CONVENTION

Pareto’s Principle in Punctuation: 20% of the RULES covers 80% of the situations. Master and Apply them, and you will be functionally literate in composition.

Convention: a way in which something is generally done, especially within a particular field. Punctuation and Usage are neither Commandment (“Thou shalt..”) nor Whim (“I feel like..”). Motorists drive on the right or left side of a road, depending upon whether they travel in America or England. Children choose not to wear swim suits to their mother’s funeral. Funeral attire is dictated neither by law nor by impulse: appropriateness (how most thoughtful people dress) trumps. Careful writers learn and use the major punctuation and usage conventions listed below.

CAPITALIZATION 1. Capitalize the first word of a sentence. 2. Capitalize the first word of a direct quotation (do not capitalize the first word of a quoted sentence fragment). 3. Capitalize proper nouns (particular person, place, thing, or idea) and proper adjectives (adjectives formed from proper nouns). All other nouns are common nouns; all other adjectives are common adjectives. 4. Capitalize titles when they come before names (Professor Higgins). 5. Capitalize family relationships if the relationship is part of the name (Aunt Sue). 6. In titles of books, poems, etc., capitalize the first word, all important words, and prepositions of four or more letters. 7. Capitalize product names only when they are trademarks (Kleenex, Styrofoam cup) 8. Capitalize points of a compass only when they are regions (the South). 9. Capitalize words referring to Deity.

PERIODS 1. Statements and abbreviations are followed by periods; questions are followed by question marks; strong, emotional expressions are followed by exclamation points. 2. An imperative sentence may be followed by a period or an exclamation depending upon the force intended. 3. Polite requests may be followed by a period instead of a question mark to indicate confidence in the response.

COMMAS 1. Use commas to separate items in a series (unless all items are joined by “and” or “or”; use semicolons for clarity if the items themselves contain commas. 2. Use a comma to separate two or more equal adjectives preceding a noun; do not separate the last adjective from the noun if the adjective is thought of as part of the noun; do not separate a modifier in the series if it modifies one of the adjectives. 3. Use a comma to separate two independent clauses joined by a simple conjunction (and, or, but, for, or, nor, yet). 4. Use a comma to set off introductory expressions (ah, oh, however, etc.). 5. Use a comma to set of introductory participles and infinitives. 6. Use a comma to set off introductory participial phrases, infinitive phrases, and adverb clauses. PUNCTUATION CONVENTION

7. Use a comma to set off one or more nonessential, introductory prepositional phrases totaling five or more words. 8. Use a comma to set off terminal adverb clauses, only if the clause is an afterthought. 9. Use a comma to set off nonessential adjective clauses and participial phrases. 10. Use a comma to set off parenthetical (interrupting) expressions (of course, etc.) 11. Use a comma to set off appositives and appositive phrases. 12. Use a comma to set off contrasting expressions. 13. Use a comma to set off direct addresses. 14. Use a comma to set off direct quotations. 15. Use a comma to set off second and succeeding elements in dates, addresses, and geographical items. 16. Use a comma for clarity (e.g., words repeated for , words possibly misread if not separated).

SEMICOLONS 1. Use a semicolon to separate two, parallel, independent clauses not joined by a conjunction; a comma may be used if the clauses are extremely short. 2. Use a semicolon to separate two, independent clauses joined by a complex conjunction (however, nevertheless, etc.). 3. Use a semicolon to separate items in a series when one or more of the items contain internal commas. 4. For clarity, use a semicolon between two independent clauses joined by a simple conjunction if the clauses themselves contain commas.

COLONS (mean, “note what follows”) 1. Use a colon after an independent clause to introduce items in a series (i.e., not following a verb or preposition). 2. Use a colon to introduce (long) quotations of two or more sentences, or a formal statement. 3. Use a colon to separate independent clauses when the second restates, explains, or illustrates the first. 4. Use colons in certain standard usages like time (3:30), salutations of business letters (Dear Mr. Job:), separation of titles and subtitles (Love: A Critical Core), etc.

ITALICS / QUOTATION MARKS 1. Italicize (underline) titles of complete literary and artistic works such as books, films, movies, albums, television series, plays, programs, periodicals (like magazines and newspapers), works of art, ships, etc.; however, use quotation marks to indicate subdivisions such as titles of chapters, parts of books, or other short works like short stories, poems, songs, articles, episodes, etc. 2. Italicize (underline) words, letters, and figures referred to as such; italicize (underline) foreign words. 3. Use quotation marks to enclose slang words, technical terms, definitions, words used in a special sense, or other unusual expressions.

QUOTATIONS 1. Use quotation marks to enclose a person’s exact words. PUNCTUATION CONVENTION

2. When a quotation is divided into two parts by an interrupting expression, the first part begins with a capital letter, the second part begins with a small letter. 3. Set off a direct quotation from the rest of the sentence by a comma, question mark, or exclamation point; do not use more than one comma or end mark. 4. Commas and periods are always placed inside quotation marks; semicolons and colons are always placed outside quotation marks; question marks and exclamation points are placed inside the quotation marks only if they are part of the quotation. 5. When quoting a passage of more than one , use quotations marks to start each paragraph, but only to end the final paragraph quoted. 6. Use single quotation marks to enclose a quote within a quote. 7. Use quotation marks (sparingly) to emphasize irony, humor, or sarcasm.

APOSTROPHES 1. Use an apostrophe and “s” to show possession in a singular noun; use only the apostrophe if the noun already ends in “s”; use the “s” and apostrophe only to show possession of a plural noun ending in “s.” 2. In hyphenated words, names of organizations, and words showing joint possession, only the last word is possessive in form. 3. Use an apostrophe to form a contraction. 4. Use an apostrophe and “s” to form the plural of letters, numbers, signs, and words referred to as such.

HYPHENS 1. Use a to divide a word at the end of a line. 2. Use a hyphen to form compound numbers (twenty-one through ninety-nine). 3. Use a hyphen with numbers forming compound adjectives (ten-year-old child), fractions used as adjectives, and thank-you used as an adjective. 4. Use a hyphen to form a compound adjective preceding the word it modifies. 5. Use a hyphen after certain prefixes (ex-, self-, all-,), before the suffix -elect, and after all prefixes used with a proper noun or adjective (anti-Christ, etc.).

DASHES (loud : manuscript, longer than a hyphen; typing, two ) 1. Use a dash for summaries (i.e., to mean namely, in other words, that is, etc.) 2. Use a dash to set off parenthetical elements and interruptions. 3. Use a dash to attribute a quotation (—Cicero).

PARENTHESIS / BRACKETS 1. Use parenthesis to enclose incidental information or explanatory matter added to a sentence. 2. Use brackets to enclose explanations in quoted material when the explanation is not part of the quoted material.

ELLIPSIS 1. Use an ellipsis to show the omission of words from quoted material.