Problems of Translating the English Complex and Compound-Complex Sentences Into Arabic

Problems of Translating the English Complex and Compound-Complex Sentences into Arabic

(A Case Study of EFL students, Faculty of Education-Hantoub, University of Gezira, Sudan ) By

Salah Al-Deen Ahmed Ali Ahmed

B.A. (Honours) in English

Faculty of Education – Hantoub,

University of Gezira (2001)

Diploma in English Language Teaching (ELT) Faculty of Education – Hantoub, February (2007)

A Dissertation

Submitted in Partial Fulfillment for the Requirements of the Degree of Master of Arts

English Language Teaching (ELT)

Department of English

Faculty of Education-Hantoub

University of Gezira

August, 2013

Problems of Translating the English Complex and Compound-Complex Sentences into Arabic

(A Case Study of EFL students, Faculty of Education-Hantoub, University of Gezira, Sudan )

Salah Al- Deen Ahmed Ali Ahmed

Supervision Committee:

Name Position Signature

Dr. Awatif Al-amin Satti Main-Supervisor ………………… Dr. Lubab El-Tayeb El- Co-Supervisor ………………… Mikashfi

Date of Examination: 24 /8/2013

Problems of Translating the English Complex and Compound-Complex Sentences into Arabic

(A Case Study of EFL students, Faculty of Education-Hantoub, University of Gezira, Sudan)

Salah Al- Deen Ahmed Ali Ahmed

Examination Committee:

Name Position Signature

Dr. Awatif Al-amin Satti Main-Supervisor ………………… Dr. Hassan Ali Essa External Examiner ………………… Ustaz. Salah Hamid Internal Examiner ………………… Mohmoud Date of Examination: 24/8/2013

Dedication

I dedicate this study

To the soul of my Mother and father

To my dear sisters, brothers, teachers, colleagues, especially Ustaz.Abd-Al-Monim Idris for his endless help and support.

To whom I owe my success “Aya”

Acknowledgements

Praise and thanks are due to Allah, for giving me the power and patience to complete this study. I am deeply indebted to my main. Supervisor Dr. Awatif Al-Amin Satti for her guidance, valuable suggestions, unlimited help and no words could express my thanks and feelings towards her.

I am deeply grateful to Dr. Lubab El-Tayeb Al-Mokashfi, for valuable help and recommendations in preparing and presenting this research from the very beginning up to its final steps.

Many thanks also go in particular to Ustaz. Amar Taha El- Madeh for his valuable information and advice that have greatly helped me to complete this study.

I wish to express my gratitude to lecturers and the staff of the Department English, and to the staff of library in Faculty of Education- Hantoub.

Last but not least many thanks are due to Dr. Zahir Obedia the head of English Department, Faculty of Education-Hantoub, for his help and support.

Problems of Translating the English Complex and Compound- Complex Sentences into Arabic

(A Case Study of EFL Students of the Faculty of Education, University of Gezira, Sudan)

Salah El-Deen Ahmed Ali Ahmed

Master of Arts in English Language Teaching (ELT) 24/August/2013

Department of English Language

Faculty of EducationHantoub

University of Gezira

Abstract

The sentence is considered an essential part of speech because it is the central unit of thought which presents a topic. Therefore, the translator has to pay more attention when transferring the meaning into another language. This study aimed at investigating EFL student’s performance in translating the English complex and compound-complex sentences into Arabic. The study followed the descriptive analytical method. Two diagnostic tests and a questionnaire were chosen as tools of data collection. The tests were distributed among (100) EFL students at Faculty of Education – Hantoub, University of Gezira, Batch (32),while the questionnaire was directed to (10) EFL teachers at Faculty of Education- Hantoub, University of the Holy Quran, and Wad Medani Ahlia University. The data was analyzed manually by percentage. The most important findings are: that (81%), and (92%) face difficulties in translating complex and compound-complex sentences into Arabic successively. In addition, (80%) and (93%) faced difficulty in recognizing punctuated sentences into Arabic. The study recommends that EFL

students should divide the English complex and compound-complex sentences into their components to find the intended meaning. It is also recommended that EFL students should spot exactly the location of punctuation marks which control the meaning of the sentence. Finally, EFL students should consult professional references and dictionaries to develop their performance in the two languages.

مشكالت ترجمة الجمل اإلنجليزية المعقدة و المعقدة المركبة إلى اللغة العربية.

دراسة حالة طالبات كلية التربية- جامعة الجزيرة-ودمدني-السودان.

