conside ration of the long term effects of " IBID., p. 624 . current decisions result s in fu ture damages. A change in " Pope. p. 30 1. corporate management would require a transformation of " Sc hwa rt z. p. 899. business attitudes, which is beyond the law . A federal " Jorae v. Ctim ol1 Crop Se rvice, 463 Fed . Supp. 953 (\979). "Congress. p. 26. mandate enforcing long term planning wou ld most likely "Atkeson & Nc:idic k. p. 633. be opposed as a government intrusion upon private i ~du s tr y. " IBID. Therefore. the most practical avai lable comprehensive "Cong r c~s . p. 23. sol ution to the products liability problem is offered by the " Congress, p. 32 . Products Liability Act. " IBID., p. 23 S. " IBID.• p. 178. NOTES " IBID. '·'BID. . p. 303. 'Anderso n, Asbestos PrOf/m'l Liubility Lirigulion: Whul Con Be Done " IBID., p. 226. Abour II, 38 AI{BITRAT ION JOURNAL p. 6 (1983). " Hcnder§on. Products Liobilily all(/ III I' Possuge 0/ Time: The 'Schmiu, A Meaning 0/ Corporite Social Responsibility 8 Oela"'are Imprisonmell( a/Corporali' HUlionality. ~8 NEW YORK UNIV. LAW Journal of Corporate Law 211 (1983) . RE VIEW 76S (1983 ).

•

14 IS CREATIVITY TEACHABLE?

Jewel Jackso n

Webster'S New World Dicfionary simply defines creativity clement of creative thinking, but the emotional, irrational as "producti ve; invent ive." Wh ile this definition will and preconscious element s must al so be recognized as the adequately serve a broad definitive pu rpose, it does not basis for inspiration. Recognition that creativity involves account fo r individual precept ions or various ingredients of unique thought processes are included in this definition: creative moti vation. One must firs t look at the defi nition "Creativity is a combination of the fl exibility, originali ty of the gifted and talented in order to identify these students. and sensi tivity to ideas which enables the learner to break Black hurst and Berdine (1981) relates that Section 902 of away from usual seq uences of thought int o diffe rent and the Gifted and Talented Children's Act of 1978 defined productive sequences ... '" It therefore appears that the gifted children as: teac her seeking to fo sler creativity should recognize the difference between inspiration and the act of creali ve Gifted and talent ed children means children, and thinking. whenever applicable, youth, who are identified at the Researchers agree that there are four stages in the creative pre-sc hool, elementary, or secondary level as process: (Wallas' Stages 1926) (I) preparation, (2) possessing demonstrated or potemial abilities that give incubation, (3) illumination, and (4) verification. Both artists evidence of high pe rformance capability in areas such and scientists state that during the process of creation some as intellectual. creative, speci fi c academic, o r switch takes place in the consciousness of the creator. Amy leadership ability. or in the performing and visual arts. Lowell spoke aboul experiencing tra nce-l ike states. I Albert and who by reason, the reof require services or activities Einstein, who at the age of five was deeply impressed by not ord inaril y provided by the sc hool.' Ihe mysterious behavior of the compass needle, stated later that " something deeply hidden had to be behind things.'" Creat ivity does not always conform to the prevalem values Present evidence seem s to indicate that people, gi fted or of society. Therefore, can it be taught? One finds st rong not, prefer to learn in creative ways. Creative ways of agreement among researchers that the creatively gifted are learning involves exploring, manipulating, questioning, independent individuals who arc often unconscionable by experimenting, risking, testing, and modifyi ng ideas. Recent social acceptance. Convergent thought processes arc dictated research suggests that many subjects can be learned more by factual data inputs, and presentation of these inputs can effectively in creative ways rather than by authority. be laced with the instructor's social val ues and perceptions. " Learning creatively takes place in the process of sensi ng Di vergent thinking on the other hand does nOt directly relate problems or gaps in information, maki ng guesses, re visi ng to in puts except, perhaps, as a basis for inspiration and as and retesting them, and com municating the results." l such exhibits the opportunity for fl exibility of thought After reviewing one hundred forty-two ex periments and beyond the current soci al value system . Dillas and Gaier reports designed to provide insight into the leachability of (1 970) su pport th is hypothesis as they conclude that the creativity, Torrance concludes th at the most success ful creatively gifted chi ld and adult possess an openness to means of teaching chi ldren to think creatively has been stimuli whether they be taboo or nol. Moreover, they also through complex programs involvi ng packages of materials, speculate that such individ uals are independent in allitude the manipulation of teacher-classroom variables, and the use and social behavior and they have a Strong intrinsic of modificat ions of the Osborn-Parnes Creative Problem motivation and interest thai sustains the creative th ro ugh Solving training program.' inevitable periods of frustration. ' Morgan, Tennant and Gold descri be the Renzulli's Less scient ific perhaps, but one must evaluate one's approach to educating the gifted as acknowledging the need ownself to recognize the extent of creat ivity. Each individual to cultivate the inquisitive tendency of the pupil. Renzulli can renect on personal situations where, wit hout prior characterizes this concept as a three-pronged model of experiences to relate to as a decision base, a response 10 the enrichment. General exploratory activiti es establish an situation al ha nd was formulated . Is this not creativity as environment in schools th rough resource centers which ..... e are most aware of il ? Torrance (1973) states that creative invoke the pupils' curiosi ty and interest in further research. ~hinkin g involves strong elements of the emotional. the The second prong of Renzulli's approach centers on the Irrational. the preconscious. After breakthroughs involvi ng classroom and the materials. methods and techniques. This these emotional, irrational clements, of course. the resul ts element is important because it devclops Ihe thinking and ITIUSt be subjected to logic. J Is this 10 say that a logical feeling processes. Renzulli describes the intent to be "to thought process wh ich can be {aught is the answer to dcvelop in the pupil the processes or operations that enable Cu ltivating creative thinking? Perhaps it is a significant him or her to deal more effect ively with content."

15 b Renzulli's th ird prong calls the gifted to uti lize thei r ha ve deve loped curric ulum models for the teacher of capabilities to investigate real problems. He refers to this children in a regular classroom. Two such models are aspect as individual and small-group investigations of real Enrichment Triad Model and the Self- Directed Learni ... problems. It adds emphasis to the teacher's role as Program.1I Teachers dealing with the creatively gifted sh0lli!l facilitator. The impetus of the facilitator is to: (I) assist th e st rive " to free th e inspiration and nOt to leach the craft pupil to formulate a realistic research problem, that is, one except in its rudiments .. " . • that can be researched and a conclusion fo rm ulated; (2) sug­ The inevitable concl usion is that gifted child ren must be gest alternatives to be utilized in the inves tigation; and (3) challenged in the public schools. Their brains. abilities and guide the pupil as he or she establi shes a means of com­ minds must be challenged to search. to create, to be municating the resuil s. · cised in top performance in order to meet their needs RenzulJi's approach confo rms to the belief that creativi­ 10 keep th~m enthusiastic and wi lling to m ~ t and go ty wi ll be, as a resuil of pupil commitment to understand their limits. Creativity can not be taught bu t can the questions as welJ as the answers, the inquisitiveness that faci litated. These students should be give n every oP,po'rtlm;ty, Albert Einstein referred to. Renzulli's concept relates to the to reach their maximum potential, fo r from this group of traits and behaviors that Lindsey (1980) describes in highly you ngsters will emerge the leaders and thinkers of our coun _ creative children: try. and our country can be only as great as its leaders.

Less concern with convention and authority NOTES More independence in judgement and thinking Keener sense of humor 'A.E. Blod:hursl and W.H. Berdine. InfroduC"fion To Sp«ioll:.""duCQ. Less concern wit h order and organizat ion lion. Mus.: Liule Brown and Co., 1981, p. 18. 'James 1. GaUagher, Teaching Ihe Gi/IM Child f2nd til). Mas~.: Allyn A more tempermental nature.'· and Bacon, Inc., ] 97~, p. 246. 'E. Paul Torrance, Is Cr~livil)' T~choble? Indiana: Phi Della Ka ppa In his st udies of gifted adults. Maslow tries to identify Educalional Foundalion, t97), p. 7. those characteristics that seem to be possessed by all these 'Carolyn Callahan, Developing Cr~livil)' in the Gi/led and Talenltd. Virginia: The Council for Exceptional Children, 1978, p. 3. people in greater or lesser degree. First, there is a lack of 'Jane Navarre. "Incubation as Fostering the Creative Process"· The art ificiality and a certain simplicity and naturalness about Gi/ltd Child Quarterly, 1979, XX III (4), p. 792. their approach. Second is their ability to focus on problems ' World Book, Vol. S U.S.A.: World Book·Childcrar, International, tnc., thai lie outside themselves. Above all, Maslow finds one 1979. p. 102. characteristic in particular 10 be common to all the people 'Corrine P . Clendening and Ruth Ann Davies, Crealing Programs/or st udies - a special kind of creativity, o ri ginalit y or Ihe Gi/led. New York: R.R. Bowker Company, 1980. p. ~7. ' E. Paul Torrance, Is Cr~livit)' Teochoble? Indiana: Phi [klla Kappa inventiveness. " Educationat Foundation, 197), p. 9. Maslow in his research of adul ts, Lindsey's description ' Harry J. Morgan, Carotyn G. Tennant and Mihon J. Gold, Elemen­ of highly creative children, Renzulli, Einstei n, Torrance, all /Or)' and Serondar)' Level Programs/or Ihe Gi/led and Talented. New York: elude to two common elements; Teachers College Press, 1980, p. 22, 23. " Margaret Li ndsey. Trainin, Teocht'rl o/Iht' Gi/ti'd and Talt'nted. New York: Teachers College Press. 1980, p. 10 . • inquisit iveness " James J. Gallagher, Teaching the Gi/ted Child (2nd m.). Ma~ s: Allyn • envi ronment or opportunity and Bacon, In c., 1975 , p. 243, 244. "Manna Lowenrcls. " Releasing Creativity Through Image- Making.". To state definitively that creativity is teachable would be The Gi/lm Child Quartt'ri)" 1979, XX III (4), p. 80 1. " Jon Wiln and Jose-ph C. Bondi. Curriculum De~elopmenl - A Guide grossly presumptive. Scholars of the subject of creativity To Pr(J("tiu. Cotum bus, Ohio. Charles E. Merrill Publishing Company. have generally recognized external factors as major con­ 1984, p. 276, 277 . tributors to the creative process. Creativi ty exists to some " Jane Navarre, " Incubation as Fostering the Crealive Proceu .. • The degree in each individual, and it becomes the teacher's role Gi/ltd Child Quartt'rl),. 1979, XXIII (4), p. 794. to fac ilitale the opportunitie! thaI each pupil is presented with . The creativel y gifted pupil possesses characteristics BIBI.IOG RAP II \' which must be recogni zed and cultivated if his or her talents Bl ackhurst. A.E. & Berdine. W. H. Introduction To Sp«ial Educalioll, are to blossom. Mass. : LillIe, Brown and Co .• 198 1. The tendencies of the gifted to be a f r ~ spirit can cause Callahan, Carolyn M. De\'elopin, Crtrllivif), in the Gi/ttd and TQIt'nltd. conflict and curt ail the activities of the creative mind when Reslon, Virginia: The Council for E~cep'ional Chitdren, 1978. , Clendening, Corrine P. & Da vies, RUl h Ann. Creating Programs/ar lilt faced wi th the rest rictions of the prevalenl soc ial climate. Gi/tt'd. Ne .... York, N.Y.: R.R. Bo .... ker Company, 1980. "It is only the exceptionally creative child who can weather Gall agher, James 1. T~chin, tht' Gi/ted Child f2nd t'd). 8o$ton, Ma".: the hurricane of rules and regulations and still emerge twelve Allyn and Bacon. Inc ., L975. years later creative and imaginative. " ' l It compels educators GOld, Milton I. , Morgan. Harry J. & Tennant, Carol)'n G. Elementary then to avoid al1em pls to teach creati vit y, but to provide and Steondory Lel'el Programs for Ihe Gi/ted and Talenti'd. New York, N.Y.: Teachers Collcge P re~ s . 1980. tools, i.e. brainstorming techniques and resou rces, which Lindsey, Margan:'!. Trainin, Teochers o/Iht' Gi/lt'd and Talented. New will encourage creativity. With the understanding that York, N.Y.: Teachers Collegc Press, t980. creati vity can not be taught but only encouraged, educators Lowenrcl~ . Manna. R elca~ing Creativity Through Im age-Making . TM

16 Gif/tel Child Quar/erl)', 1979, XX III (4), 80 1-806. Wiles, Jon & Bondi. Jo~ph C. Curriculum ~ytlopmf'111 - A Guide To NJ.'arrt, Jane, In cubation as F05te ring the Crea tive Process. The Gi/led Pfaclice. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Company, Child Quamrl)" 1979, XX III (4 ), 792 -800. 1984, Torrance., E. Paul ~ T orr~nce. J, Pansy. Is ~rNJliYil)' Teachable? World Book. Vol. j, U.S.A.: World Book-Childcraft In lCrnalional, Inc., B!oomlJlglOn, Indiana : Phi Della Kappa Educallonal Foundation, 1973. 1979.

17 CLASSICISM IN WESTERN SCULPTURE AND ARCHITECTURE

Michael Padgelt

Beauty and perfectio n have been the goals of many artists classicis m, back to Rome. Bei ng a practical people, the through the centuries. Each generation of artists bases its Romans employed classical ideals not onl y in their temples art on a cerlain definition of beauty and grace. Thus, but also in their public buildings. Two examples of Roman because every person has a distinCl concept of beauty. the re sculpt ure and architecture which show the innuc nce of are many different types of art that may be regarded as Greece are A uguslus of PrimoporlO, wit h its monumental beautiful. Yet many times in the history of scul pture and pose which resembles the Doryphoros, I and the Pantheon, architecture. artists have employed classicism to produce which recalls the struct ure of Greek lemples despite its their version of ideal beauty. hemispheri c design. The defini tion of classicism, however, has plagued After the fall of the Roman Empire, there was a decrease scholars and art historians. For, as the Encyclopedia of in classical inspiration in the West. Still some medieval artists World Arl points oul, "The concept of classicism is we re ins pired by the past, for rulers such as Cha rlemagne fundamentall y ambiguous. '" The reason for this vagueness used classical images to emphasize their own importance. ,. is not because classicism has not been defined but because Nonetheless, med ieval art as a whole was nOI based on the many interpretations which have been offered do not classical principles. necessarily agree wi th o ne another. Classicism is a very With Ihe beginning of the Early Renaissance in Ihe early obscure term because the clements which determine if a work [5t h ce nlUf y, there was a return to the past , to Ih e art of is or is not classical are not clearly defined. l Even though Greece and Rome. Just as medieval art someti mes contained they do not provide a thorough definition, " Ithel central classical trailS. Earl y Renaissance art often contained gothic plan in buildings. the regal pose favored for stalU es. the elements. The primary difference between Medieval art and alignment of columns in perspectives, and the arcaded Renaissance art was where the concept of order was placed. porticoes" are traditional images' which convey a sense of Medieval artists believed that order and strUClure lay in what is classical. Heaven with God, whi le Renai ssance art iS ls emphasized S till almost a ll authorities agree that classicism had its order on Ean h. For this reaso n, Renaissance artists, who beginning in Ancient Greece in the 4th and 5th centuries equated beauty and order, looked for objects of ideal form B.C. Gina Pischel echoes this thought when she says that on Earth. " Leon Alberti, the Florent ine architect and writer. Greece was the culture which gave classicism its feeling helped defi ne the Renaissance understanding of beauty when through " values of form" which include "balance, he dealt with the su bject of COI/Iropposto. He maintained harmony, order, proportion, and moderation,''' Classical that a small degree of contrapposlO, such as the shifting of Greek art, whieh exudes stability. ultimately received its weight from one leg to the other, was natural , while extreme inspiration from Nat ure. The Oxford Companion ro Art tw is ting, wh ich would occur in later Manneristic figures , was presents an explanation for this phenomenon: phys icall y impossible and therefore did not imitate Nature, the source of all beauty. 'J Alberti's advocating classical The concept justifyi ng ... reverence fo r the Greek principles was very infl uential among Renaissance artists, antique was that while representing Nature they so particularly architects. refined away everything transitory and inconsequential Another Florentine artiSI who promoted classicism was as to achieve a kind of fQrmal idealization based on the architect Fil ipo Brunellesc hi. While Albeni was more Nature but portraying Nature so enhanced as to be no conce rned wit h theory, Brunelleschi concentrated on less worthy of imitation than Nature herself. ' designing buildings filled with classical element s. After discovering linear perspective, he used this principle and Polykleito's stalU e Doryphoros is a pri me example of this mal hematical proportion to analyze the classical style and

Greek attitude. While proportionally perfect, the st atue has incorporate his finds into his designs. 1) Thus later classical an ideal beauty whic h is also based on realis m.· Represent ing architects looked to Albeni for theory and Brunelleschi for Greek archit ecture is the Parthenon, the most celebrated example. structure on the Acropolis in Athens. Combining Doric with As the Early Renaissance evo lved into the High a fe w interior Ionic columns, the Parthenon's geometric Renaissance, classicism evolved as well. There we re fe wer design exudes harmo ny and timelessness . I Thus a work Ihat Gothic elements in art, since there were now several is classical is a work which is beautiful instead of IOtally generations of Renaissance art from which to draw. Perhapl realistic. and balanced instead of dyna mic. the most beautiful piece of High Renaissance sculpture is When the Roman armies conquered Greece, they carried Michelangelo's David. While Michelangelo did produce much of Greece's culture, including the premise of several pi eces of nonclassical art, his David looks bad

18 tbt statues of Herades for its ancestry. For Michelangelo cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum durina the mid 19th to igned this sculpture a fter studying Roman copies of century. II These cities had been buried by a volcanic eruption 6dGreek SIU d'"les. in 79 A.D. and were preserved in a state of remarkable One of those High Renaissance architects who looked to completeness. Yet the trove of artifacts found merely ,tJbCrti and Brunelleschi for inspiration was Donato strengthened the classical appeal: the actual movement was sramante. Working in Rome, Bramante designed the central a reaction to the events of the time. In France, Neoclassicism plaJl Tempictto in 1508. Because of its appeal to antiquity. represented an aversion to Rococo and to the irresponsible the Tempieno has been called "the perfect prototype of aristocracy that favored it , while in Germany it opposed classical, domed architecture."11 Ironically, this Greco­ French influence in general. In Italy, Neoclassicism Roman style shrine is supposed to mark the spot where Saint represented a rejection of Baroque styles, and in England, peter was killed. it was popular because of its usefulness in establishing an Andrea Palladia, a widely imitated Late Renaissance academy equal to those of France and Italy." According architect. was not influenced by Alberti so much as he was to its champions, Neoclassical art was directly opposed to by ancient ruins. Arter studying Roman architecture. Rococo art because Neoclassicism exuded "truth, purity, Palladia designed the Villa Rotunda and the Church of San nobility, [and) ho nesty" while Rococo represented Giorgio Maggiore in Venice. The Villa Rotunda inspired "Iicentious[ness), frivolity, and deception. " " Clearly hundreds of imitations across Europe and later in America. It Neoclassicism had a moral connotation of virtue. Indeed, Palladio was imitated more so than most Roman Although it was very influential, the Neoclassical architects, not necessarily because of superior talent but movement did have its opponents. There were those who because of Venice's position as a trading center for main1and felt that the style was too static. According to Gina Pischel, Europe. the Neoclassicist's concern over ideal beauty evolved into When the Renaissance came to a close arid the era of a movement with so many rules that it became very Mannerism began in the mid- and late 16th century, the restrictive.ll Nevertheless, the original premise of imitating impact of classicism lessened, while the contortions which a deified Nature to gain a model of perfect beauty appealed Alberti had cautioned against became increasingly to many and can be traced directly to Ancient Greece. prominent. At the beginning of the 17th century, however, Four examples o f Neoclassical art which exemplify the there was once again a return to classicism, although not classical attitude are Antonio Canova's monument to Pope on the same sca1e as during the Renaissance. The Baroque Clement XIV, William Henry Rinehart's 'Leander. the era drew its inspiration not from Periclean Greece but from Virginia State Capitol in Richmond, and the Paris Pantheon Hellenistic Greece. 1! and therein lies the reason for the designed by Jacques Germain Soufflot. In the Pope Clement difference between Renaissance and Baroque classicism. XIV monument, Canova rejected Bernini's heavy Nevertheless, there is a classical influence in Baroque ornamentation and designed a monument which exemplifies sculpture and architecture, for, as Frederick Artz states, "noble simplicity and calm grandeur. "" The Leander by "The anistic styles of the Baroque [exhibit an) admiration Rinehart is almost a direct copy of Praxiteles' Hermes for classical Roman grandeur land) love of harmony and Belvedere and has been called "calculatedly graceful. "n symmetry. " 'I A superb instance of the more ornate Baroque Ne but the modern in the past. And even though an exact definition of classicism view is that Romanticism and Neoclassicism are not may be difficult to ascertain, the reason for its attractiveness OPPosites but complementary aspects of the same is not. Each time there has been a classical revival, there movement. J! has also been a desire to li ve in a world of security and Regardless of this relationship, Neoclassicism did beauty, a world such as the one that the Ancient Greeks were represent a programmatic return to the past. This fascination supposed to have inhabited. In this respect, classicism Yfith the antique, which had already begun, was stimulated reflects a nostalgic yearning for a world not like it is but by the excavations which took place at the ancient Roman the way it should be.

