Soil Survey Report

I SOIL SURVEY REPORT

I . of SOUTHEASTERN NEW BRUNSWICK

H. AALUND and R. E. WICKLUND Dominion Department of Agriculture

THIRD REPORT OF THE NEW BRUNSWICK SOIL, SURVEY

FREDERICTON, N.B. I AUG 4 1972

Experimental Farms Service ------I.-. I.-- Dominion Department of Agriculture In Co-operation with the New Brunswick Department of Agriculture . ACKNOWLEDGMENT

HE Soil Survey of Southeastern New Brunswick was T conducted by the Experimental Farms Service, Dominion Department of Agriculture, in co-operation with the New Brunswick Department of Agriculture. The University of New Brunswick provided headquarters and laboratory accommoda- tion for the analytical work.

The field work was carried out in the course of three seasons- 1940, 1941 and 1942 - by H. Aalund, A. Briggs, F. Everett, D. Gilchrist, K. Langmaid, L. RlacKay and A. MacLean. P. C. Stobbe, Soil Specialist, Central Experimental Farm, Ottawa, spent some time each year in the field and advised on the classification and correlation of the soils as well as on the preparation of maps and the present report. The physical and chemical analyses on soil samples were performed by K. Langmaid.

,4cknowledgment of assistance and information given in the course of the work is gratefully rendered to the Fieldmen ant1 Representatives of the New Brunswick Department of Agriculture in the surveyed area, to many other officials of the Provincial ancl Dominion Departments of Agriculture, to Dr. W. J. Wright, Provincial Geologist, Dr. G. S. MacKenzie, Associate Professor of Geology, University of New Brunswick, and Dr. K. T. D. Wickenden, Geological Survey of Canada, for information regarding the geology of the area, and to Dr. F. J. ‘Poole, Professor of Chemistry, University of New Bruns- wick, for his continued interest in the work and assistance in problems of analysis.

The writers are especially indebted to P. C. Stobbe, Soil Specialist, and Dr. A. Leahey, Soil Specialist, both of the Central Experimental Farm, Ottawa, for constructive criticism during the writing of this report.

The Dominion Department of RIines and Resources, provided the base maps. The enclosed maps were prepared for publication in the map drafting office at the Central Experimental Farm, Ottawa. CONTENTS PACE ,\CKSOWLEDGhlENT ...... 3 hl.4P SHOWING THE 1,OCATION OF THE SURVEYED AREA ...... 6 IXTRODUCTION ...... 7 ;i. General Description of the Surveyed District...... 9 1. Location and Extent .... .-...... 9 Topography and Drainage ...... 9 is GeologyandSoil Parent Material. . ..:.:::.::::::‘:::. “::::::::::::::::: 14 4: Vegetation ...... 18 5. Climate...... 21 6. Settlement and Population ...... : : : : : : : : : 1: : : : .... 24 7. r2griculture ...... 26 B. Soils. . 9 29 sd;isur~e.~~~e;hhd~““.“.::::.:::::::::::.:::’.::: ::::::::::::::::::: 29 ;: Soil Formation...... 29 I3 . SoilClassification...... :::1.:::!:!:::l:::::I:::::::::::::.:::::::::::::: : 33 4. Description and Discussion of Soils...... 40 I. Soils Developed on Glacial Till ...... , ...... 40 A. Soils Develoned on Till Derived from non-calcareous rock material ...... 40 Queens Asso‘ciation ...... 40 Harcourt Association...... 4.5 Dorchester Association ...... 45 Salisbury Association...... 47 Petitcodiac Association ...... : : : : : : : ...... 49 Shemogue Association, ...... 52 Parryr:4ssociation ...... 5-l hmgs Series. Tormentine Association ...... 1 : : : : : : : : : : : : .. : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : .:fi Aulac Association ...... 60 Tidnish Series ...... 62 Queenville .%sociation...... 63 DeeSeries ...... 65 . Anagancc*~ssociation ...... 65 DunsinaneSeries...... 67 Crossman Association...... 67 Lomond Association ...... 69 Kingston Association ...... : : : : : : ...... 71 DeedSeries ...... 73 R. Soils Developed on Glacial Till Derived From Rocks With Some Content of Calcium Carbonate in the Cementing Material...... 74 Kingsclear Association ...... 7-4 Nackawick Series., ...... 77 Parleeville Association ...... 77 Midland Series...... 79 Saltspring Association ...... 80 Knightville Association ...... 82 Byrns Series ...... 84-- II. Soils Developed on Water-Worked Parent Material...... 85 A. Mature Soils Developed on Deposits of Glacial and early Post-Glacial Age. 86 Gagetown Association...... 86 Penobsquis Series...... 88 Riverbank Association.. . . . KennebecasisAssociation.....::::::::::::.::’::::::::::::::::::::: y”‘: Oromocto Series...... 92 B. Immature Soils in Process of Development on Recent Flood and Tidal Deposits (Azonal Soils) ...... 92 Intervale Association...... 93 Sussex Association...... 94- Acadia.\ssociation ...... ‘::::::! ...... :::::::: ...... III. Organic Soils (Intrazonal)...... : 11: 1 ;; Peat. Muck.... :.::::::!:::::::!:::::::::::::::::I::::::1:::::::::::: z:: 5. Rating and Suitability of the Soils of Southeastern New Brunswick for Agricultural Use...... 99 6. Land Classification of Southeastern New Brunswick. : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 100 Appendix...... 105

5 9” _ . 48’

GOLF OF

LAWRENCE

STATES

-4b.

NOVA SCOTIA SKETCH MAP

SHOWINS LOCATION OF SURVEYED AREAS CHARLOTTE . E. NEW BRUNSWICK AREA......

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hr the Pxorrimmtd Farms Service. OIUW INTRODUCTION

Soil Survey work in Kew Brunswick has been in progress since 1938, as a co-operative project by the Experimental Farms Service, Dominion Department of Agriculture, and the New Brunswick Department of Agriculture.

The immediate object of a soil survey is the classification and mapping of the soils of an area according to their inherent physical and chemical characteristics. The interpretation of the characteristics of the different soil units in terms of productivity and adaptability for use, is also an important feature of the soil survey program.

The information obtained from the survey of Southeastern New Brunswick is presented in this report, which is the third soil survey report for the province. The first part of the report gives a brief general description of the map area and of the topography, geology, climate, and other factors, that have influenced the development of the soils and have a close bearing on crop production. The body of the report presents the classification of the soils and gives descriptions of the characteristics of each soil type and discusses the relationships of the soils to agriculture. A table on the estimated productivity rating of the soil types for the commonly grown farm crops is also given, and a preliminary land classification of the surveyed area has been incorporated in this report in the interest of those who are concerned with land use. The appendix contains tables of physical and chemical analysis of some representative soil samples from the survey area.

The soil maps which accompany this report, are an essential aid to the proper use of the report. They show the distribution of the soils and important physical features of the surveyed area, such as slope of the land, surface drainage systems, and cultural features (road, railroads, towns, etc.). The scale of the map, which is two miles to one inch, is too small to indicate detailed soil variations on individual farms. Therefore, if knowledge is desired concerning any small tract of land the information derived from the map and the report should be supplemented with first hand examination of the soils on that land.

3 3068-2 SOIL SURVEY REPORT

of the SOUTHEASTERN PART OF NEW BRUNSWICK bY H. &LUND* AND R. E. WICKLUND** GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE SURVEYED AREA Location and Extent The area described in this report is that part of New Brunswick lying east of the lower part of the St. John river and Washademoak lake and river, and south of a line running irregularly from Cole’s Island, Queens county, to the town of Shediac on the Northumberland Strait. Its approximate location is shown in the outline map of the province. The area includes all of Albert county, practically all the settled part of Westmorland, most of St. John and Kings counties, and a small section of Queens count!‘, it covers approximately 3,890 square miles or 2,489,OOO acres. The exact boundaries of the surveyed district are as follows (beginning at the citv of Saint John and reading clockwise on the map) : on the west, the St. John river, Washademoak lake and river to Cole’s Island, thence due north to 46’00’ lat. ; thence a straight line to 46’10’ lat., 65’30’ long. ; thence a straight line to 46’1.5’ lat., 65’15’ long.; and from this latter point due east to Shediac Bay. E;rom there the surveyed area is bounded by the Northumberland Strait, Baie I’erte, the province of Nova Scotia, Cumberland Basin, Chignecto Bay, and the I%>- of Fundy as far as Saint John cit?r. The area defined above contains within its borders the well developed farming districts of southeastern New Brunswick, which include the thickly settled, fertile valleys of the Petitcodiac and the Kennebecasis rivers and the adjoining, less heavily settled, yet reasonably productive uplands. These agricultural areas are separated from the Bay of Fundy on the south by the Caledonia mountains, or southern upland, and on the north they merge with the flat, ill-drained, wooded expanse of central New Brunswick. On the west these farming areas are eontig- uous to the agricultural lands of the Grand Lake district and the St. John river \Talle)-, and on the east to those of Cumberland county, Nova Scotia. Highivays and railways traverse the valleys of the Kennebecasis and the Petitcodiac rivers, from the port city of Saint John on the Bay of Fundy through the town of Sussex in Kings county to the industrial and distributing center of nloncton in Westmorland county. From the city of Moncton highways and railways radiate to the provinces of Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island and through the East and North Shore districts of New Brunswick to the province of Quebec. Moncton is also connected by air service with Halifax, N.S., Summer- side, P.E.I., Montreal, Que., and Boston, Mass. The city advertises itself, not without reason, as “the hub of the Maritimes”.

Topography and Drainage A general southwest to northeast trend or direction of the natural physiographic features is a characteristic common to all parts of the surveyed district * Formerly with the Dominion Department of Agriculture, presently with the New Brunswick Department oi Lands and Mines. ** Formerly with Nova Scotia Soil Survey, presently ORicel in charge, Sew Brunswick Soil Survey.

9 10 with the exception of the area north and east of Moncton. This trend is plainly exhibited by the drainage systems, the valleys, and the hill ranges, as well as by the coast line along the Bay of Fundy. North and east of Moncton the country is relatively level, and the trend is lost to view except in the Tantramar marsh and its flanking ridges. The drainage system of the greater part of the map-area has developed in a trellis pattern, which is characterized by long, parallel streams fed by short transverse tributaries. The larger members of this system are the Washademoak river, the depression occupied by the Long Reach of the St. John river and the Belleisle bay (and its prolongation through the Millstream valley), the Kenne- becasis river and Smith creek, the North and Anagance rivers, the Hammond river, and the chain of Loch Lomond lakes which are drained by the Mispek river. In Westmorland county, where the southwest-northeast trend is lost to view, the drainage pattern is of the dendritic type, which is formed by more or less winding main streams fed by relatively large tributaries and their branches and sub-branches so as to suggest the picture of a tree with many branches and twigs. A low divide runs somewhat irregularly west and east through the county, from Irishtown Station to Cape Tormentine, so that the northern side drains into the Northumberland Strait, and the southern side into the head of the Bay of Fundy. The valleys of the southwest part of the map-area are generally long and fairly narrow. Several of them rise steeply to the adjoining ridges and uplands, while others are somewhat wider and have more gently rising slopes. The southwest-northeast direction is shown as plainly by the valleys and ridges as by the rivers. Small modifications of the trend occur locally. They may be ascribed to the effects of erosion and will be discussed in the section on Geology. In Westmorland county most of the valleys are too small and narrow for location of farms and serve merely as beds for the rivers, but they wind through the low, flat countryside and provide very necessary drainage. The largest valleys are those of the Petitcodiac and Memramcook rivers, which take a southeasterly direction. There are no large lakes and only a few small ones in the surveyed area. Those that are to be found occur chiefly in rock-bound basins in the Kingston peninsula and in the southern upland. Kennebecasis lake and the Loch Lomond lakes are of glacial origin, their waters being impounded by dams of glacial gravel and drift. Some small lakes and swamps are situated at the head of the Tantramar marshes in Westmorland county. The surveyed district consists of several distinct physiographic divisions, which may be distinguished by reason of differences in elevation above sea level, slope, smoothness or roughness of the land surface, drainage conditions, stoniness, depth of soil over the bedrock, and other characteristics. These divisions are as follows: (1) Southern upland, average elevation approximately 1,000 feet. (2) Rolling to hilly upland, average elevation 400 to 600 feet. (3) Gently undulating to gently rolling lowland, average elevation less than 200 feet. (4) River valleys. (5) Tidal land (marsh areas). (1) The southern upland is a part of the surveyed area 12 to 16 miles in width, paralleling and bounded on the southeast by the Bay of Fundy, between Saint John city and Albert Mines, and on the northwest by the rolling to hilly upland along a somewhat curved line running parallel with the Bay of Fundy shore line. In this division is also included the Kingston peninsula (as far as the Springfield-Norton Road). Although the latter does not nearly reach the eleva- 11 tions met with in the southern upland along the Bay of Fundy, it presents a rugged topography and in many other ways fits into this category. The southern upland, part of which is known as the Caledonia mountains, has an average elevation of more than 1,000 feet above sea level, with some points as high as 1,350 feet (Kent hills) and 1,400 feet (in Waterford Parish, near Old Shepody road). Shepody mountain itself is 1,500 feet high. A view of the southern upland from a vantage point discloses the fact that the majority of the ridges and high points are at approximately the same level (1,200 to 1,250 feet), and that the land surface is in reality a fairly even plateau, cut transversely by short, fast streams running in deep, narrow valleys. The coast is rugged and over long distances is formed by sheer rock walls. On the plateau rock outcrops and ledges are numerous, and the drainage therefore restricted locally so that soggy, swampy land is not uncommon. Towards Saint John the general elevation drops considerably and lakes, muskeg, rocky barrens, and wooded patches alternate with one another. The Kingston peninsula has a general elevation of 400 to 500 feet, but the land surface is broken and uneven. Several small lakes are found in rock-bound basins in relatively high positions. The narrow valleys among the hills and ridges are for the most part inadequately drained due to their depressional, trough-like nature. The whole of the peninsula is rock-strewn and the mantle of soil is thin in most parts, so that exposed bedrock is commonly seen. The geological formations predominating as the surface bedrock in the southern upland are of Pre-Carboniferous origin and consist principally of hard rocks, which weather slowly, such as highly altered sediments and volcanics, granite, and diorite. The southern upland including the Kingston peninsula is largely under forest at the present. Clearings are confined to the valleJrs and small tracts where stones and outcrops are not so numerous as to make cultivation impossible; several settlements have been abandoned and are now either grown up in bush or used as permanent pasture for young cattle. (2) The rolling to hilly upland is divided by valleys into three parts. One of these forms a border of foothills on the northwestern side of the southern upland in *Albert and Kings counties, from Salt Springs and Upham to Hills- borough, where it widens out, crosses the Petitcodiac river to Memramcook, Dorchester, Sackville, and the land south of those places, and also extends around the eastern end along the shore through Hopewell to Alma. Another belt of the rolling upland is found to the west of the Kennebecasis-Smith creek valley, beginning where the upland of the Kingston peninsula terminates, near the Springfield-Norton road, and extends in a northeasterly direction, passing west of Sussex; it includes Jordan and White mountains and the smoother, high land at the village of Havelock and the Lewis, Steeves and Lutz mountains. A third part occupies a belt of country north of Belleisle Bayr, rising near the Long Reach of the St. John river and extending to the head of Millstream. It inclucles such landmarks as Bull Moose hill, the large, dome-shaped Kierstead mountain, and the smaller Snyder mountain, and has a general southwest- northeast direction. The three belts defined above are generally distinctly, separated by valleys, and here and there they are indented by secondary depressions, of which those occupied ‘by the Anagance river and the Kennebecasis river above Sussex are the most conspicuous. They form the eastern boundary of a long, broad, and smooth ridge, which extends from Mt. Pisgah to Petitcodiac village and are bounded on the west by the valleys of Smith creek and Salt Springs brook. Low divides between the south-flowing (Kennebecasis, Smith creek) and the north- flowing streams (Anagance, Salt Springs and Bennett brooks) connect the island- like ridge and the foothills to the southeast with the rolling land around Havelock to the northwest. 12 The rolling to hill\, .upland includes several geological formations, mostlJ7 those of Mississippian age; but grey Pennsylvanian sandstone and conglomerate and Pre-Carboniferous hard rocks also occur as surface bedrock in certain (list ricts. The rolling to hilly upland has a general elevation between 400 and 600 feet above sea level, which is considerabl>- below that of the southern upland, but whereas the latter has a relatively smooth surface, the rolling upland is com- parativelJ7 rough and uneven. Small stream vallq,s and depressions are numerous; their slopes are often steep, and the intervening ridges are generally- stony. Surface ledge and outcrops of bedrock are more or less localized, and are more frequent in the southwest than in the northeast. Xs a rule the soils and the surface mantle of clrift are sufficiently deep and porous to provide fair to good and sometimes even excessive internal drainage, while run-off is aided I>\- uneven surface of the land.

tUthough the rolling to hilly upland forms a ph>-siographic unit, there are, ne\rertheless, many local differences in aspect as well as in use capabilities of the land. The foothills district between South Hranch, on highwa>T No. 14, and Hillsborough has a relatively smooth, rolling surface, few rock ontcrops and boulders, but numerous stones. The mantle of soil and weathered rock is comparativel), thick and the drainage, both internall\. and by run-off, is good to cscclssive. ljetween South E3ranch and Salt Springs and lipham the topograph! is rough, and rock outcrops and boulders are common. The soils are stony and thin on the bedrock. The belt lying between the Kennebecasis-Smith creek and Belleisle BaJ--i’Uillstreanl \ralleys and extending to Havelock and I,e\f-is, Steeves, and I,utz, mountains varies from strongI>, undulating to strongI!* rolling. It is well drained, and although it is ston). and often rock!., it also has tracts of loam!-, fertile soils and excellent farming lands, such as the districts between Springfield, Korton, and .Apohaqui, and around (‘ornhill, Havelock, and I,e\vis, Steeves, and I,utz mountains. The third belt of rolling to hill>- upland l!Ting northwest of the Belleisle I%~!.-Millstream valley. has a broken, irregular surface, n-ith frequent outcrops of ledge; the drainage is adequate, but the soils are ston!., thin and generally unproductive, although some good farm land occurs on the rounded summits of Kierstead and Snyder mountains. (3) The gentI>, undulating to gentl>- rolling lowland is found northwest of an irregular line from M?ckham on the St. John river to the northeastern extre- rnit!. of Lutz mountain. Rounding I,utz mountain it reaches the shores of Sorth- umberland Strait and widens out to cover the larger part of CI’estmorland count>-, north of an irregular line from Moncton to Upper Sackville. Betu-een 3Ioncton and Petitcodiac Village it also occupies the area bounded on the northwest by the .Anagance ridge and Steeves and Lutz mountains and on the south by an irregular line from Petitcodiac to Stony Creek to Moncton. It is contiguous to the flat lowland of central New Brunswick on the northlvest and to the north Nova Scotia lowland on the east. The geological formations forming the surface bedrock of this undulating lowland are of Pennsylvanian origin or younger. They generally consist of grey sandstone with some conglomerate and shale, and in the Tormentine peninsula of reddish, fine-grained, micaceous sandstone of late Pennsylvanian age or possibly- younger. The area north and south of the Petitcodiac river between Petitcodiac and h’loncton is covered with drift to a considerable depth, but occasional outcrops of reddish brown sandstone and arenaceous shale may be found, probably belonging to a Pennsylvanian formation, \rounger than the grey sandstone. The lowland division is characterized by an average elevation of less than 200 feet and by and even, monotonous topography, relieved here and there by low, broad undulations and narrow, shallow stream valleys. The soils are as a rule of medium to heav>- texture, with compact subsoils, and more or less ston>T. 13 Rock outcrops are relatively scarce and appear as flatlying ledges, where they do occur. A large part of the undulating lowland, especially northwest of a line from Wickham to Lutz mountain, has very little relief and the land is largely ill-drained, and mostly wooded. Only on the greater slopes of gently rising ridges and along shore lines are drainage condition satisfactory and such areas are more extensivelJ7 cleared and settled. (4) River valleys: The southwest-northeast trend of the surface features of the surveyed district, which was pointed out above is exemplified u nmistak- ably in the main valleys and depressibns. Of these the larger and more important ones are the Belleisle Bay-5’Iillstream valley and the Kennebecasis-Smith creek valley, which divide the rolling to hilly upland into the three belts discussed above. The shape and width of these valleys vary considerably. Near Spring-field the Belleisle Bay valley is narrow, whereas between Kierstead mountain and I,ower Millstream village it has a width of almost four miles. Farther north, the 1LIillstream valley occupies the lowland between Kierstead and Snyder mountains on the west and a ridge on the east Ivhich is followed in part by the road from RI t. Middleton to Carsonville. The Kennebecasis valley is quite narrow throughout its length; at Sussex it connects with the wider Smith creek valley. The latter occupies the Lowland between the Mt. Pisgah-.Anagance ridge and the range formed by Jordan and \\‘hite mountains. Both the Belleisle Ha)--hlillstream and the Kennebecasis-Smith creek \~~lleys have considerable areas of water-worked soils, and also contain some 1011’ridges composed of till, which, ho\Jrever, are scarcel!r noticeable, when the valleys are viewed from high vantage points. The Kennebecasis valley continues through Sussex in a northeasterly direction as far as Five Points, where it cuts east and southeast aci-oss the geological formations, but the northeasterly trend is taken up and continued near Five Points by the north-flowing A\nagance river, which at Petitcodiac village becomes the Petitcodiac river; the latter runs in a northeasterly direction as far as the city of Moncton (formerly called The Bend), where it turns almost at a right angle to flow southeasterly to the Shepody Bay, a branch of the Hay of Fundy. From Hampton through Sussex to Moncton there is thus a roughly straight valle)-, interrupted on147 brief217 and nearI! imperceptibl!T bar the low . divide near Five Points between the south-flowing Kennebecasis river and the north-flowing Anagance (Petitcodiac) river. This valley is remarkable for its length. In some places it also forms a more or less sharp boundar!. between different geological formations and physiographic divisions.

In the northeastern section, where the directional trend is lost to view the Petitcodiac and Memramcook valleys are the largest and most impressive ones. The valley bottoms are fully taken up by the rivers, but the slopes are gentle, rising gradually to the level of the surrounding land. rllong the banks of both rivers there are appreciable areas of recent tidal deposits, the so-called marshland. This extends as far up as Salisbur\. on the Petitcodiac river. (5) The tidal land, around the head of the Bay of Fundy and many of its rivers, forms a unique phlrsiographic division. Its elevation is above low tide, but below high tide. The surface is apparently flat and even, but levelling instru- ments disclose that the center of a marsh area is higher than its margin, the latter therefore collects the drainage water from both marsh and the adjoining upland and often becomes swampy. This is particularly evident at the head of the Tantramar marsh, where small lakes, bogs, and generally ill-drained condition prevail. Tidal land also has a higher elevation near the banks of the rivers which have produced the land b?r flooding and silting from the flood waters, than at 14 points farther away from the rivers. Where two or more rivers run more or less parallel through a marsh it is therefore not uncommon to find ill-drained areas somewhere between them.

The tidal land at present occupies what was formerly the head of the Bay of Fund\T. Its formation has been brought about and still continues by daily deposition of mud from the Ray by the tides. The latter constitute a remarkable natural phenomenon. The difference between high and low tides amounts to as much as 45 feet at Moncton and Amherst. In the Petitcodiac river the waters at high tide rush in like a breaker, forming a vertical wall often as high as four feet. Tidal land under cultivation is protected from flooding b_\i artificial dykes. When these are permitted to deteriorate the tides break through and inundate the land. This condition at present prevails over a large part of the Hopewell- Riverside tidal marsh. On the Tantramar marsh at Sackville the tides still rush up and down the Tantramar river, the banks of which are dyked, but the Xulac river has been dammed near its mouth. X sluice in the dam or aboideau prevents ingress of the tides, but allows the drainage water to flow out.

Geology and Soil Parent Material -4 comparative study of the geology. and the physiography of the surveyed district reveals geographical and qualitative relationships between the various kinds of bedrock and the natural features. For example, there is ageneral corre- spondence between the southern upland, the rolling to hill?- upland and the undulating lowland, and the geographical distribution of the Pre-Carboniferous, the 11 ississippian, and the Pennsylvanian geological formations, respectively. The qualitative aspect of the relationship is shown b>. the coincidence of drainage channels, vaIle;rs, and depressions with structural weaknesses of the underlying rocks, as well as b). the rugged, irregular topograph\v in areas of strongly folded and contorted rocks (Mississippian), and by the more even relief of the land \vhere the formations are in more horizontal and undisturbed positions (Pennsyl- vanian), or \j.here the stage of topographic development is old (Pre-Carboniferous). Furthermore, there has been found to be a close relationship between the topograph\- and geolog)., and the soils of the surveyed district. This relationship bet\veen soils and.peology has led to the establishment of certain major cate- gories in soil classification on the basis of the geological characteristics of the soil parent material. \‘arious reports on the geologl- of Kew Brunswick emphasize the relationship between the character and agricultural value of soils and the respective kinds of rock from which they have been derived. Where the soils have formed in situ (more or less) the parallelism is unmistakably plain, but often it has been disturbed in varying degrees bJ7 the same agencies which have been active in the development of topographical expression, and finally, the soils are not simply the by-products of rock decay, but the end result of the interaction of a number of factors peculiar to soil formation, to which those responsible for topographic expression are contributory. While a geological map, therefore, cannot serve as a soils map, it does furnish valuable information and indications as to where a change in soil types may be expected, and often as to whether two soils which in the field appear similar in many respects, are merely different aspects of one type or basically different soils. For the reason that a knowledge of the main geological phenomena of a given area is a valuable aid in reading and understanding a soil survey report of that area, a brief discussion of the geologJ7 of the district dealt with in this report is given below. The surveyed district lies within the old Appalachian geological province, which originally included partly the present dry land southeast of the St. Lawrence 15 river, partly the area now covered by the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and partly the continental shelf which underlies the Atlantic ocean between the Atlantic coast and the outer margin of the Grand Banks. The Appalachian upland became strongly folded, the synclines and anticlines having a southwest-northeast direction. Erosion progressed, and as the land surface was at various times covered by the sea or shallow arms of it, which surrounded and transformed the southern upland into an island or peninsula. The products of erosion were deposited in beds, which during upward movements of the earth’s crust became eIevated above sea level, were eroded, then submerged again to receive new deposits. These repeated movements up and down were accompanied by folding and faulting, which characterize the deposits of Mississippian age. The latter underlie what has been described previously in this report as the rolling to hilly upland. During the Pennsylvanian period wide-spread deposition took place in Central New Brunswick, in Westmorland county, and northern Nova Scotia, as well as in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Later gentle upwarping brought these beds above the surface of the sea without much folding. Subsequent submergence has “Dro\hTued” the area occupied by the Gulf of St. Lawrence, leaving only a broad ridge, which constitutes Prince Edward Island. These gently upwarped, only slightly folded beds form the bedrock underlying the gently undulating to gently rolling lowland. The following classification scheme lists the various formations from the most recent to the oldest.

C.~KlK)NII’l~KOUS Permo-Carboniferous ( ?) 8. Unclassified rocks of Tormentine peninsula. Pennsylvanian 7. Petitcodiac group: grey sandstone, quartz-pebble conglomerate; red sandstone and shale. a. Grand Anse formation: reddish brown sandstone, in part with lenticular beds of arkose and pebble conglomerate; reddish brown arenaceous shale. b. Boss Point formation: gre)- sandstone and shale; red sandstone and shale; some quartz-pebble conglomerate. 6. Hopewell group: conglomerate; red shale; sandstone; some argillaceous limestone. a. Enrage formation : red shale; some sandsLone; some conglomerate near base. b. Shepody formation : red shale and sandstone, with interbeds of grey sandstone. Pennsylvanians and/or Mississippian c. Maringouin formation; red shale and sandstone.

5. Windsor series, not subdiviclecl. a. Gypsum, anhydrite. b. Red shale, gritty conglomerate. c. Limestone. 4. Moncton group; red to brown feldspathic grit, arkosic conglomerate and sandstone, red shale and sandstone, and grey sandstone. a. Hillsborough formation : red feldspathic grit, conglomerate. b. Weldon formation : red to reddish brown shale and sandstone; occasionally~ boulder conglomerate.

13068~-3 16

3. Albert formation: dark grey, in part bituminous, shale and sandstone; oil shale ; some limestone and salt. 2. Memramcook formation: red sandstone and shale. ~AI,A~~OZOIC ~\ND/OR PRE-CAMBRIAN Pre- Carboniferous 1. Highly altered sedimentary and volcanic rocks; also some granite and diorite. The I’re-Carboniferous formations are made up of rocks of varying mineral composition. They contain highly altered sediments and volcanics, with small areas of granite and diorite. Due to their hardness and low solubility they break down slowly, and their weathering products contain many angular boulders,and stones. Only a thin mantle of soil covers the bedrock, as erosion progresses almost as rapidly as weathering. After the deposition and shaping of the folded Pre-Carboniferous formations there was a long interval during which the land was above sea level. In the Missis- sippian period, which followed, repeated sinking and emergence of the land gave rise to a number of formations. The oldest of which is the Memramcook formation. It forms the surface bedrock in only a few small areas. The rocks of this . formation are chiefly. red sandstone and shale, which weather quite easily. The -Albert formation was laid down on the preceding beds in shallow waters. The Albert rocks consist of grey to dark grey shale and sandstone containing appreciable amounts of calcareous cementing material ; on weathering they assume a yellow to light brown colour and give rise to silty and loamy soils, Part of the Albert formation is made up of oil sands from which gas and oil have been obtained for many years. The Albert rocks form the surface bedrock in the Smith creek valley and continue through Cornhill, Mannhurst, and Glenvale. Beyond Mannhurst the formation is covered by drift, but outcrops again at Indian Mountain north of Moncton. Other surface occurrences of the Albert rocks are found between Elgin and Mapleton, and in a long, narrow belt passing through Kosevale at the foot of the Caledonia mountain; and again at Albert Mines and across the Petitcodiac river in the Dover-St. Joseph’s area, and at Boudreau Village, Taylor Village, and Upper Dorchester. The Albert beds occur in long folds trending southwest-northeast. The Weldon beds were deposited in continental and shallow waters. They consist in the main of reddish brown, calcareous shale and sandstone. They weather easily and give rise to heavy and loamy red soils, relatively high in calcium and free from boulders and large stones, but their occurrence is limited to small areas, principally southwest of Hillsborough and south of Belliveau [‘illage. The Weldon strata became moderately folded and were above sea level sufficiently- long to erode considerably and even to be removed entirely in places. The Hillsborough formation represents accumulations of coarse alluvial deposits in the form of red to brown feldspathic grit and conglomerate. The rocks of this formation form the surface bedrock over fairly extensive areas, particularly in the western portion of the surveyed district. Due to variations in their texture and composition they give rise to distinctly different types of land and soils. All of these are in the main poorly suited for general agricultural purposes. The Hillsborough beds were not elevated and eroded; instead, the sea gradually encroached upon them and served as a medium for the deposition of beds of limestone; with the recession of the sea gypsum was formed in shallow basins. The limestone and gypsum beds are the chief members of the Windsor series, which conformably overlies the Hillsborough formation, and are found associated with the latter as narrow marginal strips (lime notably at Havelock, Petitcodiac, Hillsborough ; gypsum at Hillsborough). Considerable folding, faulting and erosion took place after the formation of the Windsor series, 17

The Hopewell strata represent depositions of late Mississippian or early Pennsylvanian age. They contain red conglomerate, sandstone, and shale. The more important areas underlain by them are southwest and south of Sussex. Due to their variable composition the Hopewell rocks are associated with both good and poor soils, but this relationship is also influenced by the relief of the land. Following the deposition of the heterogeneous Hopewell beds the land rose above the sea, became eroded, and submerged again. The succeeding younger beds are definitely of Pennsylvanian origin and were laid down in shallow basins. They have suffered only mild folding and no faulting. They include what is here called the Petitcodiac group and also unclassified rock formations found in the Tormentine peninsula. Lithologically the Petitcodiac group is heterogeneous. It is made up of grey, and to a small extent red, siliceous and ferruginous conglomerate, sandstone, and shale, of which the latter is seldom seen. The conglomerate, interbedded with coarse, porous sandstone, occurs as surface bedrock in parts of the rolling to hilly upland north of the southern upland. It weathers comparatively easily and gives rise to coarse-textured, gravelly and stony, porous soils with a distinctive yellow colour. The sandstone and shale underlie the gently undulating to gently rolling lowland and are associated with relatively heavy, greyish brown to reddish brown soils. The unclassified rocks of the Tormen- tine peninsula are mainly sandstone, of a brick-red colour shading towards grey and containing some calcareous cementing material. The soils which have been found to be associated with these sandstones are red and of medium texture. They appear heavier than they really are because of a large content of mica, \\-hich makes them slippery when wet. In the course of the soil survey field work the qualitative relationship between the rock formations and the soil parent material became quite evident. -4 comparison between geological maps and the soils map of the surveyed district shows that the pattern of distribution of the soil associations bears a strong resemblance to the geographical pattern formed by the geological formations. Such a relationship might be expected in places where the soils have developed in situ from the weathering products of the .underlying bedrock, and in such cases certain characteristic conditions generally prevail ; thus, the transition from the soil to the bedrock through the parent material and the crumbled, weathered rock is gradual, and such stones as occur in the soil are angular and of the same nature as the bedrock. But the soils in the surveyed area have not formed in situ. During the Pleistocene period great ice sheets, or glaciers, moved over the land in a general southeasterly direction, and as they moved they transported huge amounts of weathered rock material. The gradual transition from soil to bedrock which is observed in soils formed in situ is not found in the soils of the surveJ,ed area. Instead, there is a sharp change from the comminuted soil parent material to the bedrock on which it rests, and the stones and gravel contained in the soils are partly or fully rounded. These modifications are common to the whole area, but the parent materials of the soils are predominantly “pure”, i.e. each one is associated mainly with one kind of bedrock, the amounts of “foreign” material, derived from other formations, being negligible. Only in a vei-1’ few cases were soil associations found to be related to more than one kind of parent rock. These facts may be explained by presuming that the drift was carried only short distances and that the glaciers transferred the drift material from one formation to another only at formation boundaries; in the case of narrow formations with which there appear to be no associated soils, it is assumed that their weathering products were covered or mixed with till derived from a neighbouring formation, so that the soils now found where a narrow formation is indicated on geological maps are associated with more extensive adjoining formation. 18

The preceding remarks on the relationship between the bedrock and the soils apply to the upland soils developed on glacial till, but not to those soils that have formed from more or less distinctlJr stratified, water-deposited materials. The latter soils cannot be definitely-and seldom even approximately- correlated with anJ’ one or any number of geological formations. Their colours are usnaIl>- more indicative of their minerCalogical origin than are their other properties; thus, water-worked material derived, at least partly, from red rocks ma\’ have a pink or purplish tinge. From a soils standpoint the mode of deposition outweighs in importance the origin in the case of water-worked soils. The latter possess textures, structures, and chemical and other physical properties that are related mainI)- to the manner in which the parent materials were laid down. Even if a correlation of water-worked soils with specific rock formations were possible, it would have little pedological significance, as strongly. water- worked clays, silts, and sands tend to lose the mineralogical characteristics of the parent rock. The water-worked soils of the surveyed district occur at very different elevations. Water-worked sands and gravel have been found in the southern upland above the 800-foot contour, and on the other hand the clays and silts in the tidal areas at the head of the Ba,y of Fund-S- are below high tid& level. The water-deposited p&-ent materials were laid down at widely different times, the more coarsely textured ones during and immediately after the periods of glaciation and the claJ-s and silts in more recent times. The process of deposition is still taking place in noticeable proportions on river flats during seasonal floods and in the coastal marsh areas by daily. tidal action. \Vhile the surface material derived from weathered, crumbled rock in the surveyed area was transported and modified by ice and water during and imme- diatel), after the time of glaciation, further changes in the land surface have been taking place more slowl~~ up to the present through the process of erosion. Water and wind have been the important agents of erosion in recent times, and they h ave been particularl>. active, since the land has become settled and cleared for agriculture. It is imperative that attention should be called to the fact that fertile topsoil is being washed (and blown) away from man>* fields much faster than it is being replaced by formation of new soil from the parent material underneath. The process of erosion may be called slow by those who look at the land almost ever-17day, but to man\. a man whose people had cultivated the same land for generations it ma>’ seem that its productivity- has come to an end veq- suddenl\-, ivhile actualI), the soil on that land was being lost b>- degrees for many >-ears.