صالح الدين أحمد علي أحمد

ماجستير اآلداب في تدريس اللغة االنجليزية – 24/8/2102م

قسم اللغة االنجليزية.

كلية التربية – حنتوب

جامعة الجزيرة

ملخص الدراسة

تعتبر الجملة من أهم أجزاء الكالم فهي وحدة التفكير األساسية التي تعرض لموضوع اً ما؛ لذا البد للمترجم أن يوليها عناية كبيرة؛ ألنها قوام الكالم وجوهره في عملية الترجمة بين لغتين. هدفت الدراسة إلى التحقق من أداء طالبات اللغة اإلنجليزية- كلية التربية حنتوب- جامعة الجزيرة في ترجمة الجمل المعقدة و المعقدة المركبة من اللغة اإلنجليزية إلى اللغة العربية. اتبعت الدراسة المنهج الوصفي التحليلي، و استخدمت اختبارين تشخيصين و االستبانة بوصفهما أداتين لجمع البيانات. تـمّ أُ خْذ عينة قصدية مكونة من )011( طالبة من جامعة الجزيرة- كلية التربية )حنتوب(، الدفعة )23( بينما وجهت االستبانة لعدد )01( من أعضاء هيئة التدريس في هذا المجال من كلية التربية-جامعة الجزيرة، جامعة القرآن الكريم، و جامعة ودمدني األهلية. تم تحليل البيانات يدوياً باستخدام النسب المئوية. توصلت الدراسة إلى عدة نتائج من أهمها أن )81%( و )92%( من الطالبات يجدنَ صعوبةً في ترجمة الجمل المعقدة و المعقدة المركبة علي التوالي من اللغة اإلنجليزية إلى اللغة العربيةً ،كما أوضحت أن )32%( و )80%( من الطالبات قد واجهنْ صعوبات في إدراك عالمات الترقيم ويعزى ذلك لعدم معرفتهنّ لمدى أهمية هذه العالمات الترقيمية في عملية ترجمة هذا النوع من الجمل إلى اللغة العربية. توصي الدراسة عند ترجمة هذا

النوع من الجمل بتقسيم الجملة إلى مكوناتها؛ و ذلك لتسهيل عملية إيجاد المعني المحدد لنقلها إلى اللغة العربية، و توصي الطالبات عند ترجمة هذا النوع من الجمل بضرورة تحديد موقع العالمة الترقيمية التي تتحكم في المعني، و توصي الدراسة برفع مهارات الطالبات في ترجمة هذا النوع من الجمل و بضرورة الممارسة و الرجوع إلى المراجع و القواميس المتخصصة وذلك إلجادة اللغتين عند نقل المعنى المراد.

Table of Contents

Subjects Page No Dedication iv Acknowledgement v Abstract (English) vi Abstract (Arabic) vii Table of Contents viii-xi List of Tables xii Lists of Figures xiii CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.0 Background 1 1.1 Statement of the Problem 1 1.2 Objectives of the Study 2 1.3 Questions of the Study 2 1.4 Hypotheses of the Study 2-3 1.5 Significance of the Study 3 1.6 Methodology of the Study 3-4 1.7 Limits of the Study 4 CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.0 Introduction 5

2.1 Concept of Translation 5-6 2.3 Purposes of Translation 7 2.2 Problems of Translation 7-8 2.4 The Concept of English Sentence 9 2.4.1 Phrases 9-12 2.4.2 Clauses 12-13 2.5 Sentence Patterns in English 13-14 2.6 Types of English Sentence 14 2.6.1 Simple Sentence 14-15 2.6.2 Compound sentences 15 2.6.2.1 Coordinators 15-16 2.6.3 Complex sentences 16-17 2.6.3.1 Subordinators 17-18 2.6.3.2 Punctuating Complex Sentences with 18-19 Subordinating Conjunctions 2.6.3.2 Subordination Versus 19 Coordination 2.6.4 Compound –Complex sentence 19 2.7 Analyzing of Complex Sentences. 20-22 2.8 Concept of Arabic Sentence 22 2.8.1 Types of Arabic Sentence 23 2.9 Conditional Sentences 23 2. 9.1 Condition in English 24-28 2. 9.2 Condition in Arabic 28-29