19 NOTES "Pischel, pp. 571·72. " Honour, Neo·classicism, pp. 39-40. " 'C1auicisim," Encyclopedia 0/ Worfd'Arr. 1971, TIl , 67-4 . ,.John S. Crawford. "The Clauical Tradition in American ~ 'Fndericlt Antal, C~ tIIId Romanticism (New York: Basic Books. Structure and Surface," Amtricon Art Journal, II (July 1979), 39. Inc., 1966), pp. 1-2. "de la Croix and Tansey, 7th ed., pp. 705·706. " 'Classlcism," 671. " Honour, Nto-Clossicism. pp. 101· 109. 'Gina Pischel, A World Historyo! AI1 (New York: Simon and Schuster. " Honour, Nto-Cfasskism, pp. 101·109. 1975 ). p. 87. '''Classic, Classical," Th e O:iford ComJ1Gnlon /0 Arl, 1970, p. 246. BIBUOGRAPHY 'Horst de la eroo and Richard O. TUlJeY, G4rdM,'sArt Through '"t A,rs, 6th ed. (New York : Harcou" Brace Jovanovich, Inc., 1976). pp . Antal, Frederick, Classicism and Roma'ltkism. New York: Basic Boota. 163-1 64. Inc .• 1966. 'de 1. Croix aDd Tansey, pp. 151·52, 15<4. Am:, Frederick B. From the Renaissance to Romanticism. ~ 'de Ia Croix Ind Tansey, p. 226. University of Chica&o Press, 1962. 'de II Croix and Tansey. pp. 221 ·22. "Clauic, Clauical." The Ox/ord Companion to Art. 1970 cd. ,. Huan Honour. NnH:/rusid$m (Norwich, Oreal Britain: Fletcher II: "Classicism." Encyclopedia 0/ World Art. 197 1 ed. Son Ltd., 1975), p. 44. Crawford, John S. "The Classical Tradition in American Sculpture: " Frederick B. Ant, From tilt RcnoWonu 10 Romafllicism (Chicaa:o: Structure and Surface." American Art Journal, 11 (July 1979), 3&-'1. University of Chicaa:o Press, 1962), p. 18. de Ia Croix, Horll, and Richard O. Tansey. Gardner 's Art Throug/t t_ " David Summers, "Contrapposlo: Style Ind Mcanina in Renaissance Ares. 6th cd. New York: Harooun Brace Jovanovich, Inc. , 1980. Art," Art Bul/elln, 59 (Sepl. 1977),341-42. _ -::-_. Gardner's Art Through IheAgts. 7th cd. New York: Harcoun "Artz, p. 27. Brace Jovanovich. Inc., 1980. "Cornelius Vermeulc, uroptan Art and 1M Cltu.sicaf Past (Cambridge, FranUuner, A1frtd M. "aauicaJ Order forToday'sChaos." Ar, News, Mau.: Harvard University Press, 1964), p. 69. 47 (Dec . 1943), 17, 64. " Horst de la Croix and Richard O. Tansey, Gordner's Art Through the Honour, Hugh. "An Aj;e of Sensibility No Less Than An Age of Sense." Ages, 7th ed. (New York: Harrourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc., 1980). p. 530. Art News, 71 (Dec. 1972), 32-36. ,ode 1a Croix and Tansey, 7th cd., pp. 566-67. Honour, Hugh . Nto-clossicism. Norwich, Oreat Britain: Fletcher &: Son " "Classicism." col. 675 . Ltd., 1975. "Artz, p. 161. Manin, John Rupen. 8oroque. New York: Harper &: Row, 1m. " John Rupert Martin, 8oroque (New York: Harper &: Row, 1977), p. 264. Pach, Walter. "An Must Be Classical." V;r,inia Quarterly Relllew, 27 " Vermeule, pp. 101- 108. (1951),568-80. " Alfred M. Frankfuner, "Classi.cal Order for Today's Cha05," Art Pischd, Gina. A World His,ory of Ar'. New York: Simon and Schuster. News, 47 (Dec. 1943), 17. 197'. "Walter Pach .. , Art Must Be Clauial," Virginia Quarterly RtlIiew. 27 Summers, David. "ContrappoSlO: Style and Meanin& in Renaissance An." (195 1),575. Art Bulletin, 59 (Sept. 1977), 336-361. " Honour, p. O . Vermeule, Cornelius. Europton A r, and the Classical Post. Cambridae. " Honour. PD. 26. 19. Mass.: Harllard University Press, 1964. "Huah Honour, " An Aae or-Sensibility No Less Than An Aae ofSensc," Art News, 71 (1)<<. 1972), 33 .

20 CARSON McCULLERS: mREE CHARACIERS AND HER MAIN mEME IN RELATION TO HER LIFE

Naheed ShaJi

Until the age of fifteen, Carson McCullers did not increased ability to identify with the unfortunate and the consider becoming a writer. Her first passion was music. underprivileged. This is evident in his benevolent treatment In her dreams she envisioned herself as a renowned concert of Jake Blount, a drunken misfit who hangs around the pianist, performing only in select places and always to a full cafe! Furthermore, Brannon is particularly fascinated by house. However, her dreams were shattered when, as a teen. one group of the underprivileged, freaks:' she was stricken by a severe illness that left her bedridden for weeks. During that period. McCullers was forced to re­ What he said to Alice was true - he did, like freaks. evaluate her goals and choose an occupation requiring less He had a special friendly feeling for sick people and stamina than music. She chose writing, whereby she finally cripples. Whenever somebody with a harelip or T.B. found the acceptance which she had sought from her early would come into the place, he would set him up for life. Yet she still remained aloof, as independent in her style beer or if the customer were a hunchback or a bad of writing as she was. in her rationale and mannerisms. cripple it would be whiskey on the house.' In fact. throughout her life Carson McCullers possessed an inherent contradiction in character: she longed to belong McCullers also possessed a keen ability to relate to the to a group, yet she sought her independence fiercely. This underprivileged. This is reflected by her sensitive portrayal conflict in desires, which stemmed from her early childhood of blacks in The Heart is a Lonely Hunter. particularly of to her final years, coupled with her own sense of isolation, the character Dr. Benedict Mady Copeland." She was able ultimately gave her the insight with which she formed the to write with such profound insight about blacks because theme of spiritual desolation which pervaded her writings. she empathized with the blacks' inferiority." It was this This theme is best exemplified through the qualities of three inborn ability to relate to the underprivileged which allowed main characters: Biff Brannon from The Heart is a Lonely her to create the deaf character of John Singer in The Heart Hunter, Amelia Evans from The Ballad oj the Sad Cafe. is a Lonely Hunter without ever having met a deaf mute.'! and Frankie Addams from The Member oj the Wedding. Like Biff Brannon, McCullers also carried over her concern Furthermore, these characters possess qualities which mirror for the underprivileged into a preoccupation with freaks." McCullers' own life along with her theme. In fact, during her early years, growing up in her hometown Biff Brannon from The Heart is a Lonely Hunter is a of Columbus, Georgia. she had spent days watching freaks singular, forlorn character who epitomizes McCullers' theme at the local Chattahoochee Fair; 14 and she wOl..\ld spend of spiritual desolation. He is the successful owner of a hours poring over hugh photographic collections of them.' J bustling cafe but is locked in an unhappy marriage which Later this fascination for freaks was reflected in lies at the root of his loneliness. He dreads spending time McCullers' descnption of the grotesquely disfigured with his wife and often seeks the solace of his daydreams.' hunchback, Lymon, in The Ballad oj the Sad Cafe" and Brannon's marital problems center around his confusion the portrait of a deformed Negro woman in the short story with sex roles; he does not believe that marriage is essential The Aliens. 11 Thus Brannon and McCullers felt a special to a fulfilling life and spurns the idea that men and women affinity with the under-privileged. Why were Brannon and are distinct sexes. I Indeed, he is inclined to have feminine McCullers able to relate to the lonely so well? It is because mannerisms. For instance, on his little finger, he wears his th.ey were lonely themselves. Their own spiritual desolation mother's wedding ring; and when his wife dies, he begins allowed them to show their deep concern for others. to wear her perfume and her favorite rinse in his hair.' Unfortunately for them, this spiritual desolation resulted McCullers had similar problems with her marriage to Reeves from their failed marriages. McCullers. Like Brannon, she too was confused about sex This theme of spiritual desolation is reflected further by roles and displayed this by her dressing in man-like fashion. 4 the character of Amelia Evans in The Ballod oj the Sad Cafe. She often wore her husband's shirts and would don his Carson McCullers once said, "Everything significant that jackets as well. J Her marriage was turbulent because she and has happened in my fiction has also happened to me - or her husband experienced periods of separation. I Similarly, it will happen eventually." I I This is pointedly evident in The Brannon was separated from his wife, although theirs was BaJ/ad oj the Sad Cafe. This tale portrays the monotony an emotional separation rather than a physical one. and futility of life in a dying Southern town." An air of McCullers' and Brannon's individual marriages contributed pessimism pervades the book, and the tone is one of spiritual to their spiritual isolation. fatalism. If The characters are caught in a "Catch-22" world One effect of this spiritual isolation was Brannon's of restrictions from which there is only one escape: love. U

21 However, if love is the only answer to spiritual isolation, found that her brOlher, Jarvis. was going to get married 10 then it is a bizarre love, one which is portrayed as a gitl named Janice, she looked upon this wedding ... unsatisfying and ruinous. n perfect opportunity to find a place to belong." Furthermore. Such was love in the life of Miss Amelia Evans. Miss she reasoned that Jarvis and Janice were the "we of me" Amelia is an Amazon-like woman of 6 feet two inches" with and that she belonged with them.ol McCullers was lOOkiac several masculine characteristics. She dresses in overalls and for a "we of me" throughout her life to overcome her desire boots, U is as strong as a man,H and even fights a man in to belong. This is evident by the fact that once when her the book. U As stated before, McCullers also dressed in husband expressed a desire to attend medical school It masculine fashion. 1J Moreover, like Amelia Evans, Amherst (which was near the home of an author friend of McCullers came from a small Southern town, Columbus, hers, Newton Arvin), she imagined how nice it would be to Georgia, a town which she often portrayed as languorous have this " we of me" with all of them together and happy." and monoto.nous in her fiction ." Evans' love problems However, for Frankie Addams, the period following the stemmed from a love triangle involving her ex-husband and initial ecstasy at finding an identity was marked by a sense a hunchback with whom she was in love. The love which of disillusionment." She had failed to become a part of her she had for the hunchback allowed her to escape the stifling brother's marriage and this love triangle failed as she became tediousness of life in her dreary town for a few years and spiritually isolated again. OJ Similarly, McCullers' plan to transformed her into a sociable, contented person. U have a successful triangle between herself, her husband, and However, when her ex-husband and the hunchback ran her friend Mr. Arvin failed ." Here we see a recurring motif away, Amelia sank into a sea of despair and oblivion." in the works of Carson McCullers: the intense spiritual McCullers once stated that when a person has lived with desolation occurring from failed experiences in love another, it is better to take in an enemy than to live alone. II triangles. Amelia was left alone, and she became embroiled in spiritual In addition to resembling McCullers in her desire to desolation.lI Similarly, McCullers was involved in several belong and her creation of a love triangle to fulfill this desire, love triangles during her life which left her emotionally Frankie Addams resembled McCullers because she changed devastated. n Once involved herself, her husband Reeves, her name in order to gain acceptance. Since she wanted to and her Swiss friend Annemarie," another involved Carson be in the triangle involving her brother and his fiancee, who and Reeves McCullers and a young composer named David had initials J.A., Frankie began calling herself F. Jasllline Diamond. II Both of these triangles left McCullers torn and Addams." Likewise, McCullers changed her name at the full of despair, thus adding to her sense of spiritual age of thirteen from Lula Carson Smith to Carson Smith isolation. II at the suggestion of her friends who teased her about her It is this sense of aching loneliness which may have double name." motivated McCullers to write a lengthy exposition on love Furthermore, Frankie Addams paralleled Carson which appears in The Ballad of the Sad Cafe: McCullers because she was concerned about her height. Addams thought that she was too tall and felt isolated by ... There are the lover and the beloved, but these two her height; she figured out that if she continued to grow as come from different countries ... . And somehow she had been growing, then she would be over nine feet taU every lover knows this .... The value and quality of at her eighteenth birthday." McCullers, too, was concerned any love is determined solely by the lover himself. It about her height, standing five feet eight and one-half inches is for this reason that most of us would rather love at the age of thirteen and always being the tallest girl in her than be loved . . . . the state of being loved is class. J. In fact, at the age of fourteen, McCullers announced intolerable to many. The beloved fears and hates the to her mother that she had begun smoking in an attempt lover. and with the best of reasons. For the lover is to stunt her growth. II Perhaps McCullers felt like a freak forever trying to strip his beloved, even if this because of her height. Perhaps it is for this reason that she experience can only cause him pain. n portrayed Frankie Addams as a person who was fascinated by freaks. Being spiritually isolated as she was, Addams felt Thus striking parallels can be made between Amelia Evans able to relate most easily to the maimed and deformed and McCullers' theme of spiritual desolation, as well as with because she considered herself a freak." McCullers' life. . Clearly, then, McCullers' main theme of spiritual Even more distinct parallels are found between the desolation is reflected in her fiction. Particularly. her character of Frankie Addams, a twelve-year old adolescent portrayals of Biff Brannon, Amelia Evans, and Frankie in The Member of the Wedding, and Carson McCullers. Addams convey this theme as remarkable parallels are found McCullers' younger sister. Margarita Gachet Smith. once between these characters and the life of Carson McCullers. said that Carson McCullers was most like the character of Although she was stricken by spiritual isolation, she was able Frankie Addams. II One of the main similarities between to create works of fi ction which attest to her keeP McCullers and Addams was that they both longed to belong perceptiveness regarding human desolation. McCullers wII to a group. It Frankie Addams found herself isolated in her able to write of such futility of the soul because she was I adolescent because she could not play with the younger kids "lonely hunter" herself. n It is for this reason that she por­ nor comfortably join the adults." For this reason, when she trayed Biff Brannon, Amelia Evans, and Frankie Addams

22 a5 seekers who fai led 10 find true acceptance. Theirs was " Carr. pp. \OS- \06. \\.orld of seclusion, a world from which there was little " Carr. pp. 105· 106. " Carr. p. 152. ~cape . However, in this world, they had one advantage: " Carr, p. 105-106. ,he ), we re able. 10 view others th rough eyes which were made " McCullers, Thl' Ballad of the Sad Cafl' a/ld Olher Stories, pp. 26-27. extra-perce ptive because they wcrc accustomed to miscry. " 1'olcCullen, The Mortgaged JiMrt, p. xi. " Carr . p. 24. ··Eva ns, p. 102. NOTES " M ~ D owell, p. 88 . "Carso n McCullers, The Member of Ihl' Wedding (Bostou: Houghton 'Richa rd Cook. Carson McCullers (Ntw York: Frederid Ungar Mifnin, 1946), p. SO. pub lishing. 1975). p. 35. "Carr, pp. 264·265. :Cook. p. 3S . "Gra"e-r, pp. 40-41. 'Cook. p. 35. "Gra,'e-r, pp. 40-41. '\'irginia Spencer Carr. Thl' Lonl'l)' Hunll'r-A HiogrQphy of CQrson "Carr, pp. 264-265. McCllfll'rs(Garden Cit y. Ne ..· York: Doubl~ay and Company. 1975). pp. " Gra,'cr. pp. 3S-4 1. 98. 103 . "Carr. P, 26. ·Carr. pp. 98. 10J. " Gravcr, p. 35. ·Carr. p. 116. " Carr. p. 30. 'Cook. pp. 23-24. " Carr, p. 30. 'Carson McCullers. The HI'arl is a '-onely Hunler (New Yor k: Bantam " ~ l c D owell, p. 84. BOOk s, 1(6 1). p. IS. " Roberl Drake, "The Lonely Heart of Carson McCullers," Thf! Christian ' M<:Cullcrs, Thl' IIl'/1r/ is (I Lonl'ly IIl1nll'r, p. IS. Cen wry. 10 January 1968, pp . 50·51. " Margaret B. McDowell, CQrson '\/cC Il /ll'rs{Boston: Twa)'nc Publishers, 19SO)' p. 4!l. BIB I.IOG RAPItV " Carr. p. 21. " Ralph ""cOil!, "Car$On lIoh:Culie-rs 19 17-1967," SDlUrtlay Rel·ie ..... 21 lklzarth, Rona Su:tanne-. "Some Paradoxical Eltmenls in Ihe- Fiction of October 1967, p. 31. Carson McCullen." Thesis. Weslcrn Ke-nlucty Un i\'e- rsi t)'. 1970. 'Carr, pp. 126-127 . Carr, Virginia Spencer. The Lonrly Hunttr - A Biogruphy of Curro" 'Carr. pp. 126· 127. McCllllers. Garde-n Cil),. New York: Double-day and Compan)' Inc .• " Carr. p. 127. 1915 . " Car$On McCullers, The Hal/ad of thl' Sad CD/t and Olher Stories Cook, Rich ard. Curson McCulll'rs. New York: Frederick Ungar Publishing, (BasIOn: HOllgh ton t-, l ifnin, 1951), pp. 6-7. 1975. " Carson McCuller5, The A/orlgllged Hearl, cd, Margarita Gachet Smith Drake, Robert. "The Lonely Hearl of Carson McCullers." The Christiun (Boston, Houghton Mifflin . 1971), p. 9). Crnwry, 10 January 1968, pp. 50·51. "Carr, p. lOS Evans, Oli,·cr. Thl' Bal/od of Carson McCullers. New York: Coward· " Cathe-rine Hughes, "A World of OulcastS, " The COlllmo""'eal 1) "'kCann Inc., 1966.