Vegetation There is a definite relation between vegetation, climate and soils in a given region. IJnder the climatic conditions prevailing in the surveyed district forests are the natural form of growth, although newly ‘made’ land usually develops a grass cover. Th e rise of particular species of forest trees to dominance over others in a given area is probabl,- also regulated to a high degree by the prevailing climate and within a climatic zone particularly by the soils. Thus, the natural differences in the proportion of each species, which have been noted as between uplarid and lowland, between well drained and ill-drained positions, and between different localities within each of those habitats, are related to differences in the climate and in the soils. With small exceptions the forests in the surve)-ed district have been cut over. The original stands in many localities were undoubtedly large and valuable, but were depleted b>. forest fires and indiscriminate cutting. Evidence of the size to which trees might grow is found here and there in old, fire-blackened stumps with diameters of more than three feet, but written information regarding the original growth is veq’ limited. 19

The natural tendency towards the growth of a tree cover in the surveyed district is commonly seen on neglected or abandoned farms, which grow up in bush in a surprisingly short time. The species which re-establish themselves on abandoned land are usually spruce on dry land and alder in moist positions, even though the adjacent forest may contain a large percentage of hardwood trees. Small clean-cut areas and ‘burns’ in the forest frequently develop stands of birch, poplar, and maple. The broad, low country of east central New Bruns- wick had large virgin stands of white pine, before fires and exploitation destroyed them. The new growth is largely a mixture of birch, poplar, spruce, white pine, and pure stands of jack pine. The most important species of forest trees found in the surveyed area at present may be listed in descending order of average occurrence, as follows: spruce, balsam fir, white birch, yellow birch, maple, jack pine, poplar, beech, white pine, (cedar and hemlock are rare). The following tables (1, 2, 3, 4,) and sketch map, adapted from Murray B. Alorrison’s “The Forests of New Brunswick”, give a broad picture of the forests in the surveyed district.

TABLE 1 LAND CLASSIFICATION BY CLASSES OF TENURE, . LOWER SAINT JOHN DISTRICT --___

DESCRIPTION k!RE4GE Per cent of total Area --~

Totalarea...... 2,640,OOO 100~00 Kater...... ,...... 139,500 5.28 X&land area...... 2,500.500 94.72 Non-forested and non-productive forest...... 704,400 26.67 Productive forest...... 1,796,100 68.05 Softwood type...... 685,400 25.97 Mixed wood type.. , . . , ...... +...... 711,200 26.95 Hardwood type...... 399,500 15.13

TABLE 2 ESTIMATE OF TOTAL VOLUME OF CORDWOOD AND SAWLOGS, LOWER SAINT JOHN DISTRICT

DESCRIPTION Total Vol. (000 cu. ft.) Per cent of total Vol.

Conifers:

Spruce. . . . . ,I . . 339,303 37.6 Balsam fir’. ‘. ‘.‘. ‘.‘.‘. ..: 111: 1: : 1 ...... 106,416 11.8 *Jack pine...... 81,249 ;Veh;Fr pine...... 37,131 ;:‘: ’ , ...... * . 14,445 ~ernlock:‘:::::::::::::::: ...... 8,646 ::; Larch...... 7.383 Red pine...... , . . . . 2,382 :; -~ Total(:onifers...... 596.955 66.2

Hardwood>: White birch ...... 104,215 11.6 Maple ...... 62,685 Poplar ...... 49,495 ;:; Yellow birch ...... 37,440 4.2 Beech ...... 24,239 2.7 Other hardwoods ...... 26,160 2.9 Total Hardwoods ...... 304,234

Grand Total...... 901,189 20

TABLE 3 LAKD CLASSIFICATION BY CLASSES OF TEXURE, SOUTHEAST COASTAL DISTRICT

DESCRIPTION ACREAGE Per cent of total Area

Totalarea ...... 1,184,OOO 109*00 Rater ...... 8,500 *72 Net land area ...... 1,175,500 99.28 Non-forested and non-productive forest ...... 369,500 31.20 Productive forest ...... 806,000 68.08 Softwood type ...... 366,600 30.97 Mixed wood type...... 340,400 28.74 Hardwood type ...... 99,000 8.3’7

TABLE 4 ESTIMATE OF TOTAL VOLUME OF CORDWOOD AND SAWLOGS, SOUTHEAST COASTAL DISTRICT

DESCRIPTION Total Vol. (000 cu. ft.) Per cent of total Vol.

Conifers: Spruce ...... 205,818 45.8 Balsam fir ...... 79,758 17.7 Jackpin~ ...... 9,111 2.0 ~~~~o~~,...... 4,998 1.2 438 -1 La~ch...:..:...... ~~~~:~~::::::::::::::::::::~::: 117 -

Total Conifers...... 300,240 66.8

Hardwoods: Yellow birch ...... 56,339 12.9 White birch ...... 30,210 ...... 25,377 56:; ...... 16,910 Beech ...... 16,872 I:; Other hardwoods...... 3,710 -8 - Tot al Hardwoods...... 149,418 33.2 Grand Total ...... 449,658 100.0

Considering the various parts of the surveyed district separately it was observed in the course of the survey work that in the rough areas on the Kingston peninsula and in the rolling to hilly upland south of Sussex the vegetation is chiefly spruce and fir; the hardwoods are relatively scarce. There are very few old stands, but the present growth is fairly vigorous though young. Several sawmills operate in these areas. The country on either side of the highway leading north from Sussex has a greater variety of species. The sandy soils of the Mt. Pisgah-Anagance ridge and of the rolling areas northeast of Sussex, as well as the sandy, gravelly soils on more level land, support chiefly spruce, jack pine, and some white birch and poplar, all of which are often small and stunted for lack of a proper water supply. According to old geological reports the country around Havelock used to have “beautiful groves of beech, birch, and sugar maple, intermixed with butternut trees.-The lower grounds were occupied by cedar thickets, and along the upland hollows the elm and ash (added) to the beauty of the forests”. The land between the Petitcodiac river and a line from Petitcodiac station to Stony creek is relatively low and level, and the soil is heavy. Here the forest consists largely of softwoods, and although the growth is young and comparatively small, there is considerable lumbering activity. The 21 old growth, as indicated by decaying boles and stumps, contained fine softwood trees, some, at least, measuring more than three feet in diameter two feet above the ground. Between this area and the southern upland there is a belt of rolling low-land, becoming hilly southwards, with dry, sandy soils, which support young, open stands of spruce, white birch, and poplar, with a heavy shrubby undergrowth of rhodora and ferns. In the Stony Creek gas and oil fields district there is a large percentage of beech, maple, and yellow birch mixed with the softwoods. The southern upland has much mixed woods on the ridges, but the flatter grounds and lower slopes are mainly covered with softwoods, and many almost pure stands of spruce and fir are growing up in the long deserted fields along the Old Shepody road. East of the Petitcodiac river, south of a line from Moncton to Upper Sackville, the vegetation is largely mixed, but north of that line, towards the Northumberland Strait, and on the lowland on the northwestern edge of the map-area, softw9ods are the predominant species. The forests in the surveyed district have suffered considerably from fires and indiscriminate cutting in the past. Yet they yield great amounts of lumber at present. It is claimed that during a recent five-year period upwards of 100 million board feet of lumber was moved over the Waterford road alone. Preven- tion of fires and improved practices in woods operations and management are the means of ensuring the future of the lumber industry.

Climate The character of the soils and the type and extent of agriculture in a given region are strongly influenced by its climate. Where the nature of the soil parent material and the topography extend unchanged through several climatic zones, the influence of climate on soil formation and development is obvious to the observer, but in most parts of New Brunswick this relationship, though actual, is in some degree obscured by the frequent changes in parent material, topography, and drainage conditions, and would therefore be difficult to state in quantitative terms. Yet, an account of the soils in the surveyed district would be incomplete without reference to and a discussion of the climate. Tables 5, 6, and 7, which have been compiled from the Monthly Records of Meteorological Observations, Meteorological Service of Canada, Depart- ment of Transport, give summaries of climatic records at a number of points in and adjacent to the surveyed district. The data on precipitation and temperature given in the following tables point to a high degree of climatic conformity between the inland stations and a considerable divergence between the latter and the Bay of Fundy district as represented by Saint John city. The inland stations are shut off from the tempering influence of the Bay by the southern upland, and their mean monthly temperatures are lower in winter and higher during the summer than those at Saint John. Cold, foggy days are more numerous at Saint John than at the other stations, and the precipitation is higher at the former place both in summer and throughout the year than at the other locations, the difference being 12 inches annually. The length of the frost-free season is uniformly short at the inland stations, being approximately 109 days on the average, but it is much longer in the immediate vicinity of the Bay of Fundy, the city of Saint John having as much as 175 frost-free days. From the standpoint of plant growth during the summer this difference is less than the figures would indicate, because the weather at the inland points is more sunny and also warmer in summer than at Saint John. Crops therefore grow and ripen more quickly in inland localities than in the neighbourhoood of the Bay of Fundy. The dates of the last spring frost and the first fall frost have not been established for the southern upland, as no stations II i I

ii; j2sgs: ,,,,z2 * ...... ,. * ...... : . * ...... ‘riWihl4 - M’ 4

1300+--4 24 are located there, but from experience it is known that heavy frost may occur there in the month of August. While the length of the frost-free season is comparatively short in the greater part of the surveyed area, the climate is such that farming operations can be started at an early date in the spring, so that the crops may be planted in time to utilize the full length of the season; it is only occasionally that a wet spring prevents early planting. It is more common to see the crops more or less damaged by drought, especially on light soils and on heavier soils on strong slopes. Any practical measures of moisture conservation on such soils and relief positions are recommended. The surveyed district is in the humid-temperate zone, and in broad terms the climate is such as to favour the development of a leached soil, called podsol, the morphological and chemical characteristics of which distinguish it from soils developed under different climatic conditions. The limits of precipitation and temperature between which the podsol soil forms are not definitely known, and it is probable that they will remain rather vague, because the time involved in the formation of the typical podsol profile is measured in hundreds of years, and the changes in climate that may have occurred in such an interval are unknown. In any case, the atmospheric climate can be properly evaluated only, if it is expressed in terms of soil climate, which is a function not only of the atmospheric temperature and precipitation, but also of the local topography, drainage, texture and the structure of the soils. As any of these factors change, so does the soil climate and therewith the extent of the intensity of the soil forming processes, both chemical and biological. This relationship is clearly illustrated in the surveyed district, where in a small area with a uniform atmospheric climate but with a varied topography one kind of parent material will give rise to different soil types in the different relief positions.

Settlement and Population cl) Southeastern New Brunswick was not only the scene of the first European settlement in the province but contains also the areas in which settlement expanded most rapidly. The first white inhabitants were French settlers, who were encouraged to take possession of the land during the period of French power in the Maritime Provinces (1604-l 755). During these years the new settlers brought under cultivation large portions of the tidal marsh areas in the Sack- ville-Amherst district, at Shepody, on the Memramcook and Petitcodiac; they also turned to the St. John river valley and took up the extensive intervales between Gagetown and Fredericton, but they did not attempt to bring the less productive, forested uplands under cultivation. In 1755 the British took possession of the Maritime Provinces by military action and the French settlers, who were called Acadians, being unwilling to swear allegiance to the British Sovereign, and constituting a danger to British interests in a period of unsettled conditions, were outlawed and expelled from their possessions. The British authorities opened up the newly gained land to settlers from the Old Country and American Colonies, and the marshes and intervales that had been occupied by the Acadians were rapidly taken up. In 1765 Pennsylvania Germans were settled on the site of the present city of Moncton, and at Hillsborough. In 1767 and 1768 the refugee Acadians returned in numbers, took the oath of allegiance and were settled at Fox Creek and Belliveau on the Petitcodiac, on the Memramcook, and from Shediac Cape to Cocagne. The expulsion from the newly constituted American Republic of persons there deemed traitors and undesirables resulted in the great influx of United

(l) The historical information given herein is based largely on a paper by Dr. W. F. Ganong in the Proceedings and Transactions of the RoJ.al Societ>. of Canada, 2nd series, \‘ol. S, part I, 190-I. 25

Empire Loyalists into New Brunswick in 1783. They settled very largely in the valleys of the St. John river and its tributaries occupying the lands on the Washademoak, Belleisle, Kennebecasis, and Hammond rivers: they also settled at Black River and St. Martins. St. John City was laid out in 1783 and at once settled by several thousand Loyalists. In 1784 the province of New Brunswick ~-as created. In 1786 the following counties were established in southeastern New Brunswick; St. John, Kings, Queens, and Westmorland. Albert county was created in 1845. In the years 1790-1810 settlers from Nova Scotia moved to Harvey, Hopewell, Albert, Riverside, Hopewell Hill and Cape and ,41ma. From 1812 till about 1850 there was a steady expansion of the Lo>-alist and other settlements throughout the southeastern part of New Bruns- wick, and active immigration from Great Britain and Ireland was encouraged by the Government of the province. From the foundation of the province until 1827, lands were granted on the payment of certain fees, which went to the Lieutenant Governor and other principal officers of the Government, and from 1808 to 1827 a small quit rent, Lvhich was to be perpetual, was paid in addition. In 1827 all grant fees were abolished, and lands were sold through the Crown land office either by absolute purchase or quit rents for seven yrears. The quit rents, which in 1832 were estimated to amount to &2324 Sterling per annum, appear not to have been collected, at least not as a rule. In 1837 His Majesty transferred the entire control of Crown lands to the legislature, since which time most of the changes made in the regulations for the sale of Crown lands have been in the direction of cheapening their cost to the poor settler. Various minor changes were made rendering easier the acquisition of lands by immigrants until in 1849 an Act ~-as passed allowing payment to be made in labour on the public roads instead of in cash. No significant changes have been made in the Crown Lands Act respecting settlement from 1849 to the present. In 1783 the only lines of communication were the rivers and portages; but in the next few y’ears roads of ‘a sort were built from Saint John along the Kennebecasis, Petitcodiac and Memramcook rivers to the Nova Scotia border, from Hampton to Fredericton, from Moncton to Shediac, and from Hampton by way’ of ITpham to St. Martins. The Old Shepody road from the Hammond river valley through Londonderry, New Ireland, and the lengthof the southern upland to Albert and Riverside was finished prior to 1826. The building of railways in southeastern N.B. began with the Saint John- Shediac line, commenced in 1858, finished in 1860. This line was later extended westward reaching MC-Adam and connecting with Fredericton in 1869. At the same time an eastern expansion was projected from Painsec (northeast of Moncton) to the Nova Scotia border, and finished in 1872. A branch Iine from Salisbury to ,‘ilma was built in 1877; it now runs from Salisbury to Elgin and from Salisbury to Havelock. Another branch line was built from Sackville to Tormen- tint in 1886. The Intercolonial Railway connecting Nova Scotia and the St. Lawrence valley b>, way of Moncton was completed in 1874. The tn-o largest of the three cities in New Brunswick, namely Saint John (1941 population 51,741) and Moncton (1941 population 22,763) are located in the surve!red area. Saint John has an excellent all-year port and is the eastern terminal of the main C.P.R. system; the C.N.R. connects the city with eastern Sew Brunswick and Nova Scotia; a ferry service operates between the city and Digby, N.S. Saint John in an important industrial and distributing point. The city of >Ioncton is situated on the main C.N.R. line from Halifax to Quebec and Montreal; it is also connected by a railway through the central part of the province with the upper St. John river valley and Edmundston. Moncton has thus become an important distributing point and railway centre with large repair shops. In the early 1800’s Moncton began its existence as a prosperous village; 26

\\-ith the b ul‘Id’ mg of railroads in 1860 and 1874 it grew rapidly and was incorporated as a town in 1875 and as a city in 1890. Besides being a trading centre the city also has a number of manufacturing enterprises. Sussex is a prosperous little town located in a progressive and productive farming district. Besides serving as a trading centre for its agricultural upland, the town also has a number of manufacturing plants. Sackville is main157a University town (Mt. Allison Universit?. and Academy), but it also has an important foundry industry. Agriculture Southeastern New Brunswick contains some of the best agricultural communities in the province, but it also contains large areas of abandoned land, and land that has never been found fit for farming purposes, although nearly all of it has passed from public to private ownership. The boundaries between the thriving farming communities and poor ones or largely forested land are very often sharp and distinct. Even a casual observer cannot fail to see the controlling effect of the quality of soils and land on their present use and value. The most impressive farming areas are those in the Norton-Springfield, Alillstream-Sussex districts, in the long narrow tract of land from Knightville through (Iornhill, Mannhurst and Tntervale to River Glade, in the Petitcodiac river watershed from Petitcodiac village to Dover and Stan)’ Creek, and in the marsh areas and the immediately adjoining upland of -Albert and Westmorlancl counties. Xmong districts which were formerly extensively fartned but have now been largely or wholly abandoned may be mentioned the entire district served by the Old Shepody road from Londonderry south of Sussex to ,Albert and Riverside, and the country north of Highway No. 9 from Codye’s to Kierstead mountain, and between Highmray No. 9 and the Washademoak river. Some other communities are in the process of abandonment. In general it may be said that southeastern New Brunswick has been settled so long that it has attained a certain measure of maturit!’ and stability in comparison with the more recently settled parts of the province; but this status has been reached through the customary process of trial and error, during which much capital, human effort, land, and forest were wasted. The capacit), of the individual types of soil and land for production, coupled with the presence or absence of transportation and markets, has led to the development of some fairly distinct types of farming. In the Norton-Spring- field, - Millstream-Sussex districts the empahsis is on production for the fluid milk market in Saint John. In the Knightville-Cornhill-River Glade area, cheese and butter are the chief products, while the Petitcodiac river district supplies the city of hloncton with milk and other farm products. The marshlands have long been famous for the production of hay, which was formerly sold to markets as far away as the United States. In recent years the marshes have suffered much damage from floodings by the tides through broken dykes. Dairying and beef production are being developed to replace the uncertain markets for hay. Elsewhere in the surveyed district the farmers engage in general farming more or less successfully or in a subsistance type of farming in connection with winter work in the farm woodlot or work off the farm. The following tables contain statistics which have been prepared from the 1941 census returns. These tables need little comment except perhaps with respect to the “per farm” figures, which are averages obtained by dividing “Total” figures by the number of farms. It is doubtful that the “per farm” averages apply to any one particular farm; rather, it is to be expected that it 27

- -

- -i- -

- -

- 28 ma\- have a somewhat smaller or somewhat larger acreage under each of the various subdivisions of land and more or less of each of the different kinds of livestock. However, the “per farm” averages have value as indicators of trends in each county, particularly: when the>- are considered in connection with the distribution of the various sol1 types in the map area. I7nfortunately, the political subdivisions, by which the census is taken seldom, if ever, coincide with soil areas or land classes. Thus Kings count\-, for example, has excellent soils and also very poor ones; there are farms on both kinds, and a farm located on good soil may be expected to have more cleared land, more land under field crops, and more livestock than the average, while the farm located on a poor soil may be expected to have less than the average. TtiBLE 0 SURIBERS OF IJVESTOCK KEPT IX THE SURVEYED AREA IS l’&Il(‘)

-- ZE

Cows in Ho&s Total Milk or ShCCP Swine Poultry C’attle in Calf ____- ___- _-

\I est niorlnnd County . . . GO5G 28656 13952 8010 140717 .‘ 8604 per E’srm. . . 1.8 8.5 4.15 2.38 2.56 41.8 Albert County.. . 1541 9395 4118 1129 2359 2i874 .L per limm . 1S 11.0 4.82 1.32 2,71i 32.6

,st. Jo1111 County . . . .i’) 427 2278 1554 151 714 22548 ‘1 per FRI.IIl . I.1 6.0 4.12 .40 1.85 59.7

Kings County. . . . . , . . * (9 4265 28929 li233 i299 7641 121607 <‘ per Palm.. 1.8 12 3 7.35 3 1 3.25 51.8 Qlwns County.. . , . . 589 820 8467 . . . (4) 548 28iO 1579 per Parni . 1.5 i.7 4.25 1.6 2.20 22.8 321213 Total. , Surveyed Area.. .,_.. 12837 7Pli8 38436 17178 20138 per Farm.. l.i5 9.9 5.25 2.35 2.7.5 43.9

- TABLE 10 ,4(‘RE_4GE;S, YIELDS, A4SD YIELDS PER ACRE, 1940(l)

\Yf%t- CHOP ruorland -\lbcrt St. John(?) Kin&s) Qucrns(4) ------

Barley: acres 2412 444 12 613 141 13546 bus.. : . 553i5 83i1 34.5 12811 3609 324557 bus/acre. . . . . 23 0 18.9 28.8 20.9 25.6 24.0 t r5lt.i: acres ...... 18299 3701 1002 15407 5114 190064 bus...... 456445 99177 28383 430001 126864 4933578 bus/arrc . . 24.9 26.8 28.3 Pi.9 24.8 26.0

Buckwhcbat : acres. . 1647 362 2’0 1623 1171 19146 bUS. 18662 4244 255 23237 17533 222i1.5 bus/acre: 1 1 1 11.3 11 7 10.2 14.3 15.0 11.6

Miac~l Grain: acre5 720 45 Xi1 82 1969 bus. ‘:::::::: 20136 196; Nil 1868 ;5 55784 bus/acre. . . 28 0 43.7 Xi1 22.8 18.3 28.4

Hay: acres 701 i7 16351 5978 64870 31543 55i344 tons. . x015 20251 i483 i6578 30833 560455 tons/acre. . . 1 .lO 1.24 1.25 1.18 .98 1.01 acre. , . . . 3169 609 362 1684 1272 47418 cwt.. . . 304591 45333 36658 128316 126322 5818869 cwt/acre.. . . . 96.2 74.5 101 .o i6.3 99.3 122.i bus/acre. 160 124 169 127 165 204.5 29 SOILS Soil Survey Methods The soil survey of the southeastern part of KNe\v Brunswick was conducted for the purpose of determining the nature, extent, and location of the soils. The survey itself was a combination of the detailed-reconnaissance and the reconnaissance types, which was found in the field to give a reasonably detailed picture of the soils and the natural land t:-pes and also to satisfy the requirements of economy of operations. Detailed-reconnaissance methods were employ-ed in the survey of the farming areas and where the land appeared suitable for cultivation; but where distinctly non-agricultural, wooded land was encountered, it was deemed practical to let a reconnaissance survey suffice, partly because the present lack of roads makes it dificult to traverse such land, and partI) because onI)- academic interests would be served by mapping it with minute care. The base maps on which the information obtained in the field was plotted were on the scale of one inch to one mile, n.hich means that one square inch represents one square mile, or 640 acres. On this scale of mapping it was impossible to indicate detailed variations of soils and small areas only a few acres in extent are not shown even in cultivated fields. In rough, wooded country no attempt was made to follow soil boundaries through the woods, if the soil concerned was of a non-agricultural character. Generally the roads and trails were used as base lines on which distances were measured and locations ascertained by means of car speedometers. The soils were examined in road cuts and in adjoining fields and woods at suitable intervals, and foot traverses were made through the fields and along footpaths, where changes in the landscape indicated that the identity of the soil should be checked. It was impossible to visit each farmer and consult him regarding his soils and crops in the course of the field work; but during the course of the work and at the conclusion of the survey, some time was spent collecting information and data on soils and crops from a number of farmers. The field work involved the examination and mapping of the various soil tJ.pes and conditions in the district, Before the more detailed work commenced, a broad reconnaissance was made, in which the identities of the soils and a system of recording such conditions as stoniness and slope were established and made the basis for the subsequent mapping. Each soil t\rpe ~~1s established on the basis of such characteristics as were discernible in a geld examination, including texture, structure, colour, and thickness of the stopsoil and the subsoil, nature of the parent material, acidity measurements at various depths, and moisture relationships. In order to make an examination a test hole was dug to the necessary depth, somestimes three or four feet, but usually less. Variations within each soil type due to stoniness and slope were separated on the map where possible. Samples of the more important soils were collected during and after the field mapping, when it was possible to take a sample truly reflecting the characteristics of a given soil type in its average aspect. Virgin samples, i.e. samples taken from land that has never been disturbed by cultivation or otherwise, were collected from under the leaf mat in the woods, and in addition the top soil from an adjoining field was sampled, so that a measure of the effect of cultivation and cropping might be obtained on analysis in the laborator\-. The cultivated sample was preferabl?- taken in a field that has received no fertilizer or lime in recent years.

Soil Formation Soils are the products of the interaction of a number of factors, the most important of which are the climatic and biological forces, the nature and mode of tlcposition of the mineral parent material, the natural drainage conditions, the 30 relief of the land surface, and the length of time in which these factors have exerted their influence. III the case of cultivated land, human efforts have also left their mark on the soils. The climatic conditions prevalent in New Brunswick favour the development of acid, leached soils, known as Podsols, and favour the growth of coniferous trees and the accumulation of organic matter on the surface of the soil. During the decomposition of the organic matter, which proceeds slowly in the Podsol soil zone, various organic acids are formed together with a variety of other decomposition products. The organic acids and percolating water cause considerable leaching, in which most of the soluble bases, such as calcium, magnesium, sodium, and potassium, and the oxides of iron and aluminium known as sesquioxides are removed from the surface soil leaving a grey layer, high in silica, near the surface, below the decaying organic matter. The sesquioxides accumulate in the soil immediately below the grey, leached horizon and give rise to a new layer, which is distinguished by a characteristic reddish brown colour, imparted b!l the iron compounds. Occasionally the latter in conjunction with organic matter also cement the upper part of the reddish brown layer into a hard impervious ‘iron pan’. The typical, well developed podsol soils in New Grunswick may be described brieflJ7 as follows: the\7 are distinctly- acid, the organic matter has accumulated on the surface and is only sparsely incorporated in the soil; under the organic matter there is a gre\-, leached horizon of variable thickness, \\*hich in turn is underlain b\- a reddish brown to \-ellowish brown la>Fer rich in accumulated sesquioxides. There is some variation in the degree of podsolisa- tion betjveen soil types in the surveyed district. This variation is partl)r due to differences in parent material and relief and partly to regional and local varia- t ions in the climate. The biological forces, including the nature of the vegetation and the micro- biological life in the soil, are regulated broadly b>r the climatic conditions, but other factors, such as the nature of the soil parent material and the relief of the land, shape their local expression. Once established the biological factors exert their own distinctive influence on the process of soil formation. The nature of the IAnt species making up the vegetation depends on soil conditions and the different kinds of plant remains have a strong bearing on the rate of deca!- of the organic matter and on the end products formed. The latter in turn affect the cli t-cct ion and rate of soi 1 development. The foliage from deciduous trees decomposes more readily than that of conifers, and the products of decomposition of some t\.pes of deciduous foliage c‘ause less leaching and form a more productive soil than do those formed from the decay of coniferous plant remains. Even differences in the species of deciduous trees are reflected in the morphology, of the soil. In the case of well drained soils the J-ellow birch, maple, and beech association is usually found on less leached, more fertile, and if the ph>.sical conditions are favourable, more I)roductive soils than those, which have a cover of white birch and poplar, while the conifers occur naturall~~ on more severely podsolised soils. l’rofile development in the surveyed district has apparently been influenced \ycr!- strongI>, b?: the nature of the mineral parent material. It is common to find soils with wIdeI different profile characteristics almost side by side, under identical climatic and drainage conditions, the onI>? evident cause for the differences being the difference in the nature of the parent- materials concerned. 1t is logical to assume that the phJ-sical characteristics of the latter and the csomposit ion and the weathering properties of the mineral fragments contained in the parent material would influence the direction and the degrees in which the other soil formers could act in a given time to form soils. The cdmposition of the parent material is also of significance in that it determines the properties 31

of the substance to be acted on. The phy-sical condition of the parent material, as determined by its mode of deposition, consistency-, structure, and texture, affects soil development by either impeding or facilitating the movement of water, air, and soil solution in the soil. But it is necessary. to make more complete and comprehensive investigations than have been made to date, before any statements of a quantitative nature can be made regarding the part playTed by the parent material in the development of soil characteristics in the surveyed a re;f . Knowledge of this matter is necessaqy also in order to interpret the soil classification used in this report in quantitative terms and in order to lay- a sound foundation for soil fertilit\T work. Drainage conditions play, an important part in the development of soils, as the\. are closely: associated with the soil climate, i.e. the temperature and moisture relationshrps in the soil, which in turn influence the microbial activitr. Drainage conditions are a function of the climate, the relief position of the soil, the parent niaterial, and of the ph>-sical properties of the soil itself, as mentioned above. III a given area with uniform climatic conditions and uniforrn parent material variations in relief result in differences in soil development. A normal soil is found on gentle slopes, where the run-off is sufficient to drain away- the precipitation that is not absorbed by, the soil, and whet-e the water-table is suffi- cGentll- low to prevent a saturated condition, yet high enough to keep moisture in the soil without interfering with good aeration and microbial activityr. =i ‘locally arid’ soil occurs on strong slopes, where the run-off is comparatively large, ‘I so that little moisture is absorbed. The profile development of such a soil is less mature than in the normal soil. ,A ‘locally7 humid’ soil develops on a flat relief, where there is little or no run-off, and where the water-table is sufficiently high to keep the soil wet during all or part of the \Tear and thus restricts aeration and microbial activity-. The length of time that a soil has been under the influence of the various soil-forming factors, determines its degree of development. The “normal” soil mentioned above is the most mature; it is represented by a number of soil t\-pes in the surveyed district. Soils of recent origin, such as ‘made’ land in stream valle!-s and the tidal marshes on t-he Bay of Fund)., show least develop- men t ; as the!- have not been in existence long enough to acquire the normal profile characteristics of the soil zone, in with they occur. The\- are called ‘.izonal’ soils. The preceding discussion of soil-forming factors points to the fact that a soil in its natural state is not a haphazard collection of stones, gravel, and finer materials, but a result of definite soil-forming processes. 1t would, therefore, seern reasonable to expect that the properties of a soil can be predicted, if the soil formers contributing to its developement are known. Such predictions can 1~ made with some measure of accurac)’ with respect to wooded, virgin soils, l)ut in the case of cultivated land some of the soil formers have been altered and additional ones introduced. Clearing and cultivation of land creates changes in the vegetation, the soil climate, the drainage conditions, and in the morphology of the soils concerned. In the survey.ed district, which has been settled for 100 to 200 yyears, these changes have had varying effects according to the cultural methods emplo)Ted, the nature of the soils, and the length of time under cultiva- t ion. Due to the many. variations in these elements of formations, no satisfactory \~a>- has been found of defining cultivated soils in terms of a function. The57 are thtrefore classified according to their characteristics in the uncultivated state, and the effects of cultivation are discussed under the description of each tyrpe. The interaction of the natural soil formers results in the establishment of c.ertain characteristics in the soil above the unchanged parent material. The ph>-sical expression of these characteristics may be observed in a vertical cut through the soil, knourn as a soil profile. The diagram in Fig. 1 illustrates the

131 Hk-5 32 profile of a ‘normal’ soil in the survel-ed district. The upper portion of the profile, kno\vn as the ‘;\’ horizon, com&-ises the organic matter and the leached layer and is the horizon of eluviation or impoverishment. It has been subject to a high degree of weathering and subsequent removal of the weathering products. Below the “.A” horizon is the “R” horizon, MThich consists of the reddish, yellowish or brown lay-er formed by the deposition of weathering products removed from above. It is also termed the horizon of illuviation OI- accumulation. IJnder- lying the ‘(.A” and “13” horizons, l%Thich together form the true soil or “solum,” is the ‘(.’ horizon, which consists of parent material only- slightI\ affected by the soil-forming process. The main soil horizons at-e sub-divided* into &, -AI, &A?, HI, 132,etc., in detailed descriptions.

-Ao A Forest litter, in various stagw of decomposition. A1 - well (I ecompowd, I)lnck humus, mixed with mineral soil, oftcw absent. A2 - -Ishy grey, lcaclwd horizon.

61 - Yellowish brou-n to I~rowni& yellow layer.

w in.

B2- Brown to reddish brown layer, slightly compacted.

2% in.

Parent material, prcwmal~ly uncllnnged by soil-forming procew5.

36 in- Fig. 1. Diagram of the profile of a normal, u-41 drained Pods01 soil in Southeastern Sew Rrunswick. 33 In poorly drained soils the horizon developed under the influence of a high ground water table is termed a “Glei” horizon and is designated by the letter ‘C’. Its colour varies from bluish-grey in some soils to gre>rish-yellow in certain others, and it is usually strongly, mottled. In cases where the soil is underlain b!r material differing in geological nature and mode of deposition from the parent material of the soil, such underllying material is called a ‘D’ horizon. In the azonal soils of the surveyed area no differentiation of the profile into visibl>r distinct horizons has taken place. Soil Classification The soils of the surveyed district were separated and mapped in the field according to their observable characteristics. The scheme of classification into \I-hich those soils are assembled in this report is based on those same characteristics and correlates them with the respective soil-forming factors.

Classification of the Soils in Southeastern New Brunswick I-Soils developed on glacial till. A. Soils developed on till from predominantl!. non-calcareous rock material. 1. Queens Association. Parent material is compact reddish brown cla~l loam to claJ7 till derived from sandstones and mudstones of the Petitcodiac group. Well drained soils. (a) Queens series (usually- found on gently undulating topograph>r) (1) Queens cla)- loam (2) Queens loam (3) Queens sand\* loam 2. Harcourf Association. Parent material is compact reddish brown loam to clay loam till derived largely from sandstones and mudstones of the Petitcodiac group. Well drained soils. (a) Harcourt series (usually found on undulating topography) (1) Harcourt loam (2) Harcourt sand)7 loam 3. Dorchester Association. Parent material is brown sandy loam to clay loam till, locally gravelly, derived from sandstone of the Petitcodiac group and some conglomerate. Well drained soils. (a) Dorchester series (on undulating to rolling topograph\T) ( 1) Ilorchester heavy loam (2) Dorchester Ioatn (3) Dorchester sand). loam 4. Salisbury Association. Parent material is a compact reddish brown cla\- loam to loam, the exact geological derivation of which is uncertain. The underl\ring bedrock is of the Moncton group, the soil parent material has probably formed largely from the latter but contains admixtures of till derioed from sandstone of the Petitcodiac group. 34

Il’ell drained soils. (a) Salisbuq- series (1) Salisbuq- cla!. loam (2) Salisbur\T loam (3) Salisbuq~ sand\, loam

5. Petifcodiac Association. Parent material is heavy reddish brown till derived from red and reddish brown arenaceous shale and argillaceous sandstone of the Petitcodiac group. 1Veil drained soils. (a) Peti tcodiac series (1) Petitcodiac cla>- (2) Petitcodiac cla\- loam (3) Petitcodiac loam

6. Shenzogue Association. Parent material appears to be a mixture consisting of vaq-ing percentages of the parent material of the Queens .Association and of a medium textured, red, micaceous till derived mainl\* from late Pennsylvanian sandstone (cf. ‘l‘ortiientine .\ssociation). Il’ell drained .soil.s. (a) Shernogue series (1) Shemogue loam (2) Shemogue sand\. loam

7. Parry Association. Pat-en t material is similar in geological origin to that of the Salisbuq. association, but it has a lighter texture, is less gritt!., more stone-, - loam (3) Parr>, sand\. loam Poorly drained soils of the Queens, Salisbury, Petitcodiac, Shemogue, and Parr\, associations have been grouped and are sho\\.n on the map as one series, namel>~, (a) Kings series (1 ) Kings cla\. loam (2) Kings loam (3) Kings sand!, loam

8. Tornlentine Association. Parent material is a medium-textured, porous, red till derived mainI\. from red, micaceous sandstone of the late Penns\,Ivanian otigin, and in small part from a similar, grey’ sandstone. ii ‘ell drained soils. (:I) Tornientine series ( 1) Tormentine loam (2) Tormentine sand!. loam

9. Aulac As.sociution. Parent material is a light-textured, mixed till derived partl>, from gre\*, quartzose sandstone and pebble conglomerate, (cf. Crossman association), partly from niediun) textured, red, micaceous sandstone (cf. Tormentine association). 35

Well drained soils. (a) Aulac series (1) Aulac sandy loam Poorly drained soils of the Tormentine and Xulac associations have been grouped and are shown on the map as one series, namely, (a) Tidnish series (1) Tidnish loam (2) Tidnish sandy loam 10. Queenville Association. Parent material is light-textured, porous, reddish till derived from red, arkosic grit of the Moncton Group, Hillsborough Formation. Well drained soils. (a) Queenville series (1) Queenville sandy loam (2) Queenville light sandy loam Well drained soils. (a) Dee series (1) Dee sandy loam (2) Dee light sandy loam 11. Anagance Association. Parent material is grel--bro\vn, very light-textured, stony till derived from grey and greenish-gre\r, quartzose sandstone and pebble conglomerate of the Petitcodiac Group. Well drained soils. (a) Anagance series (1) ,kagance loamy sand 12. Crossman Association. Parent material is similar in origin to that of the Anagance association, but it is heavier, more compact, and often contains small percentages of foreign material. It also occurs on more uneven relief. Well drained soils. (a) Crossman series (1) Crossman sandy loam (2) Crossman light sandy loam Poorly drained soils of the Anagance and (Grossman associations have been grouped and are shown on the map as one series namely, (a) Dunsinane series (1) Dunsinane light sandy loam (2) Dunsinane loamy sand

13. Lompnd Association. Parent material consists of grey to light brown stony till and/or residual material derived from volcanics and highI>. altered sediments of Pre-Cambrian and/or Palaeozoic origin. Well drained soils. (a) Lomond series (1) Lomond loam 14. Kingston Association. Parent material consists of ,gre)- to light brown. stonv till derived from basic and acidic volcanics. 36

IfTell drained soils. (a) Kingston series (1) Kingston loam to silt loam (2) Kingston sandJ- loam Poorly drained soils of the Lomond and Kingston associations have been grouped and are shown on the map as one series, IlaIllely, (a) I>eed series (1) Deed loam to heavy loam (2) Deed loam to sandy loam B. Soils on till derived from rocks containing some calcium carbonate in the cementing material. 1. Kingsclear Association. Parent material is a heavy red till derived from red and reddish brown calcareous shale and sandstone of the (Pennsylvanian) Hopewell Group and of the (Jlississippian) Hillsborough, \T7eldon, and ;CIemramcook formations. Well drained soils. (a) Kingsclear series (1) Kingsclear cla\T loam Poorly drained soils. (a) N ackawic series (1) Nackawic claJ7 loam

2. ParIeeville Association. Parent material is a medium textured, red till derived from the same formations that gave rise to the Kingsclear till, but it has a coarser texture and contains less calcium carbonate. Well drained soils. (a) Parleeville series (1) Parleeville gravell>- loam (2) Parleeville gravelly sandy loam (3) Parleeville sandJ7, gravell)- loam, mixed Poorly drained soils. (a) ,IIidland series (1) Midland loam (2) i\Iidland sandy loam

3. Saltspring Association. Parent material is a friable grey brown clay loam to clay till derived largely from Albert shales. Well drained soils. (a) Sal tspring series (1) Saltspring clay loam (2) Saltspring loam Poorly drained soils. (a) Byrns series (1) Byrns clay to clay loam (2) Byrns clay loam (3) Byrns loam 4. Knightville Association. Parent material is firm brown to dark brown clay till derived from Albert shales. 37

Ti’ell drnined soils. r . (a) I\nlghtville series (1) linightville cla\- (2) Iinlgh tville cla\. 1oa111 Poorly drnined soils. (;L) 13)~rns series ( 1) H\‘rns cla>- to claim loam (2) 13)~rns cla>- loam (3) E3\7-ns loam

II- Soils developed on lyater-\lrorked parent material. +-I. Soils developed on gravelI!- and sand>- deposits of glacial and early post-glacial age. 1. Gagetown Associntion. The parent material is stratified, but poor-l>, sorted gravel found on outn-ash plains, old beaches, and on eskers and kames.