2.01 Difficulties of Translating Composite Sentences into 29 Arabic 2.11.1 Word order 29-30 2.11.2 Code Shifting 30 2.11.3 Punctuation 30-37 2.11.4 Ellipsis 37-39 2.11.5 Ambiguity in Complex sentences 39 2.11.5.1 Ambiguity Arising form Lexical Meaning 39-40 2.11.5.2 Structural Ambiguity 40-41 2.11.6 Using of Bilingual Dictionary (Extension of 41 Meaning) 2.16.7 Cultural differences 41-43 2.00 Promoting the Performance of EFL Students in 43-45 Translating Complex and Compound-Complex Sentences into Arabic. 2.13 Previous Studies 45-47 CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY 3.0 Introduction 48 3.1 Study Design 48 3.2 The Sample 3.3 Tools of Data Collection and Procedures 48-49 2.2.0 The Tests’ Design 49 3.3.2 The Content of the two Tests 49

3.3.2 Validity of the Two Tests 50 3.3.4 Reliability of the Two Tests 50 3.3.5 Administration of the two Diagnostic Tests 50 3.3.6 The Questionnaire 51 3.3.6.1 The Content of the Questionnaire 51-52 3.3.6.2 Validity of the Questionnaire 52 3.4 Procedures for Data Analysis 52 CHAPTER FOUR ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION, AND DISCUSSION OF DATA 4.0 Introduction 53 4.1 The Tests Results 53-59 4.3 The Questionnaire Results 59-63 4.4 Discussion of the Results in Relation to the Hypotheses. 63-64 CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSION, FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.0 Introduction 65 5.1 Summary 65 5.2 Findings 65-66 5.3 Recommendations 66-67 5.4 Suggestions for Further Studies 67 References 68-70 Appendices 71-78

List of Tables

Table Subject Page

2.1 Classification of Phrases. 10

2.2 The most Common Sentence Patterns in 14 English.

2.4 Examples of Cultural Differences between 42-43 English and Arabic.

4.1 EFL Students’ Performance in Translating the 53 Simple Sentences into Arabic.

4.2 EFL Students’ Performance in Translating the 54 Compound Sentences into Arabic.

4.3 EFL Students’ Performance in Translating the 54 English Complex Sentences into Arabic.

4.3.1 Word order. 54

4.3.2 Punctuation. 55

4.3.3 Ellipsis. 55

4.3.4 Cultural Differences. 56

4.3.5 Lexical and Structural Ambiguity. 56

4.3.6 Conditional Sentences. 56

4.4 EFL Students’ Performance in Translating the 57 English Complex and Compound-Complex Sentences into Arabic. 4.4.1 Word Order. 57

4.4.2 Code Shifting. 57

4.4.3 Punctuation. 58

4.5 EFL Students’ Performance in Translating the 58 English Sentences into Arabic.

List of Figures

Figure Subjects Page

2.1 Transferring Strategy 6

2.2 Realization of phrases, finite clauses, or non-finite 11 clauses. 2.3 Level 0: Part 0 into ‘clause constituents’ 21

2.4 Level 3: ‘Constituents Phrase level’ 22

4.1 The Performance of EFL Students in Translating the 59 English Complex and Compound- Complex Sentences into Arabic 4.2 Complex and Compound-Complex is the most 60 difficult type to be translated into Arabic 4.3 Devoting time and regular practice help in promoting 62 EFL students’ performance in translating complex and compound-complex sentences into Arabic.

CHAPTER ONE INTORDUCTION

1.0 Background The sentence is a syntactically structured and communicatively controlled unit. It is a context-sensitive combination of linguistic signs that are formally marked off from other sentences of the same text by means of punctuation marks. Therefore, it is considered as a basic unit of thought in translating the meaning among languages. There will not be a good translation of the individual sentences which are not given sufficient attention by transmitting their meanings into the final product of the activity. This fact explains the necessity of investigating the difficulties faced by EFL university students in translating the English complex and compound-complex sentences into Arabic. 1.1 Statement of the Problem The researcher has noticed that the performance of EFL students at University of Gezira is very poor in translating the English complex sentences into Arabic. This mistranslation or the translation failure, when rendering the meaning of a complex sentence into Arabic may be due to: lack of equivalence, culture-specificity, different components, word order and a variety of punctuation options. These account complexities of the English complex sentences. Thus, this study is an attempt to investigate the performance of students in the translation the English complex and compound-complex sentences into Arabic.

