A Revised Computational Neuroanatomy for Motor Control
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The Creation of Neuroscience
The Creation of Neuroscience The Society for Neuroscience and the Quest for Disciplinary Unity 1969-1995 Introduction rom the molecular biology of a single neuron to the breathtakingly complex circuitry of the entire human nervous system, our understanding of the brain and how it works has undergone radical F changes over the past century. These advances have brought us tantalizingly closer to genu- inely mechanistic and scientifically rigorous explanations of how the brain’s roughly 100 billion neurons, interacting through trillions of synaptic connections, function both as single units and as larger ensem- bles. The professional field of neuroscience, in keeping pace with these important scientific develop- ments, has dramatically reshaped the organization of biological sciences across the globe over the last 50 years. Much like physics during its dominant era in the 1950s and 1960s, neuroscience has become the leading scientific discipline with regard to funding, numbers of scientists, and numbers of trainees. Furthermore, neuroscience as fact, explanation, and myth has just as dramatically redrawn our cultural landscape and redefined how Western popular culture understands who we are as individuals. In the 1950s, especially in the United States, Freud and his successors stood at the center of all cultural expla- nations for psychological suffering. In the new millennium, we perceive such suffering as erupting no longer from a repressed unconscious but, instead, from a pathophysiology rooted in and caused by brain abnormalities and dysfunctions. Indeed, the normal as well as the pathological have become thoroughly neurobiological in the last several decades. In the process, entirely new vistas have opened up in fields ranging from neuroeconomics and neurophilosophy to consumer products, as exemplified by an entire line of soft drinks advertised as offering “neuro” benefits. -
The Baseline Structure of the Enteric Nervous System and Its Role in Parkinson’S Disease
life Review The Baseline Structure of the Enteric Nervous System and Its Role in Parkinson’s Disease Gianfranco Natale 1,2,* , Larisa Ryskalin 1 , Gabriele Morucci 1 , Gloria Lazzeri 1, Alessandro Frati 3,4 and Francesco Fornai 1,4 1 Department of Translational Research and New Technologies in Medicine and Surgery, University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa, Italy; [email protected] (L.R.); [email protected] (G.M.); [email protected] (G.L.); [email protected] (F.F.) 2 Museum of Human Anatomy “Filippo Civinini”, University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa, Italy 3 Neurosurgery Division, Human Neurosciences Department, Sapienza University of Rome, 00135 Rome, Italy; [email protected] 4 Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (I.R.C.C.S.) Neuromed, 86077 Pozzilli, Italy * Correspondence: [email protected] Abstract: The gastrointestinal (GI) tract is provided with a peculiar nervous network, known as the enteric nervous system (ENS), which is dedicated to the fine control of digestive functions. This forms a complex network, which includes several types of neurons, as well as glial cells. Despite extensive studies, a comprehensive classification of these neurons is still lacking. The complexity of ENS is magnified by a multiple control of the central nervous system, and bidirectional communication between various central nervous areas and the gut occurs. This lends substance to the complexity of the microbiota–gut–brain axis, which represents the network governing homeostasis through nervous, endocrine, immune, and metabolic pathways. The present manuscript is dedicated to Citation: Natale, G.; Ryskalin, L.; identifying various neuronal cytotypes belonging to ENS in baseline conditions. -
Neuromodulators and Long-Term Synaptic Plasticity in Learning and Memory: a Steered-Glutamatergic Perspective