23 Doug Ford, David Gray, and Nick Nauman

Among the most controversial issues in current labor followi ng: relations a rc righHo-work laws. The controversy surrounding these laws is not new . For the last forty years, NOthing in this Act shall be construed as authorizing right-Io-work laws have been the focal poi nt in the baltic the execution or application of agreements requiring between anti·union and pro-union forces. Recently the right­ membership in a labor organization as a co ndit ion of to-work laws debate has even touched some of this nation's employment in any State or Territ ory in which such most highly regarded symbols: the Boy Scouts of America, execution or applicat ion is prohibited by State or the Statue of Li berty. and Lee A. lacocca. Territoriallaw. 1 It is necessary at the outset to define so me key term s. Therefore this section allowed the ret ent ion of the right-to.. I) Right·to-work laws-laws passed by st ate work laws that had been previously enacted. In addition, legislatu res which fo rbid membersh ip in a union because of the ever increasi ng scope of the federal as a condition for employment. \ government , some states viewed this section as an 2) Closed shop-an unlawful arrangemem between opportun ity 10 regain power in labor relations. As a result an employer and a union whereby a person must of the Taft-Hartley Act, the pendulum began to swing back be a labor union member before being em ployed in the fa vor of management and of people who did not want and must remain a mem ber of the union wh ile union membership as a condit ion of employment retention. employed. ) Congress made a very wise decision in 1947. Because of 3) Union shop-an arrangement between an the diversity of the nation, mandatory union membership employer and a union whereby an employer may is perceived differently in different regions. Union shops are take on new employees who are not union appropriate for high ly unionized states like New York and members so long as they joi n the union after they New Jersey. but righHo-work laws are sui table fo r have entered employment. 1 individualistic states like Texas and Nevada. Today there 4) Yel low·dog contracts- an unlawful agreement are twent y-one states that have enacted right -to-work laws. under which an employee agrees not to join a The firs t states to pass such legis lation were Florida and union while working for the employer.' Arkansas in 1944.' Other states that have enacted these laws are the following: Alabama, Arizona. Georgia, Idaho. Iowa, The analogy of the pendulum lends itself well to describing Kansas, Louisiana, Mississi ppi. Nebraska, Nevada, North the labor relations legislation passed by Co ngress. Umil Carolina, North Dakota, South Carolina. South Dakota, 1932, ye llow·dog contracts were a legal means by which Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Virginia, and Wyo ming. ,0 Of these employers could prevent employees from forming or joining states. Idaho's righHoowork laws. passed in 1985. is the labor unions. However, Congress. that year passed the most recent. Norris-LaGuardia Act . which made yellow-dog contracts Id aho's right-to·work law has been engulfed in illegal. J The pendulum was beginning to swing toward controversy. The bi ll that gave the state a right·to·work law unions. In 1935, federal legislalion was passed which further breezed OUI of the Republican·controll ed House and Senate increased the rights of employees 10 unionize. The National but then collided with a buzz saw. Democratic Governor Labor Relations Act, commonly known as the Wagner Act. Bob Evans. He vetoed the bi ll JUSt as he had done in 1982. '\ set forth a list of act ivities that employers could not engage This was his o nly intelligent. political option. For many in to prevent unions. and it established a procedure by which years. the Democratic Party has been aligned wit h pro-union employees could elect t!l join or to fo rm a union.' The forces. In recent years those people in favor of right-to-work pendulum was most certainly swinging in the favor of la ws have bee n associating themselves with the Repu blican unions. Party. True to form, Idaho's Republican-controlled House This pendulum was to swi ng again in 1947. This was the and Senate overrode the veto by 65-18 and 28-14, year in which Congress passed the Labor-Management respectively." This did not end the ba(( le. Idaho's AFL-CIO Relations Act. also know n as the Taft-Hanley Act, which filed a motion wit h the Idaho Supreme Court to block the was an amendment to the National Labor Relat ions Act.! law on the grounds thaI some provisions of the law are This amendment made the pract ice of closed shops illegal. unconstitutional; the cou rt issued an injunction that deferred More importantly the amendment declared that individ ual enforcement until a referendum vote on the issue was held states have the right to decide whether or not union shops at the November 1986 general election. '1 are legal. Section 14 (b) of the Taft·Hartley Act states the As defined earlier, right-to-work laws are passed by state

24 'statures to forbid membership in a union as a condition dismissed. In addition, if the union refuses to admit the ~~i1lpIOyme nt . , · B~ ic ally , th.is means that ~~a l e s can enact person or the union expels a member companies must Ia~'s which make umon shops Illegal. In addition, the courts terminate these employees. Employers at unionized h 'Ie interpreted these laws to rule on the legality of other companies must hire people who are willing to join unions. ~ion s securit y arrangements in these states. The issue of This resu lt s in management not always being allowed to ~aint en ancc of membership- a union securi ty agreement employ the most productive workers. Therefore, righl-to­ which requi res employees, who arc members of a union on work laws give employers and employees more freedom in a specified date. to remain members during the term of the the hiring process. contract-was decided by the United States Supreme Court Right-to-work laws also protect one of man's most in Algona Plywood Co. vs. Wisconsin Employment guarded liberties-the right to engage in work. People Relations Boord." The Court held that maintenance of cannot survive without work. The basic belief of this society membersh ip agreements we re unlawful in states with right­ is that if ind ividuals ca n locate employment, then they to-work laws. The Supreme Court ruled in Retail Clerks should be permitted to continue as long as their job Local 1625 vs. Schermerhorn that agency shops-union performance is satisfactory. Consequentl y, if employment security agreements that require employees who do not join decisions should not be based on race, color, rci igion, the un ion to pay the union a fee equal to union dues- were national origin, or sex, why must these same decisions be prohibited if the state had a right-to-work law." As a res ul t based on whether or not a person is a union member? Right ­ of these two decisions. the Supreme Court expanded the to-work laws afford people who do not desire 10 join a union definition of right-to-work laws. the opportunity to seek employment at firms which are Right -to-work laws were never intended to guaramee unionized. everybody a job. Right-to-work laws were passed by various Right-to-work laws also allow states to have some states to prOtect the rights of those individuals who were legislati ve authority in the area of labor relations. This is able to locale employment and who did not wish to join a essent ial because the individual states, in order best to serve union to relain Ihal employment. An even clearer the needs of their population, need to be permitted to decide understanding of right-Io-work laws is gained by reading the legali ty or union security agreements. It would not be one. The following is an excerpt from Iowa's right-to-work in Ihe best interest of the nation if fede ral legislation dictated law: whether or not union security agreements were legal or illegal. A right-to-work law is enacted when state legislators It is declared to be the policy of the State of Iowa that belie ve that their constituents are in favor of such a measure. no person within its boundaries shall be deprived of State legislators who desire to be re-elected usually do not the right to work at his chosen occupation for any vOle fo r bills that their electorate opposes. Therefore, states employer because of membersh ip in, affiliation with, which have right -Io-work laws ha ve them because the withdrawal or expUlsion from, or refusal to join, any majority of cit izens in those states wanted the Jaws. labor union, organization, or association, and any Finall y, right-to-work laws protect employees who do not contract which cont ravenes this policy is illegal and wish to join the union at their place of employment. As void. stated earlier, employers cannot discriminate against employees who join unions. However, there is no federal [t shall be unlawful fo r any person, firm, association, law that prohibits em ployers at un ionized firms from or corporation to refuse or deny employment to any dismissing employees who choose, for whatever reason, not person because of membership in, or affiliation with, to join the union . Hence, this does not represent fairness or resignation or withdrawal from, a labor union, in employment practices. Right -Io-work laws make union organization or association, or because of refusal to membership a voluntary action. Fu rthermore, one's join or affiliate wit h a labor union, organization or employment should not be determined by membership in association. " the local labor organization. Despite these arguments for right-to-work laws, there are One of the appealing arguments for righ t-to-work laws also strong arguments against these laws. Among the least is that they encourage responsive leadership within unions. appealing aspects of right-to-work laws arc free riders: By allowing employees to decide whether or not to join a union-represented worke rs who refu se to join or pay dues union. union leaders must work hard to gain the respect of to the union." Because of federal law, unions must represent the employees. Thus union leaders must strive to protect the and bargain for all of the members of the collective bar­ interests of their members and not their own. Right-to-work gaining unit, irrespective of un ion membership. As a result, laws provide a much needed avenue by which employees may employees can receive labor union representation without Yo ice their displeasure with union representation. paying union dues. This is not fai r to the employees who Another argument is favor of right-to-work laws is that join a union and pay dues. In addition, union members are union security provisi ons give unions excessive power in obligated to strike if contract negotiations breakdown. terms of hiring deci sio ns . If a st at e does not have a right­ Conversely, nonunion employees have no such obligation. to-work law, then persons hired for jobs which arc unionized Therefore, right-to-work laws can have a negative impact mUSt join the speci fied union at the end of thirty days or be on unions most powerful weapon against management-

25 the strike. Aft er recei vi ng about 10,000 angry letters of protest, the Another argument made against right-la-work laws is thaI Statue o f Liberty-Ellis Island Foundation changed the there should be federal legislation to decide the legality of bidding procedure to gi ve nonunion cOntractors a chance union security agreements. Of course organized labor to bid on projects. II The NRTWC has also accused Lee believes that these agreements should be the law of the land. lacocca of using his invol vement in the Statue o f Liberty_ Labor unions ha ve tried unsuccess full y fo r many years 10 Ellis Island projects 10 further his company's image convince Congress that Section 14 (b) of the Taft-Hartley (Chrysler). NRTW C bases this claim on the fa ct that Act sho uld be repealed,'· Their point is that labor issues are Chrys ler plans to produce a small car called "Liberty."H national and not local in scope. For the moment. the federal Nevertheless, the major controversy that NRTWC has government has decided to Slay oul of the right-to-work become involved in is thaI of the General Motors' (GM) conI roversy. Saturn plant in Tennessee. Altho ugh the plant will nOt begin Ri ght-la-work laws favor management more than they production until 1988, OM has al ready granted the United favor workers. Nonunion employees drastica ll y reduce the Auto Workcrs (UAW) exclusive bargaining rights.l> T his effcctiveness of strikes. T here have also been incidents where means that the UA W will be rcpresenti ng the employees at managers of unionized fi rms in states with righl-lo-wo rk the plant. i3C(:ause o f the agreement between GM and UA W, laws would covenly recruit em ployees who would not joi n employees al the Saturn plant must either be or become unio ns. This practice has caused the power of unions which members of the union. Consequently, the NRTWC has filed are located in stales with righl-lo-work laws to be eroded . legal charges against the UA Wand OM with the National As a resull , ri ght-to-work laws definitely give more power Labor Relations Board. a The NRTWC contends that the to management. Saturn plant labor agreement violates Tennessee's ri ght -to­ Finall y, unions have claimed that right-to-work laws lower work law. No matter what the NLRB decides. thi s issue the standard o f living in the states where they are presem. appears to be headed for Ihe Uni ted States Supreme Court. However, research on this issue has been inconclusive . States The Court will have to decide whether Tennessee's right­ with right-to-work laws have traditionally not been to-work law or the exclusive bargaining unit between OM industrialized . Right-to-work laws have been instrumental and the VA W takes precedence. Those individuals involved in attracting industries to states in Ihe Sout h and West. in labor relations will be keeping a close walch on this Hence the standard of li ving may be improved in these controversy. The fut ure o f labor relations could be ailered stat es . As more data is collecled, a better decision concerning by the development s in Tennessee. the issuc of standard of living can be formulated . Based on the information prescmed, it seems obvious that Non:s there should be ri ght-to-work laws. Unio ns are perceivcd JamC'$ Cald"'el1 Foster. The Union PolitiI;' (Cotumbia . 1-o lissouri: 100 diHeremly across the nalio n for there to bc federal laws Uni"er$ity of Missouri Press. (975). p. 49. requiring union securit y agreemems. In some states the 'leon A Wortman. A Desk book of 811sinl"lS Mana gement Terms (New majority of ci ti zens still have a negativc view of unions. York: AMACOM. 1979). p. 98 . Because state legislawrs arc closer to the people, they are 'Duek French and Heather Sa ..... ard . DiClionory of Management, 2nd w. (Aldcrshot, England: Gower Publis hing Company. 1983 ), p. 449. the most quali fied to make a decision in regard to right-to­ >James W. Hum. The La ... of the WorkplQCt (WashinglOn. D.C.: Bureau work laws. However, as states with ri ght-to-work laws of Nati onal Affairs. (984). p. 51 become more industrilized, it will be intcresting to see if 'Alvin l. Goldman. Labor La ... and Industrial Relations in t he United union membership in these states increases or decreases. At Statn of Aml"f ica. 2nd cd. (Washington. D.C.: Bureau of Nallonal Affairs, (984 ) p. 51. Ihis time, states should be alloweJohn B. Miner and Mary Green Miner, Personnel and IndUS/filii laws. Nevert heless, at some time in the fu ture, this positio n Relations. 4th «1. (Ne'" York: Macmillan Publishing Company. 1985) pp. should be re-evaluated . 122-123. Most of the current controversy concerning right-t o-work 7Miner and Mi ner. p. 123 . laws is creal cd by the Natiollal Right to Work Committ ee ' ''l aoor·M anagemem Relations Act_" Unitffl States Statutes al La~, (N RTWC), an anti-union lobby o rganization based in SOIh Congress, 1st Sess ion. 194 7. 61. Part I. p. 151. ' William T. Harrison. The Tfuth about Righl·to· Work La"" Washington. D. C., and by its presidem. Reed E. Larson." (Wa sllinglOn . I).c.: National Rig ht to Work Comminec:. 1959). p. 22. Reccmly, the NRT\yC clashed with the Boy SCOUI S of ,o Hun t, p. 23. America over their proposed "American labor" merit " " Idaho Legislamre O"errides Veto of Rigllt-to-W ork Bill." The W" badge." The NRTWC accused the Boy Scouts of allowing Streel Journat, I February 1985. p. 42, ( 0 1. 6. the AFL-CIO to comribute ideas on how the pamphlct which " " Idaho l egislature O"crrides VetO of Right-to-Work Bill, " p. 42. r " Ric hard R. Ndson, "Stale Labor Legis la tion, 1985." Monthl y LabCJJ explained the merit badge should be written. C han ges were Rcview, 109 (J an. (986), p. 40; " Idaho Legislature Ove rr ides Veto of Rip'­ made in the requiremems for the labo r badge. but Scout to-Work Bill." p. ~ 2 . officials claim that it was not because o f pressure from the " FOSler. p. 49. NRTWC. " Thomas R. Haggard. Compulsory Unionism. the Nl RlI , and th c C~ In addition, the NRTWC has attacked the Statue of (Philadel phia : Trust«S of the Unh'crsity of Pen nsylvania. 1977). p. tS); Hun! . p. 146. Liberty and Lee A. lacocca. The NRT WC charged that " Haggard. p. 1.5 1; Mincr and Miner. p. 56!. nonunion CO ntractors were excluded from bidding on the " HarriloOn. p. 168 . Statue of Liberty and Ellis Island restoration projects. "Goldman. p. 24 5.

26 ,...