1.2 Objectives of the Study 1. To investigate EFL students' performance in translating the English complex and compound-complex sentences into Arabic. 2. To find out the type of sentences that is more problematic than others. 3. To identify the reasons of the poor performance of translating the English complex and compound-complex sentences into Arabic. 4. To improve University learners' performance in translating the English sentences particularly, complex sentences, by suggested appropriate ways to overcome these difficulties 1.3 Questions of the Study 1- What is the standard of the performance of EFL students in the translation of the English sentences particularly complex and compound-complex sentences into Arabic? 2- What are the types of the English sentences which cause difficulty in translating into Arabic? 3- What are the main reasons of the poor performance of translating the English complex and compound- complex sentences into Arabic? 4- How can university learners' performance in translating complex and compound-complex sentences be improved? 1.4 Hypotheses of the Study

H1 The EFL students' performance is poor in translating English sentences particularly complex and compound-complex sentences into Arabic to a large extent 11

H2 The most difficult types of English sentences to be translated into Arabic are the complex and compound-complex sentences.

H3 Punctuation is one of the main reasons of poor performance in translating the English complex and compound-complex sentences into Arabic.

H4: English learners' low performance can be improved through devoting time and offering more activities for rendering meaning of English complex and compound-complex sentences into Arabic. 1.5 Significance of the Study This study is hoped to be of great value to those who are interested in translation in general and to (EFL) students in particular. It will be expected to provide extensive analysis to discover the reasons that make English Complex sentences translation difficult and consequently, to recommend solutions. The study attempts also to help EFL students master the methods, techniques, and activities required in translating English sentences into Arabic so that they can develop the students' competence and performance in translation. It will also be expected to add to the field of applied linguistics. 1.6 Methodology of the Study The researcher will adopt the descriptive analytical method to carry out this study. Concerning the tools for data collecting, two tests and a questionnaire for EFL lecturers and translators will be used to collect the data required. The questionnaire will be distributed to collect data from ten (10) lecturers and experts in the field of translations at University of Gezira, Faculty of Education, Hantoub, Department of 10

English, and other three universities and specialized institutions in Wad Medani. Besides, one hundred (100) EFL students who will be chosen randomly from University of Gezira, Faculty of Education, Hantoub, Department of English, Batch (32) semester (8) to take the two diagnostic tests. The tests and the questionnaire will be scientifically analyzed manually by using the percentage, and computer which be used to convey the statistical information.

1.7 Limits of the Study The topic of this study will be limited to investigate (EFL) students' performance in translating English sentences into Arabic specially complex and compound-complex sentences. The study will be carried out at various departments of English at the Faculty of Education –Hantoub, Wad Medani Al-Ahlia and the Holy Quran University (Wad Medani). The temporal limit of this study is the academic year (2012- 2013). In the next chapter, the Literature Review relevant to the study will be covered.

CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.0 Introduction In this chapter the researcher, attempts to survey the literature related to this study Problems of Translating the English Complex and Compound-Complex Sentences into Arabic. Firstly, the researcher views the theoretical framework: concept of translation, problems of translation and purposes of translation, which are agreed by famous scholars. Secondly, the concept of English and Arabic sentence will be treated. Thirdly, the researcher will focus on complex sentences particularly conditional sentences and the difficulties of translating them into Arabic. Finally, the researcher intends to shed light on certain suitable techniques which will help promote the performance of EFL students in translating English complex sentences into Arabic. 2.1 Concept of Translation Translation consists of changing meaning from one form – of language in this regard – into another. Talking about form, reference is made to the actual words, phrases, sentences, clauses, paragraphs and so on which are spoken or written. Technically, the form from which the translation is made is called the ‘Source Language’; the form into which it is to be changed is called the ‘Receptor Language’ or “Target Language” and the final product is called the ‘Target Text’. Translation, then, consists of studying the lexis, grammatical structure, communication situation, and cultural context of the Source Language text; all these are analyzed in order to determine its 11

meaning. This same meaning is then reconstructed using the lexicon and grammatical structure which are appropriate in the receptor language and its cultural context. For example, if English is a source language Arabic represents the receptor, ‘I am a Muslim’ becomes the text whose lexicon, grammatical structure, communication situation and cultural context are analyzed in order to determine its meaning. The meaning is then reconstructed using the lexicon and grammatical structure which are appropriate in the receptor language. To that extent, ‘I am Sudanese’ is Yousif, (2006:28) states a basic . "أنا سوداني“ ”restructured as “Ana Muslim rule for “Transferring Strategy” from ‘Source Language’ to ‘Target Language’ and that can be illustrated below in figure (2.1) SL  SL  Rethink  TL