brain sciences Review Neuromodulators and Long-Term Synaptic Plasticity in Learning and Memory: A Steered-Glutamatergic Perspective Amjad H. Bazzari * and H. Rheinallt Parri School of Life and Health Sciences, Aston University, Birmingham B4 7ET, UK; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +44-(0)1212044186 Received: 7 October 2019; Accepted: 29 October 2019; Published: 31 October 2019 Abstract: The molecular pathways underlying the induction and maintenance of long-term synaptic plasticity have been extensively investigated revealing various mechanisms by which neurons control their synaptic strength. The dynamic nature of neuronal connections combined with plasticity-mediated long-lasting structural and functional alterations provide valuable insights into neuronal encoding processes as molecular substrates of not only learning and memory but potentially other sensory, motor and behavioural functions that reflect previous experience. However, one key element receiving little attention in the study of synaptic plasticity is the role of neuromodulators, which are known to orchestrate neuronal activity on brain-wide, network and synaptic scales. We aim to review current evidence on the mechanisms by which certain modulators, namely dopamine, acetylcholine, noradrenaline and serotonin, control synaptic plasticity induction through corresponding metabotropic receptors in a pathway-specific manner. Lastly, we propose that neuromodulators control plasticity outcomes through steering glutamatergic transmission, thereby gating its induction and maintenance. Keywords: neuromodulators; synaptic plasticity; learning; memory; LTP; LTD; GPCR; astrocytes 1. Introduction A huge emphasis has been put into discovering the molecular pathways that govern synaptic plasticity induction since it was first discovered [1], which markedly improved our understanding of the functional aspects of plasticity while introducing a surprisingly tremendous complexity due to numerous mechanisms involved despite sharing common “glutamatergic” mediators [2]. -
Motor Control: a Sense of Movement
RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS MOTOR CONTROL A sense of movement Neuroscience textbooks tell us that with a shorter latency after S1 stimu- whisker protraction, and that M1retract the motor cortex controls move- lation than after M1 stimulation. only induces whisker retraction ment. But now, Carl Petersen and Thus, S1 and M1 are both involved in indirectly, through S1 activation. colleagues show that sensory cortex whisker motor and sensory process- By mapping the neural pathways may have an equally important role ing. The M1 area that induced C2 involved in C2 whisker retraction in motor control. retraction was termed M1retract; a and protraction, the authors found The authors showed that a single, more medial M1 region that induced that M1C2 and S1C2 have reciprocal brief deflection of the C2 whisker C2 protraction under microstimula- connections and project to adjacent induced activity in the correspond- tion was termed M1protract. regions in subcortical areas. In the ing barrel column of the primary The authors next investigated the brain stem, this includes the reticular somatosensory cortex (S1), followed functional relevance of this finding. formation as a projection area of M1, by a response in a small area in the By attaching metal particles to the C2 and the spinal trigeminal nuclei as primary motor cortex (M1). Direct whisker and applying a pulsed mag- a projection area of S1. Both areas microstimulation or optogenetic netic field, the authors could evoke project to the facial nucleus, which stimulation of either area induced C2 whisker deflections. The whisker contains whisker motor neurons. a brief retraction of the C2 whisker, retracted in response to this stimulus, Indeed, direct electrical stimula- and this response was abolished when tion of the reticular formation and S1 was inactivated — but not spinal trigeminal nuclei induced when M1 was inactivated — with whisker protraction and retraction, tetrodoxin (TTX). -
Motor Control in the Brain
Motor Control in the Brain Travis DeWolf School of Computer Science University of Waterloo Waterloo, ON Canada December 19, 2008 Abstract There has been much progress in the development of a model of motor control in the brain in the last decade; from the improved method for mathematically extracting the predicted movement direction from a population of neurons to the application of optimal control theory to motor control models, much work has been done to further our understanding of this area. In this paper recent literature is reviewed and the direction of future research is examined. 1 Introduction In the last decade there has been a push from investigating the coordinate system used in the brain, which has been the focus of research since the 1970s, back toward using reductionist experiment techniques and developing more encompassing models of motor control in the brain[28]. Optimal control theory applied to motor control in the brain has also recently started being explored as a framework for models. This has lead to research into the underlying biology of the implementations of internal models of movement and reinforcement learning reward systems in the brain[32]. In addition to this, with the discovery of motor primitives[24], which are often referred to as the `building blocks of movement', many of the ideas about neural activity carried out in the motor cortex need be reworked. The analysis techniques employed by researchers have been improved and of course the computing power available has increased enormously, and these developments have in turn opened the door to the need for further mathematical technique developments for accurate movement analysis and prediction. -