" Hun!, p. 144. A L('gut Analysis oj Union Security Agreements. Philadelphia: Trustees "Goldman. p. 246. of the University of Pennsylvania. 1977 . "John Hoerr, "An Ami·Union Lobby Pich Out Some Apple.Pic Harrison . William T. Thl' Trulh Aboul Righi-la- Work Laws. Washington, larget s," Bu si rlf.'SS Wee k, 9 December 1985, p. 44 , D.C.: National Rights to Work Comminee, ]959. " Hoerr, p. 44. Hoerr. John. "An Ami-Union Lobby Picks Out Some Apple-Pi c Targets." " Hoerr. p . 44. Busine$S Week. 9 December 1985. p. 44. " Hoerr. p. 44 . Hum, James W Th(' Law of Ihe Workplucl': Righls of Employers and " Hoerr. p . 44 . Employres. Washin gton, D.C. : Bureau of National Affairs, 1984 . " Hoerr, p. 44. "Labor-ManagernelH Rclalions Act of 1947 ." Uniled Stall'S Stallll's al Lurgl'. 80th Congress. 1st Ses~ion, 1947. G ] . Par! I, 136-162. RIHLlOGRAPHY Min er. John B. and Mary Gr~n Miner. PI'f'Sonnl'l and fnduslria/ Rl'fulions: A Managerial Approach. 41h I'd . New York: /.hcmillan Publishi ng Foster, James Caldwell. The Union Politic-The CIO Political Action Company. 1985. Commillee. Columbia, Mi ssouri: University of Mi ssollri Press, 1975. Nelson, Richard R. "Stale Labor Legislation, 1985." MOn/hly Labor French . Derek, and Hcather Saward. Dictionary of Management. 2nd ed . Re"il'w, 109 (Jan. 1986). 34·54. Aldershol. England: Gower Publishing Company, 198), "Idaho Legi slature Overrides Veto of Right-to-Work Bill." Wall Siree! Goldman. Al vi n L. Labor La .... and Industriul Relations in the United SWles Journal. 1 February ]985, p . 42 , ~ol. 6. of America. 2nd cd Wa shington, D. C.: Bureau of National Affairs, Won man . Leon A. A Dl'skbook of Business Managemenl Terms. Ne ..... 1984. York: AMACOM . 1979 . Haggard . Thomas R. CompulSQry Unionism. The -'''LRB, and (he CourlS:

27 JAM ES I AS KING LEAR

Doug Logsdon

Shakespeare's King Lear is a play wriHen about a king, nies to watHon boys are we to the gods/ they kill us for their Lear, and fo r a ki ng, James I of England. This fact naturally SPOrt" (IV i 37-8). A few scenes later, Edgar describes the leads to the question, " To what extent were the twO kings microcosm from another point of view- the imaginary o ne?" How much of Lear, if any, is a renection of James Dover cli ff: "The fishermen, that walk upo n the beachl I? What did Shakespeare have in mind in writi ng King Lear? appear lik e mice" (I V vi 17- 18). The answers to these questions cannot be proven beyond Gloucester again refers to the correspondence between a shadow of a doubt; both Shakespeare and James are dead. humanity and the uni verse when he meets Lear: "0 ruined The play does, however, imply a connection between the piece of nature! This great world/ Shall so wear out to fictional court of Lear and the real court of James I. nought " (IV vi 133-34). Finally, Lear himself brings out the When King Lear was written, Shak espeare and his mOSt obvious (but never previously stated) microcosm effect, company we re under the patronage of James I. Shakespeare that of the playas a miniature re nection of reality. Lear had gone to London and become a playwright some ti me speaks as his mad ness subsides: "When we are born, we cry between 1585 and 1592. By 1594 he was a membe r of that we arc co rn el To this great stage of fools" (I V vi London's fo remost acti ng compa ny, the Lord 177-78). Certainly Shakespeare, aware of these images of Chamberlain's Men, which included Richard Burbage, John the smaller world wit hin the larger, must have known that Heminges, and Henry Condell, Shakespeare's li fe long Lear on stage could be taken as a renection of James; friends and colleagues. ' Shakespeare was a princi pa l actor whether or not he intended it to can only be guessed. Still , in the company, he shared in it s profits, and he owned the king was his patron, and Shakespeare "had a sharp and imerests in the Globe and Blackfriar's theaters along with penet rating eye fo r the realistic motives and cues fo r passion other members of the company. Besides these obligations, that lie behind certain basic political stances.'" The play does Shakespeare was the company's " attached dramatist. " He seem applicable to England of 1606, and Lear docs share was comracted to write plays excl usively for the company certain characteristics with James I. and could not publish them without the company's consent.) The succession of the new order to the old was an issue The Lord Chamberlai n's Men are known to have per formed to James J as we ll as Lea r. Although Lear gave his lands before Queen Elizabeth on several occasions. away, James doubtless tri ed to hold on to his. In James's James I, who succeeded Elizabeth in 1603, "much enjoyed day, this was " the central social issue of the time: the theatrical entertainment." especiall y comedies and fa rce. ' transfer of land from the old aristocracy to new He chose the Lord Chamberlain's Men as the nation's finest entrepreneurs, and from one type of management stressing and granted them a royal charter when he look the crow n, a natural relationship between estate, lord, and tenant to thus creating the Ki ng's Men. This was about the time a new type of ex ploitation of the land for profit. ,, ' Lear's Shakespeare was writing Measure for Measure and Othello. desire to keep "the name, and all the additions to a ki ng" He probably wrote King Lear in l604 or 1605 for it was (I i 134), such as 100 knigh ts, reneclS the desire of many performed before James I on SI. Stephen 's Day, 1606. ' King old feudal barons to keep armies even after they lost their Lear, then, may have been the fir sl pla y Shakespeare wrOte land.' The general trend of James's time was fro m after gaining the royal charter. Coming ea rl y in the reign aristocracy to a middle-class society; the House of Commons of James I, and from Shak espeare- a playw right who was was gaining power and prestige. Th us the old order in Killl also part historian- King Lear could have been intended to Lear is fo llowed by a committee decision: Albany, Kent. warn James of the dangers inherent in his monarchy. and Edgar discuss who is \0 ru le. None of them wa nts to. Shak espeare encourages the audience to relate to King but finally Edgar accepts the responsibil it y, since a ruler is Lear from different perspectives by repeatedly usi ng the necessary: "The weight of this sad time we must obey" (V image of a microcosm-a smaller world within a larger one. iii 323). The entire Glouceste r subplot is an encapsu lated version of In addition to the gene ral renection of Engli sh society ie the Lear plot: an aging noble, threatened by his ev il ch ild , King Lear, there are several particular characteristics or mistrusts his beller child . Besides the parallel plots, James I renected in Lear. A ft er his ret irement, Lear wanU Shakespeare constantly compares Ihe parallel worlds of weak to hu nt with his knights; James's "chief pasti me was ridinlo humanity and omnipotent Nature, the realm of th e gods. and he was often on horseback. For dogs, horses , aad Lear "Strives in his lillie world of man to outscornl the to­ hunting he developed a passion that remained with hila and -fro connict ing wi nd and ra in,'" bu t ul timately fi nds always.'" When James took the throne in England, he 1011 his power is no match for Nature. Gloucester, after bei ng popular su ppOrt by pla yi ng fa vo ri tes and gelli ng. ~ blinded, realizes his own powerlessness in the uni verse: "As disputes with Parliament. In 1599 James pubhs..-

28 Basilikon Doron, a book about government that supported Lear is a worse fool: "Thou hadst lill ie wit in thy bald crown the divine right of kings. Lear is shown to be a part of the when thou gavest thou golden one away" (I iv 143). di vi ne right tradition when Kent, disguised, asks to serve Although Lear threatens " Take heed, si rrah, the whip" (I him: iv 96), the Fool knows this is only an idle threat. Shakespeare was not " all-licensed" but he was supponed by the LEAR : Dost thou know me, fellow? aristocracy. The relatio nship between court and theater has KENT: No sir; but you ha ve that in your been described this way: countenance which I would fain call master. LEA R: Whal's that? {The act ing companies" members would have been at KENT: Authority. (I iv 24-27). the mercy of the laws against vagabonds were it not for the protection afforded by the status of being the And. like James, Lear is reluctant to let go of his divine Lord C hamberlain's servants or the King's Men. The right: " T hou shalt find/ That J'II resu me the shape which monarchy censored plays and licensed performances thou dost think/ I have cast off forever; thou shalt, I' ll through the offices of the Master of the Revels, but warrant thee" (I iv 287 -89). Shakespeare may have wan ted it also protected the theaters ... from the allemplS to demonstrate that James's own belief in his divine ri ght of ihe city to pluck them down ." to rule was not enough to keep him in power. One of James's quarrels with the House of Commo ns involved his selling Shakespeare may have felt that he himsel f was the Fool of commercial monopolies 10 his friends. The Fool attributes James's court. There is a certain similarity in their this fau lt to Lear: professions: two poelS who entertain but use their entertainment to expound on perti nent issues. Shakespeare KENT: This is not altogether fool, my lord. probably fe lt sympathy for the Fool at the warnings of " the FOOL: No, faith, lords and great men will not let whi p"-Shakespeare had ruffled feathers at court, too. And me; if J had a monopoly out, they would have a part Shakespeare, lik e the Fool, was never treated as an equal on't: and ladies too. they will not let me have all fool or given much respect by the nobles, since drama was to myself; they'll be snatching. (I iv 134-37). considered a lowl y art in his time: "The men who wrote for the theaters we re, in the minds of most people, merel y the James's playing o f favorites was a major complaint o f less serious writers who worked for the players and the acti ng his subjects; his "partiality for favorites at court prevented profession, though an ancient one, was held in low him from judging di spassionately the abilit y of his ablest esteem.'''' Shakespeare is careful to show that in spite of servants .... "'0 Shakespeare has Lear pick hi s favorites his sharp tongue and low statio n, the Fool is one of Lear's at the beginning of the play by how much they can nailer wisest and most faithful friend s. Perhaps Shakespeare him . Lear's vanity was a good example of what not to do wanted James to notice him and identify him with the Fool; for James, bUilhe ki ng evidently paid no allention. He had whether he did or not , Shakespeare must have felt for the a receptive ear for nanery, and as hi s reign progressed, "he Fool he had created. ignored words spoken to him unless they were prefaced by What wa s James's reaction to King Lear? He was tit les such as most sacred, pleaseful, wise or learned. " " apparently not displeased because Shak es peare and the Around 1616, James began to rely heavily on the counsel company continued as the King's Men for many years. of George Villiers, a favorite nanerer, whom he made Duke Perhaps James paid the play less allention than he should of Buckingham, an action which brought many unwelcome have. for as Regan remarks, " Jesters do o ft prove prophets" Conseq uences in later years.') James often displayed the (V iii 72). The end o f the I1rst scene might have been hi gh-handedness that got Lear in so much trouble, as in thi s particularly interesting to James: excerpt from an address to his already alienated Parliament : " It is pres umption in a subject to dispute what a king can REGAN: 'Tis the inl1rmity of his age; yet he hath do or say that a king cannot do this or that. " ') Lear's actions ever but slenderly known himself. renett the absolute certainty and steadfaSllless James had GONERIL : The best and soundest of hi s time hath in hi s decisions: " Let it be so! Thy truth, then, be thy bee n but rash; then must we look to receive from his dower!" (I i 1(6). age the unruly waywardness that inl1rm and How could Shakespeare show the d ivine right o f kings choleric years bring with them. (I i 289-94). fail , make fu n of selling monopolies. and imply that James played favorit ies and ruled arbitrarily? The Fool was The above portrait fit James just as we ll as it fi ts Lear: ~hak es pear e's answer to the problem . There was no Fool an already stubborn. decisive ki ng, James suffered from In The Truth Chronicle f1istorie of King Leir ond His Three faltering judgment, even senilit y, in his later years. He was ~aughlers Goneri!, Ragan, and Cordelia, fr om which not in step with his people or his Parl iament; and he was, Thakespeare took his s[O ry line. ,. Shakespeare created him . I1nall y, an easy mark fo r ambitious power-seekers. James 's hhe "all. licensed" Fool is allowed to mock Lear because son, Prince C harles, fo rmed an alliance with the ki ng's old ~ e king loves him- and Shakespeare is allowed to implicate favorite, the Duke of Buckingham, and the two proceeded ames beca use James loves drama. The Fool implies that to assume authority. Beginning around October of [623 ,

29 " they showed small respeCl for hi s person. .. James was ' Alv in B. Kernan. " King Lear and Thc Shakespearean Paleanl hal f-excl uded from governmen t nOl onl y by ill health but HiSlory." in On King Lear, cd . La ... ·rencc Dan.'>On (princelon, N. J~ by the deli berate policy of Charles and Buckingham." " Princelon Un;" ersiI Y Press, (981). p. 10. .. ' Kernan, p. II. Although he Iried to regain it, James had little authority for 'Kernan. p. 12. the remaining eighteen months of his life. Thus James, in ' Da vi d Harris Willson, King Jumes VI ami I (New York: O~fOrd his old age, went the way of Lear. Uni versilY Press. 1967). p. 26. Whether Sha kespeare prophesied James's fall. tried to " Parker. p. 131. prevent it, or did not even address it in King Lear, it is " Willson, p. 168. " WiUWIl, p. 383. interesting to notc the similarities between the real king and " Will ~o n, p. 2~8. the stage king. Both were victims of their own stubborn snap " Benlley, "KinS's Companr." p. 53. decisions; both lost some of their mental faculties wi th old " Kernan. p. 8. age; and both were prematurely succeeded by thei r children. " G.E. iknller. Shuknpeare: A lJiographiralllundbtxJk (Ne .... Haven Perhaps the Fool would have pointed to James in his later Conn.: Yale Uni.·crsil)· Prcss . 1961) p. 3. ' " Willson . p. 441 years as hc poims to Lear, saying, "That's a sheal ed pcascod" (l iv 176). BI BLlOGKAPIl"

Beruley, G.E. Shukespeore: A Biographirol Hundbook. New Haven, Conn.: Yale Univcrsil)' Press, 1961 "Shakespeare .• hc King'S Company, and King Leur" in On NOTES King Lror. ed. Lawrence Danson. Prinetlon. N.J.: Princeton Uni~('f5 it y 'G.E. iknlley, "Shakcspeare, Ihe Kin g'~ Company. and King L~r," PI('l;S, 1981. in On King Leur. ed. Lawren~e Danson (prin ~ e!On, N. J.: rr in~eTon Kernan, Al vin B. ,. King Leur and the Shakespearean Pageant of History" University P rcs~. 1981). p. SO. in On King Leur. cd. Lawrence Danson. PrinceTOn. N.J. : Princelon 'lknlley, " King's Compan~," p. 51. Universitr Press, 1981 . 'Alan and V('fonica Parka, Who's Who in Shakespt'Urf''s England {Ne ...· Parker. Alan and Veronka. Who's Who in Shak~speor(,'J England. New York : SI. MaTlin's Press. Inc" 198\J. p. IJI. Y or ~ : 51. Manin's Press. In c., 198 1. ' lkntle~, " King's Compan~," p. 56. 5hakt~pcarc, William . King Leur in Tht' NOrlon Antlrology of English 'William Shakespeare, King Leur. in The Norton A mlr%gy of English LilrralUre, ed. M .H . Abrams el at. Ne .... York : W.W . Norton and Liter/llure, cd. M .H . Abrams el aI., 41h cd. (New York: W.W. Nonon Company. 41h ed., 1979. and Company, (979). Ael t. scene iii, lines 10-11. All further referen~es Willson. Da"id Harris. King Jumes VI and I. Ne .... York: Oxford Uni\'efsiTy 10 .his ...· ork appear in Ihe lext . Press. 1967.

30 PERSONALITY DETERMINANTS: RESEARCH RESULTS AND IMPLICATlONS FOR INTERVENTION

Terrell Coble

There are many areas of CO nlroversy within the behavioral and developmental sciences. but none has been greater than the fact the twins interact provides a possible source of the dcbate over what determines the personality of an contamination (Loehlin, Willerman and Horn, 1982). indi vidual. There are those who believe that the chie f Although temperament and personality are not the same determinant in personality development is biologically or thing, they are seen by some as being vitall y related. ge neticall y based. On the other hand, there are those who Temperament , which can be determined in the infant , is believe that environmenlal factors are the more important. viewed by some to be the foundation upon which the later This controversy seems to be of critical importance both personality will be built (Goldsmith, 1983). It is also believed to those dealing with behavior and to those whose area of to be influential in the development of later ch ildhood concern is development. For persons in the therapeutic realm behavior disorders (Goldsmith and Gottesman, 1981). it is important to know what parts of personality (if not all In their longitudinal study of twins, Goldsmith and of it) are open to change and what areas might not be. Gottesman (1981) studied 504 twin pairs at the ages of 8 Should therapeutic intervention be aimed at changing some months, 4 years, and 7 years. At 8 months the children were aspect of personality, thus getting to the "root" of a evaluated by psychologists for such things as speed of problem, or should it rather be directed at helping the response, active manipulation, response duration, pursuit ind ividual to cope wi th something that will always be there? persistence, activity level and interest in persons. At4 years The likeli hood of effecting change in some area of the they were evaluated ror such factors as emotional reactivity, personali ty certainly seems greater if that area is shaped by degree or dependency. attention span, goal orientation, envi ronmenlal rather than genetic factors . Thus the outcome degree of irritability, and activity leveL At 7 years the twins of the biological vs. environmental determinanls issue is of were evaluated for qualities suc h as self-confidence, critical importance in determining both the aim of therapy frustration tolerance. assertiveness, fearfulness. emotional and, by implication, the characteristics of the treatment reactivity, degree of dependency and attention span. (This modalities themselves. listing of factors evaluated is representative rather than The outcome of the biological vs. environmental complete). determinism debate is of no less importance to those in the In this st udy the evidence for a genetic proponent in the developmental area. The purpose of developmental studies dimension of activity was seen to be strong at 8 months of is, a fter all, not only to determine how development takes age. However, at ages of 4 years and 7 years no specific place but also how optimum developmenl might be genetic influence was shown, although act ivity level encouraged. If personality is predetermined biologically, the appeared to be a modest predictor of I.Q. and attention span focus of development ought to be on genetics and other at 4 years. At 4 years persistence was seen to be affected related sciences. On the other hand, if environmental factors by genetics, although its heritability was less at 7 years. The shape the child's personali ty development. there is the apparent instability of these effects was believed to be a possibility of inlervention by changing certain of those reflection of a changing role of genotype during successive factors, thus encouraging optimal personality development periods of personality development. as he grows. Another twin study, this one with a sample of 93 sets of Twin studies would appear to provide the optimum vehicle twins with a mean age of 50 months, used the Activity Level for examination of genetically-based development, since Questionnaire rather than assessment by psychologists monozygotic (MZ) twins share exactly the same genes wh ile (Willerman, 1973). The ALQ was completed by the mothers dizygotic (DZ) twins share only 50% of their genes. Since and consisted of 32 items related to the child 's behavior MZ twins share the identical genes, discordance in their during mealtime, watching television, playing, etc. Mothers behaviors or traits would indicate environmental influences rated the behavior during these activities on a 3 point scale in personalit y, while strong concordance would be the (none to yes-very much). Results of the st udy were that expected finding if genetics plays a major role in a significant genetic component for activity level in twins development. With DZ twins, the fact that they share only was found, rivaling that round fo r intelligence (p .. 05). 50070 of the same genes makes similarities between However, it should be remembered that similar behavior by themselves and MZ twins indicative of substantial twins could also be due to the effects of modeling. environmental effects. Brown, Stafford and Vandenburg (1967) in their study Despite the advantages of twin study, two factors should of 140 pairs of twins observed such variables as laughing be borne in mind. The first is that the twin sample may not and smiling more readily. shows temper more often, has be representative of the whole population. The second is that feeding problems, has more tantrums, cries more, has more