Figure (2.1): Transferring Strategy Source: Yousif,(2006) It can be represented for example in the word “Bank”  Land along the according to the context, because it has شاطئ side of a river  Rethink  multiple meanings. Longman Dictionary of the English Language (1984:1597) defines translation as “the act of rendering meaning from one language into another”. Catford, (0365:00) also defines translation as “a process of substituting a text in one language for a text in another”. Catford builds his definition on the concept of equivalence, describing translation as the replacement of textual material in one language (SL) by equivalent textual material in another language (TL). He considers the central problem of translation to be finding (TL) equivalent. While Newmark (1981:7) 14

defines translation as "a craft consisting in the attempt to replace a written message and/or a statement in one language by the same message and/or statement in another language". It is observed that from the above definitions the source language and the target language are the main focus when translating the meaning of sentences or a text among languages. 2.2 Purposes of Translation According to Newmark, (1993:57-58) there are five main purposes and uses of translation: 1. To contribute to understanding and peace between language communities and groups. 2. To promote information and technology transfer, particularly to third and fourth world countries. 3. To explain and clarify ethnic cultures and differences. 4. To make works of high moral religious and aesthetic importance in the arts and humanities, as well as scientific works, available throughout the world. (Its original purpose) 5. To facilitate foreign language learning. According to the above purposes of translation specially (5), translation seems to be a generally used strategy and preferred language practice technique for many students in EFL settings. As such, it undoubtedly has place in language learning. It can be invaluable in provoking discussion and helping to increase the students’ awareness of the inevitable interaction between the mother tongue and the target language in an evitable occurring in the process of language acquisition. 15

Thus, the main purpose of this study is to investigate the problems of translating the English complex and compound-complex sentences into Arabic and then consequently to find the solutions to promote EFL learners’ performance in translating them into Arabic. 2.3 Problems of Translation Translation appears for some linguists difficult or may be impossible. Crystal (0337:246) states that “no translator could provide perfect parallel to the source text”. So, there are many problems when translating the English complex and compound-complex sentences into Arabic among which: 1- Controversies among the languages of the world because of the differences of word order on each language. For example, ذهب أحمد للمدرسة. .Ahmed went to school 2- Phrases and expressions in one language do not have exact توب ”equivalents in another language. For instance, the word “Tobe does not have an exact equivalent in English. 3- Another problem, what happens in one culture may be alien to another culture. The term “culture” in this context embraces the whole way of life of a given society including language, arts, thought, custom and beliefs. For example, in islam at the beginning ”بسم اهلل“ of meals the expression “Do start” means 4- Other problems that may affect translating the English complex and compound-complex sentences are semantic differentiation, lexico-semantic duplication and redundancy. 2.4 The Concept of English Sentence 16

According to the New Oxford Dictionary of English (1998:1694) the origin of the word ‘sentence’ comes from middle English (in the sense way of ‘thinking, opinion’ ,via Old French from Latin ‘sententia’ ‘opinion’, from ‘sentire’ ‘feel’, be the opinion. Most people do not have to be told what a sentence is. This is unfortunate, because it is possible “to poke holes in any simple definition”. One definition is that it is a group of words that expresses a complete set of ideas or feelings, "yes" is a complete sentence, yet hardly a complete thought, like many other sentences, it depends on its context to complete its meaning. Another definition of a sentence is that, it is a group of words that includes a subject and a verb, but "yes" can be a complete sentence even though it has neither subject nor verb, and when I can not be a sentence even though itعندما حضر تُ لوجبة الغداء came to dinner has both subject and verb as stated by Jonson (1991:3). The introductory definition of a sentence is a group of words that are grammatically dependent on one another but are not grammatically dependent on any words outside the group. This definition is also not perfect, and it does not accurately describe the sentence, it describes independent clauses. However, it does emphasize one important property of a sentence: the words within it to share. So, the sentence is the largest unit of language because it is composed of smaller units such as: clauses, phrases and words. Leech et.al, (0383:37) mention “the units of grammar can be ordered in terms of clauses, phrases, and words”. A clause consists of one or more phrases; a phrase consists of one or more words. 17

2.4.1 Phrases A Phrase is a unit intermediate between clause and word. According to Todd, (1987:60) a phrase is “a group of words which functions as a unit and, with the exception with the verb itself, it does not contain a finite verb”. Phrases can be used as a subject, object, predicator and so on of a sentence or a clause, for example, NP VP NP PP My uncle Joseph was holding his umbrella with his hands. If a phrase consists of more words, it usually has one main word that is the most important one as far as meaning is concerned. When identifying a head, that means identifying the function of a word in a phrase, and when identifying a function, that means how it is realized. Verspoor and Sauter, (2000, 119-141) assert that phrases can also be analyzed into constituents, each with a function and realization. Phrases are generally classified as in table (2.1): Table (2.1) Classification of Phrases

Type of Phrase Abbreviation Example NP -The boy is playing Table Tennis now. Noun phrase - They are playing table tennis now.