Basic Brain Anatomy
Chapter 2 Basic Brain Anatomy Where this icon appears, visit The Brain http://go.jblearning.com/ManascoCWS to view the corresponding video. The average weight of an adult human brain is about 3 pounds. That is about the weight of a single small To understand how a part of the brain is disordered by cantaloupe or six grapefruits. If a human brain was damage or disease, speech-language pathologists must placed on a tray, it would look like a pretty unim- first know a few facts about the anatomy of the brain pressive mass of gray lumpy tissue (Luria, 1973). In in general and how a normal and healthy brain func- fact, for most of history the brain was thought to be tions. Readers can use the anatomy presented here as an utterly useless piece of flesh housed in the skull. a reference, review, and jumping off point to under- The Egyptians believed that the heart was the seat standing the consequences of damage to the structures of human intelligence, and as such, the brain was discussed. This chapter begins with the big picture promptly removed during mummification. In his and works down into the specifics of brain anatomy. essay On Sleep and Sleeplessness, Aristotle argued that the brain is a complex cooling mechanism for our bodies that works primarily to help cool and The Central Nervous condense water vapors rising in our bodies (Aristo- tle, republished 2011). He also established a strong System argument in this same essay for why infants should not drink wine. The basis for this argument was that The nervous system is divided into two major sec- infants already have Central nervous tions: the central nervous system and the peripheral too much moisture system The brain and nervous system. -
Sensorimotor Skill Learning in Amnesia: Additional Evidence for the Neural Basis of Nondeclarative Memory Daniel Tranel, 1 Antonio R
Downloaded from learnmem.cshlp.org on September 24, 2021 - Published by Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press RESEARCH Sensorimotor Skill Learning in Amnesia: Additional Evidence for the Neural Basis of Nondeclarative Memory Daniel Tranel, 1 Antonio R. Damasio, Hanna Damasio, and Joan P. Brandt Department of Neurology Division of Behavioral Neurologyand Cognitive Neur0science University of I0wa College of Medicine I0wa City, I0wa 52242 Abstract Introduction We investigated sensorimotor skill A number of investigations have established learning, a form of nondeclarative (implicit) that the learning of new skills can be preserved in memory, in 28 subjects with declarative patients who are unable to learn new words, faces, (explicit) memory defects caused by either and facts (e.g., Corkin 1965, 1968; MilDer 1972; mesial temporal (n = 15) or basal forebrain Cermak et al. 1973; Cohen and Squire 1980; Mar- (n=13) damage and in 66 normal control tone et al. 1984; Eslinger and Damasio 1986; Ga- subjects. All 28 amnesics had normal brieli et al. 1993; for reviews, see Baddeley 1982; learning of a rotor pursuit task. We also Hintzman 1990; Shimamura 1990; Cohen and studied in detail the sensorimotor skill Eichenbaum 1993). The concepts of "declarative" learning of patient Boswell. As a result of and "nondeclarative" memory have been used to bilateral damage to both mesial and lateral refer to the different types of information and task aspects of the temporal lobes and to the demands that are dissociated in such patients basal forebrain, Boswell has one of the most (Squire 1992). Declarative memory refers to rep- severe impairments ever reported for resentations of facts and events that can only be learning of all types of declarative brought to mind in image form. -
The Functional Neuroanatomy of Emotion and Affective Style Richard J