TT’ell dmined soils. (a) (Gageto\\-n series (1) Gageto\Yn graveli!- loam (2) (;ageto\\-n gravell\- sand!- loam Poorly drained soils. (a) I’enobsquis series (1) Penobsyuis gravell\- loam (2) I’enobsquis gravell!- sand\- loam

2. Riuerhnnk Association. Parent material is a grey-brown to grey, stratified, well sorted, sand!. deposit usuallJ7 found on river slopes and terraces and on some former flood plains. Ti’ell dmined soils. (a) Riverbank series (1) Riverbank sandy loam (2) Riverbank fine sand>- loam Poorly drained soils. (a) Oromocto series (1) Oromocto sand\, loam (2) Oromocto fine sand!- loam

3. k’ennebecasis Associntion. Parent material is a reddish brown to red, stratified, well sorted, sand>- deposit usually found on river slopes and terraces and on some former flood plains. TT’ell dmined soils. j (a) Kennebecasis series (1) Kennebecasis sandy loam (2) Kennebecasis fine sand>. loam Poorly drained soils. (a) Oromocto series (1) Oromocto sand). loam (2) Oromocto fine sandy loam H. Immature soils in process of development on recent flood and tidal deposits. 38

Interval Association. Immature soils developing on greyish- brown silty alluvium in river valleys. Well drained soils. (a) lnterval series (1) Interval silty loam (2) 1nterval very fine sandy, loam (3) Interval silty to fine sandy loam over gravel Poorly drained and imperfectly drained soils of the Interval Association have been mapped by attaching the suffix “i” to the ty-pe designation. Sussex Association. Immature soils developing on reddish brown silty, alluvium in river valleys. Well drained soils. (a) Sussex series (1) Sussex silty- loam (2) Sussex very fine sandy- loam (3) Sussex siltv to fine sandy loam over gravel. Poorly drained and -&perfectly drained soils of the Sussex Association have been mapped by attaching the suffix “i” to the type designation. Acadia Association. Immature soils developing on recent, heavy tidal deposits on low lying shores (principally near the head of the Bay of Fundy). The Acadia Association has been divided into several series, not named individually, on the basis of drainage conditions. The following drainage separations were made, good drainage, fair drainage, poorly drained, ill drained, very ill drained, and are shown on the map as -41, -A2, &, &, and A, respectively-.

111--Organic soils. (1) Peat. (2) hluck.

The entire surveyed area lies in the Podsol soil zone in which due to climatic and biological forces the dominant soils belong to the Podsol great soils group. Ho\vever this zone also contains poorly drained “Half-Bog” and “Bog” soils and azonal “,Uluvial” soils in which, due to local conditions the typical podsol profile is lacking. The soils of this zone have been subdivided in the above classification scheme into three groups according to the mode of deposition of their parent materials. These groups are as follows: soils developed on glacial till, soils developed on water-worked material, and soils developed on organic materials. The soils developed on glacial till are characterized by a heterogeneous mixture of the soil separates, clay, silt, sand, gravel and stone. The parent material or “C” horizon is usually more or less compact. The soils which have formed on water worked parent material usually have a smoother texture and the various soil separates are more or less sorted and stratified. The “C” horizon usually does not var>* greatly from the top soil with respect to structure and consistency. The organic soils are quite distinct in all respects from the preceding groups. They consist of organic accumulations in various stages of decomposition and they lack the horizon development typical of the profiles of mineral soils. The next subdivision of the soils is based on characteristics of the profiles parent materials which a number of soils have in common. Thus the soils 39 on till are subdivided into tl\-o groups: Soils on till from J1redominan t 11. lion- calcat-eous I-~1; material and soils on till derived from rocks containing some c.al(.iunl carbonate in the cementing material. The soils formed on water-deposited J>arent material are subdivided in to : (1) \\rell dt\reloJ)etl Podsols on gravell!7 and s:i~ltl> , stratified cJeJ,osits of glacial and earl>* post-glac*iaf age, and (2) immature soils now’ in the Jjrocess of formation from recent, stratified, flood and tidal clelmsits on first ht torn land. The organic. soils have not been subdivided on an!- Jjarent material basis. The soils are further subdivided on the basis of other observable differences of the parent materials lvhich characterize the soil. AAlI the soils found on a Jjarticular kind of parent material are called “Soils AAssociations” which in some ~)laces ma\- also be called “Soil (‘atenas”. Thus on the Ilasis of the differences in the Jjarent materials the soils on till have been divided into 16 -Associations; the mature soils on gravelly- and sand>. stratified material and the immature soils on recent deposits into 3 rlssociations each. The differences between the Jjarent materials and the c-orresJ>onding soils of two different rlssociations ma>’ in some instances be marked and of great practical importance, while in other cases the differences ma\. be less significant. ris stated above the soils of an!. one .jsso- c*iation are formed on a J>artic-ular kind or on similar parent material. Homvcver some variations Inal- occur even within the Jlarent material of a particular .\ssociat ion, although these differences are generally- not great nor significant. \.ariations are most common in soil Associations on mixed materials in respect to origin or local modification. Such \Tariations could not be separated on the Jlresent hc;lJe of mapping. Each A-issociation is made up of one or more series or associates and usually t~,o have been mapped in this survey. The). are distinguislied one from another b!. their morphological characteristics and 1~~7their relief J)ositions insofar as the latter have directI\- or indirectly affected accelerated erosion and depth and morJ,holog!, of the profile. The differences between the series within an -Association in southeastern Sew 13runswick are in most cases the result of differences in the drainage conditions. In this area 0111~~two series have beenestablish in an Association, as a result of different drainage conditions, but in the case of veq’ fertile or intensely cultivated soils it \vas found desirable to define and recognize several series by narrowing the range in drainage conditions within which a series may vary (e.g. Acadia r1ssociation). The series and L%ssociations are given names for convenient reference. The names are usually those of some geographical feature (town, river, etc.) near which the soils were first found or where they occur most extensively. The soil type is a subdivision of the series. Each series as it has been defined, does not deviate from a standard pattern to any appreciable degree, but small differences in texture are allowed, particularly in the top soil. ,A series is divided into soil types according to the textural classes into which the top soil maq’ fall. -4s a rule only two or three types are found within any one series, and the differences in texture between the types are usually not great. The soil type is the basic unit in the classification scheme, and in many cases it has also been employed as the mapping unit. It is named by adding the proper textural class to the name of the series in which it belongs. .A soil type or a series is often modified by properties such as stoniness, slope, and accelerated erosion which may prove to be determining factors in the proper utilization and management of the soils concerned. Such modifications are called soil phases and are used as mapping units not listed in the classification scheme. Th us, if it is possible to delineate an area in which a given soil type is more ston!T or on steeper land than usual, the soil within that area is mapped as a stony or a sloping phase and the degree of stoniness or slope is indicated by q-m bols.

13068-6 40

The following phase characteristics are shown on the soil map: Symbol used Phase on map Dafinition of symbol Stonineq<. . St.0 Free from stones. at1 Only an occasional stone in profile. St2 Stones not numerous nor large enough to seriously interfere with cultivation. st3 Stones seriously interfere with free use of farm machinery; should be removed. St4 Land is unsuitable for agricultural use hy reason of extreme stoniness. IIocak outcrops 1 Rcdrock appears at surface. Slope A Level to gently undulating land (dominant slopes not exceeding 2?$9$$). 13 Undulating to gently rolling land (dominant slopes not exceeding 7?,/2%). c Rolling to strongly rolling land (dominant slopes not exceeding 1573. I) Strongly rolling to hilly land (dominant slopes not exceeding 25VO). F1 Hilly to mountainous land (dominant slopes exceeding 25%). Description and Discussion of Soils The following pages present a discussion of the characteristics which ditierentiate groups of soils as well as individual soil units from each other. Detailed descriptions of the individual soils are given; and the utilization and suitabilit\- of each soil for agricultural purposes are discussed. The majority of the soils in this zone belong to the Podsol group which has been defined and discussed in some detail. However some Intrazonal and Azonal soils, in which due to local factors or due to their recent origin podsolic characteristics have not been developed, also occur in the area. The most important lntrazonal soils in the area are Half Bogs and Bogs. The Nackawic series belongs to the Half Bog soils, while the peats and mucks are Bog soils. The Azonal soils are represented by the Interval Sussex and Acadia associations.

1. Soils Developed on Glacial Till The soils formed on till parent material in the surveyed district have certain characteristics in common, although they are widely different in many other respects. The?- are all heterogeneous with regard to texture. Boulders and stones, varying in numbers and size according to the nature of the soils, are irregularly dispersed through a finer medium consisting of gravel, sand, silt, and clay in varying proportions. Usually the subsoil is relatively heavier, more compact than the topsoil and with a coarser or less developed structure. The nature of the parent rock is generally evident in the soil parent material by its colour, texture, and rock fragments, and for each kind of parent rock and till there is a closely related group of soils. The characteristics of each such group of soils and of their parent material will be discussed under the individual soil associations and series. A. Soils Developed on Till from Predominantly Non-Calcareous Rock Material These soils are numerous and extensive in southeastern New Brunswick. The kinds of rock which gave rise to the till range in age from Pre-Cambrian or Palaeozoic to late Pennsylvanian, and differ widely in their mineralogical composition. The soils which have formed on these materials are generally fairly low in natural fertility as has been proved by farming experience. QUEENS ASSOCIATION The soils of the Queens Association are found on undulating to gently rolling lowland northwest of an irregular line from Wickham on the St. John river to Shediac and also to a very small extent on rolling to hilly upland at scattered points, notably in the oil fields region in Albert county and between Memramcook and Sackville. The parent material of this association is derived chiefly from sandstones and mudstones of the (Pennsylvanian) Petitcodiac group. The parent material is a (reddish) brown, heavy, compact boulder clay 41

If-ith gravel, small stones, and boulders, all usually rounded or-subangular, firmlv embedded. The acidit!, of this subsoil is quite strong, the pH varying betkveen 5.0 and 5~5.

QUEENS SERIES The Queens series covers 221,250 acres and occurs on better drained relief positions in the northwestern part of the map-area, where it is commonl!- found in close geographical association with the Kings series. It occupies the higher slopes of low knolls, ridges, and river basins. The topography varies from undulating to gently rolling with average slopes between 24 feet and 7; feet oarer a distance of one hundred feet. Stones varying in size from gravel to large ljoulders are common both on the surface and in the body of the soil, and they at-e generally so plentiful that they have been used in the construction of solidl\r ljuilt, permanent fences on many farms. These fences are often found deep in the woods, jvhere theJ- indicate that the land was once cleared and cultivated. \i-here the Queens soils have never been cleared of their natural forest cover or otherwise disturbed, the top layer, called the A0 horizon, consists of a mat of organic matter in a state of more or less advanced decomposition, dark brown in colour and \Tery acid in reaction, from one to three inches in thickness. The leached layer, the A2 horizon, is greyish white, sometimes possesses a structure resembling thin plates placed on top of each other, and it is very friable, turning to dust when rubbed between one’s fingers. It is highly acid, although not quite so much so as the organic layer. Underneath is found the B horizon, which can usually be separated into two sub-horizons on the basis of differences in colour and often in structure and consistency. The upper part, the B1 layer which may h,ive a thickness of four to ten inches, is rusty red to orange brown. It has a faintly to well developed granular structure in the heavier soils, while it is commonly structureless in the lighter textural classes. The lower part, the Bz layer, is from six to twelve inches thick, but the depth from the top of the organic layer to the bottom of the B:! horizon seldom exceeds twenty or twenty-two inches. The c*olour of the B, layer is similar to that of the B1, but of a duller shade. The Bz also has a better granular structure and is firm, though friable when loosened. There is no sharp demarcation between the B2 and the subsoil, or C horizon, although the latter has entirely different characteristics from those of the upper horizons. The C layer is largely unchanged parent material. It is a reddish brown clay loam to clay, lacks structure, is compact and has a plastic consistency when \\ret. In the dry condition it is hard and difficult to break up. It contains quantities of solidly embedded gravel and stones. As a rule the C horizon is at least several feet thick, but instances have been found, in which it is lacking altogether, so that the B, horizon rests directly on the bedrock. The cultivated surface soil of the Queens types has a typically grey to greyish-bro wn colour. Its structure and friability are dependent in some measure on the cultural practices to which it has been subjected. Under good management involving the use of sufficient manure, lime, and fertilizers, and a regular rotation of crops, including legumes, the cultivated soil may have a fairly good granular structure and be quite “loamy” or mellow when handled; on the other hand, if the soil has been cultivated without thought to its maintenance, it often shows a poor powdery structure, and in the case of the heavy types, it may puddle and bake. Where the original topsoil has been removed by erosion, the surface soil is brownish and generally has a poor structure; in addition it is underlain at about plough depth by the hard, compact parent material, which hinders the natural downward growth of roots. The Queens series includes three soil types; the clay loam, the loam, and the s,indqr loam, of which the loam is most extensive. A typical profile of the latter 42 is clescribed belo\v, but man!- small variations are to be found, particularly- with respect to the thickness of the -%I and the -\f horizons and the intensit!. of colour iI1 the HI la!-er.

l/c,rizc~rr 1)~pth Lkwripfron A,, 0 ” 2” J,uytv of orgnnic~ mattrr. The dour is dark I)rown to IAack. The upper part still showy the structurr of the decaying ICXVM, while the lower part is well tl~~c*omposc~d and amorphous. Numrrouh fine roots of hrrhaceous plants and young t re(bs are closely interwoven in this layer. pH 4.4. n :’ 2” - irr (;rcs\-ish white sandy loam to loam with a platy structure in places, otherwiac struc.turclrss, firm to friable, becomes powdtary when ground between the fingers. Contains many small SUhngulttr fragments of grey sandstone, and finfa roots spread through the horizon. pH 4.5. 131 7°C 13” ITcallowish brown loam with faintly granular st ructurc>. This layer is friable and has a loose, open consistency. It contains some rounded and sub-angular gravel ant 1 stones. of various sizcas, and roots are numerous. pH 5.0. 13? l:S”-l!)” Light reddish brown loam with fair to good granular structure. Friable, but firm. Contains somr gravc.1 and more stontbs than RI, but less roots. pH 5.6. (’ 1Y”S Hcddish to greyish brown clay loam, chompact, and of a massive, sticky consist- f’ncy when wet. On drying it hec~rncs hard and lumpy. Some gravel and many stones are solidly tlmbcddcd. V(lry few roots to br seen. pH e5.4. In the sand)- loam the percolation of water and organic acids in solution has been relatively greater and the leaching has been more severe, so that the ;I2 horizon is usually somewhat deeper than in the loam, and the B is correspondingly more deeply red. The clay loam, being of heavy texture, has permitted less water to pass do\l-nwards through the profile. The leaching has accordingI>- been less severe, and the horizon development is slightly less than in the loam. The clay loam is as a rule found on smoother topography than the other t\vo t>-pes and forms close geographical patterns with its ill-drained associates. In wooded territor): it was considered impractical to determine and map the series and type boundaries of such patterns. Instead, they were mapped as “association, undivided,” or “series, undivided” and the percentage distribution of each series or type was estimated and indicated on the map where possible. The soil types are frequently modified by the presence of more than the usual amounts of gravel or stones in the soil body or by the slope of the land. Where such modifications are of sufficient magnitude to be of significance in use capabilities and management practices they have been mapped as phases of the soil types concerned. The gravelly loam and sandy loam is of frequent occurrence on slopes in the neighbourhood of water-worked soils or where the parent material is derived in part from conglomerate. It is characterized by comparatively greater amounts of gravel in the A and B horizons, which as a consequence are more open and well-drained than normally. The importance of the stony phases is evident from the definitions of stoniness given on p. 40. The significance of the slope phases is related both to ease of cultivation and to the soil’s suscep- tibility to erosion. As the light textured types of the Queens Soils are usually on considerably steeper slopes than the heavier classes, they have been more strongly eroded; but in cases where they are on similar slopes, the heavy soils suffer’most. As they absorb less moisture, the run-off is correspondingly greater, and heavy texture by itself when not accompanied by good granular structure provides a greater percentage of particles of such small size that they are easily carried away by the surface water. The Queens soils near the shore of the Sorthumberland Strait and near the larger drainage channels are frequently very light-textured in the upper horizons, and indications are that the top soil was once somewhat re-worked by water. Agriculture The Queens soils are used partly for agricultural purposes in the district lvhere the)7 and their associated soils predominate, but a large area of them has never been cleared. The reason for this may be found partly in the fact that 43

generalI>. the>- do not occur in reasonabl\- large continuous areas, but often form small, isolated “islands” which are surrounded b>- their associated ill-drained soils, so that close settlement is impossible. The forest which predominates on the Queens series is coniferous, consisting of spruce, fir, jack pine and white pine, but there are areas on which there is a mixed groivth, containing besides the softwoods white birch, maple, poplar, l.ellow birch, and beech. The present botanical composition probably varies from the original ,growth, which is thought to have been largely pine forest. The changes have been brought about through clearings, felling, and burning. The natural fertility- of the Queens soils is not high, which is shown by their tendenq- to ‘run out’, if the!- are not properly managed, but their fertility level can be built up. The Queens soils, as well as most other soils, in New Brunswick, \vere cleared b\- cutting down the forest and burning the cut, or by simply setting tire to the forest; in either case the layer of rich organic matter was destro>*ed. ,Ilthough the ashes, if they were not removed for sale, provided plant food for the crops for a few years, the), soon became exhausted through leaching. lifter the land was brought under cultivation, it was quite common to use a field for one crop J-ear after ?‘ear, until the yield was not sufficient to pay for harvesting it. The treatment accorded to the land has, of course, changed with the years as economic conditions forced the abandonment of inferior land and theadoption of better methods of management and farm organization on the better tracts, t)ut the shift from pure exploitation and impoverishment of the land to a system oi sound land use and maintenance is far from completion as yet. Many farms on the Queens soils support few head of livestock in relation to acreage, and the (-reps at-e poor on these farms with regard to both ha\- and grain, and the pastures at-e often on semi-\d;ooded, ston\, land, which is seldom or never ploughed, seeded, or fertilizetl. On the other hand there are progressive, IYell kept farms on the Queens soils. The factors which determine success on a farm are not to be found csclusivel!- in the qualit?- of the land. If that \vere the case the question of sound lantl use would be comparativeI!* simple to solve, Ijut such intangibles as human, social, and economic, considerations must also be weighed, and in these latter relationships are to be found a number of the reasons wh\* some farms on the Queens soils are cornparativel~~ prosperous, while others are poor, and why so man!. ha\Te even been abandoned, after preceding generations had cleared the lantl, removed the stones, and erected buildings. However, it is safe to say that even under favourable social and economic conditions a farm on the Queens , soils J)rospers onl~~ to the extent that the qualit>. of the land is maintained and raised. The Q ueens series can be improved in several wa!.s: the acidity can be lessened b!. the use of lime, the organic-matter content can be increased bq’ ploughing do\~n green manuring crops and b;. applying barn)-ard manure, the fertilit! t-an be maintained through the use of artificial fertilizers, and the soil can be kchpt in good mechanical c-ondition b\- correct tillage practices. In addition it is necessary to use good acclimated seed in planned rotations and to keep weeds out of the fields, and often it is advisable to drain a small strip of ill-drained land I\-hich breaks up a field. The quantity of lime to be applied varies with the acidit\- tint1 the texture of the soil. The cla\. loam requires more lime than the sand), loam of the same acidit,-, but the effect of the application ma)- last longer on the heavier t!-I)c. I:suall~ a crop benefits more from lime, if it is applied to the l)loughed land in the fall, than if it is put on just before seeding in the spring. The neccl for increasing the organic.-matter supples in the Queens soils cannot IW emJ)hasizcd to strongl!-. Fields that are low in humus general117 produce weeds and povert! Krass instead of ha>-, and such fields are ver\. common on the Queens series. I*suall\- there is not enough manure available io cover all the fields, so that it is Cippiied to those near the buildings, and those farther a&a>- receive tlone or ver! little. In such case it is essential that some lime be used so that the soil acitlit\- \\-ill 1~ lo\\,ered suf?ic.ientl\- to permit the gro\\-ing of legumes. The 44 latter will increase the nitrogen level in the soil, even if they are cut for ha?-, but more so if the crop or the aftermath is ploughed under. To supplement the fertility of the soil artificial fertilizers should be used in appreciable quantities. The amounts and kinds used should be regulated b)T several factors, such as the present fertility level, the price of the fertilizer, the value of the crop, the rotation, the requirements of the crop, the manure supply, etc. If some manure is available it may be necessary to use only superphosphate; if there is no manure and the humus content of the soil is low, a complete fertilizer, containing nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, may be required for the best results. While it pa>-s to use fertilizers, it is economical to apply only the necessary ones and those only in such arnounts as will give adequate response. When a strip of ill-drained land breaks up a field, it may pay to drain it, using tile drains or an open ditch as the conditions warrant. The heavy subsoil, which underlies the Queens soils, is apt to make them rather cold and wet in the spring, so that farming operations are generally a little late. In order to obtain a good seed-bed, especially on the clay loam it is important that harrowing and cultivation should be delayed till the soils have dried out sufficiently. Crop production on the Queens soils could also be increased by the use of good, sound seed, and by establishing a definite rotation on the farm. These measures would also help to keep down weeds. The matter of erosion control on the Queens soil is becoming urgent in many localities. While no erosion survey has been made, casual observations indicate beyond doubt that many farms have been abandoned, because the soils have eroded to such an extent that there is practically no topsoil left, and the clay pan has come to the surface, liberally sprinkled lvith gravel and stones, which \vere left when the soil was washed away. In many other instances the injury to the soil has been less noticeable, but it is reflected in the decreased fertility, and it is probably true that there is some measure of erosion on every farm. If incipient or moderate erosion is not stopped or retarded, it will continue to impoverish the soil, till it is ruined. Prevention or arrest of erosion on moderate slopes can be accomplished lvithout capital expenditures, by soil management practices. Instead of cultivation up and down a slope, ploughing, harrowing, and seeding across the slope (“on the contour”) should be adopted, and a rotation of crops in fairly narrow crosswise strips would also be helpful. Surface drainage channels and spillways should be sodded. Permanent, well sodded pastures are desirable on strongly sloping land, while on man?’ hill sides nothing less than reforestation will check the erosion. nlore expensive erosion control measures, such as the construction of terraces, dams, etc., should not be undertaken, till it has been determined that the benefits derived from them, financialI>- and other- lvise, \I-ould balance the cost. The t)ype of farming carried on on the Queens soils is general farming sup- ljorted by sidelines such as poultry raising, strawberr\- growing on the light- textured t)-pes, some sheep raising, and work in the \voods during the winter months. ,A woodlot is considered an important adjunct to a farm on the Queens soils, and when it is properly managed it does provide a sure income ever\- year. -1s a rule the main cash income is derived from the sale of milk, cream, or butter. The chief crops are ha\7 and oats, with small acreages of turnips and sometimes green feed to supplement the pastures in the latter part of the summer. Potatoes are generalI\- grown for home use, together with vegetables and other garden produce. -Apple orchards are seldom seen and do not appear to thrive on the typical Queens soils because of the heavy subsoil, \I-hich prevents proper root development. Recent statistics point to a tendency towards increasing the size ,of the farm unit in Kew Brunswick, on the Queens soils as well as on others. A farmer may bu>, an adjoining farm to use it chiefly for pasture, or he ma). buy it in order to incorporate it into his o\vn rotation ; 1~~7Fvorkiny a larger acreage he ma! 45 be able to purchase and make full use of machinery, which he could not af-ford ivhile he had only a small crop area. The working of a large unit provides for full utilization of man power and machineqr and thus lowers the cost of production. =i similar effect would result from co-operation between neighbouring farmers in the purchase and use of machinery. Such action is to be commended, for only the application of efficient, soil-conserving farming methods and the use of modern machinery to bring down the unit cost of production ivill permit the farmer on Queens soils to compete with others on more productive land.

HARCOURT ASSOCIATION The Harcourt dissociation covers only a few acres in the northern part of the map-area in the vicinity of the road from Moncton to Harcourt Station, which is outside the map-area. Due to its very limited extent in the surveyed district and its much wider distribution in southern Kent county, it has been decided to omit the description and discussion of the soils from the present report and to treat it fully in the forthcoming soil survey report for Eastern New Bruns- wick. It may be said that the Harcourt Association is a transition between the Queens soils and a new Association found in Kent county. This new I\ssociation has formed on non-compacted parent material derived from soft, grey sandstone of Pennsylvanian origin. For the present an!’ recommendations regarding use and management of the Harcourt soils should be the same as those given for the Queens loam and sand57 loam.

D~RCHESTISK Assocr,iTroN The Dorchester ,%ssociation covers 63,000 acres. It has been mapped chiefly- in and near the oil fields region in Albert county, on the Fort Folly Point peninsula across the Petitcodiac river, and between %‘lemramcook, Dorchester, and Sackville. It is confined to the rolling to hilly uplancl and it is probably this type of relief that is ultimately responsible for the formation of the Dorchester soils, l),- providing better drainage conditions, and thereby also a slightly different \-egetation, than those obtaining in the Queens soils. The characteristics differ- entiating these two Associations are small, and if onI\ a few profile comparisons \\.ere made, they might be passed over as allowable variations Lvithin one soil but they at-e so consistent over a considerable area, and their significance in crop production is so apparent, that they have been considered sufficient for the establishment of a separate -Association. ‘lYl~eslope of the land on which the Dor- chester soils occur is usually about 7 or 8 per cent, sometimes less, but often more. These soils are ston}-, locally so much so that no attempt has been made to clear them extensively. Their drainage is good, often excessive, so that drought conditions may arise. The vegetation is not greatly different from that on the Queens soils, although it usualI>. seems to contain a larger proportion of hardwoods and mixed growth. This is especially noticeable in the oil fields region, but whether or not the original growth had a similar composition is not known. Stumps of softwood trees with a diameter of close to three feet ha\-ch been seen on these soils. Three different t\.pes have been mapped in the L)orchester series, the clay loam, the loam, and the sand>- loam. The former is of very small extent, but the latter two t\-pes comprise larger, approximately equal acreages. The sandy loam ma\’ be described as follo\l-s: . Horizon Depth Dmcriplion ii0 O”- 146” Dark brown to black layer of organic matter composed of decaying deciduous and coniferous foliage. Fine roots are plentiful. pH 4.0. -11 - Black or dark brown layer of mineral soil with a large amount of well-decomposed organic. matter. Present only locally and in traces. 46

.I: , .’,rr ,5” (;rf~~.i,li whit v sandy loam, \trwt urc~lf~.s;s,hut rvlativcly firni, ycbt porous, and cxsily ruhhc~l to a powdvt’y c.onsistenvy. Xormal amounts of small stones and gravel. pH 4.4. Ii, ,5”C14” k7c+owish brown sandy loam with moderately developed granular structure. (‘ontainq n small numbcxr of stones and prhblc~s. Roots are numerous. pH 5.0. H? 14” 24” I‘alc reddish brown, almost greyish brown, loam to sandy loam, with modcratel~ . dcvcloped granular structure, firm. Roots pcnctrat (1 this horizon, and stows are numerous. pH 5.6. (’ ‘74” 1 11~11 (reddish) brown loam (to sandy loam), struc*turrless, very firm, hut perme- :I t,1e. ,Sonlr gravel anti :L considf~rahle nurnbf7 of fiat, grey sandstone fmy- mrnt s. pH 5.4.

‘I’hc loam is similar to the sand!. loam, except that the surface horizons hn\ve a somewhat heavier texture. The claJ- loam is slightI\ less leached than the preceding types. Of the various phases of the Dorchester series those due to slope, gravel content, and stoniness are the important ones, and the\? were separated on the map \vhere llossible. In the cultivated states, the surface soil of the Dorchester t!rpes is similat to that of the Queens t>.pes (See P. 43) under similar conditions.

‘l’hc l)>.-roads no\\. ljassing through areas of Dorchester soils are ver\T sparsell- settled and are used chicA!- for the transportation of lumber. The c.ulti\-ated areas are generalI\- situated \vhere some other inducement to settlement existed, as for example in the Dorchester and the \7’estcock districts, where sm,lll tracts of ver)’ productive marsh were available, and in the southern part of the (‘al)e Alaringouin peninsula, ivhere fishing could be relied on for part of the fatnil!- income. Th e main reason wh>. general settlement has not taken place on the 1)orchester soils is probabl\T their stony nature and the irregularit!, of the clepth of the soil. The bedrock is often found as outcrops at the surface. ‘l’he latter condition prevails in the inland area between Ta!-lor village and Fort Foil\. l’oint, \vhere sandstone quarr\Ting was carried on in former days, and \vhere it is- not unc*ommon to see stands of trees growing in less than 6 inches of soil o\‘er the l)e- l~cause of their often strongl>- sloping, irregular relief: a number of farms have Owen deserted, because the top soil was washed awa>-, leaving a ston\T and shal- 1011.sut)soil. Permanent pasture seems to be the best general agricultural use that c~)uld be made of the Dorchester soils. However, the sand17 loam and the ~ra\-ell\. sand\. loam are suitable for strawbert-\- growing, Lvhich is being practised successfull\. in the Memramcook-Dorchester *district. It should be mentioned that in the- Memramcook area the strawberry production is on the light-textured, gravelI>- soils of the Queens series, but those soils are actually in the transition belt between the Queens and the Dorchester series, and some arbitrary judgment had to be exercised b\. the soil surve>rors in separating the two series in that localit),. It will therefore be realized that no large differences should be looked for- betjvcen the two series as mapped in the vicinity of hlemramcook. It is recommended generally that those areas of the Dorchester soils that are \\.ooded should be kept in forest. The area that would be most suitable for general agriculture is situated in the oil fields region between Stony Creek Station and the f’etitcodiac river, but it is privateI\, owned and is being retained in forest. The cleared land should be carefull)r protected against erosion by proper rnal~agement and tillage practices. -Applications of manure, lime, and fertilizer give good response on the Dorchester soils, which are widel\- ‘run-out’ and r1eglect ccl. If they are not used productively, they should be permitted to revert to forest under adequate management. ITnfortunately the forests tin the 1)orchester soils have been cut indiscriminatel~~, so that at present the?. >Tield little more than pitprops and pulp\vood. 47

The Salisburv *qssociation is distributed from Havelock through Killams _IIills and the Le&s Mountain district; then it is interrupted by other soiIs, but appears again on Steeves and Lutz mountains. The prevailing type of relief is undulating to gently rolling lowland. The parent material of these soils has presumably been derived partly from reddish brown arltosic gritty sandstone and conglomerate of the Moncton group, and partly from unknown amounts of admixed till derived from grey sandstone of the Petitcodiac group. The parent material is a reddish brown boulder clay, resembling that of the Queens ;2sso- ciation; it is compact, structureless and acid but it has a gritty ‘feel’ and contains considerable amounts of reddish brown conglomeratic stones and pebbles, and the colour has a faint, yet consistant purplish shade. The Salisbury soils have well developed pods01 profiles simiIar in man?’ respects to the Queens soils. -it the time of the survey, it was problematical whether or not to lump the two associations into one, but it was considered better to separate them for although the profile distinctions between the analogous series are small, the)7 nevertheless I)t’rsist. Jn the Killams Mills-Le\vis hlountain district the land is undulating to gently rolling, and here the soils are relatively deep and favourable for cultivation, except where the drainage is poor, or where rock outcrops occur. In the Steeves and Lutz mountains areas the relief is more strongly rolling and shallow soils and rock outcrops are more common, but even so there are fairly large areas of goocl, deep soil. On lndian mountain it is not uncommon to find that the soils of the Salisbury association contain certain amounts of small, gre\- shale fragments belonging to the Albert formation, which forms the bedrock in a small area. So far as it could be established by observation these shale fragments have had little soil-forming influence, but they do improve the permeability and the friabilit\. of the soil. The Salisbury association consists of podsol soils, in which two main profile patterns have developed as a result of differences in drainage conditions and soil climate. One pattern is typical of the well drained soils, called the Salisbury series, \+.hile the other is found in the ill drained soils, which are members of the Kin‘gs Sthries.