Verb phrase VP He has been sleeping . Adjective phrase Adj .P She is very serious

Adverb phrase Adv. P He runs faster than his brother. Preposition phrase P.P She visited his mother before school

Source: Verspoor and Sauter, (2002) The possible constituents of a noun phrase are determiner, pre- modifier, head, and post-modifier. The central element of a noun phrase is called its head. The head may have words before it, is called ‘determiners’ (abbreviated as det) and ‘pre-modifiers‎ ’ (abbreviated as premod) and words after are called post-modifiers‎ (abbreviated as post-mod). Pre-modifiers of nouns are always realized as adjective phrases. For example: She has sad dark eyes Noun phrase premod: Adj.p premod:Adj.p head: noun sad dark eyes

One additional constituent of the noun phrase functions are determiners. They may be the articles a(n) or the, or any of the dependent pronouns and numerals, including some expressions like ‘a few’, ‘a number of’, ‘a lot of ‘and so on, which are also called indefinite pronouns. When analyzing a phrase level, it should name the constituents at phrase level (head, determiner, modifier) and its realization. For example, All the books were read. Noun phrase det: indef. Pro. det:article head:noun post-mod:FC

All the books we read

Noun phrases are the most complex types of phrases. They have also many types of post-modifiers. As the following examples in figure (2.3):  The post-modifiers are printed in bold. Function realization The boy (is a head of the sentence) post-mod: NP The boy is in the garden. post-mod: p p The boy who walked into the garden post-mod: FC The boy living next the flat. post-mod: N F C Figure (2.2) Realization of phrases, finite clauses, or non-finite clauses. Source: Verspoor and Sauter, (2000) A verb phrase consists of a group of verbs, which must contain a lexical verb (which is its head, as semantically the most important one) and which may be preceded by one or more auxiliary verbs. For example, They may have been talking. Verb phrase Aux: aux. verb head: lex. Verb May have been talking

An adjective phrase consists of an adjective which may be preceded and/or followed by other words. For example, He is a very good friend. Adjective phrase Premod:Advp head

Very good

An adverb phrase is very similar to an adjective phrase in that it consists of an adverb, which may be preceded and/or followed by other words. An adverb may also have a discontinuous modifier.‎ For example, She can speak very easily. Adverb phrase Premod: Advp head: adverb Very easily

A prepositional phrase has two constituents, a head, always realized by a preposition and a complement, always realized by a noun phrase. The complement of a preposition is always a ‘noun-like’ construction. It can be a noun phrase or a clause (finite or non-finite) that functions as a noun. For example, Prepositional phrases They lived in London. Head :preposition complement: NP In London

2.4.2 Clauses According to Longman Dictionary of Language and Applied Linguistics (3101:80) a clause is “a group of words which form a grammatical unit and which contains a subject and a finite verb”. A clause

forms a sentence or part of a sentence and often functions as a noun, adjective, or adverb. For example: I hurried home. Clauses are classified as dependent or independent, e.g.: I come late (Independent Clause), because I was ill (Dependent Clause). حضرتُ متأخراً ألني كنت مريضاً. Leech et.al, (1982:75-76) state that the elements of a clause can be divided into: predictor (P), subject(S), object (O), complement (C), and an adverbial (A). For example, [Some people] [are painting] [their cars] [white] [these days]. S P O C A يدهن البعض من الناس سيارتهم باللون األبيض هذه األيام. The predictor is the only element which is a verb phrase, while the subject normally precedes the predictor, and there is concord between them. The object is very closely tied to the predictor in terms of meaning and typically denotes the person or thing most intimately affected by the action or state, denoted by the predictor. The complement can also look superficially like one object (both can be NPs), but in terms of meaning it provides a definition or characterization of the subject or object. An adverb fills out the clause by adding extra circumstantial information of various kinds, ranging from time and location to the speakers' attitude. For example, 11

[Actually], [Sara] [cooks] [at home] [very rarely] [these days]. A S P A A A حقيقة نادراً ما تطبخ سارة في المنزل هذه األيام.