31 sleeping problems, generall y succeeds in taking toys from children. The 2 groups we re equall y well socialized and twin and more li ke mother in perso nalit y. To evaluate thcse emotionally stablc. items they relied upon mothers' reports. These reports were The adoptive parents were better adjusted as a group than made at 3, 6, 9, 12 and 18 months and al 2, 3, 4 and 5 years the unwed mothers. However, the children of maladjusted of age. Their resul ts showed a greater co ncordance in mot hers tended to be more extraverted, better socialized , behaviors of MZ twins and a greater discordance of more dominant and more stable emotionally than the behaviors of DZ twi ns, which would be consistent wi th some children of the better adjusted mothers. Those children genetic in nuence. Figures of signi ficance we re obtained for reared apart fro m their mothers who were more extraverted feeding probl ems, sleeping problems and mothcr seeing onc and dominant tended to have mothers who were the same. as more like herself in personali ty. The authors concluded that there was evidence for direct A fin al study in the area of tem perament is one by transmiss ion of extraversion but were sti ll left wit h a Witterman and Plomin (1973). This was a study comparing question of why maladjusted mothers had well adjusted acti vity levels of children and parents and involved 43 children. It was postulated that perhaps there was a families wit h children ranging in age from 34· 70 months. geneticall y based sensiti vity to parental warmth or rejection The Activity Level Questionnaire was again used, and in this which predisposed the mothers to maladjustment while case the mothers fil led out questionnaires for their children predisposing their offs pring to better than average and for themselves. Fathers filled them out only for adjustment. Thus there seemed to be a genetic­ themselves . Both mothers and fat hers were fou nd to envi ronmental interact ion. However, wit hout more correlate signi ficantly wit h their children for activi ty levels. evidence, these assumptions would appear to be reaching. The rating methods used would appear to be open to Another personality study (M iller and Rose, 1982) used contamination. However, the authors fell that the agreement as its sa mple 50 MZ pairs and 59 DZ pairs. The subjects between self rat ings of mot hers and fathers seemed to argue were college students, and controls were singleton students. for the va lidity of the method. The aim was to ascertain familial resemblance on the In summation, nea rl y all of the studies examined in the personality trait of locus of contro l. The Internal-Ex ternal area of temperament showing genetic innuences dealt with Locus of Control Scales was administered to all the students the dimension of activity. The except ion was that persistence and mailed to the parents to complete also. Complete data was also shown to have genetic in nuence. None of the were received from both parents in 86 twi n fam ilies and 13 studies cited pointed to environmental influences on single parents of twins. temperament. If temperament is indeed the foundation upon If the locus of control trait was substantiall y which personality is bui lt, then there would appear to be environmentally based, correlations between MZ and DZ some potent ial genet ic effects upon personality development. twins and parents would resemble each other equally. However, a concrete link between temperament and However, the correlation between parents and MZ twins was pe rsonali ty needs to be ascertained. approximately twice that of the DZ twins and their parents Several studies ha ve been done involving measurement (If (r = .46 vs r '" .18). Also, the resemblance betwee n DZ twins aspects of personality in an attempt to gauge the extent of and parents approximated that of non-twin sibli ngs and genetic and environment al in nuences. One such study parents, which was as expected. These results suggest at least involved a population of unwed mot hers and their offspring modest heri tabil ity of locus of control, and a wi thin-pair which had been adopted away (Lochlin, Wil lerman and F-tcst for genetic variance yielded significant results (p ..01) , Horn, 1982). This study offered th e possibility of avoidi ng suggest ing the presence of heritable fact ors. di stortion due to interaction inherent in the usual twin Another study of personality resemblances between studies. siblings and parents yielded different results (Scarr, Webber, One part of the sample was comprised of a group of 300 Wei nberg and Witt ig, 198 1). In a group comprised of families, each having both adoptive and natural childre n. adolescent and young adult siblings from 110 biological The mothers who gave up the adopted children comprised families and 115 adoptive fam ilies, identical tests were the other pan of the sample. Whi le al a home fo r unwed administered to both parents and child ren. The tests used mothers, subjetts were administered a shortened fo rm of were the Edwards Personality Inventory to measure the MMPI. The same (est was later administered to the extraversion and neuroticism, the Diffe rential Personality adoptive parents. Also, children in the adoptive group over Questionnai re to measure social closeness, social potency age 8 we re given the 16 Personali ty Factor test, as well as and impulsiveness, and the Activities Preference either the Children's Personality Questionnaire (ages 8- 12) Questionnai re, which was used to measure trait anxiety. or the High School Personality Quest ionnaire (ages 13· 18). The result s when analyzed yielded parent -child In addition to this, one of the adoptive parents rated chi ld ren correlations of .20 for biological ch ildren and .06 (or ages 3 and older on 24 bipolar 9-point scales intended to adoptive chi ldren. Sibling-sibli ng correlations were found tap 12 Cattell factors . to be .20 for relat ed sibs (much less than the .50 suggested The information gained was analyzed to yield 4 factors: by a purely genetic effect) and .07 for unrelated ones. It was extraversion, socialization, emotional stability and concluded from the data obtained that only a smtl dom inance. The results were that the adopted children were percentage of personalit y variances could be accounted !~ somewhat more ext raverted and dominant than the nat ural by genetic differences, since the co rrelat ion for relaPl'"

32 siblings was only .20. It would appear that a major difficulty in investigating However, since the unrelated sibli ngs yielded a correlation the determinants 01 personalllY IS that there arc no reliable of only .07, the variances in effect could not be explained psychometric instruments ava il able for longitudinal by the family environmental similarities. The authors research . A combination of instru ments must be used at postulated th at the individual experiences of siblings must present, which leads some to question the results obtained. be sufficiently different that their personalities develop Also, there is a scarcity of in st ruments which arc useful in differently. This would still be an environmental effect, but assessing personality in children, resulting in gaps in the it appears to be somewhat speculat ive. coverage of personality concepts. It is fe lt that work in this A final st udy is one by Plomin and Foch (J 980). 11 is yet area wi ll be hindered until a valid test useful for both another twin study involving 108 pairs and was done to children and adults bcomes available. Research which would eliminate possible distortions inherent in questionnaire-based help in the development of such an instrument would be studies (wh ich most in the genetics vs. environment area valuable. seem to be). The twins (average age 7 years) were objectively Such research might profitably focus on establishing a link assessed fo r act ivity level, fidgeting, vigilance, distractability, between traits of temperament and personality concepts. If select ive a11ention, and aggression. temperament is indeed the foundation upon which All assessment measures were subjected to reliabili ty personality is built, it wou ld appear that such a link would testing. As a result a pan of the test for activity level was exist, and it would bolster the case for bi ological influences eliminated, leaving only a week long test with a pedometer in personality development if it should be established. In attached to the child to measure activity. Also eliminated the process both temperament and personality constructs were the measures for vigilance and distract ability. The might be be{(er understood and defined. remaining measu res were as follows: selective attention was On balance, the studies examined seemed to argue for measured by asking a child to point out pictures while biological factors as being important determinants of hearing descriptive words about them on headphones. This personality. If biological factors arc indeed significant was done with and without the addition of background personality determinants, there are important implications noise. Fidgeting was measured during a 9 minute rest period for both the therapeutic and the developmental realms. with the child in a bean bag. Aggression was determined by The implications ce nter around the possibility of obs~rvat ion of a one-minute video tape made with a Bobo therapeutic change. Such changes in a personality dimension doll. The number of hits, intensity of hits, and number of would appear much more unlikel y if genetic rather than quadrants were evaluated. environmental factors are responsib le for its development. The only significant correlation was found in the week In a personality area showing strong genetic innuences the long activity measure. Other measurements were said to therapeutic techniques which have adaptation as their aim reflect no significant genetic influence. Strong between­ would seem to have much more likelihood of success than fami ly influences for selective attention and number of hits techniques which are directed toward effecting change. were seen. These same between-family factors were thought This holds true for the developmental area as well. If a to account for variances in the fi dgeting measures (with some personality dimension is seen to be substantially genetically­ possible genetic influence) and for about 500/0 of the based, it would appear thai there would be limits to the variances in the intensity of hits and nu mber of quadrant amount of change to be expected from paremal and measures of aggression. All told, it wou ld appear that this environmental intervention. This might seem discouraging study fo und more environmental influences than genetic to some, but if it is true its recognition might help to prevent ones. However, the superiority of these objective constructs additional fru strat ion when attempts at change fail. II might over questionnaires is open to question. also help those parents who feel guilt because they The effects of genet ics on temperament appear to be mistakenly blame themselves for their children's undesirable shown most clearly in the trait of activity, suggesting at least r ersonality traits. a moderate influence. It would also appear that the trait of persistence shows some evidence of heritability, based on BIBLIOGRAPIIY the studies evaluated. In the area of personality there appear to be genetic Brown, A.M .. Stafford, R.E. and Van denburg. S.G. Twins: behavioral innuences as well. There was evidence of a biological differences. Child Development. 1967,38, 1055 -1064 . component in such personality dimensions as extraversion, Goldsmith, H .H. Genetic innuences on personality from infancy to adullhood. Child Development, 1983,54,331-355. SOcialization, domi nance, emotional stabil ity and locus of Goldsmith, H.H . and Gottesman, \. Origins of variation in behavior styte: Control. The evidence is strengthened by the fa ct that much a tongiludinal siudy of tcmperamCnJ in young Iwin ~. Child Development. of it COmes from twin studies, which when properly done t981. 52 . 9t-I03. have a great deal of power inherent in them. One potential Loehtin. J.e.. Willerman. L. and Horn, J.M. Personality resemblance Weakness of the evidence is that it involved the use of sel f­ belween unwed mOlh ers and Iheir adopted-away offspring. Journolof rePort and questionnaire methods. However, there is the PersonalilY and Social Psychology, t982, 42, t089-1099. Miller, J.Z. and Rose. R.J. A familiar resembtance in focus of control: ~~nger in objective assessment that constructs themselves a twin family ~l ud y of Ih e inl ernat-cxternat scate. Journal of Pfor.;onalily Ight not be valid measurements. Qnd Social Psychology, 1982,42.535·540.

JJ Plomin. R. and Farb. T.T. A twin stl,ldyof objeC"tivdy as~~ personality ]98] ,40. 885·898. in childhood. JQu",,,' 0/ Ptrsona!ily and Social P$ychology. ]980, 39, Willcrman, L. Activity IC"et and hyperactivity in t .... ills. Child CNvtlo/NJtnw 680-688. ]973, 44, 28&·293. • Scarr. S., Webber. P.L .• Wei nl>era. R.A. and Wittig, M.A. Personality Wi tkrmall. L. and Plomill, R. Activity level in children aIld their paretlll. resemblance among adotescent and their parents in biologically related Child lHvtlopmtnt. 1973,44, 854-1158. and adoptive ramilies. Jou"'QI 0/ Ptrsonality and Social P$ychofogy.

34 THROVGH PONTORMO'S EYES

Michael Gray

Have mercy upon me, 0 Lord , fo r I am in trouble: idiom of his older Florent ine contem poraries-specifica ll y mi ne eye is consumed with grief, yea my so ul and my Fra Ba rtolommeo and Andrea del Sarto. Because be ll y. For my life is spent with grief, and my years with POnlormo's assimilation of the High Renaissance was so sighin g: my strength faile!!l because of mine iniquity, insightful and penetrating, his break from it would be of and my bones are co nsumed. Psalms 31: 9- 11 histo rical consequence. This breach came in 1518 with the complet ion of the altarpiece of San Mic hele Visdomini. This excerpt fro m the thirty-first Psalm of David taps deep According to Freedberg, Jacopo's motives in the into the emotional Strata of human religious e.x perience. Visdomini altarpiece were not negative but si mply an David sees the world through grieving eyes. The world sees exte nsion of th e tenets of Classicism- a pressuring of them the gr ief in David's eyes. Whether it is doll ar or terror or to "negate their origin" (Painlings il/ fraly, 18 1) . He al so guil t. our eyes, like David 's, become the mi rrors of our sou l. writes: "There is a dual reference. in al most each important Indeed, the human eye is an exquisi te comm unicator. What facet of the altar's style, to Classical antecedent and to words fa il to express , we see in the gestu re o r manner of alterations worked on it. The motive force for change begins the eyes. Thus. it is no wonder that perceptive art ists have in an expressive wi ll that has a character of contradiction tried to recreate their rich mystery and, in so doing. cap!Urc in it, at the same tim e irrationall y int ense and exceedingly the very essence of the person whose face they dominate. refined" (181). It is thi s will to surpass Fra Bartolommeo's The Renaissance master Jaeopo Carrucd da Pontormo constraint and del Sarto's emot ional discretion that is one such artist. His treatment of the human eyes is prevented Po ntormo from stagnating in his own pictorial memorably unique. In his chalk studies, they become formula as Vasari did. By his th irties, he had reached the stro ngly emotive symbols, records of the kind of aJl­ eminence of de l Sarto. was the leading pai nt er of Fl orence consuming, even paralyzing grief of which Da vi d speaks. in the absence of Michelangelo and Raphael, and was the Moreover, his dark, vertical ellipses reveal much of his own favorite portraitist and mural decorator of the Medici personali ty-the y testi fy to his quiet , withdrawn, and fam ily. ' meditati ve nature. And finally, as they are far from Yet he was not cO llt ent. As Canaday notes, "he grew naturalis tic. they symbolize Pont ormo's Manneristic di vorce inwards, adapting hi s style not [ 0 the taste of the pat rons of the Neoclassical attitudes held by many of his peers. In but to the demands of his own shy. introspective. and short , the eyes of POnl ormo's sketches convey at once the soli tary nature" (275). Although d uri ng his forties his (religious) pangs of his subject s. his own inner torment , and popularity diminished (as other Mannerists, including his the pathway of art in sixteenth century Italy. pupil Bronzino. became more favored) his pai nti ngs became POlltormo was born Jacopo Carrucci in 1493 or 4 in thc increasingly enigmatic, " fill ed with [wri tes Canaday I small town ncar Empoli. Italy. whose name he adopted upon ambiguous relationships, with exaggerations and arriving in Florence. Says Maye r in her book Pomormo's sophisticated refinements of GOIhic for ms bo rrowed from Diary: " His father died before he was six. his mother by Durer, and with contortions reflecting the anguish but not the ti me he was ten. then his grandfather and grand­ the posi ti veness of Michelangelo's late wor k (275). Still he mother/ guardian in a few more years. finall y his sister in worked for whom he pl eased, with out regard for wealth . 1512 when he was eighteen or nineteen." She adds: Jacopo His last commissions, the frescoes of the choir of the Medici had {he understanding that comes from being a " rootless church of San Lorcnzo, came as quite an honor. He spent child." he knew the difficult y of staying alive "that grows the last eleven years of his li fe struggli ng wit h them only from boredom int o tension. then active solitude" (1 09). 10 have Bronzi no finish the work after his death. Mayer According to Vasari. Pontormo studied under Leo nardo, co mments: Piero di Cosimo, and Albcrti nel1i and worked as an assistant to Andrea del Sarto. However. in an art icle for The ... he pai nt ed Adam and Eve, their temptation. the Burlinglon Magazine, Beck disc redit s these earl y expulsion from paradise, a resu rrection, ti lling the soil, connections. especially the apprent iceship 10 Albertinelli at Cain and Abel, Noah and the ark. the deluge, Moses age eleven (624). That he was a prodigy is nonetheless and the evangelists. Christ judging the blessed and the generally accepted. Vasari cit es an occasion when Raphael. damned . He died alone o n New Year's Eve , Monday upon seeing a small "' Ann unciation" done by Jacopo before or on New Year's Da y, a Tuesday in 1557 and was 1508. was amazed that its pai nt er had been so young. bu ried o n Wednesday, January 2,1557 .... By 1742 POTl\ ormo's first independent work s dat e from about 15 13, the choir wa ll s had cracked. They were replaslered and and in them he mimicked the then dominant Classical white washed. The sketches in the Diary and some of

lS his drawings for the frescoes survive. ( 167) and Lucas van Leyden prill1s then popular in Florence Gendcl says that Pontormo, in these times of secl usion,.,..'; Because they were misunderstood, many of his pai nti ngs, "indrawn and pai nfu[ ly bent on his eraft"(37), It is in the [i ke the San Lore'lzo frescoes, have disappeared or been fourth phase which he makes his most mature Mannerist destroyed. Primarily what we arc left with are, according statemcnt. In the drawings fro m 152 5 to 1530, he attains to Reari ck, some three hundred a nd eighty-three a sy nthesis or resolution between what Rearick calls drawings(4) .: Thesc are widely considered to be the true "mannerist novelty and classical tradition"(l6). This Pontormo. For Canaday, they "amou nt to a perpetual precarious balance achieved , he is left to again experimelll soliloqu y"- a questioning soliloquy that never even expects in the period between 1530 and 1545, onl y this lime he is a denouement (275). Therefore, if we desire to unravel the ve ry much in volved in the art of Michelangelo, and his work mystery of the eyes he gives his d rawn fi gures, we must firs t of this phase well withi n the scheme of the Maniera. understand the development of his drawing style, then realize I>o ntormo's last phase ( 1545- 1556) was o ne of isolated the tension of his manner, and finall y, analyze a response to the Maniera. These are th e drawings of the lost representative sam ple of his work. San Lorenzo frescoes whose "sheer creati vit y and novelty" As he is of the Florentine school, the emphasis he gives Rearick believes "equals that of any of his earlier to d rawing is to be expected. We are not surprised when, works"(17).l in a letter to Varch i, Pontormo claims there is only one POlllormo's paintings, like Mannerism in general, were aspect of an which is "noble" and it is the ba sis for both largely unappreciated by the F[orentine public (his drawings painti ng and sculpture- the element of disegno (Mayer, 55), were privately kept). Thus, to truly understand Pontormo " To the average Florent ine anist, drawing was the basis of and his diminishing appeal it is necessary to reali ze the art in a somewhat academic sense;" to Po ntormo, "it was Strangeness, the foreign ness of Mannerism and his particular an investi gative and creati ve acti vit y, at once intellectual and brand of it. McCarthy writes: int uitive, that was essent ial to the fu ll expression of his artistic individuality" (Rearick, 3-4) . In Pontormo's Up to the time of Pontormo and II Rosso, there had drawi ngs, most of which are individual, single figu re studies, been a ge neral ag reement , not restricted to eit her nude or draped, the conventional distinctions between connoi sse urs, as to what constituted beauty and what pensieri, swdi, and modelli are lost in fa vor of "a highly consti tuted ugliness, and the judgement of the citi zens ind ividua l variant of the discipli ning, dia[etic preparatory of Florence was regarded as supreme. Their Quick process of the Renaissance." In fact, Rearick believes his applause for the new had kept this agreement from impulse for drawing was "expressive, not analytic," She becoming a for m of phi li stinism-nobody complai ned claims that in his o llen'e there are numerous drawings not that Giotto was not like Cimabue or that Brunelleschi connected with pictoria l preparati on, "free sketches in the had violated the plan of Arnolfo. The Mannerists were modern sense" and many other drawi ngs whose relation to the first to require a special vision, an act of wi lled the pictorial process is only "a tangential one." She also understanding, on the part of the public. With II notes that while there are few studies of details (like hands Rosso and Pontormo, " What can anyone sec in it?" and draperies) and few complete model/i, there are, however. became for the first ti me, a question propounded numerous head st udies- important, she belives because of about a wo rk of art. And even today, the visitor off their psychological content(6). to the Uffizi who has not been prepared by a heavy AI the ti me when Pontormo was expand ing disegno into reading course in art cri tieism and theory will find the fi nished drawing and free sketch, he was also cstablishing himself wondering, in the Mannerist rooms, what the kind of individuality characlerisiic of Mannerists anyone ever saw or sees in th is art, with its freakish throughout the sixteent h cent ury, In the Hi gh Rena issance , figures arranged in "funny" postures and dressed in individuality tended to be subordinate to other more classical vehemently colored costumes. (108 9) ideals. but wit h Mannerism the pendulum swings back to a more personal, romantic, and im " assioned approach. Yet. Says Hauser: "the development of Mannerism marked his arrival at this approach was nei l her direct nor haslY . He one of the deepest breaks in the history of art"(3)-for the developed via a dialogue between the Classical and first time art had intentionally diverged from nature, Nonclass ical. He developed )'ia meditati ve experiment. Moreover, the discipline of form, " the complete permeation As earlier mentioned, the first phase of Pontormo's of reality by the principles of order." and the balanced sense career, Ihe period from 1514-1519, is characterized by an of harmony were now rules to be broken. For Pontormo's attention 10 lale Quamocelllo concept s of drawing, His gencration t he att ri but es of classicism seemed "cheap, if nOI second phase, 1519-1521, is ma rked by some one hundred actuall y mendacious" and harmony Seemed " hollow and drawings and an awareness of the Roman High Renaissance. dead." "Unambiguous ness seemed over-simplificat ion ," His st udies for the Poggio a Caiano lunette, which are "Unconditio nal acceptance of the rules seemed like self· ex pressly Mannerist, are the climax of this period. The th ird betrayal" (Hauser,6). In fact, whi le Classicism best captures phase features a typically abru pt rejection of his ea rl ier the ideals of the Renaissance, Mannerism best describes the formula and subsequent artistic isolation. [n his drawings real Ital}' during that period . Like an y age in which classical fo r the Certosa cloister, he turns to the solutions of the Durer notions prevail, the Renaissance was a preca ri ous, neeting