SXLISUUKY SI;KIKS The Salisbury, series occupies 27,300 acres in well drained relief positions. The slope is seldom excessive, but generallJ7 sufficient to ensure good drainage for relativeI?- large continuous areas of land; however, the frequency of change in slope is quite high, so that draws and small poorly drained depressions are of common occurrence, and the land is broken here and there by rock outcrops or shallou- ledge, on lvhich the soil may be only a few inches thick and therefore subject to drought even in normally moist seasons. This condition is not uncommon on the higher parts of Steeves, Lutz, and lndian mountains. The natural vegetation on the Salisbury soils is chiefly coniferous, spruce and fir prevailing, but in many stands the growth is often a mixture of the soft\\-oods with maple, white, grey, and J.ellow birch, and, more rarely, beech. In man> instances the cutting has been done indiscriminately so that it will take a number of years, before the stands can replenish and become productive again. \\%ile indiscriminate cutting ma>7 bring in a desired amount of cash in one sear, it is extreme]\7 wasteful and precludes the possibility of annual incomes i;roni the wood-lots. Careful management, including selective cutting, of the farm wood-lot is necessary in order to protect the soil and to use it economically. This r-ecolilInen~Iatit)n applies not onI>. to the farmers on the Salisbury soils, but to all \vood-lot o\\-ners and operators in the surve>-ed area. Three different soil tJ.pes have been mapped as belonging to the Salisbury series; they are the clay loam, the loam, and the sandy loam, of which the loam is the most widely distributed and also the most typical representative of the characteristics attributed to the series; the clay loam merges with the Queens clay loam in point of morphology and the sandy loam appears to contain a great deal of the singularly gritty, arkosic material which is typical of the Queenville association. The cultivated surface soils of the Salisbury series are grey to greyish brown; their structure and consistency are dependent on both texture and state of tilth; when the latter are favourable, the soils are fairly loamy and friable. They are in most respects similar to the Queens soils. .&I profile of the Salisbury loam may be described as follows:

Description J>ark brown to black, semi to well drcomposed organic matter, derived most13 from softwood ncedlcs. There is a thin littc>r of leaves and needles at the surface. pH 3,8. Greyish white loam to sandy loml, with faint purplish tinge, structureless, but quite firm. A few small round htoncs and pebbles, some of volcanic origin, presumably from Moncton group conglomerate. Roots are numerous. pH 4.4. Reddish brown loam to clay loam with weakly developed granular structure. The layer is not cemented or compact, but firm and contains moderate amounts of gravel and stones of conglomrratc and grey sandstone. Roots are well d(vcloped. pH 5.2. Brown clay loam with moderately developed granular structure; the layer is alightLy compact, and roots penetrate easily through it. Gravel and stones are fairly numerous. pH 5.4. Reddish brown clay loam with characteristic faint purplish shade. Structure is lacaking cxccpt for an orcasional indication of horizontal layering. The horizon is compact, and contains numerous stones from conglomerate and sandstone firmly embedded. Even though the texture is heavy, the whole profile has a certain gritty “ferl”, imparted by sharp sand and fine gravel derived from the Moncton group of rocks. pH 5.6. The Salisbury cla!- loam is not found extensiveI?-. It covers some low slopes and relatively level land in the border region between the Salisbury and the Queens associations along the Salisbury-Coles Island road. From a purely morphological standpoint it does not differ greatly from the Queens clay loam, and the stones and gravel contained in the profile seem to have been derived from the gre>T Petitcodiac rocks as much as from the Moncton group. The sandy loam also has a limited distrib ltion and forms a transition between the true Salisbury soil and the Queenville association, the parent material of I\-hich is derived entirely from arkosic grits of the R’loncton group.

Agriculture The Salisbury series has been extensivel>r cleared and brought under cultivation. The soil is reasonably productive under good management and supports many relatively prosperous farms both in the Lewis mountain and in the Steeves and J,utz mountain districts. A number of farmers have tractors, and modern, efficient machinery is widely used. The types of farming followed shows minor variation, but most farms derive the main income from livestock through the sale of milk, cream, and other products. This involves the kind of soil utilization that is most suitable for the Salisbury series, namely, the growing of hay, small grains, and some root crops. The ordinaq, rotation has a grain crop followed by two or three years of ha>-. With small applications of fertilizer the yield of oats is about 40 bushels per acre and of hay two tons per acre. Turnips grow well, but in a number of fields they are subject to club-root. The Salisbury soils are leached and sour and have therefore lost a good deal of their original supply of plant nutrients, but the fertility level can be maintained and improved by- the use of manure and fertilizer, and the acidit\, can be corrected by the application of lime, which could be used to advantage much more wideI?- than 49

at present. The organic matter has become depleted in many fields, which show this lack in poor crops of inferior quality, Where the available manure is insufficient to maintain the humus in the’soil, green manuring crops should be grown and ploughed down in the fall of the year. -4s a rule the Salisbury soils dry out quite early in the spring, but the draws and small depressions, which are not uncommon in the fields, often tend to delay- farming operations by remaining cold and wet late in the spring, and they cause uneven maturing of the grain crops. AIany of these poorly drained spots could be improved profitably with tile drains; but before a farmer undertakes artificial drainage, he should be certain that it is feasible and expedient under his own particular circumstances. (Good pastures, which can be grazed from spring till fall and provide high- qllalit?- herbage, are an economic necessity on farms which keep much livestock, but there is room for improvement in this respect on the Salisbury soils. Those farmers who have tried pasture fertilization are well pleased with their invest- ment. Unfortunately a good deal of land is called pasture, to which the name does not properl>T apply. Such land rnaJ7 be partl!- wooded, in which case it seldom produces good timber, or it may be rough, stony or strongly sloping land. The latter should in many cases not remain cleared, but should be reforested in order to prevent or dela\T erosion. Much land that is too ston\F or otherwise inconvenient to cultivate does make excellent permanent pasture, if it is fertilized, possibly top-dressed \vith manure and lime, and well managed. On small farms it is important to make the best use of all land and a small productive pasture is much more economical than a larger one with poor herbage.

PETIT~~DI.~~ AG3~c~.~m~~ The Petitcodiac association is found on the gentlJ7 undulating (to gently rolling) lowland on both sides of the Petitcodiac river from Petitcodiac village to a short distance beyond Moncton. It occurs at very few points outside of that area. The parent material of the association is derived from red or reddish brown arenaceous shale and argillaceous sandstone of the Petitcodiac group but these rocks, in contrast to the grey sandstone of the Queens association, are relative]\- soft and easil\- weathered, although they do not appear to have contained lime in the cementing material. Outcrops of bedrock are scarce; they are however found for instance, in road ditches near I,eamr!n brook and between Turtle Creek and Baltimore. The stones found in the Petitcodiac soils are preponderantly of the same nature as the bedrock, i.e. reddish brown, ‘soft, fine-grained sandstone. Near the edges of the area occupied by these soils a number of the stones are of foreign origin, which is a common occurrence in glaciated soils. The parent material itself is a reddish brown to light chocolate coloured clay loam, which in typical, well drained profiles has a very distinctive, fine to coarse block>7 structure; in the ill-drained soils this structure is seldom in evidence, but may become distinct on drying. This structure is unusual in Sew Brunswick soils, and its development must remain unexplained for the time being. Similar but not identical structures are found occasionally in the Kings- clear series and commonly in the Knightville series, both of which are derived from rocks comparativel>v rich in lime. In the former association the structure is rare and is found only where the soil is apparently forming in situ from reddish brown, heav>--textured shale, which itself weathers into a mass of small, almost cube-shaped fragments. The Knightville series occurs in a valley bottom as I\-ell as on slightlJ7 more rolling land than the Petitcodiac association, but is contiguous Lvith the latter, which in turn merges almost imperceptibly in respect to topograph!- with a low-lying area of largely ill-drained soils of the Queens association between Aloncton and Shediac Bay. The structure of the Iiarent material of the I’ctitcodiac association in appearance is close to that of the 50

cd daily tidal deposits on the creek banks in the Bay of Fund\- marshes. In this connection a bette; knowledge of the surface geology of the region con- c.erned \\-ould be of interest. The soils of the Petitcodiac association have a nearI)- flat, even, monotonous relief. M’hen seen from a high vantage point, such as Steeves mountain, the land occupied by these soils resembles strongl>r a wide river flat, enclosed on the north b\- Steeves and Lutz mountains and on the south by the foothills of the C‘aledoiia upland. The well drained soils of the I’etitcodiac association form the I’etitcxodiac series, while the ill-drained soils are members of the Kings series.

The Pctitcodiac series covers 74,100 acres, and the largest continuous areas occupied by it are found between Petitcodiac village and the lower course of the Coverdale river, also around the village of Salisbur>- and between the tit) of JIoncton and the Lutz mountain ridge. This series occupies the better drained positions, such as lo\\. ridges, knolls, slopes, and strips along the larger IJrooks and rivers. It is still in forest locall>~, while in other places it is largel! cleared and farmed. U-here the forest prevails, it consists chiefly of spruce and home pine, but there is also a liberal growth of white and yellow birch and maple; bcec~h is less plentiful, but I)oplar is frequentI>. seen in J-oung stands. Judging from old stumps the original growth was largely softwood, and individual trees attairled considerable size; some old stumps measure 3 feet in diameter, but the present forests are >Toung because of intensive cutting. The Petitcodiac soils are relativeI>, free from stones and can often be taken under cultivation jvithout the necessity of first removing stones. Outcrops of bedrock have not been observed on cultivated land. The slope generalI\. varies between 2+j and 8 per cent. In the natural forested condition the I’etitcodiac soils are well supplied with organic matter. Although the!, are of heavy texture, they have a good granular structure, Ivhich becomes block>7 in the lower part of the soil, and the subsoil has a (‘oar-se blocky structure. In the cultivated state, the I’etitcodiac soils have a plough depth la>-er of dark reddish brown or light bro\vn surface soil, which usually shou-s good granular structure and is mellow and friable, although it will bake, if it is cultivated when \\‘Ct . If erosion has made progress on a Petitcodiqc soil, the surface layer is generally less friable, and is underlain b,- the parent material, which is then quite often found to be dr\-, hard and compact. Two textural classes, or soil t>.pes, have been mapped within the Petitcodiac series, namely the clay loam and the loam. In addition there is a small area of cla>‘, but this has been found in only one place, at Colpitts, on cleared land, and has probably been formed b\- silting of fine soil material removed by erosion from higher land. r\ t>-pica1 profile of the forested Petitcodiac claJ7 loam which has the widest ctistt-il)ution, ma\- be described as follo\vs:

IIf,t./iUtl I)( pth lkS(.riptlO?l .-2, (I”- *1/t Dark bro\vn to blac~k.organic matter, upper part showing thtl structure of the const it ucnt mat tcr, lower part amorphous and well dcromposed and containing cluantitirs of apparently burnt material, probably charcoal from old forest firw. Fine roots form a mat through this layrr. pH 3.8. -4 _ 2”. (i” ( ;w;\.ish white clay loam, with a slightly pinkish to purplish cast and some dcvelop- Ilichnt of granular strurturc. This horizon contains some small fragments of l~rown and grev sandstow. but vvr>’ littl(a grar-cl. A numbcbr of roots pass through the horizon. pH 3 .!I. h, ii”-] j” Reddish brown clay loam, dull in cwlour, with very good granular st ructurr. ,Somch hmall sandstone fragment> arc pwwnt , IJut very little gravel. Root s :trf nuInwou< in this layer. pH 4.9. 51

H? 15°C22” 11~11 rrddish brown clay loam with large granular to nuciform structure. In spite of heavy texture the layer is not compact, and roots are numerous and well- developed. Some sandstone fragments and small amounts of gravel are present. In the lower part of the horizon the structure becomes more blocky and grades into the C horizon. pH 5.2. <’ L’L”? 4 Dull reddish brown to chocolate-colouwd rlay loam with a coarse blocky or lumpy structure. The aggregates vary in size from .+ inch to 2 inches or more in horizontal diameter, and in the vertical dire&ion they may measure as much as 6 inches. Many of the vertical faces of the aggregates are coated with a grey layer l/S” to l/4” thick, of unknown origin and composition. Many roots penetrate vertically along the interfaces. Although the structure makes the C horizon permeable and easy to dig in, each individual aggregate is quite compact and difficult to break up and has small stones firmly embedded. The whole profile is almost free from larger stones. pH 5.7. There are a number of small variations between profiles. In some the structure is less coarse, more nuciform and well developed, while in others it is poorly developed. This latter condition ‘is found especially where the drainage is somewhat impeded, and in the area north and east of hloncton, where the parent material appears to contain certain amounts of mineral matter derived from bedrock of the Queens association. However, no definite explanation can be given why some profiles exhibit a more pronounced structure than others. The loam is similar in most respects to the clay loam with the exception of the texture of the top soil and the thickness of the leached layer. The latter is often an inch or so thicker than in the clay loam and has a less distinct granular structure.

Slope and ston!’ phases have been mapped on the Petitcodiac soils but generally there are no great variations in these characteristics.

Agriculture In the neighborhood of 1\Ioncton and along the better roads the Petitcodiac soils are an important factor in the supply of agricultural products for the local as well as the export markets, and they support a number of very prosperous and progressive farm enterprises, which are mostly engaged in general farming. The chief crops are hay, oats, and pasture, with small acreages of mangels and swedes. _l/Iany of the farms near the Petitcodiac river, between Salisbury and RIoncton, have in addition to the upland, lots on the very productive marshes along the ri\.er, \vhere hay is grown cheaply and abundantly. The farmers in the vicinit!, of hloncton have a good market for their milk in the city, and to suppl>v this market they keep Holstein, Ayrshire, and Jersey cattle so as to provide milk with 4 to 4.5 per cent butterfat. ,A certain number of beef cattle are also raised, especially on farms with some marsh land. The farmers in the 3Ioncton district make advantageous use of co-operative marketing of hogs and cattle, many of them purchase fertilizers through their agricultural societies, and they operate credit union and buying clubs. In years when the prices for dairy products are favourable there is usually a marked increase in the acreages of fertilized pasture. Lime is used liberally on the Petitcodiac soils, and manure is often applied during the winter and then worked into the soil in the spring, or it may be used as a top dressing on the hay fields after the first couple of crops. Good response is normally obtained from the use of basic slag and superphosphate. A number of farmers use complete fertilizers, generally 2-12-6 mixtures for grain, turnips, and permanent pasture, and a 4-8-10 mixture for potatoes and mangels. AIany IveIl organized and well managed farms are located on the Petitcodiac soils, but a considerable number are in a less fortunate condition. *The soils are naturally fairly fertile, they are retentive with respect to plant nutrients, and they have a favourable structure for good root development, but if the humus runs low, they tend to lose that structure and to bake into hard, intractable lumps \vhen cultivated, and they also become more susceptible to erosion. In 52

order to prevent or correct such a soil condition, lime should be applied in proper amounts, and those farmers who have insufficient manure for all their fields would do well to plough down green-manuring crops. Erosion has taken place on some fields, most often in a mild form, and occasionally gullies have formed, but on the whole the land has not been damaged extensively. This relatively favourable condition is due to the prevalence of close-growing crops, such as hay and grain seeded to grass, but to prevent increased damage the adoption of such a simple measure as cultivation across the slope rather than up and down is recommended. This practice is particularly applicable to the long, gentle slopes leading down to the river banks. Drainage is a problem on the flatter land away from the river slopes - not on the Petitcodiac soils which are in themselves well drained, but on the associated ill-drained soils, which often break up a field into a pattern that is inconvenient for the use of machinery. The installation of tile drains or even an open ditch in such ill-drained depressions or strips would increase the value of the field. The farms which are handicapped by distance to markets and by snow-bound conditions in the winter are as rule, but with exceptions, less well farmed and less productive than those near the city, and some are ‘run out’, or abandoned. This condition is popularly ascribed to the adverse effects of their economic handicaps; but it should be remembered that the sound wav in which to lower the cost of production or offset increased costs of marketing is to increase the productivity of the land. To lower the cost of production by skimping on manure, fertilizers, and lime leads to impoverishment and degeneration of the soil. Increased productivity can be obtained economically only on suitable soils and the Petitcodiac series is definitely one of these. The yields on the ‘run out’ farms can be restored and increased by the addition of organic matter in the form of manure of as green-manuring crops, by the application of lime to lower the acidity, by the judicious use of fertilizers, and by carrying out a well planned rotation, Tillage practices should also be adjusted so as to prevent erosion and to maintain a favourable soil structure. SHEMOGUE ASSOCIATION The Shemogue soils are found in a roughly triangular area in Westmorland county near the Northumberland Strait, between Barachois on the west and Shemogue on the east. The topography is undulating lowland very similar to that of the Queens Association; the well drained land is confined to low ridges, knolls, and river bank slopes. The more level to depressional land usually has poor drainage. The parent material of the Shemogue soils is a mixture of two kinds of till, being composed partly of drift derived from grey sandstone of the Pennsylvanian, similar to that of the Queens soils, and partly from reddish, micaceous sandstone and shale, of the Permo-Carboniferous (cf. Tormentine Association). In a sense the Shemogue soils are simply a transition from the Queens Association on the west to the Tormentine Association on the east. Transition soils are very common in the contact areas between different associations, but usually they are not extensive and therefore are arbitrarily classed with the association to which they are most clearly related. In the present case, however, the area concerned is extensive enough and the characteristics of the transition soils distinct enough to warrant the establishment of a separate soil association. The parent material of the Shemogue soils is not of strictly uniform composition. In the western part of the area occupied by these soils the larger portion of it is Queens till, which gives wa)r to Tormentine till in the eastern part. Nevertheless the range of variation in composition is reasonable, and although the boundaries between the Queens, the Shemogue and the Tormentine associations are necessarily arbitrary- more so in some localities than in others-, they were established so as to bring out significant differences in soil characteristics. 53

The parent material is light reddish brown with a more or less intense brick red to orange red shade, the total colour effect being difficult to describe, but distinct and easily recognized in the field. The texture varies from a heavy loam to a clay loam. Structure is usually lacking, and the consistence is firm to compact. Some stones and pebbles, mostly from gre)’ and red sandstone, are embedded in the parent material. The reaction varies, between 5 q2 and 5 -8. It has been noted in several instances that the mixing of the two kinds of till which make up the parent material is not complete, so that gre!’ and red patches may alternate in the profile. The resulting color patterns have been observed in well drained soils and are definitely not the type of mottling that may be ascribed to poor drainage. Differences in the relief and the resulting drainage conditions in the area covered by the Shemogue association have brought about the development of two series or associates within the association; the well drained soils from the Shemogue series, while the ill-drained soils are members of the Kings series.

SHEMOGUE SERIES The Shemogue series covers approximately 20,800 acres between Barachois and Shemogue, extending some six miles inland from the shore of Northumber- land Strait. It occupies well drained relief positions, i.e. ridges and land sloping towards the drainage channels and the shore. Most of the series is in the B slope class. Surface boulders are scarce, but smaller stones are numerous both on the surface and in the body of the soil, although not in such amounts as to restrict the use of the land for agricultural purposes. The Shemogue series is to a large extent cleared and farmed, but wooded areas are not uncommon. Tree growth is generally young and consists largely of softwoods, spruce and fir, with mixtures of maple and yellow and grey birch. Two soil types have been mapped in the Shemogue series, namely, the loam and the sandy loam. In the vicinity of the shore it is not uncommon to find that the surface soil is a light sandy loam, relatively free from stones, and apparently laid down or reworked by water, while the subsoil is the typical Shemogue parent material. The depth of the sandJ7 topsoil is variable, ranging from a few inches to two feet within verv short distances. In a small area the sandy loam is quite gravelly. X description of the Shemogue loam as found under forest is as follows: Horizon Depth Description Ao Off- y Dark brown to black, fairly well decomposed organic matter derived from both deciduous and coniferous foliage. Matted with fine roots. pH 4.2. An 2”.- 6” Greyish white loam, structureless. This layer is fairly firm when dry, but it is very friable and easily reduced to a fine powder. A nurhber of roots penetrate this horizon. pH 4.4. I31 6”-12” Yellowish brown loam with an orange shade. This horizon is open, mellow, and has a fine granular structure. Some gravel and small medium-sized stones increase the porosity. Roots are quite numerous. pH 4.8. 131 12”-18” Dull red loarn of a shade strongly resembling the colour of the red component of the parent material. This layer is firm and also shows some granulation. Some gravel and stones of both grey and red sandstone. Some roots pass through this horizon. pH 5.2. C 18”f Dull reddish to reddish brown loam (to clay loam), showing some indication of horizontal layering. It is compact and structureless. Stones of both grey and red sandstone. (In many profiles this horizon has a patchy appearance due to incomplete mixing of the component parts of the parent material). pH 5.4.

The sandv 1oa1n as found on the higher elevations on the upland is similar to the loam with the exception of the texture of the surface soil. In lower positions near the shore it appears to have been re-worked by water to the extent that the upper part of the soil resembles a water-worked soil, containing few stones and having been sorted in some degree. The depth to which this modifi- 54 cation has been effected is variable, the observed limits being a few inches down to thirty inches, but no separation could be made on this basis, at the current scale of mapping, because the variations are frequent and occur within short distances. The cultivated surface soils of the Shemogue series are greyish brown, not unlike the Queens cultivated soils. They have a fair granular structure, and are reasonably loamy and friable when in good tilth. Agriculture The Shemogue soils are to a large extent cleared and used for general farming. With proper management they produce good crops of small grains, hay, roots, and the common vegetables. These soils have the advantage of Ijeing relatively easy to guard against erosion by simple management practices by reason of their relatively high capacity for absorbing precipitation and by reason of the moderate slopes that characterize the land. They also have a reasonably high level of fertility. Experience has shown that liming, manuring, and where necessary, the use of fertilizers keep the Shemogue soils in a fair state of productivity and will restore run-out fields, subject to the maintenance of a rational system of rotation. It has been a common practice for some years to spread lobster shells on the fields, thereby supplying lime. GenerallJT the amount of lime added in this manner is insufficient and could profitably be supplemented with ground limestone. However, if potatoes and strawberries arc to be grown, lime should be used sparingly. The loam is particularly useful for general farming; small grains and clover and ha\*, with small amounts of roots are grown and fed on the farm, and the main income comes from the sale of livestock products, such as milk, cream and butter. Side incomes are derived from the wood-lot, and in man]’ cases from fishing and work off the farm in connection with the lobster industry, which is established along the shore. On the sand)7 loam the crops require somewhat more generous fertilization, and it is especially important to ensure a good suppl! of organic matter in the soil by means of manure or green manuring crops. \2%en fish or fish refuse is spread on the fields the following crops often show a green, rank growth and a comparatively poor development of seed and roots. It I\-ould probably be better to compost the fish lvith manure, seaweed, or muck, acitling also some lime and superphosphate.

PAKKY ,~SSOCIATION ‘l’he Parry association is found in an irregular belt which extends from about South Branch on the No. 14 highway through Waterford, Jefferq’, Coverhill, towards Hampton Station. The topography in this area is strongly rolling to hill\., especially in the northeastern part, where elevations of more than a thousand feet are common on the hill tops, while the draws and depressions between the hills are frequently at the five hundred foot level. The slopes are therefore steep, and the relief appears ver\’ rough and broken. The rock from which the parent material of the Parry Association has been derivecl belongs to the Moncton group, undifferentiated, which has been mentioned in connection with the Salisbury association, but while in the latter the parent material is mixed till, in the present soils it seems to be largely free from foreign material, except locally. The Moncton group is not uniform in composition over the widely scattered districts in which it occurs, but in the belt of land under consideration the variation is not great. Here the rock consists largel)? of reddish brown to dark brown, coarse conglomerate, devoid of lime, although a limestone formation is found irregularly around the periphery of the area. The conglomerate appears to contain ver\r little or none of the sharp, arkosic grit, which characterized the same formation in the neighbourhood of Gently rolling topography, Parleeville soil series. The conglomerate bedrock is often exposed at the crest of the knolls.

Hilly topography. Lomond soil series. Caledonia Moun- tain. The scattered farms which occur in this area are used principally as grazing land.

Gently rolling topography, Steeves Mountain. Salis- bury soil series. These heavy textured soils must have sufficient slope to provide adequate surface run-off. Oats growing on River- bank soils series. Large acreages and the use of modern machinery make the growing of feed grain profitable.

Acadian dykelands. These productive soils are used for growing hay and grain.

Moderately rolling topography. Knightville soil series. Much of this area has been cleared but is now reverting to forest vegetation.

Hilly topography. Parry soil series. This type of land is too rough to permit cultivation and is only suited to forests.

Interval soils near Sussex. These soils are suitable for a wide variety of crops and are used to a great extent for market gardens.

Gently undulating topography. Tormentine soil series. Slight relief is common to most of the

Tormentine soils.

Dykeland soils with Tor- mentine soil series in the foreground. After the hay crop is removed the dykeland soils provide excellent fall grazing.

Moderately and strongly rolling topography. Par- leeville soil series. Although the topography is rough, large areas of these soils are cleared and cultivated. 55

Len-is mountain and sou thwestu-ard from there. Instead it abounds in rounded, igneous gravel, stones, and boulders, which have been inherited b!. the soil parent material. The latter is a reddish brown loam to clay loam, very ston)., compact and structureless. In most places it forms a thin layer between the soil body and the bedrock, occasionally it is missing, and only seldom is it of an\- considerable depth. With respect to the morphology of the soil itself the Parr\? association is not so far removed from the Salisbury association, but the factors governing its use, such as slope, relief, depth through the soil to the bedrock, etc., are so different that it was considered necessary to establish it as a separate soils association. Differences in drainage within the association have led to the development of two series; the well drained soils form the Parry series, lvhile the ill-drained soils are members of the Kings series.

P.UCKY SERIES The Parry series extends over some 101,000 acres. It is situated on the steep slopes and on the summits of the rolling to hill!- relief, which characterizes the association, and most of it is consequentlq- in the strong slope classes - C, D, and E. The natural drainage is good to excessive, and the run off kvould lead to strong erosion, if the land were cleared. Fortunately most of it is in forest ancl thereb!. protected against erosion as effectively as possible, but nevertheless a random traverse through the woods reveals a number of gullies, in which all the soil has been removed so that only coarse gravel, stones, and boulders remain, and in which tree roots hang suspended from the sides. The destruction wrought on cleared land is enormous. :Is mentioned above the parent rock appears to be of fairly uniform composition in the area under consideration here. Nevertheless there are some variations, especially with respect to colour and texture. Thus there are occasionally gr-cl- conglomerates with less coarse texture than usual, which have given rise to rel:itively light coloured and light textured soils, but these are not segregated locally, and they are of such small extent, that it was impractical to separate them at the current scale of mapping. There are also small acreages included \\.ith the Parry series, in which the topography is relatively smooth, and in which the soil profile does not strictly conform to the typical description of the Parr3 series. The modification of profile morphology is due to admixtures of foreign nlaterial to the drift, and its occurrence is limited to the zone of transition between the Parry and the Saltspring ;\ssociation. Differences in the texture of the surface soil within the series have led to the mapping of two types, namely, the loam (to sandy loam) and the sandy loam. ‘I’ht~ average profile of the former may be described as follows:

Hf)l.itO?Z Depth Description .Ll (y-.1 2III Dark brown to black organic matter mainly of coniferous origin, fairly well decomposed. ?7umerous fine roots. pH 3.8. A2 l;“,:” Greyish white sandy loam, strurtureless, with small amounts of rounded gravel, fairly firm. pH 4.2. Hi 41"-13"2 - Yellowish red loam, with slightly developed granular structur;tiTtr) consistency is firm, gravel and stones, mostly rounded, are numerous. Rs 12/‘-1X” Dark grey to light brown loam, structureless, compact. The layer contains numerous pebbles and stones of various sizes. Roots are present, and some pass into the C horizon. pH 5.2. (I: 18" T’ Light brown to reddish brown loam, structureless, compact, and difficult to dig because of largcx amounts of gravel and stones, which are firmly embedded. Depth of this horizon varies from a few inches to a few feet; occasionally it is absent. pH 5.2. The sand!, loam is essentiall!- similar to the preceding description of the . ~o,m~, excelIt the texture of the topsoil is lighter, and often the leached la\Ter is a 56 slightly deeper, and the colour of the B horizon has a somewhat brighter shade. ,A very small area, approximately 384 acres, has been mapped as a clay loam. The cultivated surface soils of the Parry series are grey brown, with moderately or poorly developed granular structure, moderately friable, and they have a coarse, gritty “feel”. Stones and coarse gravel are plentiful, unless they have been removed. Agriculture The possibilities of farming on the Parry series are very limited. Certain locations on the smoother ridges are being used in general farming, but in the main the Parry series is in forest by reason of its stoniness, its rough topograph!-, and the irregularity of the depth of the soil. The normal vegetation is largel>- coniferous-spruce and fir-, although maple and birch may be seen in mixed stands. ,A number of abandoned holdings and submarginal farms occur in the district. The abandoned farms were given up because the fertility was depleted by constant use or by erosion, and the submarginal farms are unproductive for the same reason. The safest and the only practical use of the Parry series is for forestry. or for permanent pasture on the more favourable relief. Continued cultivation is liable to lead to the severest forms of erosion and unproductivit!-. Those small areas that are suitable for farming and which are occupied are scattered and therefore not well served with roads.

KINGS SERIES The Kings series covers 283,870 acres in the map-area. It consists of ill- drained soils, which are geographically, associated with the following series: Queens, Harcourt, Dorchester, SalisburyT, Petitcodiac, Shemogue and Parr\-. As these series have developed on a number of different parent materials, -it would have been natural to expect a number of series of ill-drained soils to ha\-e formed, one for each kind of parent material. In a strictly pedological sense this has happened, and proper cognizance was taken of that fact in the field. However, because these ill-drained soils show similarit\- both in profile characteristics and in use potentialities it was decided to bring them together in the Kings series. The Kings series is usually formed on nearly- level or on depressional land; but it also occurs as seepage areas on the lower parts of many slopes. The degree of stoniness is variable in the Kings series, but is associated with relief and degree of erosion rather than with differences in the parent material. The Kings series is mostly wooded, the growth consisting chiefly of soft I\-oods--spruce and fir-, with small percentages of n-hite and grey birch, poplar, and cedar intermixed. The Kings series is divided into three types on the basis of the texture of the top soil. The ty-pes are the clay loam, the loam, and the sandy loam, of lvhich the loam is the t>-pe most commonly, encountered. It may be described as ioll0M.s: Horizon Depth Description -40 O”- 3” Dark brown to black layer of semi-decomposed organic matter consisting mainly of coniferous foliage, moss, few deciduous leaves. Fine roots form a mat through the layer. pH 3.84.0. -42 3”- 9” Greyish white loam with occasional yellow mottling. The layer is often structureless, but a certain development of a platy structure exists in a number of profiles. Usually quite moist and somewhat spongy, on drying the layer hardens, but is easily rubbed into a fine powder, small stones and gravel are usually present. pH 4.0-4.4. G (or B) 9”. 19” Dull reddish-brown or somewhat yellowish-brown loam, strongly mottled, and often with dark brown to black concretions. There is normally very little development of structure; the consistency is firm to compact. In many profiles the groundwater is present in this horizon throughout most or all of the year and the colour is then more nearly bluish-grey. Gravel and small stones are present. Roots are scarce in and below t,his horizon. pH 4.8-5.4. 57

C 19”$- Reddish brown to brown heavy loam to clay loam, structureless, and with a massive consistency. This layer is usually moist; on drying it becomes hard and mottled. Stones and pebbles are numerous and are firmly embedded in the matrix. pH 5.4-5.8. The above description has a number of variations, which is to be expected in view of the wide geographical distribution of the Kings series, and also because there is a considerable range in the drainage conditions, under which the series , has formed. The variations in the nature of the parent material have probably also contributed to the development of variations in the profile characteristics. Drainage conditions within the series are variable. The series contains soils whose profiles resemble the well drained series except that mdttling is present, and other soils which approach the swamp condition. Under these circumstances the depth of the A0 and the A2 horizons varies considerably. The -A0 horizon may varl- in thickness from 3” to 6” and the -42 layer from 3” to 9”. The AZ horizon is usually thinner in the clay loam than in the loam, and thicker in the sandy loam than in the loam.. The characteristics of the B or G horizon are very closely related to the drainage conditions. M’here the drainage is only impeded or slow a mottled reddish brown B horizon has formed, but where the profile is saturated, or nearly so, over long periods, a “glei” or G horizon has developed in place of the B. The “glei” layer is usually yellowish-grey if examined at a time when the moisture is at a minimum in the profile, but if at the time of examination the groundwater reaches up into the “glei” horizon, the latter is usually bluish-gre?. The cultivated surface soils of the Kings series are variable in colour; the less poorly drained ones are greyish-brown, and the very poorly drained ones are dark grey due to the presence of much semi-decomposed organic material. In cases where the organic matter has been burned off prior to breaking, the surface soil is grey and harsh and lumpy when dry. There is generally some development of granular structure in the less ill-drained cultivated surface soils, but the dark coloured ones more often puddle, and when they are tilled break up into coarse lumps, which bake and form a poor seed-bed.

Agriculture Only a small percentage of the area occupied b)T Kings soils is being used for agricultural purposes at present. The chief use to which the Kings soils may lend themselves outside of forestr)r is pasture, which if properly managed will maintain a green sod throughout the summer, but as it is wet in spring and fall, it is necessary to keep the cattle off during those periods to prevent damage to the sod. The Kings soils which have been drained and limed will produce very good hay crops, especially grasses. Grain can be grown for green feed, but it usually keeps growing too late in the season to mature well; it may also grow very tall and therefore be subject to lodging. The low, even relief of the Kings series is a safeguard against erosion; but on the other hand some silting often takes place after heavy rains, when fine soil material is removed by run-off water from surrounding hillsides. The drainage condition is the limiting factor in crop production on the soils of the Kings series. -\ wet soil and a heavy subsoil both militate against good root development. This fact may easily be verified by observing the man\’ \vindfalls in the woods where such soils are found. The roots will be seen to Ijenetrate only to the depth of the clay subsoil or the prevailing upper limit of the groundwater table. Then theJ7 spread out to form a horizontal mat without good anchorage. A strong wind will blow such a tree o\ver, and the roots will be clragged out of the ground at the same time, together with the thin mantle of . soil resting on them. If a soil of the Kings series is to be used in profitable crop production, it must first be drained either by open ditches or tiles. The expense 58 involved is generally- justified only if the land is in a strategic position near the farm buildings, or if it divides a field so that the use of machinery is restricted or difficult. i&lost of the area covered by- Kings soils is in forest, which consists mainly of spruce and fir, with smaller percentages of white birch, poplar, and alder. The trees are often stunted in growth, and their small size makes them suitable for pulpwood or pit props only..

TOK~VIENTINE Assoc~~~~~os The Tormentine Association is found on the Tormentine Peninsula east of a line running irregularly from Shemogue to Aboushagen and then south to Sack- ville. The land occupied by these soils is undulating or gently undulating lowland and slopes both to the Northumberland Strait on the north and to the Baie L’erte on the south, but the gradient is so small that a large part of the area is poorly drained. On the northern shore the slope generally terminates in low cliffs near the water’s edge, while the Baie L’erte shore slopes very gently under the sea. The parent material is glacial drift that has been derived from rocks of the same mineralogical nature as the underlyving bedrock, which is red, micaceous, slightly. calcareous, fine-g-rained sandstone and some shale of Permo-Carboni- ferous (?) age; it is soft and easily weathered. Locally? the bedrock is grey, changing to red within short distances; but the variation in colour does not seem to be associated with any essential differences in composition and is variable only, in the rock; the drift is always typically7 red. .Although the drift is not thick, it effectiveI!, covers practically all of the area, in which it prevails, and shallo\b- soils (depth to bedrock less than three feet) are uncommon, thus con- trasting with those developed on drift derived from grey Pennsylvanian sandstone, xj\-hich is harder and weathers comparatively- slowly7 (cf. Queens association). The red drift is relatively free from boulders and stones, and in many places it has the appearance of having formed in situ or of having been re-worked by water. It is true that there has been some re-lvorking near the shore, but in the inland districts the soils owe their uniform texture and low stone content to the constant composition of the drift and to the homogeneity and easy- weathering of the rock from lvhich it u-as derived. The parent material of the Tormentine association is red to light reddish brown of a distinctive shade. This colour is retained in the upper part of the soil, below the leached horizon, and it persists also in the cultivated soil. It has caused the association to be known as the ‘red soils’ of Prince Edward Island and the opposite parts of New Brunswick and Sova Scotia. The parent material is in places fairly heavy, but often the texture is lighter than it appears to be, because small particles of mica, which lend sparkle to both the bedrock and the soil, give the soil a certain smooth ‘feel’. It is quite common to find accumula- t ions of small mica flakes in ditches, mrhere they7 have been deposited by drainage \\Tater. As a rule the parent material is not particularly compact, and roots have often been observed at a depth of three feet or more. The widespread ill- drained condition in the Tormentine ilssociation is to be ascribed to slow lateral drainage rather than to difficulties in percolation; the soils have a high porosity and the large amounts of precipitation that enter the soil serve to raise the water-table, which is reduced only slowly by drainage and must be lowered partly t)~r surface evaporation. The low slopes and the porosity of the soil keep erosion at negligible proportions under the present forms of management, which favour the growing of hay7 and small grains on the lvell-drained soils, while under ill- tlrained conditions the land is largely- in forest. 59

‘T\\-o soil series have been mapped lvithin the Tormentine association. These are the well-drained Tormentine series and the ill-drained Tidnish series. The transition between them is not sharp, because both series are quite moist under field conditions, especially in J-ears of high precipitation, and mottling is often obscured by the residual colour of the soil. The distinction between the series (luring the mapping ma\- therefore have been somewhat arbitrar!..