2.5 Sentence Patterns in English There are a number of common sentence patterns used to write most sentences in English. It helps to understand and translate even the most complex English sentences as in table (2.2): Table (2.2): The most Common Sentence Patterns in English.

N Pattern Example (s) 1 Subject + Verb - John sleeps. 2 Subject+ Verb+ Object - She loves her job. 3 Subject+Verb+Adverb - Flowers are everywhere. 4 Subject+Verb+Gerund - John prefers swimming. 5 Subject+ Verb+ to infinitive - They stopped to rest. 6 Subject+ Verb (to be) + infinitive - Their aim was to help him. 7 Subject+Verb+ Pronoun+Object - He sent me a letter. 8 Subject+Verb+Pronoun+Present - -I found him playing in the Participle. street. 9 Subject+ Verb+that+ Clause - Jim said that he was busy. 10 There+Verb+Subject+Adverbial - There are animals in the

Complement. zoo.

Source: “http://free-english-study.com" 2.6 Types of English Sentence Verspoor and Sauter, (2000:35) state that a sentence may have different degrees of complexity. It may consist of one or more main clauses with one clause. They are called simple, compound, complex, or compound-complex sentences, depending on the types of clauses they contain.

2.6.1 Simple Sentence Johnson, (1991:84) defines a simple sentence as a sentence that “consists of one main clause only”. However, this does not mean that the is the تتحدث سارة sentence has to be very short, for example, Sara speaks simplest sort of simple sentence, contains just a subject (Sara) , and a verb , is simple sentence كتبت سارة لي رسالة speaks) .Sara writes me a letter) though now the verb (writes)has direct object (letters) and the indirect ,is also a simple sentence جون وسارة يتحدثانobject (me). Sara and John speak though it has the compound subject (Sara and John). A simple sentence can get quite long and complicated and remain a simple sentence. 2.6.2 Compound sentence Johnson, (1991:85) also states that a compound sentence can be defined as a sentence that “consists of two or more main clauses” for يتحدث جون العربية example John speaks English, and Sara speaks Arabic

,is a compound sentence . It consists of two clauses اإلنجليزية وتتحدث سارة يتحدث جون اإلنجليزية either of which could stand alone John speaks English they are independent clauses. So, a تتحدث سارة العربية Sara speaks Arabic compound sentence is merely a group of two or more simple sentences that have been made one sentence by punctuating them appropriately and often by using a conjunction such as ‘and’. Another way to connect two main clauses and form a compound sentence is to put a semi-colon (;) between the main clauses for example, I have sold my car ; therefore, I will come with my friend . بعتُ عربتي لذا سأحضر مع صديقي. Semi-colon is often followed by a word like therefore, besides,…. or similarity called conjunctive adverbs. One feature of a compound sentence is that the clauses have fixed order, so they can not be moved without changing their meaning. 2.6.2.1 Coordinators Abed Al Latif, (2003:104) asserts that coordinators link units of equal syntactic status. They combine two independent clauses into a compound sentence. English and Arabic have a variety of coordinating conjunctions which can be used to coordinate words. The grammar of both languages does not permit the coordination of any random pair of elements. Only constituents of one type or one category can be coordinated. English has three simple coordinators: "and”, “but" and "or" and three correlative coordinators: "both...and", "either...or" and "neither...nor". The coordinator "and" denotes consequence, addition, contrast, condition and chronological sequence. "But" only expresses 15

contrast. The coordinator "or" denotes a selection among two or more alternatives. "Both...and" expresses additive meaning, "either...or" expresses exclusive meaning and "neither ... nor" denotes a negative meaning of two terms. So, when translating a compound sentence into Arabic, it very essential to determine the position of the coordinator in order to ease or catch the intended meaning. 2.6.3 Complex Sentences According to the New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, (2002:150) a complex sentence is defined as "a sentence that contains one main clause or independent clause and at least one subordinate clause or dependent clause.” A subordinate clause (SC), is also called a dependent clause, is a group of words that has its own subject and predicate but cannot stand alone as a simple sentence. It must be included in or connected to an independent clause (IC)—one that can stand by itself as a sentence: SC IC When autumn comes, the trees will be green ستخضر األشجار عندما يأتي الخريف. A sentence containing one independent clause and at least one subordinate clause is called complex. Therefore, a complex sentence is a sentence that contains at least one full dependent clause with its own subject and predicate. Quirk, (1989:1037-1039) mentions that subordinate clauses may be positioned initially, medially, or at the end of their subordinate clause. For example: 16