36 balance- what Hause r calls "an interval of euphoria from the Classical norms of painting. These too are between periods of misery and suffering." "The tormented significant to a more complete grasp of Pontormo's drawing art of the Mannerists, impregnated with the mentality of style as they are reflected in both the fin ished paintings and crisis and so much denounced and decried for insincerity earlier draftmanship. Of the fr escoes for the Medici chapel, and artificiality, is a much truer reflection of the age than Vasari comments: the ostent atious peace, harmony, and beauty of the classics" (Hauser, 7). Also, whereas Pontormo's masters, Fra ... it docs not seem to me that in a si ngle place did Barw lommeo and Albertinelli were staunch upholders of he give a thought to any order of composition, or the Classical tradition, Leonardo was in the end a romantic measurement, or time. or variety in the heads, or and Raphael and Michelangelo became increasingly di ve rsity of fle sh-colors, or, in a word, to any rule, Mannerist or Baroque. Thus, even the work of the very proportion, or law of perspective; for the whole work leaders of the rebirth portends its demise. This tension, thi s is fu ll of nude figures with an order, design, invention, instability, is significant because it is the struggle of composit ion, coloring, and painting contrived after his ponwrmo's experi ments. To maintain gratia and to den y own fashion, and with such uneasiness a nd so litt le the Classical was his problem; a nervous, emotional satisfaction for him who beholds the wo rk, that I am feggiardria was his answer.' determined, since I myself do not understand it, If the people of Florence were finding il difficult to accept although 1 am a painter, to leave all who may see it the new mannerism, Pontormo's reclu sive lifestyle only to form their own judgement, for the reason that 1 made maners worse. The psychological unease conveyed in believe that J would drive myself mad wit h it and the eyes of his figures also seems evident in his personality. would lose myself, even as it appears to me that Jacopo Vasa ri is primarily sym pathetic toward Pontormo as a man. in the period of eleven years that he spent upon it He describes him as "a modest person who spoke honorably so ught to lose himself and all who might see the and in a manner proper to an orderly and virtuous artist" painting, among all those extraordinary figures. (Wackernagel, 81). On the other hand, he criticizes the (Italian An 1500-1600, 82-3) "madness" of Pontormo's interest in Durer, his extreme solitude, and even his home. Vasari asks: "Did not It has already been established that Pontormo gave much Pontormo know. then, that these Germans and Flemings thought to his compositions. His "chaos" is intentional. came to these parts to learn the It alian manner, which he When judged by the criteria presented in Alberti's On wi th so much effort sought to abandon as if it were Painting, his work both obeys and disobeys. The summation bad"(99)? Of Pontormo's house he writes: it has "rather of and cause for all the discrepancies with the code of Alberti the appearance of a building erected by an eccentric and is , as Vasari stated, Pontormo's attempt to represelll more solitary creature than of a well-ordered habitation "(80). He than what is seen . He does not copy nature-he interprets particularly objects to the ladder, which when pulled up, and adjusts it. Yet even when he obeys he disobeys. Says prevented anyone from disturbing Pontormo while he Alberti, "painting is the finest and most ancient of ornament worked or slept. Furthermore, how could Pontormo refuse of things"(67) and in it "grace and beauty must above all to work for the Magnificent Ollavio de Medici and then toil be sought"(73). Pontormo heeds these recommendations over a picture of Our Lady for some "simpleton" mason? well: his paintings resonate both ornament and grace, but That Vasari was perplexed by Pontormo's nature, even the beauty they exude is an artifical beauty unli ke by the way he sealed off the chapel of San Lorenzo for cleven Creation's.! Color, lighting, and depth are all managed so years, may be as much a compliment as a denunciat ion. as to develop what Freedberg calls, in the Encyclopedia of Freedberg describes Jacopo as a "frugal and sober man" World An, Pontormo's "evocations of si ngu lar, haunting who was rather miserly than moderate" in his dress and states of mind and personality." The result ing figures arc manner of life and who chose to live "almost always by "profound in emotion" and "almost precious in their himself, without desiri ng that anyone should serve him or artistic fabric." (Freedberg, 468). cook for him." Freedberg also mentions Pontormo's fear At no time does Pontormo's artificial scheme work better of death (that he avoided seeing dead bodies) and his dread than in the drawings of his fourt h phase. These drawings, of crowds. Most interesting is Freedberg's observation that from the period of San Felicita (1525- 1530), represent his whi le Pontormo had no difficulty executing a problem once most mature Mannerist's style. Says Rearick: "the tensions he had determined the best solution, he labored much over that have been set up between elements of realism and the preparatory choices. "At times [writes Freedberg[, goi ng abstraction were now resolved." His adjustmellls had been oUi to work, he set himsel f so profoundl y on what he was so subtle that "each began to partake the qualitics of the !O do, that he went away without having done any other other"(59). Hi s arbitrary lighting, originall y of this world, thing all day but stand thinking"(84). Such a man as this is now a st range fluorescent pallor (that Rearick terms "a must su rely have been exceedingly sensitive, not mad. Such mystical fuminismo") whose beauty, once combined with a man as thi s would no doubt relish the rich, intuitive, the rythmic ornamentalism of his line, creates the "binding symbolism of prompro chalk lines and sm udges- even the factor" in the "harmonious interpenetration" of the worlds hasty accident of a well trained hand. of realism and abstraction (Rearick, 59). In other words, What Vasari best documents is Pontormo's deviation his success in this fourth phase is due to his uniq ue

37 luminismo and diseg no. Another element important to his sust aining any but his dematerialized beings (62) . successes of this period is his careful reassenion of the Balance is the magic of Pontormo's work and the Classicism of Leonardo, Raphael , and Michelangelo- a of his many carefull y induced resolutions. He reaffi rmatio n evenly balanced by the style of his own earlier nature's post ulates so as to communicale his l experiments. While the grace of his li ne and modeling pays messages with an ironic sweetness. The emotional tri bute to their classicism, it comes short of mimicry; he portrays range from "mute outcry" to "yielding merely ex ploi ts their strengl hs 10 his advantage. His fig ures to "paralyzing inaction" (Rearick, 62). Yet each in the sketches for The Deposilioll, The Annuncialion, the deli vered wit h a sterility that satirizes Classical '

38 de . 11 is "tOO daring" 10 make objccts come alive on a nat surface: Freedberg, Sydney J. '·Pontormo.·' £ncyc/opediaoJ World Art. 1966 ed. "';ef1IJ!. ""hen God created man he sculpted him in the round, which makes Gendel, Mi llon. "Poniormo: A Manncrist"5 Mannerist.'" Art Ne .... s. S~. ~ easier to gi\'e li fe to a figu re." Painting. he says, is a miraculous and No. S (l9S6), 36, 37. 60. ~i" ine discipline " full of artifice." Grayson, Cecil, trans. ed. intro. On Pain/ing and On Sculpture. By L. eone 'Al\)l'rti would be at once proud of such lo ft y mo\'ements and repulsed Bauista Albeni. New York: Phaidon . 1972. b ' the many uplUrned eyes who seem as close to fainting as to Hea\'cn. Hauser, Arnold . Mallntrism. L.ondon: Ru tledge and Kegan Paul, 1965 . f~e up .. ard mO"cment in both paintings is aided by the narrow, pointed Klein, Roben.llalian Art 1JOO-16()(). Englewood Cliffs. New Jersey: Pren­ fcd. reminiscent of Bouicelli. tice Hall, 1966. L.e'·ey. Michael. High Renrtis5ance. Ballimore: Pcnguin Books, 197 5. HIHUOCRAPHY 1\.layer. Rosemary. Pontormo's Diary. New York: Out of L.ondon Press, 1979. Barasch, Moshc. Ug/u ami Color in /he Ila/ian Rena/ssanct Theory ofAr l. McCanhy, Mary Thcrese. The Stones oj Flortnce. New York: Harcourt New York: Ncw York Un i\'. Prcss, 1978. Brace, 1 9 ~ 9 . ]k;;k James. " The Young Pontormo and Alberlinelli." The Burlington Pillsbury, Edmund P. Rev. of Tht Dra ....in gs oj POl1tormo, by Janet Cox /ofagatine, 122 (191ID), 62)-4. Rearick. Masler Drawings. 15 (1977), 177-181. Canada)', John. Lale GOlhic 10 Renais5ance Paimers. New York: W.W. Pooner, Kathleen Well-Garris. "Comments on thc Medici Chapel and Pon· Norlon and Co .. 1969. torma's L. unettc at PoSSio a Caiano." Th~ Burlinglon Maga~int. 115 eha}tc!. Andre. The Crisis oj /he Renaissonee. 1J}().16()(). Trans. PetCr (1 973). 641 -9. Price. World Publishing: Cleveland , 1968. Rearick, Janet Cox. The Drrtwings oj PonlOrmo. Cambridge: Han'ard Clapp, Frederick Monimer. Jacopo Carucci da Pontormo: His Life and Univ. Press. 1964. Work. 1916; rpl. Ncw Yor k: Julius Press, 1972. Steinberg. L.eo. "Pontormo's Capponi ChaJ)CI." The Art Bullelin, 36 Freedbt'rg. Sydney J . Painting in Italy 1500 10 16()(). Baltimore : Penguin (1974), 38S-3 98 . Books, 1975. Wackernagcl, Martin. The World of Flo~nt int Renawanct Artists. 1938: Fr ~berg. Sydney J. Paintings of /he High Rtnawanct in Romt and rpl. Pri nceton: Princeton Uni\". Press, 1981. I'Iorenct. Cambridge: Han'ard Univ. Press, 1961.

See illustrations on rollowing pages.

39 ... -, '.

'".. ~-'"'~ ~ ~- I, -

/

I

, . ,

• •

~ . ""';' ..1 I. Study for Sr. J •." ",,,,. /:. 1527·28 \u rrizi 4;IIF recto )

40 -

2. n.'II.. ~ ; l i ll" . Capponi Chflpd. S. f'l!licita. Flor(>nce, 1525·28

41 •

(jf) • @

3. Drllpcd boy seated on 1I ~loo1. c. 151~ (Uffizi 6564F recto)

42 .. - ;--:- .,;! -~,. r .-- - • ,. . , ~ . ...::"*. .. - I ' . , _" '. \ - . • • ," . '. .• ,I , .r \ \ \\ •\ \ j • J •

• /

,J. , f -• ::. t . ,

I. Stud)' for thl' IX> position. S. Felicita. c. 1525-281UUizi 6666F recto) ~ ... - '"\. , ! )J , "-I., \" • -. - • / . \ ., ~ It- - .~ ~/ '"" ~ • "- ., 0- -r ' • . • i~'" If I ~ .. .::.,:.. .{ !, ~i~> , ;~ • ). ' ' f ,/ r "

')I 1" .~

, .. '- .'/J./ ...... '. ~,. :.,' f " '; , . ' ~IJ . ".~.,. - '

fl. S!Urly for Ih(' (,/,ri ~1 i" (;/""11" ,,,I ('n "Ii"" '!' f:,-j', S, [,Ilr(>n~o . FIUI'('I1{'l'. {' . I ,,,!ii-flU (Uffizi !;fi()!!F I

4,1 -OPERATING UNDER THE FAI R DEBT COLLECTION PRACTICES ACT

jennifer Womeldorf

The Fair Debt Collection Practices Act was signed into himself and his purpose. For exam ple, when acquiring laW by President Caner on September 20, 1977. This statute location information, the collector cannot say that the is the first of its kind. Before its passage there was not much consumer owes a debt. Furthermore, a collector should not fed eral regulation regarding abusive debt collectio n communicate more than once with that person, unless asked practices. ' to do so by Ihe person or under the assumption that incorrect The professional debt coll ector is a fam iliar figure in the information was given at first and now the person knows American population. Almost every adult in the U.S. has the co rrect information. The debt collector must not use a bought goods on credit. All these people arc possible targets postcard 10 comm unicate. He must also not usc any sym bol for abusive debt collection practices. A lot of people who on an envelope that would ind icate the sender is in the debt are abused (by harassi ng calls and threatening leuers) have collection business. After the debt co ll ector knows the every intention of paying their bills, and the y need some co nsumer has an attorney, he must talk onl y with that protect ion.' a!torney unless the attorney does nOI respond within a The purpose of FDCP act is to stop abusive debt collection reasonable amount of time. ' practices and also to encourage si milar st ate action to prOlect Communication in co nn ection with debt coll ect ion is consumers. The FDCP is negative in nature; a nu mber of under 1692c. First, a colleclOr must not communicate al any practices arc forbidden instead of requiring the collection unusual time or place or at any time known to be agencies to become licensed . One interest ing feature of the inconvenient. Convenient time is normally 8 a.m. to 9 p.m. FDCP act is that it appli es o nl y to independent debt Second, he cannot co mmunicate with the consumer when collectors and not " in house" debt collection. So when the consumer has an attorney. Last, the collector must not collecting on his own debt, a creditor can use methods an contact a co nsumer at work when the collector knows the independent debt collection agency cannot. Congress did not employer proh ibits this type of disturbance.' Another aspecl include them in the act because of goodwill considerations of 1692c is communication with third parties. P ut simply, and also their st able economic nature. However /they are a debt collector cannot try 10 ta lk to anyone concerning amendable to regulation by the FTC because of the lauer.' the coll ection of a debt except the consumer, unless The act applies to consumer debts. Purchases are most ly otherwise autho ri zed. 'o personal. The theory behind this is that businesses can The last part of I 692c concerns stopping comm unication. protect themselves from abusive collect ion practices.' When a consumer writes a debt coll ector and refuses to pay Under the FDCP act, there are some co ll ect ion tactics the debt or asks that any further allempts to communicate considered harassing or abusive; these include certain types be stopped, the debt collector must stop. The only other of misrepresentation and the use of un fa ir collection communication necessary may be a notification that techniq ues . The language in thi s section is vague in order communication will be stopped or that the collector will use 10 cover most any problem in this area. This way most any certain remedies to collect the debt." perso n adversely affected by an unfair act could be Harassment or abuse is Ihe subj ect of 1692d. A main protected, even though nOl specificall y protected under the thrust of thi s act is the prohibition of any activity which wi ll act . ' harass or abuse the consumer. Vi olat ions may include the Under subchapter 5 S1692 abusive practices by debt usc of threat of violence, the use of obscene language, the collectors are prohibited. This subchapter's purpose is to publication of names of consumers who do not pay their eliminate abusive debt collection practices by co ll ectors, debts, and annoyin g phone call s. 'J In a decis ion related to assure that debt co ll ect ors who do not usc abusive practices conversations by phone, the conclusion was harassment are nOI disadvanlaged, and provide co nsistant laws when the collector called again immediately after hanging concerning abusive pract ices by all the states. This up the phone. (Bingham V. Collectio n Bureau, Inc. D.C.N. subchapter is known as th e Fair Debt Collection Practices 1981, 505f. Supp. 864)." Act. (FDCP)" False or misleading representation is covered under 1692e. 1692a is filled wit h definitions used in this subchapter. While collecting a debt, a collector may not use any deceptive I will usc the terms consumer, creditor, debt and debt or misleading pract ices . Misre presentations ma y include: collector, assuming the reader knows the definition of these The amount or legal status of a debt, the amount charged terms. ' to collect a debt by a collector, the fal se implication that 1692b is concerned with acquiring location information. a person is an attorney, the implicati on that non-payment When a debt collector tries to get information from a person wi ll lead to time in prison, the threat to take action that is other than the one owing the deb t, the person must identify not legally possible, and the implication that the co nsumer