The ‘l‘ormentine series has an extent of some 56,100 acres. It is found throughout the area occuljied b\- the association, but onl~v in the eastern half of the Tormentine peninsula does it occur in fairly large continuous tracts of land. ‘I’he series is characterized b\l relativel)- good drainage and is therefore limited to low ridges, knolls, and slopes; but noivhere is the relief more than undulating. 1lost of this series is cleared. Those areas that are still in forest produce mostly coniferous stands composed of spruce and fir, but occasionally the growth is miscd, containing small percentages of maple, birch, and poplar. The Tormen- tine soils are relativeI>- free from stones, and it is ver1. seldom that large stone piles or stone fences are seen on them. The soil itself-is typically red, usually a 1oa1n to sand\~ loam, containing little gravel and few stones, yet open, well aerated, and forming a suitable medium for good root development. The slightI\- calcareous nature of the parent rock has apparentl\- had little influence on the d(~velopment of the soil, lvhich is strong-l\- leached. I’resumabl~~ the original, small content of lime \~as removed from the soft, non-resistant sandstone during the decomposition of the bedrock and later in the early stages of soil formation. The Icached la>ver usuall>. has a depth of three to six inches, and is often followed 1)~. a thinner -43 horizon, \vhich is in some respects intermediate betM.een the lc*;lched an(1 enriched horizons. The deI)osition of the usual rust-coloured or reddish co~npou~lds in the H horizon is somc\vhat obscured from visual observation I)!- t hc original red colour, but is no less actual. The C horizon, or parent material, is generAli- not heavier than a loam (to clal- loam), but it shows some degree of textural va;iation, \I-hich ma\. occasionall!- be obser\ cd in the same profile. III such cases a certain thickness of loam or cla!. loam may be folio\\-ed 1~). a Sandy- loam, or vice \‘crsii. A-ls a rule the C horizon is firm and even someM-hat compact at times, J-et it breaks up easily. into small Itimps, and observations indicate that roots penetrate easil!. to a depth of at least three feet. \j7ater also l)crcolatcs lvithout much difficult\-, n-here the lateral drainage is satisfactor?.. ‘I’lvo soil types have been recognized and mapped in the Tormentine series, name]\>, the loam and the sand>- laom. The sand\- loam appears in a water- nxxked phase near the shore, Lvhere the topsoil has apparently at some time been re-worked.

The Tormentine loam ma!. ber described as follo\vs: 11(l1.l:011DC pth Dewription -4 0 ()“- 1 i” I)ark 1)rown to black organic matter, rleri~ctl chiefly from coniferous foliage. I7ppcbr part shows nccdlc structure,, Lowe part is black and amorphous. Small roots are numerous. pH 4.0. -4 L 1;“-45” (;rq-ish white sandy loam, structureless or somewhat platy, friable and easily rc~ducc~tl to a powder. C’ontains somr small fragments of fine-grained sandstone, grvy on the surfacra, Ijut brownish red in thr canter. Many roots. pH 4.2. -4 , 41,’? -- 0 II Y’cllowish or brownish grey. hc>avy sandy loam, otherwise similar to AS in morphology. pH 4.2. HI 6”. 13” >-ellowish brown to ycallowish red loam, quite well developed granular structure. ‘1%~ layer is oprn and ~~11 aerated. Few stones and pebbles. Good root dv\-elopmcnt . pH 5.0. 1% 13”. 20” Roddish lbrown loam (to clay loam). Quite well developed granular structure. The laycv ig open and well aerated. Few stones and pebbles. Good root dcvclopmc9t. pH 5.3. ( ‘1 2()“- 26” Light reddish ljrown clay loam to loam, rat her compact, yet porous and somewhat lumpy. ;\ numbclr of soft grey sandstoncl prl)blrs and brittle reddish brown .ihwlrd frwgmc~nt. pH 5.4. 60

Reddish brown to red sandy loam, structureless, compact. Some grey and a number of reddish brown sandstone and shale fragments. Lenses of red clay. Some roots penetrate into this layer. pH 5.4. The sandy loam differs from the preceding description b,- its lighter texture throughout the profile and by somewhat deeper leaching. The re-worked phase is found in some places near the shore; the water-worked topsoil ranges between ten and fifteen inches in thickness, but it is often dificult to distinguish from the till soil underneath because of the similar-it>- in texture and lack of stones. The cultivated surface soils of the Tormentine series are reddish brown and usualI\ have a fair to good granular structure; the\- are loam!., friable and open soils. Agriculture 11 large proportion of the Tormentine series is under cultivation and is being used in mixed or dairy- farming for the production of hay, small grains, roots, etc. The farms are small, having an average of some fifty acres of improved land and sevent>-. acres in woods, natural pasture, etc. Some farmers, especiallJ7 in the Port Elgm and Shemogue districts, raise beef cattle, while others derive an additional income from the sale of turkey-s, geese, and ducks. A number of farmers in the shore districts are also engaged in fishing; lobster fishing and canning have become an important industry- along the Northumberland Strait. 1,umbering is not of great importance, as the stands have been depleted b>- previous cutting, and the J-ield is now limited to pulpn*ood and pit props. The Tormentine soils are well suited for the production of all common farm crops and the >-ields are in large measure dependent on the management. The soil is easily- worked; it is mellow and large117 free from stones, and the topograph); offers no difficulty in the use of machiner).. The soil is also deep, thus permitting plants to develop good root s)-stems, and the productivity is fairly high. It is therefore not uncommon to see fields with excellent crops of hay, clover, oats, barley, roots, and vegetables, and these crops remain green and maintain their rate of growth even during a dry summer. On the other hand there are fields which produce poor hay and small crops of grain and in general appear to be run-out. The differences between the productive and the unproductive fields are due largel>r to differences in management. The Tormentine soils need manure to maintain the organic matter supply and lime to reduce the natural acidity. The use of fertilizers also shows good response. One frequent problem in connection with these soils is caused by their relatively flat relief, lvhich on the one hand facilitates the field work, but on the other hand fails to provide satisfactory internal drainage with the result that the water-table is often too high for good plant growth during the earl>7 summer. Improved drainage conditions, brought about either by tile drainage or a system of open ditches, would considerabl\- increase the productivity of large acreages of the Tormentine series. Judging f rom observations of the growth of vegetables on the soils of this series it seems probable that the production of truck crops and canning crops might be successful, if the soil were properly prepared, but most fields would require better drainage, heavy manuring, and correction of the acidity, as well as fertilization to suit the requirements of individual crops.

.\ULXC ;ISSOCIATIOS The Aulac association is confined to the Fort Cumberland and the Jolicure ridges near the Nova Scotia boundar\r and to small scattered areas immediately north of the Tantramar marshes. The relief is predominantly undulating, the only strong slopes being around the peripheries of the ridges mentioned above. The parent material of the Aulac association is heterogeneous. Part of it, and possibly the larger proportion, is derived from underlyjng grey, quartzose sandstone and pebble conglomerate, Lvhich is apparentl\- similar in mineralogical composition to a certain horizon in the Petitcodiac formation of rocks (cf. Crossman association). Another part is derived from the soft, red, micaceous sandstone that forms the bedrock in the Tormentine district (cf. Tormentine association). The latter kind of till has probably been pushed onto the grey till and been mixed with it by glacial action. The outcome of soil formation on this mixed parent material is a soil association of distinctive characteristic. The profiles have a peculiar reddish sheen, especially in the C horizon, and they are rather coarse textured, containing considerable gravel, which apparently derived from the grey component of the till. The soils are quite ston\- and outcrops of grey, c.oarse-textured bedrock are common. The well drained soils of the association form the ;L&K series, while the ill-drained soils are members of the Tidnish series.

The .4ulac series covers 5,250 acres. It is found in the western part of the E‘ort Cumb er 1an d rl‘d ge, on the Jolicure ridge, and at scattered points north of the Tantramar marshes, at elevations of 25 feet to 75 feet above the adjoining marsh ;Ireas. The slope of the land is commonly less than, but near 7+ per cent; where the ridges drop ofl to the marsh it is steeper. However, the slopes are not e\-en; they are frequentl>- broken by low knolls and swales, which may be caused t)\r a corresponding unevenness of the subsurface bedrock or they may be of morainic origin. The soils of the ,$ulac series are ston!?, and outcrops of bedrock at-e frequently seen. In other instances draughty spots in the fields indicate that the soil is shallow o\-er the bedrock. OnI\- one soil t>Tpe has been mapped in this series, namel>T the Aulac sandq loam. 1t may be described as follows: Horizon L)cpth Description -10 O”- r))l Dark brown to black organic matter derived from coniferous needles, fairly ~~11 decomposed, amorphous. pH 4.0. -12 -c)tt- 5” Greyish white sandy loam, often structureless, sometimes with slight platy structure. Friable to powdery. pH 4.4. 131 5”-yy’ ~~ellowish brown to yellowish red sandy loam, structureless or with poorly devcl- opcbd granular structure. Stones of grey sandstone are common, together with pebbles from grey conglomerate. A number of roots. pH 4.8-5-O. 13? 13”-“1” Light reddish brown sandy loam, with little to fair development of granular structure. Many small and large stones and rounded pebbles. This layer is open, well aerated. The roots are well developed, many passing into C horizon. pH 5.4-5.6. c 21”t 1,ight greyish brown to reddish brown sandy loam, structureless, firm to compact, with numerous pebbles, small fragments of grey and red sandstone, and larger St ones. pH 5.6. The cultivated surface soils of the Aulac series are light to medium grey- g i-own ; they generall>- have moderately developed granular structure, and are quite friable; theJ. are somewhat gritty and usually stony and gravelly. Agriculture A considerable percentage of the Aulac series is cleared. The tree growth on those areas that are still wooded, is almost solely coniferous, generally spruce. Farming is of a mixed tl.pe and is in a more prosperous condition than would seem warranted by the qualit> of the soil, which is not particularly productive. The explanation lies in the fact that while the farms are located on the upland, nlany of them also have lots on the very productive Tantramar marsh, where the hay \-ields are high and where excellent pasture for beef cattle is afforded along the \vide creek banks. The upland is therefore used more or less as an adjunct to the marsh. The ,Aulac series will produce good crops of clover hay and small grains, if the organic matter is increased, the acidity reduced by liming, and fertilizer applied. ‘Il:ithout such management the quality and the quantity of the crops will quickl!. fall off. Many areas of variable size are also subject to 62 drought, because the soil is shallow over the bedrock and therefore loses its * moisture readily. In view of the fact that the marsh provides a large amount of the ha?- which is used on the upland farms, it would seem that the productivit>- of the Aulac series could be economically increased to a higher level than that \vhich prevails at present.

TIUNISH SEKIES ‘The Tidnish series covers some 97,700 acres within the general area occupied lq- the Tormentine and ;1ulac associations. It is found on depressional to level and also OII gently sloping land, where the drainage is impeded and the water- table is high during part or most of the year. Most of the series is wooded, the cover consisting mostly of Jyoung stands of black and white spruce and fir. The degree to which the soils are ill-drained varies somewhat, depending in a great measure on the relief. In a very poorly drained condition the soil may have five or six inches of partly decomposed organic matter over a thick leached horizon, and the lower laJ-ers are strongl\- mottled and saturated with lvater. On the other hand there are profiles which in point of morphology are not far removed from the well drained Tormentine soils, and lvhich were classified somewhat iarbitrarily. The morphology- of the Tidnish series very strongly reflects the nature of the original parent material. This is particularly evident in the uni- formity of the texture between profiles as well as within individual profiles and in the distinctive reddish colour of the soil below the leached layer. Where the series is in close geographical association with the ‘I‘ormentine series stones and gra\Tcl are relatively scarce both at the surface and in the body of the soil, but where the series is more closely associated lvith the :1ulac series it is usuall>- quite ston!- and gravelI>.. ‘1’1~0 soil types have been mapped within the Tidnish series. They are the loam and the sandy loam, of which the former may be described as follon-s: Dcwl/)tzo?l Dark brown to black semi-decomposed organic matter derived almost cxclusivvly front coniferous vegetation. Fine roots arc thickly interwoven. pH 4.0. (irevish white loam, structurrlf~as, firm, vt.r’J. nioist. It has a somewhat chcccv- like or spongy consistence. pH 4.4. Light \)rownish grey loam, with :I somewhat platy structure. J7(ary few small stonc>.s and prbblvs. pH 4.4. Reddish brown loam, with granular structure. There is some mottling, which is rat h(Lr difficult to distinguish. tiome roots in this layer. Stones and gra\-el art’ hcarcc. pH 4.8. Rrtldish brown loam, paler than B1, structureless, firm to compact and strongly mottled. (‘ontains some rcvl and grey sandstone fragments and p&hles. Roots itr(’ not seen. pH5 4. Reddish brown loam, struvturelvss, compact, slightly mottled. Red and grq btones and pebbles. pH 5.6. Greyish brown sandy loam, structurvlrss and conlpact. Red and grey fragments of sandstone and shale, both rounded and angular. pH 5.G. (This luyrr is not always present .) The morphology of the sandy loam varies from the preceding description chiefly in point of texture of the topsoil, but usually the leached A? horizon is also somelvhat deeper than in the loam. The A3 hoiizon is a distinctive feature of the Tidnish series, as it is also of the Tormentine series. Chemical analJTses indicate that this horizon, which has been observed in only a few series in southeastern &New Bruns\vick, is intermediate between the A and the I3 horizons, but closer to the former, particularly in the percentage content of silica and sesquioxides. The ;13 horizon is not present in all profiles of the Tidnish series. The cultivated surface soils of the Tidnish series are grey-brown to black according to the content of the semi-decomposed organic matter; the structure is often single-grained, or it may be coarse, lumpy. Considerable improvement in structure and friabilit\- usually accompanies artificial drainage. 6.3

Agrii-ulture Only small areas of the Tidnish series are under cultivation, and then the\- visually form a close pattern with soils of the Tormentine or &Aulac series. The ‘I‘idnish soils are not infertile, but their ill-drained condition makes them unproductive. While it is not generally feasible to drain any appreciably large areas of them it would probabl\r pay to improve the drainage, where the)7 occur as small areas in otherwise well-drained fields. Certain areas have been included in the Tidnish series on the soils map, in which the drainage was not strongly impeded, but poor enough to cause some mottling and discoloration in the I)rofile and to limit the use of the land; but those areas might become good all- ijurpose farm land, if the>. were artificialI\, drained.

The Queenville association extends, with local interruptions, in an irregular belt from near Havelock, southwestwards through white Mountain and Mount Hebron to No. 9 highwa). near Sussex. The topograph)r characterizing this association may be termed strongly undulating to strongly rolling upland. The elevation varies between 250 feet and 750 feet. Near Havelock the elevation seldom exceeds 500 feet and the slopes are long and moderate, but in the south- Ivestern part of the belt the land is higher and the slopes are shorter and steeper. The parent rock of this association has been classified geologically. as the ~loncton group, unt3iffere17tiated, but it differs in composition from the rocks of the s;me group described in connection with the Parrl\. and the Salisbury ;lssoc-iat ion. it consists of reddish feldspathic grit, coarse conglomerate, and sandsto~w and shale. The sandstone and shale are not much in evidence, and thth conglomerate is not nearl\. so coarse or hard as that of the above named :i5soci;tt ion. The bedrock is quite frequen tl>- seen as outcrops at the roadsides. I t is a recltlish, sharp-grained material, resembling compacted, cross-bedded gravel, am1 as it is soft enough to be broken down with a pick even in the‘ fresh, consolidated state, the outcrops are freyuentl). opened up as gravel pits in c‘onnec‘tion with road maintenance. The parent material of the Queenville association is a glacial till derived from this rock, and it has retained manJ- of the characteristics of the latter. It is a reddish sand!. loam to loam with a tlistinctive grittiness imparted b\v the sharp-angled sand and gravel. It is ~lsually firm but seldom so compact as to interfere with the percolation of water. IVnless the soil is in good tilth it is likely to be drought>-, especially on strongly slol)ing land. The Queenville association is not vcr>T ston)., and as a rule the gr:i\-el and stones found in it are derived from the parent rock. There seems to ha\-e been onl~~ slight intermingling of foreign till excelIt in the transition zones. l>ifferences in relief positions and in the resulting drainage conditions have resulted in the development of two series within the association. The well drained soils form the Quecnville series, n.hile the ill-drained soils are members of t tie Ike series.

The Queenville series c‘ovet-s some 42,000 acres in the general area occupied 1)1 the association. It is found on the higher land, on knolls, and on slopes, \\‘here the internal lateral drainage is not obstructed. The slope is mostly in the i5 ancl (‘ classes, and therefore provides ample externaldrainage, but as the soil is \rer>- open, a large part of the precipitation is absorbed, and in relation to the (legt-ee of slope comparatively- little escapes as run-off. Erosion is nevertheless Iloticeable in fields that are not protected b>. good management practices. Stoniness is not an obstacle to the use of the land, but locall\ the soils ma>- be ~hnllo\v over the bedrock. The Queenville soils arc t>$cal light-textured 64 poclsol soils; the leached la>-er is four or five inches thick, and the B horizon is highly coloured by the accumulation of sesquioxides. \Vhen the B horizon is moist it has normally a deep rusty red colour, which in the dry condition assumes a distinctive orange yellow shade, which may be observed on the sides of road ditches during the summer months. This colour shade and the strong grittiness of the soil, together with the red colour of the parent material facilitates the identification of these soils. The Queenville series comprises two soil t\-pes, the sandy loam and the light sandy loam. The former is not widespread and occurs chiefly in transition zones, where there has been some admixture of heavier till. The light sandy loam is much more common and may be described as follon-s:

Horizon Depth Description A0 ()“- Y Dark brown to black well decomposed organic matter derived from mixed foliage (birch, maple, spruce, some beech) with a covering of undecomposed leaves. Numerous roots. pH 4.0. AZ 2”- 6” Greyish white, light Bandy loam, structureless to slightly platy, very friable and flour-lik;H 4C;ntams numerous very small stones and pebbles. Numerous roots . . . B1 6”-13” Deep red to reddish brown light sandy loam structureless, gritty, open. Very small stones or coarse pebbles are abundant. Roots are numerous. pH 5.0. B, 13”-22” Reddish brown sandy loam, the “sesquioxide” colour giving way to the darker red of the parent material. The layer is structureless, open, becoming firm with depth, but not compact. Small stones and pebbles are numerous. Roots show good development, but are less numerous than in the B,. pH 5.2. C 22”$ Reddish to reddish brown sandy loam to loam, structureless. but compact and difficult to dig because of many small stones and pebbles. The change in texture from the B to the C horizon is quite noticeable as is also the change in consistency. A small number of roots may be seen in the C horizon. The whole profile is distinguished by the grittiness of the sand fraction. pH 5.2. The Queenville sand)7 loam has more body than the light sand!. loam; the \1,hole profile is somewhat heavier in texture, and the red colour of both the B and the (‘ horizons is somewhat deeper and darker. .-I gravelly sand), loam has also been mapped. --ls the name implies it contains more than normal amounts of gravel; it is therefore a very open and dry soil. The cultivated surface soils of the Queenville series are light grey-brown, and under average farming conditions they are generally single-grained or slightly granular, \li;ith a very gritt)r “feel”. They are therefore apt to be loose and dq during the growing season; but when sufficient organic matter is added both the structure and the moisture-holding capacit), are greatI!- improved, and the soil fakes on a darker colour and becomes fairly “loam!-“. ,4 grit-ulture The Queenville soil series has been cleared rather extensiveI>-, but there are still large areas under forest. The tendency is awa>- from further land clearing ‘and considerable acreages are reverting to forest. The natural grou-th appears to be mixed; most Jyoung stands are composed chiefI>, of maple, I-ellou- and white birch, spruce, and occasionally beech. So old stands have been observed. ‘I-he Queenville soils are not well suited for agriculture, at least in the form of general farming, which is widely. followed regardless of soil types. Especially on the light sandy loam it leads to the establishment of an unfortunate downward spiral: small crops, little home-grown feed, small herds, little cash income, little manure and small fertilizer and lime applications, still smaller crops and herds. The process ma)- be dela\~ed b). good management and farming skill, but the natural tendency is towards impoverishment of the soil and lowered farm incomes. Holvcver, observations indicate that farming ma)’ be successful on the Queenville soils and that their productivit\- may be built up, if the?7 can be supplied econo- micall\- with adequate amounts of organic matter, fertilizer, and lime. The best method appears to be the growing of some cash crol) or crops and gradually 65 increasing the livestock. The proceeds from the cash crops may be used partly for the purchase of fertilizer and lime. -A small application of the latter will reduce the acidity of the soil sufficiently for the growing of a good clover crop, the aftermath of which may be ploughed under to supplement the manure which is used up quickly in the Queenville soils. The rotation should be completed in four years; third-Jrear hay is usually poor. Productive fields, managed on those principles have produced from 40 to 75 bushels of high-quality oats per acre, the yield depending on the precipitation.

DEE SERIES The Dee series covers approximately 7,600 acres. It is found in ill-drained channels and depressional areas in the strongly undulating to rolling upland occupied by the Queenville association. Due to the relief positions of this series the surface run-off is very limited, and the lateral underground drainage, which has to take care both of the precipitation and a large amount of sub-surface water from higher elevations, is necessarily slow. The soils that have developed are strongly leached. The series is almost exclusively in forest, which consists primarily of black spruce, grey and white birch, poplar, and alders. Only one soil t)rpe, the Dee light sandy loam, has been mapped; a typical profile may be described as follows:

Horizon Depth Description

A0 O”- 2” A thin layer of undecomposed needles resting on black partly to well-decomposed, amorphous organic matter, with a mat of fine roots. pH 3.8. AZ 2”- 911 Ashy-grey fine sandy loam, moist and cohesive, but structureless. Hardens somewhat on drying, but is easily reducible to a fine gritty powder. Very small stones and pebbles are numerous. pH 4.0. B Off-20” Rusty to dull reddish brown sandy loam. In some profiles the upper inch or two is dark reddish brown and firmly cemented into lumps, seldom in a continuous layer. It is very gritty and contains many small stones and pebbles. Light and dark mottling is prominent. Roots are fairly numerous. Groundwater is sometimes encountered near the bottom of the horizon. pH 5-O-5.2. C 20"1 Rrtldish brown heavy sandy loam, structureless, compact, with many small stones and gravel. Some mottling may be observed. Groundwater is present in many profiles. pH 5.4-5.6. The preceding description is of an average profile; there are small deviations from it according to the degree in which the drainage has been impeded. On one hand the Dee soil approaches the Queenville series in point of description, and on the other it becomes increasingly more poorly drained, the A horizon getting thicker and a “Glei” layer forming in place of the B horizon. Agriculture i’ery little of the Dee series is used for farming purposes. Those small areas that are not in forest are in permanent pasture or hay meadow, but the soil is ill-suited even for this purpose, and the herbage is of a coarse quality. -1rtificial drainage should not be contemplated. The subsoil is sufficiently porous to provide drainage, where this is physically possible, and an ill-drained condition in a soil of the Queenville association general157 indicates that the soil area is situated over a basin or a depression formed b\y bedrock or by a deposit of cornpac-t till.

AANAGANCIS ,~SSOCIXTIOX The Anagance Association occupies the long ridge west of Highway No. 2, lIeginning at Alount Pisgah north of Sussex and terminating some two miles west of Petitcodiac. It also occupies the high land east of the highway, beginning, immediatly north of Piccadilly mountain and terminating near Hayward Brook, northeast of Anagance village. The elevation of these ridges rarely exceeds 750 feet and is often lo\ver; the tops of the ridges have an undulating relief, but the sides are long and frequentl!. very steep, creating the appearance of a very rough 66 topograph\y. .Actuall!- the ridges are smooth and rounded. The bedrock I\-hich underlies this land belongs to the Petitcodiac group. It consists of ,greenish gre!. and gre!., quartzose sandstone and pebble conglomerate, which is comparativel! casil\- jveathered into a yellowish gre>- to grelr-brown ver\r sand>. material, which 10~~11~.contains considerable gravel. (Xacial action does not seem to have caused an!. significant modifications of this material nor to have introduced foreign material. On the contrary., the soils :u-e so uniform in texture from the surface to the parent material that the}, appear as if they had formed in situ or when onI\ the topsoil is observed, as if the]’ had been water-worked and sorted. The original vegetation on the ,Anagance .Association has all been removed by cutting or b> burning. The new growth varies from one localit>- to another, but jack pine and spruce predominate. White birch and some maple form much smaller percentages. The Anagance Association comprises t\vo series, the well drained A-Inagance series and the ill-drained Dunsinane series.

The .-\nagance series occupies 52,600 acres. 1t is found on the slopes and tops of the ridges and elevated land mentioned .in connection with the association. The drainage is good to excessive, which is due not so much to run-off as to the high rate of percolation through the soil deepI>- into the parent material, so that vet-). little moisture is retained in the upper horizons. I’et, judging from the size of deca>-ing stumps, the growth of trees ~-odd appear to have been large in former times, before the destruction of the forest. The present stands are all \‘oun~. In some localities there is a mixed growth: in others the onI\- trees to be seen are jack pine and spruce, with a luxuriant undergrowth of blueberr\- bushes and other hardy shrubs. Herbaceous plants are scarce.

Ihrk brown to lhwk organic* matter, dry. but appawntly dwomposing rapidly ah judgctl from t hcb transit ion from nwdlcs and lcavw to amorphous material. pH 4.2. Greyish wbitr fiw santl, st rwtuwlrss, opcw. Vfar\- little gravel, no stows. Some root R. pH 4.3. Light gwyish brown to yrllowish t)rown loamy sand, strwturelcss, open. Little gmvel, no stones. Some roots. pH 4.4. Yclllowish red, or orange, finch sandy loam, strwtuwlws, open. Ai little gravel, vwy few small stows. pH 4.6. kV-t~llow (slightly orange) loamy sand, strwturcless, opcbn. A little gravel, and fiat fragmtwts of greyish-green sandstonr. pH 5.4. (;rcyish yellow, rather w~a.rse sand, structurclcss, open. Some gravel and numw ous flat sandstonc fragments. Many roots. pH 5.0. ~~~~lloG31~ grchy fine loamy sand, strwtureless, firm but in no way cementrd; open, poroub. (:rwvcG and very many flat santlstone fragments. Sonw roots. ’ pH 5 0. The cultivated surface soils of the --Inagance series are grel- to light grelr- l)ro\vn, light-textured, and with medium to poor granular structure or single- grained. Their moisture-holding cap&it\7 is usuall). not satisfactor\., but it is improved, along with the structure, \\rhen the organic-matter supplq~ is increased and the soil is kept in good tilth. The foregoing description applies to the modified .\nagance soils formed at lower elevations, \vhere some si I ting has occurred. The t !-I)ical ,Anagance soils are not cultivated. Agriculture The ,Anagance series is unsuited for agricultural use. except in a veq- few strictly. limited localities at relativel>- low ele\rations, u-here the soil is some\vhat heavier than usual due tb silting out of fine material carried down from higher land, and Lvhere the moisture content is somewhat higher than normal. I-nder --

67 or

The Dunsinane series covers 8,600 acres. It is associated with the ALInagance and the (‘rossman series. It is of small extent as compared with that of the well drained associated series. The explanation lies in the fact that by far the greater part of the rinagance and Crossman associations is found at elevations where the water-table is constantI\. lowered 1,). vertical and lateral drainage, even on flat land, due to the exceptional porosity and low water-holding capacit), of the soil and its sub-strata to a considerable depth. The Dunsinane series therefore occurs in long narro\f- draws and channels, where much water is received from higher elevations, ant1 where the sub-stratum is bedrock of compact drift. Two tlrpes, the light sandy loam and the loam>. sand have been mapped; the light sand17 loam ma>- be described as follows:

Horiton Ikpth Description A 0 ()"- 3" Dark brown to black semi-decomposed organic matter. Structure of twigs and leaves is discernible in upper part; lower part is amorphous. Fibrous, tough roots of grasses, sedges, and shrubs form a close mat. pH 3.8. A2 2”-10” Iipper two inches quite dark grey, light sandy loam. Appears to contain certain amounts of infiltrated, dark organic matter. Lower six inches greyish white sandy loam, with yellow concretions and streaks, chiefly along root channels; structureless. Some gravel and small stones present. pH 4.2. Bl lO”-14” Brown sandy loam, structureless, mottled with dark brown discolorations forming horizontal bands. Contains pebbles and stones, also a number of dead roots and fibrous living roots. Groundwater appears in this horizon. pH 5.2. Hz 14f’-21” Ochrra-coloured to yellow sa.ndy loam, with fewer concretions, but some mottling. Firm, structureless. Contains gravel and stones. pH 5.4. c 21” t

CROSSMAN &SOCCATION ‘l-he C’rossman Association forms a belt running in a northeasterly direction along the northwestern edge of the southern upland, from near Elgin almost to the Petitcodiac river in the vicinity of Weldon Station and Stony Creek. It is also found in scattered localities east of the Petitcodiac and Memramcook rivers. The relief which characterizes the association may be described as rolling to hilly lowland, but there is considerable diversity, as the land actually forms a zone of transition from the undulating lowland of the Petitcodiac association in the north to the southern upland along the Ray of Fundy. The average elevation is probably 400 to 600 feet, but the range is from about 250 to 1,000 feet. Drainage is provided by a number of north-flowing streams with transverse tributaries. The valleys formed by the streams are narrow, with short, rather 68 abrupt slopes; the intervening ridges and uplands are well drained; rock outcrops are seldom seen, but the soils are stonv. The Crossman ,&sociation is largely wooded; the stands are often mixed, being composed of spruce, jack pine, greJ7 and white birch, maple, poplar, etc., with a very luxuriant undergrowth of shrubs, lambkill, sweet fern, blueberries and rhodora. The parent material of the Crossman Association is glacial till derived from grey and greenish grey quartzose sandstone and pebble conglomerate of the Petitcodiac group, which also provided the parent material of the Anagance soils; but in the Crossman L&sociation the parent material is heavier, more compact, and locally it contains small amounts of foreign material. The soils are well developed podsols ivith a distinct J.ellow colour in the I3 horizon, which is very noticeable in new road cuts. Two series have been mapped in this association; the well drained soil forms the Crossman series, while the ill-drained soils are members of the Dun- sinane series.

CR0SSM.W SERIl the relief, and as the internal drainage is rapid, the soils tend to become droughty, unless a good forest cover is maintained. Stones are seen only in moderate amounts on the surface, but the body of the soil is very stony and quite often gravelly. The Crossman series contains two types, the sandy loam and the light sandy loam. The sandy loam is actually a transition type between the Crossman and the Dorchester series, but for practical purposes it may be classed with the former. The light sandy loam may be described as follows:

Horizon Depth Description A0 (y’- 1” Dark brown to black organic matter, showing the structure of deciduous foliage on top, grading into well decomposed, amorphous material. A number of fine roots. pH 4.0. A?, l’f- 6” Greyish white light sandy loam, structureless to somewhat platy, with some pebbles and small sandstone fragments. A number of roots pass through this horizon. pH 4.6. A3 6 I’- 7” Dark grey sandy loam, with slight indications of granular structure, quite firm, with small amounts of gravel and rock fragments. Roots pass through. This horizon is often missing. pH 4.8. Bl 7’LI5” Brownish yellow light sandy loam, sometimes with granular structure, often structureless. Contains rounded gravel and numbers of flat and angular sandstone fragments. pH 5.2 to 5.4. B? W-21” Light grey to buff light sandy loam, with slight granular structure, rather firm consistency. Contains many pebbles and numerous sandstone fragments of various sizes. Roots are fairly numerous. pH 5.2. C 21”+ Greyish brown light sandy loam, structureless, open, porous, containing much gravel and numerous small and large sandstone fragments. (It is typical of the grey sandstone and conglomerate parent rock, that it turns yellow on weathering). pH 5.0-5.2. The cultivated surface soils of the Crossman series are light grey-brown, usually have a poor granular structure or are single-grained. Their moisture- holding capacity is low, which is reflected in the condition of the crops. The incorporation of organic matter improves the structure and gives the soils a better darker colour. Agriculture The Crossman series of soils is very extensively forested, only small acreages are under cultivation, but a number of abandoned farms give evidence of some- 69 \~hat wider agricultural use in the past. The Crossman soils are not naturalI>- fertile, and the,. tend to suffer from drought, when the forest cover is removed. For this reason they are not suitable for dairy farming OI- mixed farming alone. lt is possible that a combination of dairy farming and the grooving of some cash crop might be successful within certain limits.

LOMOND ASSOCIATION The Lomond Association occupies the physiographic division previously rlescribed as the southern upland, which includes the long ridge or series of hills reaching from -Albert Mines southwestward, parallel with and bordering on the B;LJTof FundJ-, as far as the Kennebecasis Bay and Saint John city. This oblong 3rea is some eight or ten mile wide. The elevation in the northeastern part is generally between 1,000 and 1,250 feet, but drops towards the southwest to between 300 and 500 feet near Saint John, although several hills rear themselves ~~11above the landscape. This southern upland has a remarkably smooth surface in spite of its elevation; the relief is undulating to gently rolling, but is broken 1)~.narrow ri\ver valleys which extend from ill-drained areas in the interior of the plateau to the Bay of Fundy shore. In the southwestern part, where the general txle\-ation is lo\ver, there are a number of small lakes and the river valleys are not tluite so deep, although small falls are common. On the southeastern side the upland is bounded by the Bay of Fundy, from which the land rises abruptly. ,1lthough the overall relief of the elevated plateau is smooth, the detailed relief tends to be quite uneven. Small depressions, measured in acres or less, alternate ivith rock-strewn land or outcrops of hard rock. Some areas, especially on the higher plateau in the northeast, have a fair depth of soil, but the latter is very stony, and rock outcrops are frequent. The bedrock that has supplied the parent nlaterial of the Lomond association is entirely different in character from the comparatively soft carboniferous sediments, to which the previously discussed associations are related. It consists of highly altered, schistose sediments, lavas mrl tuffs, and granite and biotite. The weathered materials of these rocks were moved and mixed by the ice caps of the glacial periods and the resulting soil parent materials is therefore heterogeneous in composition; in addition there has been occasional weathering of the bedrock in situ, in places where the action of the ice left only a thin covering of till or none at all. The resulting soils should therefore strictly speaking not be correlated as one association; rather, they form a mixture of associations with common features of relief, stoniness, and other external characteristics, which limit them to one form of utilization, namely forestry. The individual soils form very intricate patterns, which are impossible to trace through the forests. This circumstance in addition to the facts that the morphological differences are small and that there is little variation in the use capability of the land led to the correlation of all the soils into one association, n-ith the provision that in this case the term is to be interpreted somewhat more broadly than usual. Differences in drainage conditions have been responsible for the development of two series within the association, the well drained Lomond series and the ill- drained Deed series.

LOMONDSERIES The Lomond series has an extent of some 289,300 acres in the surveyed area. Not included in this figure is an unknown proportion of the areas mapped as Lomond Association, undifferentiated. It is found on the type of topography pt-eviously described in connection with the association, except in the flat and depressional positions. Rock outcrops are commonly seen along the roads and trails, but there are several localities where it is possible to find comparatively large areas covered with a fair depth of soil. The relief which is undulating to rolling, is favourable to agricultural use of the land, but the stoniness is forbidding. Those lands that were cleared in the past could not be cultivated till after the removal of large amounts of stone, lvhich ma)’ no\v t)e seen along the roads and fences as great walls mtl in large piles in the nom- abandoned fields. 111 such places the soil itself commonI>. has a depth of three feet or more over the bedrock; elsewhere it ma)’ be more shallow and even lacking. In the southwestern part of the upland, particularl\- in the lakes region northeast of Saint John, areas of exposed bedrock, almost bare of soil and vegetation, are not uncommon.

The vegetation on the I,omond soils is largel>- mixed, although there are man>. stands of almost pure softwoods and others of nearly pure hardwoods. The more common species are spruce, balsam fir, ivhite and )-ellow birch, maple, and some beech. ;Uthough the geological classification of the rocks and their phJ.sical appearance and mineralogical composition differentiate them into various groups, the parent material of the soils does not vary correspolldingl\- in appearance. It is commonl). a grey.-brown to light brown sand\. loam to loam, firm but not compact nor cemented, and the soils are well developed podsols. Only one t>pe has been mapped, the I,omond loam to sand\, loam, the average profile of which corresponds \vith the following description.

Horizon Depth -4 0 ()“- 2” Dark brown to black organic matter in differcbnt stages of decomposition from I op to bottom. Derived from mixed prowt h, seldom from conifers or dccGduous trees alone. Matted with roots. pH 4.0. Greyish white sandy loam, structureless, open and friable. Some gravel ant1 stones. Roots passing through . pH 4.6. H1 ‘i/‘-15” Yellowish red loam to sandy loam, usually at ructureless or slightly granular. C:ontains some gravel and small, sharp-angled rock fragments, also many larger stones. Root systems are wcall developed. pH 5.0. Hz 15”-20” Light reddish brown loam to sandy loam, with poor structure, yet open and friable. This horizon contains many small and large stones. Root systems are ~~11 developed. pH -5.2. c 20” -t Light brown to greyish brown loam to sandy loam, structureless, firm but never \rrry caornpart. (Contains some gravel and largtx numbers of stones. Roots are fairly numerous. pH 5.2. In the southwestern part of the upland, in the lakes region, the soil is often more gravelly than usual; it has then been mapped as a gravelly sandy loam. The cultivated surface soils of the Lomond series are grey-brown and generall\- have a fair granular structure and a fair moisture-holding capacity. Stones are commonly* quite numerous.