Bedford – Keeping perception accurate Review 30 Held, R. (1965) Plasticity in sensory–motor systems Sci. Am. 213, 84–94 34 Calvert, G.A., Brammer, M.J. and Iverson, S.D. (1998) Crossmodal 31 Clifton, R.K. et al. (1988) Growth in head size during infancy: identification Trends Cognit. Sci. 2, 247–253 implications for sound localization Dev. Psychol. 24, 477–483 35 Driver, J. and Spence, C. (1998) Attention and the crossmodal 32 Shinn-Cunningham, B. Adapting to remapped auditory localization construction of space Trends Cognit. Sci. 2, 254–262 cues: a decision-theory model Percept. Psychophys. (in press) 36 Jones, T.A, Hawrylak, N. and Greenough, W.T. (1996) Rapid laminar- 33 Shinn-Cunningham, B.G., Durlach, N.I. and Held, R.M. (1998) Adapting dependent changes in GFAP immunoreactive astrocytes in the visual to supernormal auditory localization cues: II. Constraints on cortex of rats reared in a complex environment Psychoneuro- adaptation of mean response J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 103, 3667–3676 endocrinology 21, 189–201 The functional neuroanatomy of emotion and affective style Richard J. Davidson and William Irwin Recently, there has been a convergence in lesion and neuroimaging data in the identification of circuits underlying positive and negative emotion in the human brain. Emphasis is placed on the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and the amygdala as two key components of this circuitry. Emotion guides action and organizes behavior towards salient goals. To accomplish this, it is essential that the organism have a means of representing affect in the absence of immediate elicitors. It is proposed that the PFC plays a crucial role in affective working memory. -
A Tale of Two Brains – Cortical Localization and Neurophysiology in the 19Th and 20Th Century
Commentary A Tale of Two Brains – Cortical localization and neurophysiology in the 19th and 20th century Philippe-Antoine Bilodeau, MDCM(c)1 MJM 2018 16(5) Abstract Introduction: Others have described the importance of experimental physiology in the development of the brain sciences and the individual discoveries by the founding fathers of modern neurology. This paper instead discusses the birth of neurological sciences in the 19th and 20th century and their epistemological origins. Discussion: In the span of two hundred years, two different conceptions of the brain emerged: the neuroanatomical brain, which arose from the development of functional, neurological and neurosurgical localization, and the neurophysiological brain, which relied on the neuron doctrine and enabled pre-modern electrophysiology. While the neuroanatomical brain stems from studying brain function, the neurophysiological brain emphasizes brain functioning and aims at understanding mechanisms underlying neurological processes. Conclusion: In the 19th and 20th century, the brain became an organ with an intelligible and coherent physiology. However, the various discoveries were tributaries of two different conceptions of the brain, which continue to influence sciences to this day. Relevance: With modern cognitive neuroscience, functional neuroanatomy, cellular and molecular neurophysiology and neural networks, there are different analytical units for each type of neurological science. Such a divide is a vestige of the 19th and 20th century development of the neuroanatomical and neurophysiological brains. history of medicine, history of neurology, cortical localization, neurophysiology, neuroanatomy, 19th century 1Faculty of Medicine, McGill University, Montréal, Canada. 3Department of Ophthalmology and Vision Sciences, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada. Corresponding Author: Kamiar Mireskandari, email [email protected]. -
Sensory Change Following Motor Learning
A. M. Green, C. E. Chapman, J. F. Kalaska and F. Lepore (Eds.) Progress in Brain Research, Vol. 191 ISSN: 0079-6123 Copyright Ó 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. CHAPTER 2 Sensory change following motor learning { k { { Andrew A. G. Mattar , Sazzad M. Nasir , Mohammad Darainy , and { } David J. Ostry , ,* { Department of Psychology, McGill University, Montréal, Québec, Canada { Shahed University, Tehran, Iran } Haskins Laboratories, New Haven, Connecticut, USA k The Roxelyn and Richard Pepper Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, USA Abstract: Here we describe two studies linking perceptual change with motor learning. In the first, we document persistent changes in somatosensory perception that occur following force field learning. Subjects learned to control a robotic device that applied forces to the hand during arm movements. This led to a change in the sensed position of the limb that lasted at least 24 h. Control experiments revealed that the sensory change depended on motor learning. In the second study, we describe changes in the perception of speech sounds that occur following speech motor learning. Subjects adapted control of speech movements to compensate for loads applied to the jaw by a robot. Perception of speech sounds was measured before and after motor learning. Adapted subjects showed a consistent shift in perception. In contrast, no consistent shift was seen in control subjects and subjects that did not adapt to the load. These studies suggest that motor learning changes both sensory and motor function. Keywords: motor learning; sensory plasticity; arm movements; proprioception; speech motor control; auditory perception. Introduction the human motor system and, likewise, to skill acquisition in the adult nervous system. -