45 committed a crime. " 1692j says that it is against the law to design any form Concerning the status of a colleclOr, a collector was found that may lead the consumer to believe that anyone but tht not in violation of the section when the collector did not actual creditor is participating in the collection of Ihe deb!.l' misrepresent his status in a notice to the consumer but stated 1692k is concerned with civil liability. If a collector that people who paid their accounts would keep a dean violates this subchapter, he may have to pay damages. In credit standing (Harvey vs . United Adjusted D.C. Ir, 1981, an individual case, damage may not be greater than $1000 509 F. Supp. 1218). " In another decision involving threats or I (Jlo of the net wo rth of the collector. Also, the costs of of illegal actions, a collector was found in violation of this attorney's fees and court fees may be included. If the suit section when he threatened 10 contact the plaimiff's was brought in bad faith, the court may award attorney fees employer and/ or friend which could not legally be done. to th e collector. " (Rutyna vs. Collection Accounts Terminal, Inc., D.C. 111. Any action taken to enforce this law may be taken in any 1979,478 F. Supp. 9801). " appropriate U.S. district court. The amount of the suit or 1692f concerns unfair practices. A debt collector may nOI any court or jurisdiction is not a condition. The action must use any unfair means to collect a debt. A few violations be taken within I year of the violation. a include: the collection of any amount that is not agreed upon 16921 is concerned with administrative enforcement. The or authorized by law; the suggestion of accepting a post elements of the subchapter will be enforced by Ihe FTC dated check while threatening a consumer to deposit the except where another agency is specifically assigned. The check early; charging a person for communication, such as FTC can use all it s powers to enforce thi s act whether the phone or telegram, when the person did not know the violator is engaged in interstate commerce or meet s any other purpose of the message; threats of non·judicial action 10 jurisdictional test s. It can enforce this act as if it were a take away property if the collector has no legal right; and violation of a FTC trade regulation rule. lI finally notification by postcard or any symbol on an 1692m requires a report to Congress by the FTC on a envelope implying the letter is from a debt collector. " In yearly basis, including recommendations. II 1692n states that relation to this last point, the defendant, the collection state law is not annulled by the act unless there is an agency, violated this subchapter when a return address was inconsistency between state and federal law , then onl y to put on an envelope. This indicated the defendant was in the the extent of the inconsistency. However, if state law debt collection business. (Rutyna vs. Collection Accounts provides greater protection to the consumer, it 'is not Terminal. Inc., D.C. 11 1, 1979, 478 F. Supp. 980). " considered inconsistent. lt 16920 provides some exemption 1692g involves validation of a debt. Within 5 days of the for state regulation. If the FTC determines thaI a stale's laws fir st communication with the consumer, the collector must are as stringent as FOCP and if there are proper enforcement send a written notification stating the amount of the debt, provisions, some classes of debt collecting within any state the name of the creditors to whom the debt is owed, and may be found exempt. lO a statement that unless the consumer disputes the validity There are two defenses for a debt collector charged with of the debt within 30 days the debt will be assumed valid. vio lating the FOCP: that the violation was the result of an If the debt is disputed, the collector must get verification unintentional error or that the action was done in good faith, of the debt; and if the consumer requests, the collector must on the advice of the FTC. If the debt collector is trying to provide the name and address of the original creditor, if prove he made an unintentional error, he must show a l different from the current creditor ." reasonable attempt of preventing that error. ' One decision Another section of 1692g states that if the consumer does where a firm reli ed on FTC adv ice suggested that the fi rm not d ispute the validity of a debt, the consumer is not was not protected by the error defense. In Hulshizer vs. liable. '0 A decision concerning the (/erification of a debt Global Credit Service, a debt collector relied on the informal states that a debt collector's verification notice violated this advice of the FTC. The collector violated the FOCP Act. section because in the notice the collector did not provide The eighth circuit concluded that the violation of the law certain information concerning the consumer's right \0 while relying on the advice of a counsel is not protected dispute a debt or any portioJ1 of a debt. The consumer under the error defense of the act. The advice was informal received the notice, but information was omitted. (Harvey and Global chose to rel y on it instead of statute.ll vs. United Adjusted D.C. Or. 198 1,509 F. Supp. 1218. )1 ' With all the prohibitions of the FOCP Act, it would seem Multiple debts are the ,subject of 1692h. If a consumer debt collectors would be opposed to it; but this is not the has multiple debts, then a single debt sent to a collector must case. On the average, individual debt collectors in support be applied as the consumer requests, not as the collector of the act believe reputable collectors can li ve under the act. wou ld like. II The act may prevent unethical debt collection agencies from Legal actions by debt collectors arc covered by 16921. obtaining a competitive advantage. ll When a debt collcctor brings legal action against a consumer, There are some problems with the act. For example, il he must do so in a judicial district or similar legal entily can be difficult to get proof of the identity of debt collectors. where the property is located. If property is not involved, When debt collectors do use abusive tactics, they often gO then action should be brought in the judicial district where under ass umed names and do not identify the party for the consumer signed the contract, or in the district where whom they are calling. An abusive activity is also hard 10 the consumer lived at that time. >J identify ."

46 It seems practical to require licensure of debt collectors. NOTES Thus, when an abusive activity is proved, the collector could 'Fox, Nf'''' Hopi' For lIaraSSf'd Consumers: Thf' Ff'deral FIJir Debl have his license taken away. It would be a powerful Colleclion PfIJCliC('s A CI of 1977. t8 American lJu ~ine$S La'" Journal , 19, incentive. However, this may require additional agencies." 20 (1980). Another area of concern may be criminal sanctions. The ' Id. at 20. Justice Department will probably not add criminal sanctions. ' Id. at 23. 'Id. at 24. Cri minal penalties might be a stronger deterrent, but ' Id. at 27. individual civi l remedies probably reduce abuse ." ' Fair Debl Colleclion Praclices Ad. 15 U.S.CA. SI692 (1982 & 1984 There are two areas that Congress did not regulate: Supp.) (U.s. cod{" Annotated), 316. director creditor (in-house) debt collection activity and debt 'Guid.,s Againsl Df'bl Col/ecliol! £keeplioll, 16 C F. R. S237.1 (1984) collection practices aimed at non-consumer buyers. The (Code of Federal Regulation5) 37. ' Fair Df'bf Col/f'Clion Praclicf'5 ACI, Supra. 320. American Bar Association opposed the act because it did ' /d, at 321. not cover in-house debt collection. Because of this '·'d. ( ~amc ). exemption, there may be a decrease in the use of olltside " /ri. (same). debt coll ectors by creditors; or company ownership may be " /d. at 322. manipulated to make the debt collector a subsidiary of the " Id, at 323. creditor. The FTC believes that regulation of in-hOllse " Id. at 324. " Id. at 325. collection agencies may be needed. Possible regulation of " Id. (same). non-consumer buyers may also be extended under the FOCP " Id. at 326. act. J1 " Id. (same). One last problem is the dumping of a large number of " Id. at 327, cases on the courts. The courts are definitely over-burdened. '·'d. (~amc ). " Id. (~ame ). The usual monetary jurisdictional requirements are waived " Id. at 328 . under the FOCP act which make the case load larger. JI " Id. at 329. As a last addition. in February of 1984, the FTC adopted " /d, (same). a new rule concerning debt collection by lenders and retail " Id, at 330. install ments sellers. Any violation to the rule wi ll be a " Fo~. Supra. 30. " Fair Df'bl Col/ection Praclices. Supra, 333. violation under FTC act $5. Certain acts are consi dered " Id. at 335. unfair under this rule. I) Wage Assignments: the creditor " Id. at 336. cannot deduct any amount from the wages of a consumer " Id. (same). without stayi ng within federal guidelines and judicial " Fox. Supra. 34. proceedings. 2) Household goods: a cred it or cannot jusl go " PIntl Illal Relie(f 011 FTC SlUff Ad"icf' Is '101 Shielded by Collf'Clion ACI S Error Df'ff'nse, (Jan· June) Anti · Tru ~t Trade Re gulation Reporter. into a home and repossess and sell household goods when IBNA). No, 11 54 at 333 . (March 1984). a loan is defaulted upon. Also required is the creditor's " Fo .~. Supra. 28, not ification to consignors that they will be required to pay " Id. at 31 if the debtor defaults. Certain waivers by the consumer are " Id. (~ame). also thought to be unfair. These include a consumer's " Id. at 32, " Id. ( ~amc ). waiving his right to be notified of his coun dates and to " Id. at 37. present a defense or to hold on to certain personal " fTC Adopls Rille 10 GO"em R(!lI!eriiesfor Dt'bl Col/f'CIIo/!, (JaTI-Jun{") properties. Last, the rule protects a consumer from multiple Anti - tru~t Trade Regulation Reporter (BNA) No. 1153 al 290, (Feb .• 1984). late fees when o nly olle payment has been missed. " Fo~. Supra, 37. This aCI was a good first st ep to initiate changes ill the abusive practices of a debt collectors. There are problems, but this step was an important and wise one !O

47 A GLANCE AT PH ENOMENOLOGV AND ITS APPROACH TO LlTERARV CRITICISM

Carole B(Jum

Phenomenology is dcscribed by John Vernon in his directl y given in awareness" (Preminger 961). An object int roduct ion to The Garden and [he Map as a literary achieves meaning onl y as it registers in the active use method which consists of a "cont emplation of phenomena, (int cntionality) of t he consciousness. " Consciousness is an putting aside any a priori methodological presuppositions act wherein the subject intends (or directs himself towards or intellectual considerations" (xv). In an essay entitled the object), and the object is intended (or functions as a " What is Phenomenology?" Maurice Merleau-Ponty calls target fo r the intending act). ." (Magliola 4). phenomenology " a matter of descri bing, not of explaining Consciousness is always object oriented. "Consciousness or analyzing" (70). always necessarily 'apprehends' it s objects, which "Contemplating" and "describing" are two somewhat simultaneously re veal themselves to co nsciousness ..." synonymous but distincti ve pans of a complex theory and (Detweiler 9). In the early stages of Husserl's philosophy li terary method that emerged in the early to middle years subject and object are reciprocall y implicated. In his later of the 20th century. Seen more as an approach than a school, stages his position shifted to a more Cartesian and Kantian phenomenology has a large number of terms and concepts focus, making subjectivity constituitive of objectivity which have been unsystematically defined and redefined over (Magliola 4). Heidegger foc used o n consciousness as a period of years. Developing along the existential thi nking existence itself. Sanre posited two levels of consciousness , that followed World War II, it reflected the desire for a new one of the reflective con sciousness of self with the ego as philosophy of human experiences (Lawall 2) . As a object , the other a pre-refl ective consciousness which is pure philosophy, it emerged on the Conti ne nt at the turn of the negat ion. Merleau-Ponty on the other hand believed the pre­ century through the works of EdmonQ Husser!. It later reflective consciousness makes the world appear (Gras 9). developed as a literary criticism, gaining glltatest popularity The pre-objecti ve wo rld is the wor ld of "esscnces" around 1960. Through the translations of the works of beneath the world of fa cts. It is prior to the reflect ing and Belgian crit ic Georges Poulet and the subsequent works of objectifyi ng processes that separate subject and object. It American J . Hillis Miller, phenomenology entered the is arrived at in a series of steps called "reduct ions" and is American literary scene. In time and origin it parallels the accessible through the intuition and epoche. arri val and growth of Structurali sm, both beginning on the The epoche is a French word which is translated Continent and growing to highest popularity in the 50's and "suspension. " One suspends or "brackets" (i n order to get 60's. As a criticism, existential phenomenology is often to the essences) the common-sense reality of the world referred to as a criticism of consciousness and it also finds around us. All natural observations and judgment s are its place in reader·respo nse and implied reader criticism. Just temporarily laid aside in order to prepare for the reduction. as a philosophy of phenomenology developed as a reaction The resultant attitude is a presuppositionless neutrality. to turn of the century empiricism, phenorpenology as literary The "reductions" are difficult to defi ne. Husserl offers cri ticism was a reaction 10 the analytical and positivistic no method o r technique on how to achieve them. Some attitudes of the new crit ics and the Objective Theory of Art . interpreters describe six stages, others only two. Two will The language of phcnomenology houses many terms be described here. Most agree that the eidet ic reduction is which have been constantly defi neq and redefined. In SlOry, the most important. This is an attempt to reduce an object Sign and Self, Robert Detweiler lim what he considers some down to its essence (eidos) by systematicall y testi ng what of the basic concepts of the "original" four philosophers can be discarded from it without destroying its identity. The of the movemcnt, Husser\' Heidegger, Sartre and Merleau­ next reduction brackets what is left and foc uses on the pure POnty: intentionality, the pre"-Objcctive world. intuition, the stream of consciousness , "to transcend one's own temporal epochI', the li fe- world , essences , noesis and noema, and the historical ego·existence and encounter pure intent ionality" transcel,ldental ego (8). The following very brief descriptions (Detweiler 12). It is at this point that we enco unter intuition. (very brief indeed, considering the many vol umes that have Intuition is an openness and thi nk ing back th at leads to been wri tten) are given fo r the reader to gain in some small origi nal perceptions of the world. These perceptions are sense an overview of the phenomenological process and called intuitive because they are not arrived at through some of the changes it underwent by its various proponents. deduction and empirical reaso ning. (For an interesting Arguing against the empirical idea that an object ex ists example of how th is works, one could read "The Visual in a noemal realm of cause o r ma terial bein g, Perception o f Distance." In this essay, Edward G. Ballard phenomenology "aims at an acausal anal ys is" of an object describes how one might perceive or " intuit" distance "that restricts itself to exhaustive descriptio n of what is through phenomenological met hods. Discrediting the use of

48 scienti fi c observation of data or li near measurement, he creative genius, a drama taking place in the mind. To explai ns how to determine the nearness of fa rness of an Heidegger. " Being-in-the-world (Dosein) is fi rst and object. in this case. the Saari nean Gateway Arch at SI. foremost a creative intent ionali ty , a turning to the thi ngs Lo uis. Mo.) (1 87-195). that are in order to express and articulate them" (G ras 3). The life-world in Husserlian terms is "the moving Further. " without human 'care,' without the exercise of historical fie ld of our li ved existence" (Detweiler 2) . It is hu.m a~ fr ~e d o m as the 'being who raises the question of not the ph ysica l, material world surrounding us, "it is the be ~ ng, neLl her self nor wo rld would exist" (Gras J ). The world as it gives itsel f to the intending consciousness" eXis tence of man is nOt a static unity but "an emergin, (Detweiler 12). To the phenomenological critic li fe -world u nfol~ i n~ developmenl. In and through temporalit y. hu ma~ involves the author. the wo rld created in the work, and the Dasem disc loses the th ings that are while simultaneously life-world of the reader. creat ing his own existence" (Gras J). The essence is what is present to consciousness aft er SaTIre's concept of the pre-reflective consciousness gave empirical reaso ning is excluded. Fact ual data such as rise to a negative existent ialism. In his pre·refl ecti ve state, measurement , temporal-spatial descript ion, and casual man' 'can never exist as being because he exists always apart relationships do not describe the essence of an object to the as consciousness of being" (Gras 8) . Since man as bein, phenomenologi st. The essence is an act, not an objec\. It becomes man of subjectivity of consciousness, the essential is noema, that which is perceived. (The act of perceiving is freedo m of man is a void , a nothing. Sartre's writi ngs reflect noesiS). the struggle of the subjective man to become objecti ve man , The transcendental ego refers back to the second or a thi ng in-itself. But the transcending ego is always ahead transcendental reduction. The essence (eidos) is bracketed of itself and man can never exist as he is. Merleau-Po nt y's and the ulti mate consciousness is revealed-a consciousness view, on the other hand. was that the pre-refl ecti ve that makes this wo rld possible. consciousness makes the wo rld appear. He looked at the The phenomenologist moves through the va rious stages eidetic reduct ion as th at which " brings the wo rld to light of examining phenomena in the fo ll owing wa y: sett ing aside as it is" (Ponty 79). Arguing wi th those who would say the all presupposed judgements of ti me, space. or descri ption world is a state of consciousness, he comments: "The world in the epoche one proceeds wi th ex haustive description of is not what I thin k, but what I li ve th rough. I am open to the object intended in the fir st reduction to focus an the world. I have no doubt that I am in commun ication with awareness on that which can be int uited as the essence it, but I do not possess it ; it is inexhaustible" (80). He fu rther (eidos). In the second red uction the eidos is furt her bracketed adds: "We must not, therefore, wonder whether we reall y until the ultimate consciousness is revealed. T he perceive a world. we must instead say: the world is what phenomenologist momentarily transcends the physical world we receive" (79). In contrast to Sartre, Merleau-Ponty calls of space a nd ti me and the inte nded object becomes the eidetic met hod the " method of a phenomenological subjectivi ty of his consciousness. It is this momentary poi nt positivism which bases the possible on the real " (80) . tha t George Poulet describes as "interior di stance." Phenomenology as literary cri ticism arose in Europe in the 1950's. Some of its early critics were Marcel Raymond, This distance is a zone of calm. a reserve, and a silence Albert Begu in , Gaston Bachelard, Roman )ngarden, Mikel between fin ding a word and knowi ng the word, Dufrenne and Georges Poule!. It spread to America when between speaking the word and the spoken word ; it's Johns Hopkins Universit y Press published the wor ks of two the time and space of experiencing an experience. (qtd. European cri tics in the 1970's. One was Wolfgang lser's The in Haas 159) Implied Reader: Palferns of Communicalion in Prose Fiction from Bunyan 10 Beckell (1974); the other was the The concept of consciousness or the subject/ object translation of Belgian Georges Poulet's Prouslian Space, by dua li sm of Husserl is at the core of phenomenological Ellio tt Coleman (1977). thought and criticism. Each philosopher has a slightly Phenomenological criticsm is often used synonymously di fferent concept of consciousness. Martin Heidegger li nks wi th criticism of co nsciousness when speaking of the man's existence to his consciousness. He describes man as approach to literatu re used by the Geneva School. Tied "the temporal horizon with which the th ings of th e world toget her by connections of friendship as well as with appear and thereby come ' to be' in time and history" (Gras connections to the Un iversit y of Geneva, this group incl udes 2) . He also descri bes man as the meaning-giver. " Heidegger Marcel Raymond, Albert Beguin, Georges Poulet, Wolfgang views man not as a thinki ng subject with fixed propert ies !ser, J . Hillis Miller, Carey Nelso n and others. Their or categories, but as a Dasein, as a fu nction more than an criticism seeks to define a work in terms of the intending object ... man is a process whereby meaning comes into consciousness of the au thor. This is not the same as bei ng" (Gras 3). He docs not deny that man needs matter accepting what the author says his intent was in wri ti ng, as or body to exist. bu t " human 'existence' co nsists in the the Intention al Fall acy of Wimsatt and Beardsley warned creation of meaning " (G ras 3). The idea of human existence against. Rat her. one lea rns by experienci ng the li fe-world consisting in the creation of meaning became an import ant of the work it self what the intending consciousness of the aspect of the literatu re and criticism growi ng out of this author is. Without entaili ng the author's li fe experiences at philosophy. Th is criticism sees literature as an act or the time he created a work , the phenomenological approach