Agriculture In the main the Lomond soils are not suitable for agriculture. They were cleared and farmed quite extensively in the past, but experience has proved that even after much labour was expended on clearing the land and picking off the stones, the fertility of the soils, which is only mediocre, was not sufficient to offset the disadvantage of remoteness from markets. In the past it was not uncommon for a farmer on the southern upland to spend two days on a trip to Saint John via the Old Shepody road with a wagon load of produce. As the fertility of the soils depleted farming declined, and the roads fell into disrepair; many of them are now merely wagon trails or foot paths. Nearly- all the farms have been abandoned, and while some are still free from trees, but with spruce coming in, others have completely grown up in forest. At present the abandoned but still cleared fields are used for pasture for young cattle. The soils are “run out”, and the herbage is poor, but with liming and fertilization it would seem that good permanent pastures could be built up on those former farms to provide grazing for young cattle and possibly beef cattle. If not used for permanent, fertilized pasture the abandoned lands should be permitted to revert to forest, 71 for which they are naturally suited. The southern upland is valuable for its forests, which yield large amounts of lumber and pulpwood and also veneer logs. Those farms that are still operating are situated in the southwestern part of the upland, with markets in Saint John. The land here is at a lower elevation, but separated into small farming areas by rough, stony, land. The permanency of these farms is dependent on good management of the ~011,which almost universalI>- needs manure, lime, and fertilizer.

KINGSTONASSOCLITION The Kingston Association is found on the Kingston peninsula, from the Norton-Springfield road towards the southwest, and in a narrow belt on the opposite side of Belleisle Bay. The association is characterized by a rugged relief, but the elevation averages only 400 or 500 feet above sea level. The belt northwest of the Belleisle Bay is of a forbidding nature insofar as settlement in its interior is concerned; the land surface is broken and stony, and outcrops of bedrock are common. The soils are usualI\- shallow and erosion has taken a heav)? toll on cleared hillsides, but among the hills there are fairly large areas on a more or less flat relief, which are apt to be ill-drained. The same conditions are encountered in some measure on the Kingston peninsula. Outcrops of bedrock are very common, and the land is ston>-, but the ill-drained areas are smaller, and little lakes, some without outlet, have formed at comparativelq high altitudes. The bedrock of the Kingston peninsula is of pre-(‘ambrian or Palaeozoic origin. It is composed mainly of dark-coloured, basic, fine-grained volcanics \vith smaller amounts of light-coloured, acidic rock; on weathering it turns JFellow. The fragments which are found in the soils are yellow, sharp-angled, and irregularly shaped, and usually they are quite small. Boulders are not common, and foreign rocks are also scarce. The belt northwest of the Belleisle Isa\, has a more varied bedrock. It is largel>r of the same nature as that on the peninsula, but in addition there are frequent occurrences of light and dark- coloured, highly sheared metamorphics, which have contributed a certain amount of small, scaly fragments to the till in sotne localities. Dense, grel- sandstone boulders and stones rnaq’ also be found. The soil parent material, which consists of drift derived from these rocks, is a gre\- to light brown loam, locally a clay loam or a light loam, which is firm to compact, but not cemented with clay so as to be impervious. It is characterized also by its large content of yellowish, medium-sized to small fragments of the bedrock, which seems to undergo mechanical breakdown quite readily, but appears to be resistant to chemical weathering. The soils which have formed from this parent material are well developed podsols. TheJ- have been separated into two series, the well drained Kingston series and the ill-drained Deed series.

KINGSTON Smrm The Kingston series covers 95,900 acres throughout the district occupied by the Kingston association. It is well drained, in some places excessively so, as where the slope of the land is very steep. It is found on rough, broken land, on steep hillsides, and on smaller areas of gently rounded ridges and in narrow valleys. The slope of the land varies between 4 per cent and 25 per cent or more. Outcrops of dark, volcanic rock, which breaks up like trap rock, are frequent. The rubble which forms where roads have been cut through the rock, quicklq- turns J-ellow as it weathers. The soil itself is also characterized by this yellon colour. The Kingston soils are tJ.pical podsols, but the physical environment has brought about certain modifications. On strong slopes, for instance, where the run-off accounts for much of the precipitation, the zonal development is I\-eaker than on more level land, and often the soil consists of only a thin mantle over the bedrock, due probably to erosion and to the slow weathering of the rock to form parent material. .A very- large proportion of the series is wooded; the stands are mostl\- coniferous, but mixed stands arc seen frequently. The dominant species are spruce and fir, \Vith smaller percentages of birch, maple, and others. The Kingston series comprises three soil t>-pes, the loam to silt loam, the slat!- loam and the sand\* loam. The textural composition of these types is rather variable, particularI\- near the shores, and for that reason strong emphasis should not be placed on their delineation on the map. The scale of the map and consequentlJy the procedure of mapping are not suf‘ficiently detailed to show frequent variations within short distances. The slaty Kingston loam to silt loam contains variable amounts of slatJ7 fragments in different stages of weathering. These fragments are small and usually dark in colour. Their presence gives the soil an open, porous consistenc>T. This t!ype occurs onl!- northwest of the Helleisle Bay. The Kingston loam to silt loam, which has its n+clest distribution on the Kingston peninsula, may be described as follo\l;s :

Ho&on Depth Description A0 Off- 2,t Dark brown to black, fairly well decomposed organic matter, derived from mixed stands of spruce, birch, beech. A number of fine roots. pH 3.8. -41 2”- q,l Greyish white silty loam with indications of platy structure; firm, but easiIy rubbed to a silty powder. Fine roots pass into and through this layer. pH 4.0. HI 4”- 9” Yellow to orange loam to silt loam with poorly developed granular structure; A number of small angular stones with yellow, weathered surfaces are present. some fragments are of gravel size. Roots are fairly numerous. pH 4-8. H? y”- 1s” Dull yellow to light brown silty loam with slight to fair granular structure. Yel!on angular stones are numerous. Roots are well developed in this horizon and pass into the C layer. pH 5.2. C 18” i- Greyish brown loam to silt loam, structureless, firm, but not compact. Yellowish brown angular rock fragments are numerous. Relow 24” to 30” it is common to find weathered bedrock, whirh easily breaks up into angular fragments. pH 5.2-5.4.

It is not uncommon to find bedrock at about 24 inches from the surface, and outcrops are numerous. On hillsides the soil profile ma!- be truncated, the upper horizons missing as a result of recent severe erosion. This is especially common n-here the tree growth has been taken off by cutting or fire. Near the shores the soil ma)’ be quite gravelly, and it has then been mapped as the gravelly silt loam. The Kingston sandy loam has a relatively- small distribution; the main difference between the loam to silt loam and the sandy loam is in the texture of the topsoil; in other respects the two types are similar, The Kingston slaty loam to silt loam conforms generally to the description given above, but certain small differences set it apart from the normal loam to silt loam soil. These differences consist chiefly in an orange red rather than a yellowish orangecolour development in the B horizon and in the presence of small, thin, light and dark plates of slaty or schistose rock in the profile, particularly in the C horizon. It is estimated that the percentage of hardwood growth is higher on this t\-pe than on the normal soil. Near the shores of the Belleisle Bay and the Saint John river gravelly sub-types of both the loam to silt loam and the sandy loam have been mapped. The cultivated surface soils of the Kingston series are grey-brown, generalI> quite granular, loamy, and friable. They contain numerous small angular rock fragments of the size of gravel or small stones but the larger stones are usually remo\-ed. The cultivated Kingston soils north of the Belleisle Bay also contain some small flat fragments of light and dark colors. As a rule the cultivated Kingston soils have a satisfactory water-holding capacit!,. The soils of the Kingston series are largely wooded, although settlement in this section of the Saint John river valley had an earl>- beginning. The main dran-backs to farming are the roughness and irregularity of the topography and the stoniness of the land, which offset the advantages of reasonabl>T fertile soils and nearness to the market of Saint John city. Settlement is confined largeI?- to the shore districts in both Kingston and Kars parishes. The average size of the farms is 125 acres, of which some 85 acres are in woods, the remaining 40 acres being divided equally between crop land and permanent pasture, which is often too rough and ston!; to be ploughed. The crops give only fair yrields under the present methods of farming, which do not provide for the use of much manure, lime, or fertilizer. Considerable amounts of mill feeds are bought, and as a result the farm incomes are small, but side incomes .are derived from the comparatively large woodlots. A number of farmers grow vegetables and other cash crops for sale in Saint John, and orchards are of importance in the lower part of the Kingston peninsula. The soils, the topography, and the geographical location of the district are in favour of such diversification, which, in conjunction Iv-ith woods operations, is a more stable and remunerative land use under the circumstances than vvoulcl be the clearing of more land in order to increase the daiq- herds.

DEED SERIES The need series covers some 75,000 acres, but includes also a portion of the 217,400 acres mapped as Lomond association, undifferentiated. The series is ill-drained and is found on flat to depressional land throughout the southern upland and on the Kingston peninsula. It is largely forested. The forest growth is predominantly spruce, but fir, white and grey birch, and alders are also present in varying percentages depending on the locality. The Deed soils are very stony, and outcrops of bedrock are very numerous, particularly in the southeastern upland. In many places the soil is shallow over the bedrock, and there is then a tendency towards the formation of a thick organic layer ‘or even a bog. Two types have been mapped within the Deed series, namely the Deed loam to heavy loam, and the Deed loam to sandy loam. The former is normally found geographically associated with the Kingston series, the latter with the Lomond series. The loam to heavy loam may be described as follows:

Horizon Depth Descriplion AQ ()“- 6” Dark brown to black organic matter, showing structure of coniferous needles and twigs in upper part, lower part is apparently well decomposed, amorphous. A mat of fine roots penetrate this layer. pH 3.8. A¶ 6”-10’ Greyish white I&, with yellow mottling, fair platy structure. A number of small angular stones. Roots are present, but not numerous. pH 4.0. BlorG 10”-15” Yellowish brown loam, with black and brown concretions, strongly mottled, structureless, very moist. A number of fairly small, angular stones are present. Roots are scarce. pH 4.8. Rz 15”-20” Yellow to orange loam, mottled, structureless. Angular stones in moderate amounts. Roots are scarce. pH 5.6. Ba 20”-25” Yellowish grey loam, mottled, structureless. There are moderate amounts of angular stones and some angular gravel in this horizon. Roots are absent. pH 5.8. C 25”+ Grey clay loam, structureless, moist and somewhat sticky, and also somewhat compact. Contains some small waterro;$;dostones as well as angular fragments characteristic of the association. . The Deed loam to sandy loam may be described as follows :

Horizon Depth Description Al ()‘I- 4” Dark brown to black organic matter peaty in upper part, becoming black and amorphous with depth. pH 4.0. qfl- 7" -41 Dark grey to black sandy loam to loam, containing much finely divided organic matter. Somewhat granular structure. pH 5.0. 74

A ? 7”-13” Greyish white sandy loam, apparently structureless, quite firm, with dark and light brown mottling. Gravel and stones present. pH 5 e6. Gle\’ 13”-22” Bluish grey to buff-coloured loam to sandy loam, structureless, strongly mottled. Contains some gravel and numerous stones. Roots only in upper part. pH 5.8. (’ 22” + Light brown to dark grey loam to sandy loam, structureless, compact, but not cemented. Contains much gravel and many stones. Some mottling. pH 6.0. The cultivated surface soils of the Deed series are grey-brown to black according to the drainage conditions. The better-drained soils are fairly granular and friable, but the poorly drained ones are puddled and intractable and if cultivated when excessively wet they form hard lumps on drying. Successful artificial drainage creates conditions, under which the soils will gradually become granular, loam)- and friable. , Agriculture The Deed series usually is too wet and too difficult to drain artificially to be of value for agricultural purposes; but it forms intricate patterns with the Lomond and Kingston series, so that in clearing the latter it has often been necessary to include small strips of the Deed series in a field. The feasibility of drainage should be investigated in such cases, for once an ill-drained strip is drained it makes a more productive soil than the Lomond or the Kingston series. To use the Deed series for natural pasture is often uneconomical, as the tramping of cattle destroys the sod.

H. Soils Developed on Till Derived From Rocks Containing Some Cal&m Carbonate in the Cementing Material The soils in southeastern New Brunswick that have developed on till derived from rocks containing various amounts of calcium carbonate in the cementing material have in many instances been subject to less leaching than have materials from rocks in which lime is lacking. The influence of the calcium carbonate in the parent rock and the soil parent material varies considerably however, depending among the other things on the progress of chemical weathering before and after the time of glaciation. This would be a function of the hardness of the rocks and of the local climate. Further, the topography on which the till was deposited and the existing drainage conditions control the movement of the products of hydrolysis. If the latter were constantly removed, weathering and leaching \vould in time cause the removal of all the free carbonates and podsoliza- tion would then proceed as in the non-calcareous parent material. But where the products of hqrdrolysis are removed very slowly, as in ill-drained soils, the> tend to slow up the formation of typical podsols, and the result is an intrazonal soil, a soil in which the zonal characteristics which are determined by climatic and vegetational factors, have not reached wrmal development due to the modif\.ing influence of the parent material. Calcareous rocks are not widely distributed in southeastern New Brunswick. Llississippian limestone occurs in narrow belts and as scattered outcrops, but JIO soils have been observed that have developed on till derived largely from limestone. Other calcareous rocks occurring in the map area are conglomerates, sandstones and shales of Mississippian age. Their calcium carbonate content is generalI\- not large, but freshly broken specimens effervesce with acid. The conglomerates and sandstones appear to have only a low content of free carbon- a tx t.

KINGSCIXAK ASSOCIATION The Kingsclear Association is found in scattered localities, chiefly near Case, west of Sussex, and near Hillsborough. The association is not characterized by an>- particular type of relief, although most of it is on undulating land; it may be found on rolling to hilly land as well as in gently undulating positions j I 75 and at various elevations. The prevailing relief is that which characterizes neighbouring associations of greater extent. Stones are comparatively scarce on the surface, but they are present in moderate amounts in the profile. The drainage of the association is variable; percolation and internal drainage are slow, because the association is composed of heavy-textured soils, which are apt to be ill-drained on level land and gentle slopes, where the surface run-off is inadequate. A large percentage of the well drained soils of the Kingsclear ,&sociation is cleared. On the wooded portion the stands are mostl>F coniferous- spruce and fir-, but birch and maple are also present. The parent material of the Kingsclear Association is a clay loam till that has been derived vet-\- largeI>- from red, calcareous shale, sandstone, and conglomerate of Mississip&n age, particularl>. the Weldon series of the Moncton formation. The till does not appear to have been greatly modified by glacial action. It contains little foreign material, and at a depth of four or five feet the reaction is neutral to slightI>. alkaline, and rock fragments effervesce with acid. In a very small area some two miles west of Hillsborough it appears that the parent material is a water-worked deposit. Leaching and horizon differentiation have proceeded rather normally for the series, but the profile is singularI)? free from stones and gravel, and the texture is uniforml)? a silty loam from top to bottom. The C horizon has a well developed nuciform structure and is neutral in reaction. The well drained soils of the Kingsclear association form the Kingsclear schries, \I-hile the ill-drained soils are mapped as Nackawic clay loam.

KINGSCLEARSERIES The Kingsclear series covers 3,400 acres in the survey-ed area. Forming small “islands” in scattered localities it occurs near Case (west of Sussex), near r>cbForest I,ake, (south of Sussex), and near Hillsborough. The topography is undulating, and the surface drainage is adequate. There are few large stones and boulders on the land, and the soil profile contains onl\T moderate to small amounts of stones. The Kingsclear series as found in the present map area thus differs somewhat in regard to topograph?, and stoniness from soils of the same series as found in the !jVoodstock district (cf. Soil Surve!. Report of the \Z’oodstock Ilistrict), but the morpholog!, of the soil itself, is the same. .-i large part of the 5cricls is cleared. The remaining forest growth is young, and there is little indication as to the species of trees which comprised the original vegetation. The profile of the Kingsclear series possesses quite often an X1 horizon, \vhich is a dark brown mixture of organic and mineral matter. The -12 1aJTeris relativeI\. thin, and the colour is greJ7 rather than greyish white. The B horizon is usually onI>* nine or ten inches thick, and the (‘ horizon is encountered at a depth or 15 or 16 inches. The B horizon usually has a good granular structure but the (‘ la>.er often lacks structure and is rather massive. Occasional.lJ; a profile may be seen in which the soil grades into the bedrock through a transitIon la>-er of coarse, blocky, weathered shale fragments, lvhich indicate that the soil is forming in situ at that particular point. ,A comparison of the descriptions of the Kingsclear series as found in the Woodstock district and in the district under discussion in this report will point to some variations with respect to external factors such as slope and stoniness and also to small differences in the profile characteristics. On the other hand the characteristics of the series \vhich are related chiefI>, to the nature of the parent material are constant. The cultivated surface soils of the Kingsclear series are reddish; during the summer, when the surface is dr\r, the colour tends towards grey-brown, but a ne\vl>- ploughed field has, particularl\r when seen from a distance, a decided157 red appearance. The soil is usually loamy and friable, particularly when it is well manured and in good tilth. On eroded fields the colour varies between dark reddish brown and brick red, and the structure is coarse granular to block!. or lump>.. The Kingsclear series contains only one soil type, the Kingsclear clay loam, which may be described as follows: Horizon Depth Description An O”- 1” Dark brown layer of organic matter composed of decaying leaves, needles, and twigs. pH 4.0. .i 1 I”- 3” Dark brown to black layer of mineral soil mixed with amorphous organic matter. Granular structure. pH 4.0. *12 3”- 6” Grey clay loam with platy to good granular structure. This layer is firm, and 1~s powdc>ry than is usual for a leached horizon; it contains a few small stones and SORW gravel. Roots are well developed. pH 4.4. HI (j/‘-11” Reddish brown c&lay loam with granular to coarse granular or fine nutty structure. Contains some small stones and some gravel. Roots are quite numerous. pH 5.2. BL 1 l”-16” Reddish brown to chocolate brown clay loam with somewhat coarser structure than 13. Sometimes this layer is slightly compact. Contains some small stones and gravel derivtad mostly from red sandstone and conglomerate. Roots are well developed. pH 5.4. C 16” t- Dark reddish brown to rhocolate brown clay loam, structureless or with coarse nutty structure, in which case plant roots penetrate downwards. Often this horizon is compact. It contains small rounded stones and some gravel as well ns fragments of rc~i and grey sandstone. pH 6.0. ‘The small area mentioned above, in which the parent material may be a water-worked deposit, has an almost flat relief. ‘The soil may be described as follows : Horizo?l Depth Description cult * ()“- 5” Dark brown silty loam to clay loarn, granular, with apparently little organit: matter. pH 5.5. ,312 ,“.-,$I’ Greyish brown silty loam to clay loam with both platy and granular structure. The upper limit of this horizon may have, been higher before the land was ploughed. pH 4.8-5.0. 13 6;“-2, ff Light brown silty loam t,o clay loam, with coarse granular structure at top and grading into blocky structure at the bottom. No stones or gravel. pH 5.8-6.0 c 22”f Chocolate brown silty rlay loam with very coarse block’y structure. No stones or gravel. The whole profile has a strongly reddish cast. pH 6.8. ‘There are also variations within the Kingsclear series with respect to the reacti6n. It is not uncommon to find profiles in which the parent material has a p’H of only 5.5 and in which the upper horizons are correspondingly acid. These aberrations are probably the result of local variations in the calcium carbonate content of the till. Agriculture The Kingsclear soils are well suited for general farming. n’ewl\. cleared land has a fair suppl\- of organic matter, a good structure, and a favourable fertilitl- level. When properl\r managed these soils produce very satisfactory crops 6f grain and hay, and the\- are also suited for the growing of vegetables except potatoes. If the soils are cropped for long periods without sufficient applications of organic matter the structure deteriorates, and the soils tend to puddle and bake. SIoderate applications of fertilizer are also necessary to maintain the fertility, level, for although the soil is naturally fertile and productive, good management is required to maintain it in that condition, and there are examples of exhausted, run-out fields of Kingsclear soil, as well as others that are in an excellent state of tilth and verJ7 productive. Erosion should be guarded against on this series, for although the slopes are not steep, the soil does not absorb \vater quickly, so that a good deal of the precipitation must escape as I-uIl-c~fi. The darlger of erosion is increased if the soil is in poor tilth, as it is then likel), to become compact and therefore less absorbent. It is paradoxical that some fields of the Kingsclear series are not being used to full capacity, while much less productive soils in the same district are in more intensive use. 77

The Sackawic series occupies some 23,450 acres. It is found on gentle slopes and depressional land, where the run-off is slow OI- non-existent, and as percolation is impeded by the underljkg compact till or bedrock, the soils are ill drained. The series is veq* largeI\, wooded, the prevailing tree species being spruce, white ljirch, poplar and alders. The amount of bases in the soil has been sufficient to delaJ7 and minimize the leaching and podsol soil formation, which would normally have occurred, to the extent that in man!’ profiles no A2 horizon is seen, while in others, where the original lime content was lower or the removal of bases somewhat greater, onI>- a thin leached la!rer is present. The horizon following the Al or ;-\z layers is somewhat variable in appearance, depending on the drainage conditions. If the latter permit some removal of the drainage water, even though it may be slow, a f3 horizon ma\’ develop underneath the thin leached la!.er; but if there is no removal of the drainage kvater except by evaporation during the summer, a normal H la>-er will not form in the presence of the constantl\- high groundwater. In its place ma!- be found a glei horizon, urhich is characterized b!. a bluish grey colour \t,ith dark brown mottling. -4 t!.pical virgin profile of the Sackawic cla~v loam IIKIJ’ be described as fol l0U.S:

Description Dark brown to black layer of leaves, needles, and semi to well decomposed organic matter, with many roots. pH 4.2. Black layer composed of mineral soil and amorphous organic matter. Fair granular structure. Many roots. pH 4.4. Light greyish brown to greyish white clay loam, mottled, with fair platy to granular strurt ure. Few stones and prhbles. This horizon is often missing, especially with poorer drainage. pH 4.6. Light yellowish or greyish brown to light brown clay loam! structureless, friable at top becoming massive and sticky at bottom. There 1s strong reddish and yellowish mottling, and then> are dark brown concretions along old root channels. Stones and gravel are present in moderate amounts. Some roots. In many profiles this layer is bluish grey and very moist and sticky. pH 5.2. Reddish brown boulder clay, structureless. compact and massive, with numerous small stones and pebbles firmly embedded, which have been derived from reddish brown shale, sandstone, and conglomcxrate. The water-table fluctuates above> this layer. The latter Incomes very hard on drying and turns brick red. pH 6.0 or higher. A gricult we The Sackawic series is largely Lvooded, but the stands are not valuable, consisting of stunted spruce, fir, poplar, birch, and alder. It is submarginal for agricultural purposes, unless it is drained artificiallq7, for although the soil is naturalI!- fertile, the productivity- is veq- low because of the poor drainage conditions. I-ktificial drainage may be economically feasible in certain instances, as M hen a well drained field is broken up b\- narrow strips of the Nackawic soils. Once the drainage is improved the soil is well suited for haJ7 meadows and pasture, provided the cattle are kept off while the ground is wet. (kain crops, ho\4*ever, tend to grow veq- rank and mature late, because of the high content of organic matter and moisture in the soil. .

The Parleeville A\ssociation is distributed in several localities, notably in a triangular area between Sussex, Springfield, and Norton in Kings county and near Hillsborough and Harvey in -Albert count>-. This association is found on variable relief, from strongI\. undulating to strongl>. rolling, but most often gentl). rolling. The surface drainage is therefore good, and ill-drained conditions are found only in depressions and swales, \\yhich lack proper outlets. There is also some variation \I-ithin the association I\-ith regard to stoniness and frequenc\T of rock outcrops. 78 -4s a rule the soils are onI!- moderateI\. stony, but rock outcrops are more often a determining factor in their utilization. The vegetation is mixed, with a pre- ponderance of softwoods-spruce and fir; but grey and yellow birch, maple, and poplar are quite common. The parent material of the Parleeville Association is a medium-textured reddish brown till derived from the same geological formations as the Kingsclear till, but it has a coarser texture. ,%pparently the till of the Parleeville soils was derived from sandstones and conglomerates, which originall> contained less calcium carbonate than the shales and sandstones, from which the Kingsclear till was derived. The calcareous nature of the original till had, nevertheless, left some imprint 011 the present-da>- Parleeville soils, and when the C horizon was examined at different depths to six or seven feet it was found that the pH increased slowly- to near neutralit\,. 1Ian\. rock fragments can be found in the parent material which contain calcium carbonate inside the weathered surface. The red colour of the parent rock formations has been retained in the till, and also to some degree in the soils, but in the latter, the process of soil formation has leached the .-\ la\-er to a greyish white and modified the colour of the 13 horizon to a reddish brown or rusty red. The IveIl drained soils of the Parleeville .+ssociation form the Parleeville series, tvhile the ill-drained soils have been mapped as Midland loam and Jlidland santl~’ loam.

The Parleeville series occupies 127,300 acres. The more important areas m-e in the Sussex-Springfield-Norton, the Hillsborough, and the Harvey- districts. The average topography- is gent]>’ rolling, and the drainage is good. The stoniness is generalI!- moderate, and a large percentage of the soils have been cleared and are under cultivation. The remainder is either in natural pasture or under forest, n-hich is usualI>- mixed, the prevailing species being spruce and fir with grqr and J-ellow birch, maple, and poplar in small percentages. The Parleeville soils are more strongly- leached than the Kingsclear soils despite the similarit>- in the geological origin of their parent materials; an explanation for this has alread>. been offered. In the natural forested condition the soil Ijrofile presents the picture of a normally- developed pods01 soil. ,411 average profile ma>. be described as follows:

Description Dark brown to black layer of organic matter dc,rivetl from coniferous: vegetation. Open, porous. pH 4.0. Greyish white sandy loam with fair platy structure, rather friable. Contains some small stones and pebbles. Numerous roots. pH 4.2. I,ight reddish brown to orange brown loam or sandy loam, with fair granular strurture. This layer is open and mellow, contains some stDnes and pebbles, numerous roots. pH 5.0. Light brown loam with fair granular structure, which occasionally becomes coarse granular to nutty. The layer is open and friable. (:ontains stones and pebbles; thch sandstone fragments are red, and the larger ones effervesce with acid on frr,sh surfaces. Roots are well tlovc~lopetl. pH 5.2. Iteddish brown fo chocolate brown loam, occasionally with a somewhat coarse nutty structure, but normally structureless, rather compact, but apparently not Impervious. In the dry rondition the layer is very friable. The depth of the till may he several feet, but on strongly sloping land the bedrock may appear immediately under the 13 horizon. The I’arleeville series contains t\vo soil t>‘pes, the gravelly loam and the gravelI>- sand\, loam, the former being the more \videl,. distributed. In those areas where the bedrock comes so close to the surface that its presence is a factor in the utilization of the land, the soil has been mapped as a ledg), phase. In addition to these more normal soils there is another one which has been difficult to classif!.; it is found chiefI>- on or near the slopes of the Kennebecasis valley-. The parent material is apparentI>- Parleeville till, 1)~: it has been reworked by* 70 \\-ater in some degree and contains var!-ing quantities of stone and gravel, and the texture varies between heav\r and light. This heterogeneous soil has been called Parleeville series (mixed). The cultivated surface soils of the Parleeville series are greyish brown or light brown, but there is at the same time a reddish cast, which suggests their origin from red rocks. The structure is granular, particulart>- if the humus content is maintained, which gives the soil a loamy- “feel”. Agricultwe The Parleeville soils as found in the districts mentioned above are veq- well suited for general mixed farming, which is carried on with marked success. The moderate slopes which characterize most of the cleared land permit the use of all t\‘pes of modern machineq7, and the qualit). of the soil is such that with good management veq- good crops of grain, haJ-, roots, etc., can be produced; but due to differences in farm practices and soil management the Jrields vary considerabl\-. On some fields the \rield of hay may be upwards of 3 tons of good clualit>. clover and timoth!, per acre, while on others it ma!- be only 1 ton and c*omposed of inferior ha?7 and weeds. Experience shows that the Parleeville soils can be kept in good tilth and productivity by judicious use of lime and artificial fertilizer and by maintaining their organic matter content at a high level through the application of sufficient manure. Many farmers find that 20 per cent superphosphate applied at the rate of 200 lbs. per acre shows good response in the grain crop. Jlanure is preferably- applied to the grain stubble, as the straw \\.ould be too heav!. and weak if the manure were used in the spring. On other farms mixed fertilizers are used, usuall\+ a 2-12-6 formula for grain and a 4-8-12 mixture for roots. The use of lime is increasing and has been found very beneficial in connection with manuring. l,imed fields produce excellent crops of clover, the aftermath of kvhich ma\. be ploughed down to increase the humus content of the soil. Farms on the Parleeville soils are usuall>F well stocked, and in many cases it is necessary to supplement the home-grown grain with imported mill feeds. Pastures are generall\r not included in the rotation, and the!- often prove to be the iveak fink in the farm organization but within recent years some im- pro\rement has been made through pasture fertilization practices. Being situated on slopes the Parleevitle soils are naturalI\, subject to erosion; but as no survey has been made to determine the extent to which damage has been caused b>. that agent.!‘, it is impossible to state how serious the danger actually is. Observations indicate that the soils are affected chiefly b_rrsheet erosion, but many gullies are also present. Erosion appears to be most serious on those farms which have the smallest herds for their size and the smallest yields per acre. It is apparent that good tilth is in itself a safeguard against erosion, but it should be complemented \\.ith tillage across the slope rather than up and down. On the steeper slopes it is advisable to emplo\- strip cropping, if the land must be farmed for economical reasons; otherwise it should he used for permanent pasture.

The Midland series covers some 21,900 acres. It forms a topographical pattern with the Parleeville series; while the latter is situated in the well drained positions, the Midland soils are found on more level to depressional relief where the drainage is impeded. The soils are mosttJ7 wooded, the vegetation consisting largely of spruce and fir with smaller proportions of grey birch, poplar and alder. The stoniness of these soils is moderate, and outcrops of bedrocks are less common than in the well-drained series. The soil itself is fairly deep, but th-c. zater table usuall>~ is above the C horizon, therebJ7 limiting the use capabilities of the soil to forestq,, unless artificial drainage *is established. The profile exhibits the characteristics of a hydromorphic podsol; mottling is always present, and if the soil is saturated most of the Jrear a Glei horizon is found; but the degree of ill- 80 drainage varies considerably, and the morphology of the soils is governed accord- ingly. The original calcium carbonate content of the parent rock and the till has been reduced b\T weathering so that the parent material of the present da\7 soils is comparatively acid, although the large, red sandstone fragments found in it effervesce with acid when the latter is applied to a fresh break. The soil profile generally shows the presence of a fairly thick organic layer followed by a grey A2 horizon with a thickness of two to five inches. The B horizon which has an average thickness of ten inches, is mottled and can seldom be subdivided. It grades into the parent material, which is a reddish brown compact loam. The Alidland series contains two soil types. The Midland loam and the 3Iidland sandy loam. -An average profile of the loam may be described as follows: Horiton Depth Description Sk0 0 “_ 2” Dark brown to black organic matter derived from coniferous vegetation, moss and deciduous leaves. Mostly amorphous. pH 4.0. .4 1 y’- (j” H1ac.k loamy layer composed of mineral soil and amorphous organic matter. This horizon has a granular structure, and is open and friable. No stones or gravel. Many roots. pH 4.2. -42 G”-10” Grey sandy loam, structureless, friable. Contains some small stones and gravel. Roots art> numerous. pH 4,4. H I()“- “0” Dark red to reddish brown loam, with distinct bright and dark mottling. Struc- tureless, rather compact. Stones and gravel are present in moderate amounts. Roots present in upper part, very scarce below. The transition to the C horizon is gradual. pH 5.0. c L’O” + Reciii$ brown to cho,colate brown loam or s;t~tly loam, structureless, compact. ‘S and gravel m moderate amounts. 1 he color of this horizon strongly rc~scmbles that of the parent rock, fragments of which are present. pH 5.4-6.0. The cultivated surface soils of the lL!Iidland series are usually dark brown to black in color, but when the drainage is improved they become grey*-brown. The structure is very poor in the undrained condition, but improved drainage induces granulation of the surface soil, which also becomes friable and loam\-. Agriculture The better-drained phases of the Llidland soils are being used to a small extent for pasture and also in the rotation, when they extend as narrow strips into well-drained fields; but in the latter instances they usualI\- cause some inconvenience by delaying the spring work and also cause uneven ripening of the crops. -4s a general rule it is doubtful that it woul~l be economical to drain the ,Ilidland soils meretJ7 to add acreage to the farm, for although the soils are quite productive when drained, their ultimate value would not be high enough to defray the cost involved; but the ill-drained strips which break up many fields sl~oulcl be drained with tiles, where it is feasible. When the soils are used for pasture purposes it would probabl,. be economical to improve the drainage bq- a system of open ditches, and in order to maintain the sward cattle should be kept off while the ground is soggy.

SALTSPRING ,~SSO~IXTION The Saltspring Association is found chiefly in the Cornhill district and in the Dover-St. Joseph’s area, but it is also found south east of Sussex and along the upper reaches of the Millstream valley. These districts have been well known in Kew Brunswick for their agricultural progress and attainments. Some localities \vhere these soils are found are less favoured than others because of topography and have therefore not reached a high agricultural development; among these ma>- be named the area between Sussex, Bloomfield and Southfield, and some tracts along the upper part of the Millstream valley. In the Dover-St. Joseph’s district, in \Vestmorland county, there is a relatively small distribution of the Saltspring soils, but they are locally important farm soils. The relief on which the Association is situated is gently undulating to strongly undulating in the narrow belt north of Sussex but elsewhere it is steeper, more rolling and broken. 81

Rock outcrops are quite common, and the bedrock may be observed to be gre>- or light brown thinly bedded shale or fine grained sandstone which weathers quite easily to form a soft, flaky rubble. Fresh pieces of rock effervesce readily \vith acid indicating a fairly high content of calcium carbonate. Usually the II ‘1 bedrock is steeply inclined and seems to weather quite rapidly under its cover I of till and soil. The Association is mostly well drained, except in swales, hollows and on flat land, because the uptilted bedrock underneath has developed numerous fissures and cracks along the bedding planes, which serve to drain away the percolating water. The natural vegetation on the Saltspring soils appears to be mixed growth of hardwood and softwood. Maple, y,ellow birch and beech are frequently seen on the well drained land, lvhile grey birch, poplar, spruce and fir are more common in poor-l>7 drained positions.