Motor Control Paper“ for Our Common Script - IPNFA - Nicola Fischer, Carsten Schaefer „Well-Fed-Version“
suggestion for a „Motor Control Paper“ for our common script - IPNFA - Nicola Fischer, Carsten Schaefer „well-fed-version“ _______________________________________ Motor Control _______________________________________ 1. Definition and Contributions of Motor Control 2. Postural control 3. Activities 1. Definitions and Contributions Ø Definition of Motor Control “Motor control is defined as the ability to regulate or direct the mechanisms essential to movement.” (Shumway-Cook & Woollacott 2011, p.4; Horak et al 1997) Relevant questions are: - “How does the central nervous system (CNS) organize the many individual muscles and joints into coordinated functional movements? (Bernstein 1967; Shumway-Cook & Woollacott 2011; Magill 2003; Schmidt & Lee 2011) - How is sensory information from the environment and the body used to select and control movement? - What is the best way to study movement, and how can movement problems be quantified in patients with motor control problems?” (Shumway-Cook & Woollacott 2011, p.4) “Movement emerges from interactions between the individual, the task and the environment.” (Shumway-Cook & Woollacott 2011, p.5) figure 1: adapted from Shumway-Cook (Shumway-Cook & Woollacott 2011) Ø Theories of Motor Control § Reflex Theory e.g. Sir. Ch. Sherrington (Sherrington 1947) § Hierarchical Theory e.g. Rudolf Magnus, Arnold Gesell § Motor Programming Theory e.g. Karl Lashley (Fitch & Martins 2014) Nicolai Bernstein … as a base for the Systems Theory (Bernstein 1967) § Systems Theory / Dynamic Action Theory / Dynamic Pattern Theory - self organizing systems e.g. J.A. Scott Kelso, Viktor Jirsa (Jirsa & Kelso 2004) § Ecological Theory e.g. James Gibson (Gibson 1983) Ø Sensory Contributions to Motor Control For the closed-loop control system, sensory (or afferent) information is necessary to regulate our suggestion for a „Motor Control Paper“ for our common script - IPNFA - Nicola Fischer, Carsten Schaefer „well-fed-version“ movements (Adams 1971; Schmidt & Lee 2011). -
Neuroimaging and the Functional Neuroanatomy of Psychotherapy
Psychological Medicine, 2005, 35, 1385–1398. f 2005 Cambridge University Press doi:10.1017/S0033291705005064 Printed in the United Kingdom REVIEW ARTICLE Neuroimaging and the functional neuroanatomy of psychotherapy JOSHUA L. ROFFMAN*, CARL D. MARCI, DEBRA M. GLICK, DARIN D. DOUGHERTY AND SCOTT L. RAUCH Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA ABSTRACT Background. Studies measuring the effects of psychotherapy on brain function are under-rep- resented relative to analogous studies of medications, possibly reflecting historical biases. However, psychological constructs relevant to several modalities of psychotherapy have demonstrable neuro- biological correlates, as indicated by functional neuroimaging studies in healthy subjects. This review examines initial attempts to measure directly the effects of psychotherapy on brain function in patients with depression or anxiety disorders. Method. Fourteen published, peer-reviewed functional neuroimaging investigations of psycho- therapy were identified through a MEDLINE search and critically reviewed. Studies were compared for consistency of findings both within specific diagnostic categories, and between specific mod- alities of psychotherapy. Results were also compared to predicted neural models of psychother- apeutic interventions. Results. Behavioral therapy for anxiety disorders was consistently associated with attenuation of brain-imaging abnormalities in regions linked to the pathophysiology of anxiety, and with acti- vation in regions related to positive reappraisal of anxiogenic stimuli. In studies of major depressive disorder, cognitive behavioral therapy and interpersonal therapy were associated with markedly similar changes in cortical–subcortical circuitry, but in unexpected directions. For any given psy- chiatric disorder, there was only partial overlap between the brain-imaging changes associated with pharmacotherapy and those associated with psychotherapy.