49 "focuses only on that aspect of the author's consciousness formal knowledge and comm unicates this int uition as best which transferred itself into the literary work. and indeed. it can" (La wa ll 52) . The Romantic soul , drawing on its own is now and forever present in the work " (Magliola 10). In intuitions, "creates a literary work that is primarily describing what docs not belong in a li terary work, Roman amenable to categories of mystic knowledge and nO! of Ingarden makes ex plici t his view that "the experience of the formal construction" (Lawall 52). The Romantic soul, then. author during the creation of the work do not constitute any is characterized as perceivi ng real ity, by intui tio n and re­ part of the created work" (22). Some criti cs of this sc hool creation. Seg uin rejected an y formal di scipline that does not would analyze only each individual work, while others felt use Romantic knowledge and literature as an interrogation it necessary to examine the entire corpus of an author's work of human experience. "Knowledge in the accepted scnse, to become aware of his intentionality. he maintains, need nO! be fou nd inside or through the work; It would be impossible to describe the theories of each rather the work itsel f should be an act ive communication of the Geneva School critics in such a short work. However, of vision" (Lawall 52) . Begu in experienced a religious there are four who characterize sign ifica nt developments in conversion after developing his literary approach which led the phenomenological approach to crit icism: Raymond, him to consider works with re ligious themes. His distinction Seguin, Poulet and Miller. lies in his ab ility to adhere to a Christian philosophy and Marcel Ra ymond was the most seminal of the Geneva ye t desc ribe works of a religious theme in existential terms. Critics. He maintained a certain tradit ionali sm in his Like Raymond, he champi oned sympathetic reading as approach but began to see criticism as an "empathetic opposed to fo rmal systematic readings. His own cri tical reading of the text as human experience" (Lawall 21 ). examples. his concept of the author's visionary experience Rejecti ng classic genres as being unreal abmactions of and immediate style, and sympathet ic reader involve ment human qualities, with a separation of man fr om his all had an innuence on subsequent crit icism. environment, he fa vored baroque, Romantic and modern Georges Poulet is one of the most infl uential characters thought seeing in it a certain impulse seeki ng to form art in the literary criticism that grew out of phenomenological into "some kind of irregular means of metaphysical thought. He is the first to use the concept of human knowledge" (qtd. in Lawall 31) . Modern thought was experience in literature as a tool for analysis. He takes up leading toward a view of art in which "existen tial perception the sympathet ic and subjective approach of Ra ymond and is both the means and the end of creation, where 'frontiers Beguin , but he is more systematic. He is the first to propose disappear between subjective and objective feeling' " analytical coordinates for the human experience in literature. (Lawall 31-32). Raymond saw in Baudelai re's writings a He focuses this experience in time and space. Through his transcendent al state which he described as the basic human analys is he is able to recreate the various stages an aUlhor experience. The poet's task, according to Raymond, is to uses to grasp a sense of his own existence. Emphasizing the express this experience: " to extract from reality a shift ing patterns of perception throughout generat ions of 'hieroglyph ' which will reveal the 'eternal meaning of literary thought, he rewrites literary history and makes it existence' " (Lawall 32). Further, the poet. by suspending a " history of the mind ex pressing itself in forms" (Lawall his earthly, personal self, is integrated into a transcendental 75). Poulet's hypothesis is that a work or group of works realit y, "perceivi ng and re-creat ing the existence of a whole is keyed to a central core or foyer that genera tes interlocking universe" (Lawa ll 32). Raymond's ow n empathetic themes a nd governs it s identity. His tec hnique is to approach took on phenomenological dimensions during a extrapolate and juxtapose vari ous words and phrases, often two-year stay at Leipzig as a French lectu rer. It was there of a temporal or spatial significance , and reveal the human that he came inlo contact wi th Hans Driesch. who influenced experience or cogi/o of the author. " An author's him greatly. Raymond wrote of Driesch. " It was from him perceptions of time and space constitute his personal means th'st I first learned that consciousness always has an object. of comprehendi ng his situation, and are in the texl the key that one is always conscious of something" (qtd . in Lawall by which he may be analyzed" (Lawa ll 84) . An author is 25). Ra ymond's coupling of the, neo-Romantic and not a historical literary figu re. but a literary image crealed phenomenological thought produced a view that derines art by the actual process of composition. In writing, the author as a human ex pression and similarly that "great art is the renects his human experience and at the same ti me creates profoundest, most basically human expression, and that its hi s existence. Literature is the highesl and most vital point creator- the genius-is best al5le to rep resent humanity" of human expression, the only way for man 10 express (Lawall 39). His critical approach broke wit h the tradition him self. Poulet's methods, standards, hi story and of analyzing the work in a chronological fashion and focused philosophy all blend together to make a coherent system of instead on the human cxperience which prescnted itsel f in existential interpretation. No longer connected with formal the work. He thus paved the way fo r the later Geneva or historical considerations, it is an approach that must be Critics. accepted or rejected on its own val ues. Albert Seguin was a close associate of Raymond. He also Poulet's criticism never loses sight of the subject-object favored Romant icism and interpreted it as a metaphysical dualism. "Criticism cannot be contented with thinking a de velopment. He is best known for his description of Ihe thought. It must work it s way further back, from image to Romantic soul in literature. "It is a se nsiti ve, perceiving ima ge to feelings. It must reach th e act by which the mind instrument which intuils the exi stence of a un iverse beyond ... unites it sel f to an object to in vent il self as subject"

50 - (qtd. in Lawall 79). The reader, furthermore, must intuit death also comes death of man as God's creation, leaving the human e"pression of the work , must re-feel it , rethink a void which the poet must fill . The poet creates a new vision ii, re-imagine it. His reading must be empathetic and of reality in the e"istential struct ure o f his poems and thus sympathetic, he must respond in such a way as to fo rget his creates a ne w God, a Being that is imminent and own personality. " ... What must be reached is a subject, omnipresent. " The God who has disappeared and or a mental activity that can only be understood by putting reappeared as an imminent presence is no longer an objective oneself in its place and perspectives-by making it play again entity which can be extolled, rejected or ignored" (Lawall ils role of subject in ourselves" (qtd. in Lawall 81). 209). The new "God" is total being, present in the reality Literature is a subjective perception of reality, an imaginary or space of a successful poem. world and the reader must adapt himself to it s e"perience. Miller's third book, Poets of Reality, completes the he must be " inhabited by thought ." The original impulse, spiritual history of literature. His techniques of using foyer or cogito must be resurrected by the reader as he selected passages to show the writer's metaphysical position ret hinks and recreates the consciousness o f the work. It is is si milar to Poulet's tracing of human consciousness in Poulet who described his approach as the criticism of literary history. Miller goes beyond Poulet however, by consciousness (critique de la conscience), calling it the first venturing into the formal circle, showing the study o f and perhaps the only criticism. Poulet is a prolific writer author's style in his interpretations. He makes grammar an and he does not confine himself to criticism of the existemial tool with an ability to formulate reality. "By Romantics but also to classicists and modern writers, discussing grammar, images, rhythm, o nomatopoeia, and primarily of French literature. His more famous works other technical devices, he has given the uncommitted reader include Etudes sur Ie temps humain, L 'Ame romantique et a chance to follow a reading of consciousness through Ie reve, and L '£Space proustien. He established a viable techniques that are public and objective" (Lawall 217). method for e"istential analysis and is most closely associated In relation to poetics, phenomenology sees the poem as with the terms critics of consciousness and interior distance. an "aesthetic experience." The author is described in terms J . Hillis Miller is the fi rst American to adopt the existential of intending consciousness. but the work has no being in approach of literary criticism. Miller was influenced by and of itself until it is read by another. the intending subject. Georges Poulet during the latter's five -year stay at Johns The reader brackets o r suspend s his own subjective Hopkins Uni versity. He applies the methods of the Geneva personality and enters into a new subjective identity created School to the study of English literature. Hi s method is a by the consciousness of the author. Just as the author's combination of formalism and criticism of consciousness historical life experiences should not enter into the structure which skins the edge of contemporary American "new of the work, likewise, the attributes, experiences or psychic criticism" yet remains consistently e"istential. Miller's states of the reader do not belong there (Ingarden 23) . In analysis discusses not only the imagining mind of the author the words of George Poulet. " The I who 'thinks in me' when but also sentences, paragraphs and even the character's I read a book, is the I of the one who writes the book (Poulet imagining mind as contained within the universe of the 46) . Where Poulet sees the reader's role as passive, being work. Miller wrote the first boo k in English to adopt the taken over by the author's consciousness, Iser views the role point of view of the Geneva Critics: Charles Dickens: The diHerently. Even though the text is actualized by a World of his Novels. In an existential analysis he attempts convergence of reader and the text, the reader acts as co­ to "assess the specific quality of Dickens' imagination in creator, filling in what is nO{ written, but implied. Both views the totality of his work, to identify what persists throughout hold in common the basic premise that the work is in a all the swarming multiplicity of his novels, as a view of the constant state of "becoming" through reading. In reply to world which is unique and the same" (qtd. in Lawall 196). Wimsatt and Beardsley's Affective Fallacy, phenomenolog­ Miller echoes the view of the other critics studied here in ical criticism argues that "a poem cannot be understood seeing literature as the "very means by which a writer apart from its results" (fompkins ix). AJ I of its erfects would apprehends and, in some measure creates himself" (qtd. in not exist without a reader. Lawall 197). He looks for words, phrases, and even The New Critics would argue that this fusion of author grammatical patterns that form the heart of the imaginative and reader hearkens back to the emotionalism and universe of the writer. impressio nism of the Romantic Age. Indeed one hears Miller's next book, The Disappearance of God, echoes of Keats' negative capability, Coleridge's willing emphasizes theological experience of selected authors. In it suspension of disbelief, and Hazlitt's sympathetic he traces a historical pattern in the authors' experience which identification. Bu t unlike Ro mantic criticism, fiTS[ recognizes God, then nothingness , then finally phenomenological criticism remains a neutral tool. It seeks imminent Being. Romantic thought, according to Miller, no moral mandate, no study of the pasl fo r criteria o f taste attempted So have a direct experience of God. It saw God and worthy subject. "Phenomenology does not distinguish incarnate with nature as Supreme Being and who could be between good and bad in any sense whatever, but just communed with. Later writers could no longer find God in contemplates phenomena as they are, simply opens its eyes nature but considered God a transcendeOlal being and describes what it sees ... " (Halliburton 25). The unavailable to man. To the twentieth century writers this "good" or benefit of phenomenology, according to Iser, transcendence turns into the "death" or God. With God's lies in the constant interpretation and deciphering of a

51 work. "The need to decipher gives us the chance to and (2) contents of consciousness are embodied in (3) formulate our own deciphering capacity" (qtd. in Tompkins language. Thus one method of entree utilizes the modes xv). He further assens that in using our deciphering capacity another the content-categories , and a third linguistics" (52): "we may formulate ourselves and so discover what had Modes of consciousness include cognition, emotion previously s«med to elude our consciousness" (qtd. in perception, volition, time, memory and space. An exampl; Tompkins xv). of emotional mode can be given by Richard's Phenomenology reacts in several ways to the empiricism phenomenological description in Literarure et Sensation of of the New Critics and its reliance on the objectivity of "Sentiments," "Shame," "Melancholy," and "Joy," in science. First it opposes any analysis that studies a work as Stendhal; and " Desire," " Frenzy," "Cruelty," and "an object for forms, meanings, varying interpretations and "Shame," in Flaubert (Magliola 53). Georges Poulet dictional peculiarities" (Lawall 2) . Viewing the work of art describes the changing concepts of time in human existence as an aesthetic experience whose existence is found in the in the preface of Etudes sur Ie temps humain. He sees time space of pure consciousness, not in a material realm of time not as a mere chronology "but as a feeling of transitory and space, phenomenological criticism stands in opposition existence which works alternately for and against the to the Objective Theory of Art. Second, the positivistic creation of human identity" (Lawall 85). This work demand for objectivity and verifiability uses language as a expresses each author's sense of being as he reacts to and base for describing reality. Phenomenologists declare works out his identity in time. " ... Time is an element to language constituitive of the reality it purports to describe, be worked with or against; it is something he perceives as thus robbing science of the objectivity it bases its superiority part of his cogito, and perceives as it reacts upon his on. Third, the phenomenological critics views the author of experience of the subject-object relationship." For some, a work as a literary being, not just a human " structure" time is always an instability, a sense of "passing." This sense behind it as the Structuralists view him. of passing haunted Baudelaire: •• •At the very instant when When a critic approaches a work phenomenologically, he the instant is, it detaches itself, it falls away, and in its fall does several things; bracketing his own suppositions, he there begins a second existence-an existence in which enters into the life-world the author has created and instants do not stop, never stop having been' " (qtd .. in simultaneously creates a new life-world by the process of Lawall 86). Proust, on the other hand, uses an affective his own reaction to the author's intentionality. His first task memory to establish a constant identity. Memory can give is to define the poem's experiential universe and see if this meaning to a past experience while making it present in the "universe" (characters, theme, plot, etc.) offered in the mind, thus linking the various stages of existence. Poulet work is "made present or vitalized through language so it describes this overlay of experience and memory as "the can 'live' in the reader's imagination" (Magliola 45). The operation by which, in mimicking in one's depths the critics's view must be objective and not add personal biases exterior gesture olthe perceptible object. one imagines, one to the interpretation. The second task is to describe the creates something which is still the perceptible object ... experiential patterns that account for and describe the this thing comes from us, it is us" (qtd. in Lawall 87). Thus poem's universe. Here one describes the stylistic movements a durable sense of identity is established. present in terms of the author's co nsciousness which has The second method of entree is by way of the content­ organized it in such a way. In describing the work, the poet of-consciousness categories. MagJiola lists these as "World, follows the Husserlian reductions and "intuits" the work. Happenings, Others and Self" (53). Paul Brodtkorb's The intuiting is the careful scrutiny or observation of the critical analysis of Moby Dick uses World as generated by phenomena to get to the essential structure. What the critic experiences of earth, air, fire, and water. Roland Barthes is looking for is a network of experiential patterns that is describes "Father-figures" in Sur Racine while Emil Staiger responsible for the work's unity, or what Magliola terms treats Conrad Ferdinand Meyers' experience of "the an "ensemble of experiential patterns" (48). This ensemble Mother" in Die Kunst der Interpretation (Magliola 54), as of patterns is regarded as the essentipl structure of the work. an example of "Others." J. Hillis Miller describes the Jean-Pierre Richard regards the critic's task as focusing on changing experience of selfhood as seen in Dickens' works. "the same projet which emerges from a deep investigation The third method a critic uses to find and describe of essences" (qtd. in Magliola 48). J. Hillis Miller says the experiential patterns in a work is linguistics. This includes critic exposes " the pervasive ptesence of a cenain organizing stylistic and morphological features. Jean-Paul Sartre gives form" (qtd. in Magliola 48). an example when describing the author John Dos Passe's The "ensemble of experiential patterns," the " project" use of Time as a theme in his writings. Sanre says a or the "pervasive presence of a certain organizing form" morphological feature, Dos Passo's use of compound are all ways of talking about the consciousness of the author sentences in lieu of complex sentences, reveals the revealing itself to the reader. Some critics of the Geneva experiential pattern of Time. Another example of using School describe the consciousness of individual works only. linguistic patterns is seen in Marcel Raymond's book, A question that might arise in considering this appraoch Senancour which gives a "preponderance of preterite forms is how one actually begins or "enters into" the work. in the context of references to primitive society" (Magliol. Magliola suggests three methods of entree into the work: 54). This morphological "preponderance of preterite forms" "In the literary work, experiential patterns of the (I) modes heightens an already established theme, that the rustic ideal

52 is experienced as irrevocably past . of twining, fusing relationships or even works without plot Lest one thinks the comparisons of semantic and or form . Phenomenological criticism is an adept tool for morphological palterns sounds li ke a praClice used by the describing such works, and one wonders if the philosophy structuralists. it is important to make a distinction here. The became the tool for the cri ticism or if the criticism became phenomenologist firs t describes the semantic patterns. Then, the vehicle for the philosophy. This question is as old as and only then, is the grammatical level examined. criticism it self. Morphological patterns are matched to scmantical ones already established. The converse is true of the structuralists. BIBLIOG RAPHY The structuralist considers semantics dependent on morphology, and not the other way around . He begins at Ballard, Edward G. "The Visual Ptrcq>tion of Distance." Ph~nom~nololJ ill P~flp«li v~. Ed. F.J . Smith . The Halue: Nijhoff, 1970. 187-201. the phonemic and grammatical levels. Ikt"'eiler, Robe-n . S/Qry, Sigll und ~I/. Philadelphia: Fortrcu Preis, 1978. Phenomenology is a neutral tool with its emphasis on GrlS, Vernon W./cd. Europ«," Liltrur)' Th«Jf)' und Pruct~: From presuppositionless description and analysis. Breaking down £Xisltllliul Ph~nom ~nology /Q SlflI("turulism. New York: DeU, 197]. the wa lls of objectivity and the cold analytical eye of the Haas, Richard. " Phenomenology and the Interpretor's Interior Distance." formalists it establishes an inext ricable bond of author and Studi~s In InrtrprtlatiOrl . Ed. Esther Doyle. Amsterdam: Editions Rodopoi, 1977 . 131-166. It reader. is seen as especially useful in describing Romantic Halliburton', David. Edgar Al/trl PfH: A Plltllomtnological Vit .... li terature, prose more than poetry.·Yet it is not as warm and P rin~eton: Prin~eton UP, 1973. friendly as it appears. Its very method is as transcendental lngarden, Roman. The Liltrur)' Work of Art: An Investigution on the as the ego it exposes. It is a view of poetry that is detached Bordtr/illt of Oll/ology. Logic, olld TIItor), of Liltru/urt. Evanston: from moral or religious grounds. No longer is poetry viewed Northwesttrn University, 1973. as existing to serve the needs of the state or promoting the • La ..... all, Sarah N. Criria of COlISCiousrl('SS: Tht £Xisltlliiol StruClures of Littralurt. Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1968 . brotherhood of man through his deepest sympathies. Neither Ma&l iola, Robert R. Ph~nom tllofogy und Liltroturt. West Larayette, is it used to raise the level of civilized existence nor to Indiana: Purdue UP, 1977. produce a state of rapt contemplation. Phenomenological Merleau-Ponty. "What is Phenomenology?" EUrOptclfl Liltrary ThHJr)' philosophy gives rise to new definitions of man and his orld Pr(lCtict: From Exis/~nriol Phtllomtllology 10 Siruciurolism. ed . existence. He is what his consciousness intuits him to be and Ri chard Hau. Ne ..... York : Dell, 1973 . his actions are to be judged by his interaction to others and Poulet, Georges. "Criticism and the upcrience or the Interiority." Rtodtr­ Responst Criticism; From Formulism /0 Pas/Struc/urolism. cd. Jane their intending consciousnesses. P. Tompkins. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins UP, 1980. Indeed, much of the lit erature arising from Prcmingcr, Alt)l. cd. PrincttOrl £ntyc/o/Hdio of PMtry and Poe/ia. phenomenological philosophy deals with man's struggle to Princeton: Princeton UP, 1974 . define his identity. He is seen as li ving in a world having Tompkiru, Jane P. cd. R~udtr- R t.Sporue Criticism: From For,,",oli$m 10 no religious or mora1 absolutes. no usual recognition of time Post S/fl4cturolism. Baltimore: The Johns Hopki ru UP, 1980. Vernon, John. Tht Curdtn ulld tht Mup: Schizophrtnitl in Twt!ntitlh and space, and no cause and effect relationships. Such Ctntur)' UI~rulur~ und Culturt. Urbana: University or Illinois Pres.s, themes give rise to some modern textual fo rms that 1973. sometimes consist of statements of condition , descri ptions

53