The Saltspring series extends over 38,000 acres. The parent rock which is grey’ shale or fine grained sandstone in the unweathered condition, becomes \-ellou.ish brown and is reduced to a shall., flaky7 rubble on weathering; it also loses its calcium carbonate by hyTdrolysis and leaching. The till which has appar- tntl>, not been transported far from its place of origin, contains considerable amounts of small, weathered shale fragments, which tend to give it an open, friable consistencJ7. M7ater rounded gravel and stones are scarce. The texture of the soils of the Saltspring series is quite heavy; two t!Tpes have been mapped, the clay loam and the loam; the clay loam ma)? be described as follows:

IJOlWO?l lhplh lhcriptron -4 1 ()‘f- 2” Dark brown to black mineral soil mixed with amorphous organic matter. Good granular structure. pH 4.2. .A 1 2”- 5” Greyish white (slay loam, with distinct platy structure. Porous and friable. Small shale fragments arc’ present, but no larger stones. Roots are numerous. pH 4.0. I 131 tj”_.12” Tellowish brown to light brown clay loam to cjlay, with fairly good granular structure. Stones arc scarce, hut some pebbles and shale fragments are present. The horizon is very mellow and friable. Roots are well developed. pH 5.0. H: I”“-18” Yellowish grey to greyish brown clay loam to clay, granular, Numerous fine shale fragments and a few larger ones make the horizon friable and mellow. (;ood development of roots. pH 5.2. (’ 18” 1 Grcq-ish brown clay, weakly blocky, friable and only slightly compact. Numerous shale fragments of various sizes make the laycAr quite porous and mellow and well-drained. Roots art’ fairly numerous. pFI 5.4-5.8. In somcx profiles the parcbnt material is deep. in othrrs it, is merely a thin layer over crumbling, weat hered shale. Occasionally~ the clan. loam is quite shallow, being underlain at a depth of t\vo feet or less by7 weathered bedrock. In such profiles there is generalI)- a high content of shale fragments, which tend to make the soil more open and porous than usual ; this variation has been mapped as a shaly loam and in some instances as a gravelly loam. The loam is similar in appearance to the clay loam, except for the texture of the top soil, which is lighter. The cultivated surface soils of the Saltspring series are light brown to brown, granular, friable and mellow. They contain relativeI) few stones and little gravel: the shaly, loams contain a certain amount of small flat, soft fragments of Albert shale, which make the soil very- porous. The water-holding capacity is good, if there is a sufficient depth of subsoil over the bedrock. Agriculture The Saltspring soil is naturally fertile, well drained, and mostly- situated C)I~ relief which is favourable for the use of machinery,. It has therefore played a not inconsiderable part in the agriculture of the community where it occurs. The best known and best developed area is in the Cornhill district. Dairying 82 has been the type of farming followed on the Saltspring series (and the associated Knightville series) for many years with outstanding success, but while there were six cheese factories between Mt. Pisgah and Petitcodiac in 1930, there were only three operating in 1942. To maintain the dairy herds and young stock the bulk of the land is kept in hay and pasture , and as much grain is grown as the acreage permits. Roots are not grown in any appreciable quantity; probably the average is only an acre per farm. ln addition one or two acres may be in corn, this crop being fed as green feed since silos are not commonly used. Little barley is grown despite the fact that comparatively large numbers of hogs are raised in conjunction with the (lair>-ing. On the whole, large quantities of mill feeds are used to supplement the grain crops in the feeding of cattle and hogs. The common rotation appears to be oats followed b\’ two or three hay crops, after which the land may or may not be pastured, before a new cycle of the rotation begins. The production in this area in terms of yield per acre compares favourably with that of other parts of the province, yet it is not equal to the potential capacity of the soils. The yield of grain is of the order of 40 bus. per acre and of hay one and one-half tons. Good stands of clover are not seen very often, and the carr\-ing capacity of the pastures appears to be low. It has been the custom to let manure suffice for the maintenance of the soils, but while the practice of using- manure is excellent it has fallen short of its goal, which is proved by the low organic-matter content of man!. fields and by their lowered fertility. Arti- ficial fertilizers and lime have been used sparinglJ7 on many farms.’ In order to restore or increase the productivit\r of the Saltspring series it is suggested that the present type of farming, namely dair>ing, be continued, that the management of the land and the soils be revised, that farming be made more intensive. Such a revision would perhaps involve smaller acreages in the rotation, and larger fertilized pastures, but not necessarily so. The requirements to be met are higher yields per acre of the grain and hay crops and a higher proportion of the feed coming from pastures, all with a view towards permanency of the soil and its productivity. Permanent fertilized pastures will maintain themselves, with regard to the organic-matter content, fertility and the control of erosion, but on the land in the rotation it will occasionall) be necessary to plough down a clover crop or heavy- aftermath to supplement the manure, and lime is needed to reduce the acidit?. of the soils. Artificial fertilizers will also be required in considerably larger amounts than are used at present. The control of erosion need not involve much capital expenditure, but such measures as cultivation and seeding on the contour and strip cropping are definiteI\ called for on man). farms.

The Knightville .jissociation is found exclusivel>. in the valley- or tract of lo\vland extending in a narrow belt from Mt. Pisgah through Knightville, Glen- vale, and Intervale to River Glade. Its continuity is broken only at Cornhill bl- the Saltspring series, which occupies the higher land there. The topograph) is uniformly gentlJ7 undulating and rock outcrops are scarce. As the majority of the soils are well drained, it is ver)- largely cleared and farmed. The small stands of trees which occur are of mixed composition, including spruce, hemlock, pine, maple, birch, beech and poplar.

KNIGHTVIILI: SERIES The Knightville series covers 16,450 acres. The texture of the soil is heavy, particularly in the lower horizons which are usualI\- cla\-s, while the top&i1 varies from a clay to a clan- loam. That the drainage nevertheless is good in these 83 relatively low-lying heav>* soils is entirely due to their remarkably good granular to nutty structure, in which respect they differ markedly from the Saltspring soils, although the two series are well draihed and have developed on parent material derived from Albert shale. Attention has previously been drawn to the similarity of structural development in the Knightville and Petitcodiac :1ssociation. It is possible that the nutty structure has been brought about by similar causes, but there is not sufficient evidence at hand at present to make a positive statement to that effect. The Knightville series is relativelJ7 free from stones, and those that are present, are small, flat fragments of the parent rock. Rock outcrops are uncommon, although the soils are quite often shallow on the more uneven relief; but this condition is due to erosion, and fine shale fragments which are so common in the lower horizons of the Saltspring series are lacking in the Knightville soils. The latter are also different in colour, being reddish brown to medium brown in the B and C horizons. The series includes two soil t\.pes, the clay and the clay loam; the latter is the more wide117 distributed ant1 the more important of the tlvo; it ma>. be described as follows:

Dark brown organic matter in early stsgc of decomposition, showing structure of c*omponcnt leaves, twigs and needles. Horizon often missing. Dark brown to black mixture of mineral soil and amorphous organic matter. Good granular structure. Numerous fine roots. pH 5.2. (;r.tyish white loam with good platy structure>. The Iayer is fairly firm. (‘ontains \-erg ftbw small stones anal very littlr gravel. Many fine roots. pH 4.2-4.4. Dull reddish brown clay loam to clay, with very wc.11 developed granular structure, open and well aerated. \‘~ry few small stonfas and pebbles. Numerous roots. pH 4.8-5.0. 112 K”Ll’?” Dull reddish brown clay (darkcar than RI), with coarse granular structure, open and friablft, with very few small stones and little gravel. Many roots. pH 5.0. 133 12”-17” JIedium brown clay with very (aoarse granular to fine nutty structurcx; firm; roots penetrate easily in all directions. Very few, small stones and pebbled. pH 5.0.

C’l 17”-24” Brown clay with coarse blocky structure, somewhat compact, many roots present along inferfaccs. Very fc>w stones and pebbles. pH 5.0. c;? 24”-3(j” 13rown to dark brown cblay with coarse bloc*ky structure, compact. ?;o stones or gravel obsrrvcd. This horizon appears to rest on *4lbert shale and fine,-graincd sanclstonc. pH 5.0-5.4. The most notable characteristic of the clay loam is the structural development, which is granular in the upper part of the I3 horizon and gradually becomes coarser with depth. The colour of the H horizon is not bright and gradually becomes darker with depth. The profile of the Knightville clay differs slightly from the description of the cla). loam; the structure is not quite so well clevcloped, and the colour is sometimes fnintlJ7 mottled. It is found on more level, slightly lower relief than the clay loam. The cultivated surface soils of the Knightville series are grey-brown to light brown, granular, friable and loamy under good management, but if the organic matter supply becomes depleted, or if the soils are otherwise used continuously \vithout proper maintenance, their phJTsica1 properties will deteriorate, and under such circumstances the Knightville cla~y especialI!- is apt to bake and crack during the summer.

The Knightville soils are much more extensive in the Mt. Pisgah-River Glade area than the Saltspring soils, and as they are largely cleared and farmed, they have played a correspondingly greater part in the economic development of the area. The t)-pe of farming on the two series is the same, namely, dairying, n-hich involves chiefly grain and hay production. No better use could be made of the soils from the standpoint of either natural adaptation or soil conservation, if proper farming techniques are employed. Most of the remarks concerning agriculture on the Saltspring series apply also to the Knightville soils. The early 84 settlers found the soils extremely productive and succeeded in building prosperous farms on them. There has been some erosion on the stronger relief phases, and the soils are quite acid. While the average crop yields compare favourably with those in other parts of the province, they have not reached their potential development. The incorporation of organic matter into the soil, either in the form of manure of green manuring crops, is very7 necessary’, and the acidity should be corrected by the use of lime. Fertility can be increased bjr the judicious application of fertrlizers, and simple practices to prevent or check erosion should be introduced. The restoration of the Knightville soils to a state of high productivity should not prove difficult.

~~HYKNS SERIES~~

The Byrns series occupies 14,400 acres and is found most extensively directly7 south of Sussex, but occurs also in the Knightville-Cornhill-River Glade and the Dover-St. Joseph districts. It is closely associated with the Saltspring and Knightville- series, having formed from -similar parent material but sunder ill- drained conditions on low depressional relief. The series is largely wooded, supporting a mixed growth of spruce, fir, grey and white birch, and poplar, as well as alder and other shrubs. The Ryrns soils are usually found on deeper till than their associated well drained soils and outcrops of bedrock are seldom seen, but the profile contain medium sized fragments (stones) of the Albert foundation. Fine, flaky7 fragments of shale, similar to those frequently formed in the Salt- spring and Knightville series, are present, although in smaller amounts, in the ill drained soils, which are also more compact and less friable than the well drained series. The Byrns series includes three types, namely, the clay., the clay loam, and the heav>T loam, of which the former is closely associated with the Knightville series and the latter two with the Saltspring series. The 13yrns clay- to clay loam \vhich is associated with the Knightville series / may. be described as follows:

~~Horizon Depth Description~~

A0 Dark brown organic matter, partly in the form of semi-decomposed leaves, partly amorphous. Fine roots. pH 4.2. Al White silty clay to clay loam, with distinct platy structure. No stones or gravel. ,4 number of fine roots. pH 4.6. A, 3;‘,- 8” Light yellowish grey clay loam, mottled, with granular structure, friable. Contains very few, small, flat shale fragments. Moderate number of roots. pH 5.0. Bl 8”-12” Yellowish brown to light brown clay, mottled, with coarse granular to nutty structure. No rounded stones, but flat shale fragments are present. Roots are quite well developed. pH 5.2. 1% 12”-20” Light brown clay, mottled with more reddish colours. This layer has a fair nutty structure in upper portion, but becomes compact and massive with depth. Shale fragments are present. Roots have fair development. pH 5.4. c 20” + Brown boulder clay, with small amounts of rounded stones and gravel as well as fragments of greenish-grey shale. The layer is massive, dispersed, and compact. Some roots are present. In upper portion the pH is 5.6, at depth of 36” pH 6.6. The Byrns clay loam which is associated with the Saltspring series may be described as follows:

~~Horizon Depth Description~~

A0 oft- 3’1 Dark brown to black organic matter; thin layer of semi-decomposed needles, leaves and twigs followed by black, amorphous organic matter. pH 3.8. Al 3’,-3$,, Black layer of mixed organic matter and mineral soil. Generally thin and often missing. Fair granular structure; no stones or gravel. Many small roots. pH 4.6. 85

.I¶ 3$“- 8f, Light grey clay loam., with fair platy structure, occasionally somewhat granular. This layer has a distinctly “silty” feel. It is firm, but crumbles easily. Stones are scarce. Roots fairly numerous. pH 4.2. RI 8”-14” Very light orange-brown to yellowish brown clay loam to clay, with much reddish and dark mottling. Stones or medium-sized flat fragments of grey shale are present. Weakly granular and somewhat compact. Roots are not numerous. pH 5.0. T3? 14”-22/f Light greyish brown with yellow cast, clay loam to clay, mottled. Massive, quite compact. Medium-sized fragments of grey shale are firmly embedded. Roots are practically absent. pH 5.4. c 22”r Grey clay to clay loam, very compact. Small and larger fragments of shale are firmly embedded, and the layer is massive and difficult to break. The groundwater often stands above the C horizon, which retards percolation. pH 5.8-6.0. The loam is similar in all respects to the preceding description, except that the topsoil has a somewhat lighter texture, as indicated by its name. The shale content varies to some extent, and in the district south of Sussex it is fairly high. Many areas of the Ryrns clay loam have been mapped as the shal>- clay loam in that locality. The cultivated surface soils of the Byrns series are dark brown, coarsely granular, if the drainage has been improved, otherwise theJr are apt to be puddled. Like other soils they will bake and crack, if the!. are cultivated before they become dr->r in the spring. Agriculture The B!-rns clay to clay loam is cleared to a large extent but not cultivated, and is used as permanent pasture, for which purpose it is more or less suitable depending on the drainage. Often the vegetation on such pastures is rather coarse, and alder and other bush-like growths tend to take possession of the land, but in many cases it has been observed that wild white clover and other palatable herbages grow profusely among tufts of coarse grasses. Many pastures are badl\l punctured and it is recommended that cattle be kept off them when the ground is soggy. In some instances it might be profitable to improve the drainage by means of open ditches in order to create better conditions for the y-owth of th e more valuable pasture species. The cla\- loam occurs chiefly along brooks and water courses. It does not often extend> into a well drained field and is therefore not used for crop production. To drain these heavy soils would probably not be profitable, and in man\’ cases it would not be feasible because of the relatively low drop of the land towards the brooks. The clan- loam and the loam, which are closeI\ associated with the Salt- spring soils, have been cleared to only a small extent. The advisability of draining an)- considerable area is problematical; as a rule it would hardI>- be economical, but each case should be decided in the light of its own particular circumstances. The less moist phases of the clay loam and loam may make suitable permanent pasture.

II. Soils developed on water-worked parent material The soils on water-worked parent material more occup>- some 207,900 acres in the surveyed area, which corresponds to 8.35 per cent of the land. They are found chiefly in river valleys, both on the more or less level bottom lands and on the sloping banks. The most important areas of the water-laid soils are the Tantramar, Hopewell, Petitcodiac, and Memramcook marshes, which have been deposited by tidal waters. Water-worked soils are also found on the upland, where they are laid down as gravelly ridges and flats, (as the glaciers retreated), as for example along Boundary creek and North river, to the north of SalisbuqF \Yllage. The gravelly and sandy soils are found on relief which caries from nearly level to undulating; the heavier soils usuall>- occup!~ positions with ver!’ little slope. 86 The soils which have developed on n-ater-worked parent material differ from those which have formed on glacial till in two important respects. The parent materials are more or less sorted and stratified as a result of having been deposited b\- water, and they cannot be correlated with definite geological formations. L<%ile these soils are in the podsol zone of soil formation, thev have not all developed the pods01 characteristics. Those that u.ere laid down- in glacial aid earl\- post-glacial times and have not been disturbed since, are true podsol soils, but those which are now forming on recent and contemporarJ7 flood and tidal deposits are immature, and their profiles do not possess the podsol characteristic-s. The latter soils are termed azonal. The parent materials of the water-laid soils var>T in texture from coarse gravelly loams through sandy to silty and cla>Tej- classes. The gravelly loams show the most noticeable stratification and the least complete sorting; cross- bedding is frequently seen in their profiles. In the sands and the heavier soils the stratification is less plain, but the sorting of the particles as to size is more complete. Xs a rule the texture of a water-laid soil does not vary considerably from top to bottom, but there are exceptions such as a sandJr or silt\- loam over- la\.ing a gravelly loam and in the dJ*ked marshes, where thin la!-ers of peat>-, unconsolidated organic matter may alternate \vith mineral la\Ters with some- \\,hat variable textures. This condition is due to Ijerioclic flooding of the marsh, I\-heret>\- a IaJTer of sediment was deposited m the existing vegetation, or on another mineral laJ.er. ‘The geologic-al origins of the soils are largely be?-ond recognition as a result of mixing and of the strong phJ?sical and chemical modifications ivrought on the parent materials b;r glaciers and more so by water. Only- the reddish colour of some of the soils gives a clue to their geological origin. Even if the latter coul~l be established for all the lvater-laid soils, it u-ould be of minor significance as a basis for classification. The water-laid soils have been separated into t\\-o divisions; the soils developed on deposits of glacial and early post-glacial age, and those now in the process of development on recent flood and tidal deposits.

&A. Mature Soils Developed on Deposits of Glacial und Early Post-Glacial Age The soils under this heading extend over a total area of 127,150 acres. They are found on nearly level to undulating and on sloping relief, their chief occurrence being on the banks of river valle>vs. They are also found in upland positions, \I-here the retreating and melting glaciers once formed streams or wider expanses of more slowly moving waters . LAll the parent materials that came into existence as jvater-laid deposits during or immediately after the age of glaciation have formed soils with true podsol characteristics. The soils are grouped into associations having regard to the physical cornposition and nature of their parent materials. In that manner the following associations have been established, nameI>-, Gagetown, Riverbank and Kennebecnsis.

The Gagetown ,Association is found in many scattered localities throughout the map-area, both near some of the present-day drainage channels and also at points removed from them, where the water from melting glaciers once formed outwash plains, beaches, eskers and kames. The Gagetown soils occupy relief positions which varJ7 from nearly level to strongly undulating. They are for the most part wooded, the well drained soils producing mixed stands of white and greq‘ birch, poplar and spruce, while the ill drained soils are usually covered with a small, somewhat scrubby growth of spruce and alder. The parent material of the association is usually grey or light brown; its thickness above the underlying till or bedrock varies, but it is always found to be more than three or four feet, 87 and in several places where vertical cuts have been observed in excavations, gullies, etc., the depth is twenty feet or more. The parent material contains upwards of 50 per cent gravel, the remaining portion being either a loam or a sandy loam. Stones and boulders rnaJ7 or may not be present. On the more level relief the stratification of the parent material is not so much in evidence, as in the long, narrow ridges, known as eskers and kames, in which cross bedding is commonly seen. In the soil profile the stratification is not quite as pronounced as in the parent material.

~~GXGETOWN SERIES~~

The Gagetown soils have an aggregate extent of some 54,250 acres. The larger continuous areas are in the shore district near St. Martins, in the Saint John-Loch L omond-Barnesville district, at Rothesay, between Salisbury, Steeves Mountain and Pacific Junction, and in the valleys of the Kennebecasis and its tributaries northeast of Sussex. The topography of these area is generally undulating. The natural vegetation on the Gagetown series appear to be mixed; grey and white birch, poplar, spruce and jack pine are the predominant species. It was mentioned above that the parent material contains upwards of 50 per cent of gravel, but this proportion is, of course, subject to many local variations, which may be either higher or lower, and all of which it was impossible to determine and map in a reconnaissance survey. The soils are podsols, but the leached layer is not so deep as might have been expected in a light soil, while the B horizon, which is rusty red or reddish brown, is deeper than in most glacial till soils. Occa- sionally, there is a cemented layer, an iron hardpan, immediately beneath the leached layer. The Gagetown series contains two textural types, the gravelly loam and the gravelly sandy loam. The latter may be described as follows:

Horizon Depth Description A0 Q”- 2” Dark brown organic matter, from leaves, needles and twigs still retaining partly their original structure. pH 4.0. A1 y’- 3” Black layer consisting of mineral soil mixed with considerable amounts of amorphous organic matter, with fair granular structure. This horizon is often very thin or even absent. Roots are numerous. pH 4.0. A2 3” 5” Light grey to dark grey sandy loam with some gravel, structureless, friable; it often extends in pocket-like fashion int,o the B horizon. Roots are numerous. pH 4.0. B! 5”-lf3f’ Bright rusty brown gravelly sandy loam, structureless. open and very porous. The gravel is water-rounded and is usually roughly sorted and stratified. Cross bedding may be encountered in this and the following horizons. Numer- ous roots penetrate easily downwards. pH 4.8. B? lG”e-28” Light reddish brown to medium brown coarse gravelly sandy loam, structureless, open and porous. Some stones are also present. Roots are penetrating downwards. pH 5.0. C 28”t Greyish brown to grey sand and gravel, usually stratified but variably sorted. When the sorting has been poor, there are usually stones of different sizes present, sometimes the sorting has proceeded to such a degree that layers of sand alternate with layers of gravel Roots are scarce in this horizon. pH 5.0. The gravelly loam differs from the preceding description principally with regard to the texture of the top soil, which contains more gravel and less sand. Besides the types and variations already mentioned the Gagetown soils are occasionally shallow, resting at a depth of 3 or 4 feet on gravelly, stony till, which is more or less compact; but this condition is inconsistently distributed and could not be mapped in a reconnaissance survey. The cultivated surface soils of the Gagetown series are grey-brown to light brown according to the content of organic matter. They are usually structureless, but where there is a relatively large percentage of sand and especially where fine material has been “silted out”, a granular structure may develop if the organic-matter content is also high. 88

Agriculture The Gagetown soils cannot be considered good agricultural soils; yet the\ are used to a considerable extent for farming purposes. This somewhat paradoxical situation is due to the fact that the soils are mostly in the neighborhood of rivers and were easily accessible in the early days of settlement. Furthermore, in the St. Martins and the St. John-Loch Lomond districts the Gagetown soils, poor as they are, are probably as productive as the stony, ledgy upland soils. The Gagetown soils are naturally infertile; the fine mineral particles, the silt and the clay, are present only in small amounts and the open, well-aerated, sandy gravelly top soil does not bind much organic matter, which decomposes and mineralizes rapidly. The soil also holds little moisture during the summer, and drought conditions are common, resulting in light hay yields, short-strawed crops of grain, which does not fill out properly, and in brown, wilted pastures at the time of year when good herbage is especially valuable. The hay meadows and the pastures commonly produce more poverty grass, paint brush, sorrel and daisies than good, palatable grasses. The productivity of the Gagetown soils can be improved considerably. Fields that have been well managed bear evidence to that effect. The soils have a high acidity, which can be corrected by the use of relatively small amounts of lime, and their organic-matter content can be increased with green-manuring crops, where the manure supply is insufficient. It is also necessary to use fertilizers, but the economical amounts to use should be determined by the individual farmer by simple experimentation, for any excess that is applied is not stored in these light-textured soils, but is leached out quickly. The response to fertilizers is therefore good. Under the best of conditions the Gagetown soils are expensive to use, and it is doubtful that they are economical, unless the operator is near a good market and can grow some early cash crops for sale. The Gagetown soils dry out rapidly in the spring and are therefore most suitable for early crops such . as strawberries and table potatoes; late-manuring crops should be avoided.

PENOBSQUIS SERIES The Penobsquis series covers some 6,450 acres. It is an ill-drained member of the Gagetown Association, and occurs on flat to depressional relief in the same general areas as the well-drained soils. The nature and the physical composition of the parent material are the same in the two series; but the profile characteristics are different due to differences in the drainage conditions. The Penobsquis series is used only to a very small extent for agricultural purposes, although a certain acreage is in unimproved pasture. The most common growth on these soils is composed of spruce, alder, grey birch, some poplars and shrubby plants. Two soil types have been mapped in this series, namely the Penobsquis gravelly loam and the Penobsquis gravelly sandy loam, the latter may be described as follows: Horizon Depth Description A8 (y’- 2” Dark brown to black layer of semi-decomposed organic matter. The upper portion still indicates the identity and structure of the components; the lower portion is amorphous. pH 4.0. A, 2”- 4” Black layer composed of sandy mineral soil and finely divided organic matter. The structure is often granular; if the sand fraction is large, the structure is less definite. pH 4.0. A:, 4”- 8,’ Greyish white sandy loam, with a certain amount of small gravel. Structure is lacking, and the layer is friable. The lower portion is often somewhat mottled with yellowish brown discolorations. Roots are quite numerous. pH 4.2. B f$“-2(y Dull rusty brown to light brown gravelly sandy loam. Mottling is often difficult to distinguish because of the high gravel content and coarse texture. Ground water is present in this horizon throughout most of the year. This horizon and the succeeding one are stratified and roughly sorted. Some water-rounded stones are often present. Roots are scarce in the lower part. pH 5.0. c 20” + Dull grey to greyish brown sand and gravel, stratified and roughly sorted. The ground water is always present. Very few roots. pH 5.0. Agriculture The Penobsquis soils are not used for crop production, for which purpose they are of no value; but not infrequently they were cleared in the past, either for the sake of the lumber that may have been growing on them or in order to provide pasture. They are now used to some extent for the latter purpose; but as they have largely grown up in bushes and otherwise produce very coarse herbage, their carrying capacity is low and is further diminished by the cutting of the sod caused by the cattle on the wet soil.

RIVERBANK ASSOCIATION The Riverbank Association is found along the slopes of present day river valleys but also at scattered points removed from the latter. The soils are at higher elevations than are reached by contemporary freshets and floods. The topography is usually undulating, sloping or nearly level. The largest con- centration of these soils is in the Sussex-Lower Millstream-Belleisle Creek district. The natural vegetation varies somewhat according to the drainage conditions; spruce and white and grey birch seem to predominate. The parent material of the association is a sandy loam to sand, stratified and fairly well sorted. The stratification is not always plainly visible if the texture is uniform throughout the profile but becomes evident in cases where fine-textured layers alternate with coarser ones. As a rule the parent material is open and porous, especially when it contains some gravel; but in those profiles where fine and coarse grains are separated into alternate layers, there is often some compaction, and the fine grained layers, which contain less sand and more silt and clay, may be nearly impervious. The water-worked parent material is underlain at varying depth by glacial till of the geological variety which forms the parent material of the neighbouring upland soils. As a rule this glacial till is too deeply situated to have had any direct bearing on the course of development of the overlying water-laid material. In some instances soils with glacial till parent material have been encountered in which the upper horizons may have been more or less water worked to a depth of three feet, but in such soils the underlying till is definitely part of the profile and they have been included with their appropriate Associations. (cf. Parleeville (mixed) ; Queens sandy loam, etc.) The well drained soils of the Riverbank association have been mapped as the Riverbank series, while the poorly drained soils have been indicated as the Oromoc to series.

RIVERBANK SERIES The Riverbank series covers some 16,700 acres. It is found on undulating relief and on the slopes of many of the river valleys throughout the map-area. The forest vegetation on this series usually consists of a light growth of white and grey birch, popIar, maple, spruce, fir, jack pine and white pine. The River- bank soils have been cleared in several localities, particularly where they adjoin cultivated upland soils. Two soil types are generally found in the Riverbank series, namely, the sandy loam and the fine sandy loam, but a gravelly sandy loam has also been mapped. These topsoil textures tend to continue downward into the lower horizons. Stones are usually scarce but gravel is more common especially in the sandy loam, where it is sometimes present in sufficient amounts to create the gravelly sandy loam. The sandy loam is the more common and may be described as follows: Horizon Depth Description AQ O”- 1I, Dark brown layer of leaves and needles on top and semi-decomposed organio matter below, Some roots. pH 4.0. 90

I”- 3” Dark brown layer mostly of mineral soil, but containing enough organic matter to produce a dark colour. Usually structureless, open and porous. Roots are plentiful. This layer is not present sufficiently often to be considered typical of the series and it may have originated from mechanical mixing of organic matter and leached soil, when the original vegetation was removed. pH 4.2. 3!,- (jtr White sandy loam to loamy sand, single grained, containing small amounts of gravel. Very little cohesion in the layer, which is usually very dry. Stones are seldom seen. Roots are numerous. pH 4.0. 6tj-w1‘S’I Rusty red to orange brown sandy loam, structureless, open and friable. Small amounts of gravel and occasional small stones are present. Roots are well developed. pH 5.0. 12”-28” Light orange brown to yellowish brown loamy sand, structureless, open and friable. In many profiles there is distinct evidence of stratification in this and the succeeding horizons, the finer and the coarser particle sizes having been separated into alternate thin layers; in some profiles there are even thin, si1t.y layers. The roots of trees and plants penetrate easily into and through this horizon. Gravel is present in varying amounts, but stones are scarce. pH 5.2. 28” + Grey sand to loamy sand, structureless, often uniform and even-textured to depths of 6 feet or more; in other cases stratified into coarse and fine layers. Under- lain at depths varying from 3 feet downward by till of the nature prevailing in neighbouring glacial drift soils, which is usually compact and prevents further downward penetration of roots and water. pH 5.2-5.4. The fine sandy loam does not differ unduly from the preceding description of the sandy loam, except with regard to the texture, which is finer throughout the profile, and may have stratified layers of silt and silty clay. With respect to the depth of the leached layer there is considerable variation within each type; on the more level, yet well-drained land the AZ horizon may be as much as 9 inches thick, while on stronger slopes it conforms more or less with the detailed description given above. The cultivated surface soils of the Riverbank series are grey-brown to light brown and their structure varies from single grain to fairly good granular, according to their texture and state of tilth. The soils are open and friable.

Agriculture The Riverbank series has certain advantages over many of the heavier soils. It dries out early in the spring and thereby permits farming operations as soon as suitable weather sets in, and its even sandy texture, the lack of stones, and the undulating topography, on which it is usually found, make the use of any type of machinery possible for both seeding and harvesting. Grain crops mature early and evenly on the Riverbank soils, and potatoes grown on them are of good quality. On the other hand, these sandy, open soils are not naturally fertile, and they are usually sour and lack the capacity to hold sufficient moisture for good plant growth during periods of warm weather with little rain. The Riverbank soils are, therefore, used most successfully on relatively level topography, where most of the precipitation is absorbed. The incorporation of organic matter either as manure or in other forms has been found to be essential in order to improve the texture and the structure and thus to increase the moisture-holding capacity and also to raise the fertility level. Lime is required to remedy the acidity for the production of crops other than potatoes and berries, for which very little or no liming may be necessary. ‘The use of fertilizer is also essential for most crops, but as the soils are easily leached, the applications should be small and frequent rather than large and at longer intervals. The particular formula to be used depends on the condition of the soil and the crop to be grown; if the organic-matter level of the soil is high, which, however, is seldom the case, phosphoric acid and potash alone may show good response, but usually a complete fertilizer is needed. A wide range of crops are grown on the Riverbank soils, depending on the type of farming followed by the operator of the land. Hay crops are usually poor, because the soil is sour and lacking in organic matter, and a poor hay crop, repeated for several years, is in every respect undesirable. It has a low value in itself, and the amount of organic matter it adds to the soil is insignificant. The 91 soil is not naturally adapted for hay, but if the land is to be used economically for other crops, it is essential that some green-manuring crop be grown and ploughed under regularly. Clover can be grown successfully after application of a small amount of lime. The quality and yield of grain are variable, depending both on the soil conditions and on the weather during the growing season. Rloisture supply- is often the limiting factor. On the whole the Riverbank soils are only moderately well adapted for general farming purposes. While possessing certain advantages with respect to drainage and ease of handling over the heavier, claypan upland soils, they also have certain disadvantages arising from their lightness and lack of retentive power. The crops for which these soils seem best adapted are potatoes and other vegetables, which usually turn out clean and well-shaped, but need considerable fertilization. Berries and small fruits of the common varieties grow exceptionally well on the Riverbank soils.

K~~NNERECASIS ASSO~I.~T~ON The Kennebecasis Association like the Riverbank ,%ssociation is found along the slopes of river valleys and in some cases at locations that cannot be associated with present-day river valleys. The parent material consists of sandy alluvial deposits and differs from the Riverbank material in colour only. The “C” horizon is red or dark red and at some locations there are alternating layers of red and grey material. The reddish colour links the Association with the red or reddish brown rock formations in the map-area; but it is thought that besides the colour no other soil-forming characteristics peculiar to the parent rock have been able to persist in the water-worked soils. The well drained soils of the Kennebecasis ,Association have been mapped as the Kennebecasis series, while the poor117 drained soils have been grouped with the Oromocto soils. J~ENNI~WXSIS SEKII~S . The Kennebecacis series covers approximatel>. 2,000 acres and is found chiefly in the Kennebecasis valley’ and between Sussex and Belleisle. It is characterized by nearly the same relief and environment as the Riverbank series. The description of the Kennebecasis series is very similar to that of the Riverbank series with regard to texture, structure, depth and arrangement of the horizons; the main difference is to be found in the colours of certain of the layers. The -AZ horizon, while greyish white, has a slightly reddish tint, and in the B:! layer a reddish cast is more obvious than the rusty brown resulting from the deposition of sesquioxides. The “C” horizon is red to dark red. The same textural classes are found in both the Kennebecasis and Riverbank series. The cultivated surface soils of the Kennebecasis series are grey-brown to light brown, their structure varies from single grain to fairly good granular according to their texture and state of tilth. The}- are always open and friable. Agriculture The Kennebecasis soils form a fairly, continuous area between Lower hIill- stream and Belleisle Creek, and are used there in general farming with moderate success. The same advantages and disadvantages as are found in the River- bank soils also obtain in the Kennebecasis series. One of the main drawbacks is the tendency of these soils to become drought)7 at the time when the crops should be making their best growth. Sourness and lack of organic matter can be remedied by. the use of lime and manure or green-manuring crops. The crops which seem to be most suitable for the Kennebecasis soils are potatoes, vegetables, berries and small fruits; these products are generally of a good marketable qualit).. In the natural condition the growth on the Kennebecasis soils is usually composed of spruce, jack pine, white and grey birch, poplar, blueberry bushes and other shrubs. 92

The Oromocto series extends over some 19,300 acres in the survey-ed area, and it is found at scattered points, usually near the rivers and streams, in association with the Riverbank and the Kennebecasis series, forming close geographical patterns with them. The relief on which the Oromocto soils occur is low and usually rather smooth, the downward drainage being impeded by unrelated strata of boulder clay or bedrock underneath. As a consequence of the poor natural drainage conditions, the Oromocto soils are generally wet throughout the summer and mottling may be observed in the I3 horizons. The texture of the soils is a sandy loam, well sorted and comparatively free from stones, except in the “C” horizon, where the sorting is frequently poor and where gravelly la\Ters, which usually contain stones, may be found to alternate with thin la\lers of silt or clay loam. The Oromocto soils are largely wooded, the growth being rather poor partly because of cutting and partly because of unsuitable soil conditions. The species most commonly seen are spruce, fir, larch, alder, white birch and poplar. Two tJ-pes occur in this series the sandy loam and the fine sandy loam. The sand\. loam ma>- be described as follows: Horizon Depth Description All 0°C 2” Dark brown to black,.semi-decomposed organic matter derived from coniferous and deciduous growth, containing great numbers of fine roots. pH 4.0. A1 2”- 3” Black layer of mineral soil and well decomposed organic matter, often with fairly good granular structure, many fine roots. pH 4.0. A2 3”- 8” Greyish white sandy loam, structureless or occasionally with some development of a platy structure. Small amounts of gravel arc often present, but stones are lacking. Roots are numerous. pH 4.2-4.4. n, X”Ll5” Rusty to yellowish grey sandy loam, mottled, structureless, very friable, small amounts of gravel are present, and infrcqucntly small stones may be seen. Roots have an apparently fair developmrnt. pH 4.64.8. H* lfj”-10” Light yellow brown to brownish grey sandy loam, strongly mottled, structureless, loose and friable. Layers characterized by different particle sizes are often encountered. Gravel and small stones are present in larger;,;u;ts. Roots are scarce. The water-table is often present in this horizon. c 30” t Layers of bluish grey sand or loamy sand alternating with layers ‘0; silt, silty clay loam, or gravel. Stones are frequent in the gravel, roots are absent. pH 5.2-5.4. At variable depth, ranging from 3 feet downwar(1, the “C” horizon is underlain by compact boulder clay or bedrock. M-here the Oromocto soils are closel\- associated \\.ith the Kennebecasis series, the “13” and “C” horizons usuall\- have a reddish tinge.

Agriculture The Oromocto series is used only. to a verJ7 small extent as farmland and usuall~~ it is not improved. The poor drainage, which it would seldom prove economical to correct, generally precludes the growing of grain and other farm crops. If the land is cleared it provides natural pasture, the quality of which is usualI!- poor; however, the range in drainage conditions within the series is fairly wide, and under favourable circumstances the better-drained phases may produce good pasture or hay crops. As a rule no attempt should be made to bring the Oromocto soils under cultivation, but they ma>- be cleared and used for cranberry production under favourable conditions. Otherwise they should be left in forest.

H. Immature Soils in Process of Development on Recent Flood and Tidal Deposits (Azonal soils) U’hile the climatic and vegetative conditions in the surveyed district are such that pods01 soils will form from any kind of parent material in a given length of time, which is presumed to var\- n-it11 the nature of the parent material, 1 93 there are some soils in the map-area which have not had time to become pod- solized, because their parent materials have been laid down only in recent times. Those are the first bottom soils found on the flats and islands of many rivers and streams and the marsh soils which have been built up from tidal deposits 11 on the low shores of the Bay of Fundy, particularly near the head of the Bay and I along the banks of the Rlemramcook and Petitcodiac rivers. These soils have / no marked profile horizons, but their colour, which is often light brown, changes gradually from the surface downward, being rather darker on top and becoming greyish bro wn at a depth of 30 inches or 3 feet. Such soils are referred to as “-4zonal” soils because they lack zonal profile development. The immature azonal soils cover some 80,750 acres in the surveved area. The topography on which thel: occur is level to very gently undulating. The vegetative cover in the uncultivated state is grasses or a shrubby growth of alders. These soils are divided into three ;issociations, naniel!Y, Intervale, Sussex and -Acadia Associations.

The lntervale I%ssociation is found in small areas along most of the rivers and brooks in the map area. The topography is very gently undulating to level lvith a slope varying between 23 and 0 per cent. The soils are similar in all essential characteristics to the Intel-vale soils as found in the Fredericton-Gagetown and the LVoodstock districts. The parent material of the Intervale soils is a stratified, well sorted, fine smdy to silt?; or cla\reJ- alluvium, usuall>* completeI>- free from stones and gravel; it usualI!, extends to a depth of more than three or four feet from the surface. These soils receive occasionally fresh surface deposits, when the rivers are in flood during the spring. This is most significant along the Saint John river, which rises much higher during freshets than the smaller, shorter rivers and streams in southeastern New Bruns\vick, and which carries much more suspended material than the latter. The Kennebecasis river causes the most extensive flooding in the map-area.

The Intervale series occupies 25,100 acres. The parent material is a greyish brown silty loam or very’ fine sand>- loam, free from stones and gravel, friable and mellow, and the topsoil is usuall!. a brown to gre)’ brown silty to very fine sandy loam with good granular structure, mellow and suitably moist throughout the growing season. The term “well drained” as applied to these soils means that the ground-water is well below the normal range of the roots of crop plants during the growing season. However, during the spring and fall the water-table is often high, but subsides rapidly as the level in the adjoining river falls. These rec.urrent fludtuations of the ground-water cause some mottling in the subsoil, which condition is not encountered in well drained upland soils, except those n.ith heavy subsoils on gently sloping land. Three soil types have been mapped in the Intervale Series; they are the silt loam, the silty to very fine sandy loam, and the silty to fine sandy loam over gravel. The textural variations, which are not great, usually extend to the parent material. In the case of the last-named types there is, however, an unusual change in texture at a depth of about two or three feet below the surface, where the soil is underlain by stratified gravel, which it may be assumed was deposited at a time when the flow of the stream concerned was quite different from what it has been in recent times. 94

There are small differences, particularly- as to colour and mottling between profiles of the individual types in the Intervale series, but on an average the follo\ving description is typical of the silty to very fine sandy loam in the cultivated state.

Depth Description ()“- 6” Brown to chocolate brown very fine sandy loam, containing fair amounts of organic matter. l’he structure is granular, and the consistency is friable and mellow. pH 6.0-6.5. 6”-24” Light brown to greyish brown very fme sandy loam with granular structure, open and friable. Grass roots are numerous. pH 6.5. 24”.L (irevish brown to dark grey very fine sandy loam, usually with a granular structure. The c~ons&trncy remains friable. Some degree of mottliFE t 5freyuentJly discernible, but the moisture content is not excessive during the summer. . .

The silt\- loam, which is less extensive, differs from the preceding description mainl\, in the texture, as the name states. The silt\- to very’ fine sandy loam over gravei is the most variable of the three types. Besides being underlain by coarse to fine gravel it is seldom mottled and its moisture content is variable, being dependent 011 small variations in the water-table and thereby on its elevation above the summer level of the adjacent stream as \vell as on seasonal and annual weather fluctuations. The more strongl>, mottled and moister soils of the Intervale association have been mapped by attaching the suffix “i” to the type designation. Texturally they arc similar to the better drained Intervale soils, but they have a darker topsoil, due to a greater content of organic matter, and the structure is usually not well developed except in the immediate topsoil. The whole profile is very moist and the lower part is saturated. Where the whole profile is saturated and the surface is covered with water all the year except possibly for a short time during the summer, the area concerned is mapped as “swamp”.

Agriculture The Intervale soils are cleared extensivel>l, because they have a high natural fertility and appear to be suitable for the production of almost any crop, from ha). and grain to roots, vegetables and small fruits. The potentialities of the ill-drained areas are, of course, limited to the natural haJ, crops. Artificial drainage is ver?- difficult and is limited to deepening of the natural drainage channels, \Ihere the flow is sluggish, and to the digging of open-ditch drains. Even the well drained Intervale soils are wet in the spring, and the planting and seeding rnaJ. be delayed on that account, but the growth is usually rapid and very satisfactory during the summer. The freedom from stones and the favourable relief are also factors which make even a small acreage of lntervale soils a valuable asset on a farm. The very moist areas are often covered with shrubs and bushes or with a coarse growth of grasses and sedges; they are not used for farming purposes.

SUSSICC .~SSOCIATION The soils of the Sussex Association are alluvial soils occurring in the beds of river valleJ,s. They are similar in most respects to the Intervale soils except in colour. The parent material of the Sussex soils has a reddish colour and the upper parts of the soil also have a reddish cast. In other respects the morphology of the Sussex soils is not essentially different from that of the Intervale. They have similar variations in texture and drainage conditions. The fact that the parent material is red and the further fact that the adjacent streams pass through areas in which the bedrock is also red lead to the conclusion that the source of the parent material is in the red Mississippian formations. 95

SUSSEX SERIES The Sussex series covers some 7,850 acres, located chiefly along the Kenne- becasis river and some of its tributaries and also along other rivers flowing through the reddish formations of Mississippian age. A detailed description of the silty to very five sandy loam is the same as that of the Intervale soil given above, except that the colour is reddish below plough depth.

~~Agriculture The Sussex soils are used for agricultural purposes in the same manner and to the same extent as the In tervale Soils.~~

ACADIA ASSOCIATION The Acadia Association covers some 47,750 acres in the region of the head of the Bay of Fundy. Very small acreages, only a few hundred acres, are also found on the Bay Verte shores and near Saint John city. The largest continuous acreage-some 22,800 acres- is found in the Tantramar marshes at Sackville, and others of considerable size occur along the Memramcook and Petitcodiac rivers, near Hillsborough, and in the Hopewell-Albert district. The well drained members of the Association are locally known as “marsh” or “dykeland”. These soils are of recent origin and are, like the soils of the Intervale Association, azonal; but while the latter are forming from fresh water alluvium, the parent material of the Acadia soils is a salt water deposit. It is subject to flooding twice daily, unless steps are taken to prevent this by means of dykes. The interesting natural phenomenon of a difference of as much as 45 feet between high and low tide in the upper part of the Bay of Fundy, which has been discussed previously, has been a contributing factor to the deposition of the . parent material of the Acadia soils. Borings have shown that the depth of alluvium is 150 feet l/3 mile “off shore” at Fowler’s Hill on Aulac Ridge, while at the same distance from the Sackville “shore” the depth is 60 feet. Large acreages of marsh, which are now well drained, have a layer of reddish brown, granular top soil with a thickness varying from twelve inches or less to 24 inches overlying a thin horizon of black organic matter with bluish grey mineral material underneath. This condition has been brought about by dyking, controlled flooding and rapid drainage of the flooded waters. Under natural conditions the marsh is flooded twice daily, and the vegetation is limited to coarse sedges and such other plants as can exist under the very moist, saline conditions. In the upper part of the Tantramar marsh there are large areas of swampy tracts supporting a growth of moss, sedges, vines and stunted trees, The better drained portions of the marsh produce grasses of different species, which are used for hay. Trees do not seem to grow naturally on the Acadia soils. The present drainage conditions of the Acadia soils vary from good through many intermediate stages to very poor and even swampy. For the sake of con- venience in description the association has been divided arbitrarily into five members which have not been named individually except by adding a subscript to the symbol for the association; thus, A1 indicates the soil in which the drainage is best and As the one in which it is poorest. The following classification was used in the mapping of the marsh soils: Al-well drained, AZ-fairly well dra .i ned, As-poorly drained, Ab---ill drained, As-very ill drained to swampy. The following characteristics were used to established the drainage divisions: 96 ;I,: I,ight brown to reddish brown cla)-, silt\- cla!- loam, silt loam, or silty clay (in order of dominance) to a depth of 6 inches overl!-ing light brown to reddish brown clay, silt)- clay loam, silty loam, silty clay or clay loam (also in order of dominance) to a depth of at least 12 inches below the surface, though often deeper. The vegetation on this series usually consists of good English hay (timothlr and clover).’ ,?12: Similar to -41 with the exception that from a depth of 6 inches downwards the soil is mottled. The ha>7 is generally not of quite as good quality as on the rll series. \ As: A thin 1aqTerof black organic matter covers the surface and the soil is satu- . rated and mottled. In many cases there is no brownish deposit on top of the bluish-grey alluvium. The hay consists chiefly of brown top, broadleaf and bent grasses, with patches of a coarser growth. Aq: 6 inches-l0 inches of dark brown peaty organic matter overlying bluish grey alluvium, which is saturated, stick)., and massive. The vegetation is very coarse. -iis: The organic layer has a thickness of 10 inches or more, but is not deep enough to be classed as peat. This soil is usually under water all summer and is a transition between the marsh proper and the bogs and lakes at the head of the Tantramar marsh. The vegetation is limited to reeds and sedges.

Agriculture The Acadia soils have been used agriculturally for at least three centuries. - In 1612 the early French navigators spoke of these extensive marshes, and a report to the King of France in 1670 stated that the -Acadians “have skillfull\r d\Tked the salt marshes and on these dykes they raise with so little labour large crops of hay, grain and flax and feed such large herds of fine cattle that an easy means of subsistence is afforded, causing them altogether to neglect the rich uplands”. About the year 1880 Prof. Sheldon of the MYIts and Hants Agricultural College, Downton, Salisbury, England, stated (1) “The land within the dykes is firm and solid, of excellent quality and covered with a thick sward of coarse, though vigorous and nutritive grass. The fertility of these reclaimed soils is unusually high; they are never manured, but cut on the average upwards of tu;o tons of hay to the acre-a J-ield which has been sustained for many years and shows no sign of running out”. “The land, however, under this system of farming is found to become weedy in the course of time, and it becomes expedient to plough up portions of it in rotation, at intervals of ten or twelve years, taking one crop of oats with which new grass seeds are sown to form the new sward which is desired.” “The system of cultivation of new dyked land is very simple and consists of surface drainage by cutting ditches 22 yards apart, 3 feet wide at the top, two feet nine inches deep, and sloping to one foot wide at the bottom. About three years afterwards the land is ploughed in ridges of six to eight feet wide, sown with oats and seeded down to timothy and clover. It then yields large crops of grass of a coarse description; and it would seem to me that careful draining, generous cultivation and discriminating manuring would increase the quantity, or at all events improve the quality of the grass”. Charles H. Lugrin, Secretary of the New Brunswick Board of Agriculture, \vrote (1) in 1886: “The dyked land produces naturally couch, broadleaf and water grass. Couch (not upland couch) is nutritious and makes excellent hay for horses. Broadleaf with grain fattens cattle rapidly (stringent properties -____ (1) Note: “English Hay” is a colloquialism meaning mixed clover and timothy. 97 prevent scouring in forced feeding). Water grass is a leafy triangular grass, rich in saccharine matter; combined with clover it promotes flow of milk rather than growth of muscle and fat. “When the land is seeded down with clover and timothy the clover generally disappears after a year or two and the timothy a few years later, being supplanted by white clover and couch. Marshes to be kept in the best condition require thorough draining and should be broken up frequently-three tons of hay to the acre is the ordinary yield of the best kept marsh.” “All kinds of marsh are much improved by being occasionally flowed by the tide. The following year the crop is diminished, but is succeeded by several years of increased yields -Wheat is found to be a very profitable crop on the dykelands after these floodings, as high as fifty bushels to the acre have been produced.” “LIarsh lots are not fenced off. Owners pasture on the aftermath a number of cattle proportionate to the exten t of thei r holdings.” The drainage conditions of the marsh lands around the head of the Bay of Fund\7 have changed considerably since the French settlers started dyking the rivers and raising crops on the marshes. The Aulac river, which is now a very small stream, was originally much larger and contained a dry dock near the point where the present Jolicure-Sackville road turns west to cross the marsh. In 1827 the river was dammed four miles from its mouth and in 1840 a dam was built less than two miles farther down. At present it is dammed at the mouth, under the railway crossing. A sluice permits the drainage water to flow out, but the tides cannot enter. The Tantramar river is dyked, but not dammed and the tides rush through its entire length twice daily. A dam built at its mouth would save much expensive dyking and facilitate the reclamation of much ill-drained marsh. About the year 1815 Tolar Thompson, a marsh owner, started a canal in the upper part of the Tantramar marsh, and other canals were dug later, but their effectiveness as drainage outlets has been destroyed by silting and the growth of moss. The drainage conditions of the ,\cadia soils have deteriorated in recent times due to the failure to maintain the dykes in serviceable order. This failure has been caused at least partly by economic factors involving markets and prices for the marsh hay. At present some investigational work with relation to the rehabilitation of the marsh areas is being done by the Advisory Committee on Dykeland Rehabilitation. The present-day use of the marsh is somewhat variable, Many farmers use it in connection with upland farms, where a considerable number of livestock may be kept. Many farmers keep a dairy herd, others specialize in the raising of beef cattle. In either case cheap but nutritious hay is obtained from the marsh lot, and in addition there is a cash income from the sale of hay.‘Good hay, grain and root crops are reported by many farmers who use neither lime nor fertilizer, whereas others use moderate applications for increased yields. Beef cattle and young cattle are pastured on the dry, somewhat sloping creek banks, where it is common to see a good sod of clover and grass, while the flat marsh is given over to hay production. Most farmers are very conscious of the drainage problem, but they are not agreed on either methods or policy to be followed in its solution. Some of them favour a permanent sod, believing that a rotation of crops is not desirable on the marsh, which they maintain, should never be in need of ploughing and re-seeding, if properly drained. Under present conditions it is customary to plough the marsh and re-dig drainage ditches and it is commonly estimated that the cost per acre should be two or three dollars per year in order to keep the dykes in good condition. The economic depression of the 1930’s and the wartime scarcity of labour have been responsible for the lack of upkeep of dykes and drainage ditches, and 98 many marsh-owners feel that the government should remedy the situation, while the upland farmers feel that they are no less entitled to assistance than the marsh owners, who in the past have reaped considerable wealth from their land at comparatively small expense. In any case, the matter is being studied by the government.

III. Organic Soils Organic soils occur at scattered points throughout the map area, but they are most common on the relatively flat and poorly drained land associated with * the grey Carboniferous sandstones. They occupy a total of about 5,900 acres. The organic soils owe their origin to the accumulation of vegetable matter in shallow water, and the process is still going on in man>’ lakes and ponds. The depth of organic matter over the mineral subsoil varies considerably. In many cases it is 12 feet or more, while in other cases it is often difficult to distinguish between organic soils and the very ill drained upland soils. Only those areas with a covering of organic matter at least 12 inches deep or more are mapped as organic soils. TheJr are underlain by bluish-grey or !Tellowish mineral drift. The organic soils are classed in two groups, peat and muck.

Peat soils cover about 5,700 acres in the map area. The>, consist of a brownish, fibrous material representing the dead remains of moss and sedges, which as a rule are so poorly decomposed that the original plant structure is still dis- tinguishable. The peat is water-logged and has a very acid reaction. The vegetation is composed of scattered, stunted black spruce and white birch, Labrador tea, cranberries, blueberries, sedges and sphagnum moss. The peat soils are not suited for farming put-poses.

The muck soils are much less extensive than the peat, covering about 200 acres. The surface soil to a depth of about 12 inches consists of a black, amorphous mass of organic matter in an advanced stage of decomposition, which is very acid, although less so than the peat, while the subsoil is made up of organic remains in various stages of decay. When wet the surface layer is greasy and smear-J’, but during the summer it becomes fairly dry and assumes the semblance of a granular structure, while the lower part remains wet and fibrous. The vegetation is sparse and consists of stunted cedar, tamarack, black spruce, and white birch with an undergrowth of moss and coarse grasses.

Agriculture Most of the muck soils are still covered with the natural vegetation, but some of the better-drained areas are used as natural pasture. None of them have been brought under cultivation except for occasional narrow strips that form part of a field of mineral soil. Such muck areas are best suited for hay, as the cereals usually lodge and fail to fill out and mature properly. A limited area of muck soils could possibly be used to advantage in the production of certain garden crops, where such soils were situated reasonabl\r close to markets. The muck soils have an abundant supply of organic matter, although the carbon- nitrogen ratio is also high, but theJ7 are lacking in man!’ mineral plant nutrients, which it would be necessary to add in the form of fertilizer for successful crop production. 99 Rating and Suitability of the Soils of Southeastern New Brunswick for Agricultural Use The preceding descriptions and discussions of the individual soils in the surveyed area are based on field observations of the soils and the crops growing on them and on information obtained from farmers. Records of actual crop yields over a number of Jvears or other scientific measurements of productivity are almost entirely lacking in the map-area, which makes it impossible to give any of the soil types a definite productivity rating in terms of a given standard. Never- theless, in order to summarize present indications of the productivity of each soil type and in order to put this summary in the form of a comparative rating of soil types, Table 11 has been constructed. The rating is only a temporary estimate, which may be useful, until more accurate data can be obtained. The basis of the rating does not include any external factors such as stoniness, slope, degree of erosion, which have an important bearing on productivity,. For the purpose of this rating these factors have been assumed to be favourable. In cases where they differ from the norm, a corresponding change would be required in the rating of the soil. Each of the terms employed to represent a rating, i.e. good, fair, poor, unsuitable, covers a considerable range, which cannot be subdivided, until more information is at hand. Where two terms are combined to give a rating the range is even wider; the employment of a combination of terms is necessary, where there are considerable local variations in the characteristics of the soil type, or where the productivity is particularly dependent on a favourable growing season or on other variables.

~~TABLE 11 COMPARATIVE RATING OF THE SOILS I N SOUTHEASTERN NEW BRUNSWICK -.~~

~~Ruck- &IL TYPE oats Barley Wheat >rassef ‘asture Small wheat Fruits~~

Queens clay loam...... P-F Queens loam...... Queens sandy loam...... ; Dorchester clay loam.. . . . Dorchester loam...... ; Dorchester sandy loam. . . Salisbury clay loam., . . . . , F-F Salisbury sandy loam.. . . ; Salisbury loam...... , . . . . . Petitcodiac clay...... F-P Petitcodiac clay loam, . . . , F Petitcodiac loam...... Shemogue loam...... F-G Shemogue sandy loam. . . . Parry clay loam...... F: Parry loam to sandy loam F-p Parry sandy loam...... Kings clay loam...... F-U Kings loam...... Kings sandy loam...... ;I; Tormentine loam...... Tormentine sandy loam.. . g Aulac sandy loam...... Tidnish loam...... ;$j Tidnish sandy loam...... P-U Queenville sandy loam.. . . F-G Queenville light sandy loam F-G Dee light sandy loam.. . . . Anagance loamy sandy.. . . ru Crossman sandy loam.. . . . F-P Crossman light sandy loam P Dunsinane light sandy loam Dunsinane loam sandy.. . . ti Lomond loam...... F-P

~~G - Good. F - Fair. P - Poor. U - Unsuitable. 100 TABLE 11 COMPARATIVE RATIXG OF THE SOILS IX SOUTHEa4STERK NEW BRUNSWICK --Concluded~~

~~SOIL TYPE Oats Barley Pastur Small Fruits --~~

Kingston loam to silt loan E G Kingston sandy loam. . . . Deed loam to sandy loam ; $ Deed loam to heavy loan F-P P Kingsclear clay loam. . . . . G G-F Parleeville gravelly sand! loam...... E F-G Nackawic clay loam. . . . E-P F-P F-P Midland loam...... F-P F-P F-P Midland sandy loam.. . . P-F P-F P Saltspring (*lay loam . . . . Saltspring loam ...... g $ g Kninhtville clav ...... F-G F-G Knizhtvillc clai, loam. . . E Byrns clay to clay loam. g-F P-E F Byrns clay loam...... F-P P Ryrns loam...... F-P : Gagetown gravelly loam. I’ ; F-P Gag&own gravelly sand3 loam...... F-I’ F-P 1:-p P-F F-P Penobsquis gravelly loam P I’ P P-F I’ Penobquis gravelly sand3 loam ...... 1’ P-F I’ Riverbank sandy loam. . i-r; F-G g Riverbank fine sandy loam g:g G-F F-G Kennebecasis sandv loam F-G F-G F-G G Kennebecacis fine sandy loam...... G-F G-F F F-G Oromocto sandy loam: : : : P F-P Interval silty loam...... G c g-E G Inti~~~~~ VC~Y fine sandy ...... G G G-F G Interval silty to fine sandy loam over gravel. G-F G-F Susstax silty loam. . . .:I : : 1 G G E-F ii Sussex silty to fine sandy loam ovf’r gravel...... G-F G-F G G Int~~~k~perfectly r ...... E’:p F F Sussex, imperfectly drained F-P ;I; F F Acadia clay to silty clay: A 1...... A2. . . , ...... , . .b...... * ...... ;\4...... -\a...... * . . . . Peat...... Muck.. . , ...... - - G - Good. F - Fair. P - Poor. U - Unsuitable.

Land Classification for Southeastern New Brunswick The descriptions of topography, climate and soils given in previous secc:1ons of this report show that the 2,489,OOOacres in the surveyed area represent a great variety of soil types, topographic land farms, degrees of stoniness and even climatic conditions. Since many soils have a number of factors in common in addition to having the same land use, a grouping of the soils is possible into what may be called land use groups. Each group may be suitable for the production of farm crops generally or of an individual crop in particular, whereas some other land use group may include soils which give onl\- mediocre yields of any agricultural crop, but may produce good forest stands or good pasture. These differ- 101 ences between land use groups with regard to adaptability for farming and other purposes form a basis on which broad policies of land utrlization within a given district may be formulated. IVhen the land use groups that make up a given tract of land are defined and mapped out, each one may be rated for agriculture, forestry,, and other uses according to its natural productivity. The economic and social factors, such as distance from markets, the condition of roads, etc., which influence the economy. of production and living conditions on that particular tract of land, must then be evaluated and applied to adjust the productivity ratings, and the results provide the data on which to base a plan for the proper use of the land. A refined land classification is not within the scope of this report, but the information at hand will serve as a basis on which the soils in the surveyed area 11x1\- be tentatively assigned to what is at present considered the most suitable utifization, and until more detailed work can be done this grouping may be used to delineate land into use groups such as crop land, pasture, and forest land, to prevent settlement on unsuitable land, to encourage clearing or drainage of I)otentially good agricultural land, to assist the farmer Lvith regard to adjust- ment to the proper type of farming in his circumstances and in the division of his land into crop land, permanent pasture, and woodlot. The land use grouping of the soils for southeastern New Brunswick is given in table 12. The adaptability of each individual soil type has been arrived at by considering the following factors: (1) Profile characteristics, including texture, structure, thickness of the horizons individually- and collectively. (2) Topography and relief (erodibilityr and drainage). (3) Stoniness, both on the surface and in the body of the soil. (4) Chemical characteristics, such as acidity, total amounts of plant nutrients and the proportions of silica and sesquioxides in the .12 and the B horizons. (5) The condition of the crops insofar as this is assumed to reflect the fertility of the soils. III other words, the classification takes cognizance of the following soil properties ; natural fertilitv and physical conditions, erodibility, liability to drought, drainage conditions and ease or difficulty in using agricultural machinery. It will be noted that the soils are listed in table 12 in a different order from that in which they appear in the soil classification scheme on pages 51-59; the reason being that a classification that is made to serve some specific practical ~)urpose (in this case land utilization) does not necessarily emphasize those properties that are most significant in a natural scheme, which is constructed so as to facilitate scientific investigations of naturally related objects. The soil properties according to which the grouping in table 12 have been made have been discussed previously in the description of the individual soil types, and table 12 really presents only a recapitulation of those descriptions. The characteristics of each group in table 12 may be stated as follows:

Group 1 This group consists of moderately drained, immature, water-laid soils which have not developed podsolic characteristics. The soil is sufficiently deep to allow good root development, the texture is silty to clayey, and the structure is usually7 granular and well developed. The topography is level to gently undulating so that erosion is a very remote danger. The surface of the land as well as the profile, are free from stones. The use of machinery is, therefore, in no way impeded by stoniness or topography. The soils are naturally fertile. Hay I)roduction has been successful on these soils for many years, and they yield excellent pasturage as well. These soils and particularly. the marshlands show no tendency to revert to forest growth. 102

~~TABLE 12 BROAD LAXD USE CLASSES OF SOILS IN SOUTHEASTERN NEW BRUNSWICK~~

SOIL TYPES GROUP I - Good Cropland Especially Adapted for Hay, Acadia, good drainage (-41) Acadia, fair drainage (A?) Interval silt loam Interval very fine sandy loam Interval silty to fine sandy loam over gravel Sussex silt loam Sussex very fine sandy loam Sussex silty to fine sandy loam over gravel

GRorP II - Cropland, General. Kingsclear clay loam Parleeville gravelly loam Parleeville gravelly sandy loam Saltspring clay loam Saltepring loam Knightville clay Knightville clay loam Tormentine loam Tormentine sandy loam Shemogue loam Shemogue sandy loam Petitcodiac clay Petitcodiac clay loam Petitcodiac loam Salisbury clay loam Salisbury loam Salisbury sandy loam Queens rlay loam Queens loam Queens sandy loam Riverbank sandy loam Riverbank fine sandy loam Kennebecasis sandy loam Kennebecasis fine sandy loam

GROUP III - Forestry Land. Under Certain Conditions Suituble for Pasture or Special Agriculture. Kingston loam to silt loam Kingston sandy loam Dorchester clay loam Dorchester loam Dorchester sandy loam Crossman sandy loam Crossman light sandy loam Queenville sandy loam Queenville light sandy loam Parry clay loam Parry loam to sandy loam Parry sandy loam Lomond loam Aulac sandy loam Anagance loamy sand Gagetown gravelly loam Gagetown gravelly sandy loal n GRO7TP IV - Forestry Land or Pasture Land Depending on Moisture Conditions. Nackawic clay loam Midland loam Midland sandy loam Byrns clay to clay loam Byrns clay loam Byrns loam Tidnish loam Tidnish sandy loam Kings clay loam Kings loam Kings sandy loam Deed loam to heavy loam Deed sandy loam to loam Oromocto sandy loam Oromocto fine sandy loam Dee sandy loam Dee light sandy loam -. _I

~~103~~

TABLE 12 BROAD LAIVD WE CLASSES OF SOILS IN SOUTHEASTERS NEW BRUNSWICK --(‘otKl?tdrtl nunsinane light sandy loam Dunsinane loamy sand Penobsquis gravelly loam Pclnobsquis gravelly sandy loam (;HOI-P \- -- Potrvrtial Hay Land, Pasture or Special Purpnse Lnml. ,\radia, poor drainage (A?) kadia, ill drained (A0 kadia, wry ill drained (.\ ,\ Intrrval, ill drained Sussrx, ill tlraiwcl Peat Muck

The soils in group 2 are suitable for general crop production. They are mostI\ upland soils formed on glacial till, but include two series of sand\r, water- laid soils. Their profile characteristics vary over a considerable range, but are in the main favourable for the growth of cereals, grasses and clover. The topography varies from undulating to rolling, and there is danger of erosion on many of the soils. Losses already sustained are in some cases severe. Inexpensive erosion- control measures should be taken by individual farmers. The drainage conditions of the (;roup II soils are good. Stoniness is usually not such as to interfere serious117with the agricultural use of the land, but in some instances it is necessary to pick the surface stones. The chemical character of the soils, i.e. their fertility, is variable, l)ut in no case are the soils so fertile that the ordinary methods of fertilization and amendment can be safely neglected. Liming and the incorporation of organic matter in the form of either manure or green-manuring crops are essential and commercial fertilizers increase the yields on all the soils.

Group III The soils listed in Group 1I I are not suitable for general agricultural purposes. To anticipate the objection that some of them are being used satisfactorily in that manner it ma)- be said that Table 12 gives only a general, broad picture of the land use groups. Thus the Kingston soils generally have a rough broken topograph!? and are very stony; they are therefore in the forestry use group, and a glance at a topographic map of the Kingston peninsula will show that the Kingston soils are very largely in woods and that relativeljr few farms are located along the roads of the interior of the peninsula. The successful farms are on better topography, where much work has been done td remove stones. Further- more, such farms are usually not what may be called dairy farms or general farms, but are strongly dependent on side lines such as orcharding, strawberry growl-ing or truck gardening. The profile characteristics of the soils in Group II I vary from fair to very poor, and the topography is mainlJ7 unfavourable to farming. All the soils with the exception of the Gagetown series are very stony, and with the possible exception of the Kingston series also infertile. Under certain economic conditions it may be advisable to use some of these soils, especiallqr the Lomond series for permanent communit>- or private pasture, and in a very few cases individual farmers have successfully specialized in potato growing and the production of seed grain and turnip seed on some of the sandy soils, while attempts at general farming have failed, except in combination with the specialization just mentioned. Strawberries and blueberries may also be grown on many of these soils of Group I I I ; but in general it would be economical to let them produce trees, for which 104 purpose the). are well suited. The fact that the tree growth is small on the wooded land is due to the disregard that has been shown for the conservation of the natural resource represented by the forest. Group IV The soils classified in this group have diverse properties in all respects but one, they are al! poorly drained and are for that reason alone unsuitable for general farming purposes. But the ill-drained condition, as used for soil classification purposes, refers to a considerable moisture range. While the soils are not suitable for general farming, they are often adaptable for pasture, if allowance is made for their tendency to be moist or wet in the spring and the fall as well as after heavy. rains in the summer. These soils have been placed in the forestry use group, because it would appear to be most economical to use them in that manner, without regard to the fact that they may not produce trees as economically as the soils of Groui, 111. If the soils of Group 11’ are drained artificialllr, the). ma?’ become members of Groups I I or I Il. Group 1’ Group ‘v is a use group in which the soils are ill drained, but it is separated from Group IV, because if drained the soils of Group V may become members of Group 1. Some less poorly drained areas of Group L’ soils are at present producing natural grasses and clover which are cut for hay, but in order to grow them the\7 need to be artificially drained. This matter of artificial drainage is of particular importance in the marsh areas, where much land could be reclaimed and placed in Group I ; the process has been the reverse for many years. It was pointed out above, and it is emphasized again, that the land classifi- cat ion here presented is a broad one ; it has been prepared.and included in this report to give a partial answer to the oft-heard question, “What is such and such a block of land best suited for-agriculture or forestry?” The complete answer would involve an investigation into the economic and social factors operating in a given locality, such as markets, distance from markets by road or railwa>-, presence or absence of schools, churches, trading facilities, electrification, etc., the t>-pe of farming to be followed, the size of the farm unit, the extent of the soil t>-pes present and the nature of the adjoining land. The climatic conditions and the characteristics of the soils in New Brunswick are such that forests are the natural form of vegetation, and any other utilization of the land is more or less in conflict with the natural process of selection. Evidence to that effect may be observed in the unfailing self-reforestation on farm land that is not under regular cultivation. The fact that planning and effort and capital outlay are required to put land to any other use than forestry demands that the utilization of land should be governed by carefully tested principles based on facts and experience. IJnfortunately much land unsuitable for agriculture was used for farming purposes in southeastern New Brunswick as well as elsewhere, and the result is a high incidence of farm failures and abandonment. Much land that was formerly farmed is now covered with forest, and turnpiked roads ha\Te become trails and footpaths through the woods; of the buildings usually on!) the stone-lined cellar remain. The abandonment of a great deal of this land is not so deplorable as the fact that it was originally settled. The information offered in this report ma>’ perhaps help to prevent similar mistakes in the future. ------.-.- -- -.---__I- -- -~_ “,1

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~~APPENDIX~~

~~-2 (‘I’(%L’(~~

Soils Ihvelopcd on Glacial Till.. . . 2.218.843 89.16 Queens Scrips...... 221,264 LG.88 Ihrcourt Series. I~orc~l~c~~st(‘r Scrie,\ Gi joi 2.53 Salisbury Scrifas 27,281 1.10 I’c*t it c*odi:ica ,?+rie.s . . . ,.... 74,097 2.98 Sl~cwiogue S(lricbs 20,774 x3 l’itrry Scricls. 100,991 4 .06 Kings Serb 283,870 11.40 (.)ucAens-Kings, Undiff&ent i&d. : 118,899 4.78 Misburv-Kings, UndiffercW iated. . 3,501 14 l’c~titcojiac.-Kings, Undiff(~rc~ntiatcd. 25,702 1 03 Torment ine Series. . . 5G,124 2 t'G Aulnr Series . . 5,254 22 ‘I’itlnish Series. 117,703 319" ‘l’ormentinr-Tidnish, I;ndiffcrenti,zted.‘.‘. ‘.‘.’ ..’ . . ‘.‘. , : . 30,781 1.24 Quc~c~nville S&es. . . . . 41,976 1.69 J )w Seric~s, . . . 7,642 3 1 .Anagancca Series. . . 52,BO” ( 2.12 (‘rossman Series. . ,... . iG.659 ! 3.08 Ihnsinnne Series. . . 8,(iY5 1 IX5 ( ‘rossman-Dunsin:lne, UndifYt~rentiat cd. l,*W2 06 T,omontl Scric*s. . . . 289,312 Il.61 Kingston Scritlh. .. . 95.879 :3 isti I kcd Scrics 75:I)fx j 3 02 T,ollloncl-D~lecl,’ Undiffe&ntiat’ed. : : 217.369 X.73 Ki npscl(har Series. . . . . , 3,387 ) .14 l’arlcevillc Series 127,276 5.12 Sncknwic Scrit>s. . . 23.454 . !I4 Saltspring Series. 37,992 1.52 Knirhtville Series.. .‘. _’ ‘. . . . . 1G,455 - 66 Horns &Aries.. . . 14,388 .5x S&v on Water-worked Parent Mat&l .’ 207,891 8.33 Soils on Gravelly and Sandy Deposits. 127,144 5.11 Cingetown Series.. . 54,243 2.19 Penobsquis Series.. . . . 6,461 .26 Gagetown-Penobsquis, Undiffcbrentiatccl. 10,208 .+1 Riverhank Series.. . . . 16,673 6i Kennebecasis Series. 19,980 .80 0romocto Series. . . .‘. 10,304 .78 Riverbank-Orornocto, UnclifTc,r~~ntiat’c~l 275 .Ol Immature Soils on Rcacent DepoGts 80,747 3.24 Intervale Series ...... 21,664 .87 Sussex Series. . . . . 5,759 .2:3 Intrrvalc Series, Ill drained . 3,463 .lJ %ISSCX Scbrirls 111 drhed 2,104 .w3 1G:ttlia ScricG. Total . 47,7.57 1.92 A I . 15,532 .62 .I,!.. 3,231 13 8,379 34 10,606 .43 9,999 .40 5,924 .24 5,709 23 215 .Ol 2,259 .09 53,861 2.16 -___- _-__ -- -I 2,488,778 100~00 ‘--ca~‘wc clxocao~w c.1 cy et w, w 0 cc

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~~. : . ..: . d e; 1. .; d . i~zc:r~?U T,4BLE lJ-CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL AXALYSES OF REPRESEXTATIVE SOIL S.4~IpT,ES-Concl,~IlPll~~

-- RIVERBANK SANDY LOAM - -___ / I 4, (‘ult. Surf ...... O-6 76.6 13.9 9.5 i:; 1.60 4.18 4.9 .239 128 654 82.78 12.48 ,140 .096 .4l...... 65.8 29.5 4.7 1.87 4.69 4.5 .199 ,098 .520 81.78 8.26 ,097 .078 .A?...... r-t 76.4 18.4 5.2 2.5 .76 1.63 4.5 . 138 .043 .463 91.67 4.60 075 ,016 121...... :: 8-12 65.3 18.8 15.9 13.9 3.11 5.15 4.6 197 .109 ,842 80.37 10.75 ,618 256 132..... 12-18 73.5 17.7 8.8 8.1 1.66 2.78 4.6 ,153 .107 1.832 73 06 19.76 .:109 ,421 ( ' ...... : : : : ..... : 18-60 89.8 4.7 5.5 5.3 .65 1.17 4.5 118 ,083 1.260 85.59 10.63 ,110 .312 - !I / I ___-___ KENNEBECASIS SANDY LOAM

Cult. Surf.. . . . O-6 48.9 43.9 7.2 5.7 2.66 8.72 5.0 ,361 185 1.452 72.18 14.61 .112 .106 *it. 4.69 21.75 4.3 .620 .131 .877 66.41 7.53 .I26 025 42 :::::.:‘::.:.‘.: E 72.2 19.8 8.0 6.0 .46 1.27 3-9 .I35 ,042 ,946 90.84 I 4 53 I .018 131.132 ...... :.:. 17-11 l-17 75.881.0 17.513.1 5.96.7 ;:; 3.113.44 4.395.85 5.04.4 ,263 ,115 1.326 74.06 j, 14.55 1 ‘Hii ,076 .I81 ,082 ct...... ( 17-30 86.5 9.9 3.6 3.1 1.02 1.71 ’ 4.9 .167 :;:;y I 158 II.5 c:4 . . . / 30-24 / 87.2 / 9.7 1 3.1 , 3.1 .56 1.27 4.7 149 12.78 ’ ,110 120 I ACADIA WELL DRAINED CL

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