- Initial position: When you are ready, we will go to meet him. عندما تكون جاهزاً سنذهب لمقابلته. - Medial: We will go, when you are ready, to meet him. سنذهب عندما تكون جاهزاً لمقابلته - End: We will go to meet him when you are ready. سنذهب لمقابلته عندما تكون جاهزاً. The difference between a compound and complex sentence is that in a compound sentence, both parts are really just simple, independent sentences. In a complex sentence, the dependent clause cannot stand on its own and functions as a constituent (subject, object, adverbial, or attribute) of the main clause, or in some cases, it is only a part of another sentence constituent. 2.6.3.1 Subordinators Huddleston, (0388:054) defines subordinator as “a term that applies to grammatically distinct closed class of words whose primary role is to mark a clause as subordinate”. Subordinators signal a variety of relations:

1. Time - The thieves were confused when the police arrived. ارتبك اللصوص عندما وصلت الشرطة. - I will wait until the manger comes . سأنتظر حتي يأتي المدير. 2. Causality - Ahmed does not go to school because he is ill.

لم يذهب أحمد للمدرسة ألنه مريض. Since I had no money, I walked all the way home. طالما لم يكن لدي المال، فقد ذهبت إلى البيت مشياً. 3. Concession and contrast - Although he is only nine, he can speak several languages. علي ال رُغم أنه ال يزال في التاسعة من عمره إال أنه يستطيع أن يتحدث العديد من اللغات. 4. Condition - If she comes early, I will tell her the truth. إن حضرت باكراً, سأخبرها الحقيقة. 5. Purpose - I worked in a store for a year so that I become rich. عملتُ في متجر لمدة سنة لذا أصبحت غنياً. 6. Place - Where you find Monim, no doubt you can find Salah . أينما وجدت منعم بال شك ستجد صالح 7. Result - He feels so tired that he can not go to work. يشعر بأنه متعب جداً لذلك ال يستطيع الذهاب للعمل. 8. Range of possibilities - I intend to go wherever they go. قررت أن أذهب أينما يذهبون. It is noticeable the general possibility can be stated by: whenever, wherever, whoever, whichever. 9. Comparison -Tokyo is the biggest city in the world.

طوكيو أكبر مدينة في العالم. 2.6.3.2 Punctuating Complex Sentences with Subordinating Conjunctions When a subordinate clause appears at the beginning of a complex sentence, it must be separated from the independent clause by a comma. Example: After she finished her work , Mary went shopping. In general, if a subordinate clauseبعد انتهاءها من عملها ذهبت ميري للتسوق appears after the independent clause in a compound sentence, no comma is needed. Example: Mary went shopping after she finished her homework ذهبت ميري للتسوق بعد انتهاءها من عملها. 2.7.3.5 Subordination Versus Coordination Quirk et.al (1989: 1040-1041) mention that coordination is “a kind of link most used for optimum ease of comprehension”. At the same time the link, especially with ‘and’, is vague in that it leaves the specific logical relationships to the inference of the speaker. The following example illustrates the differences between subordination and coordination in the process of translation from English to Arabic: Subordination: Ahmed got a prize, as he was the cleverest student in university. حصل أحمد على جائزة ألنه كان أذكى طالب في الجامعة. Coordination: Ahmed was the cleverest student in university, so he got a prize. كان أحمد أذكى طالب في الجامعة لذا حصل على جائزة. 2.6.4 Compound–Complex sentence

A compound-complex sentence is comprised of compound sentence and a complex sentence. Zimboint, (3102:80) defines it as “a component of structural type of a sentence that has two or main clauses and at least one subordinate clause”. For example: - She read the novel of “The Season of Migration to The North” which was written by El-Tayeb Salih and she wrote a report about it. قرأت رواية موسم الهجرة للشمال التي كتبها الطيب صالح و كتبت تقريراً عنها. 2.7 Analyzing of Complex Sentences Verspoor and Sauter,(2000:181-310) mention that “when sentences are rather short, it is usually rather easy to see how many clauses it has, which clause is the main one and which clauses may be dependent”. Therefore, before translating a sentence, it is important to find out whether it is a simple, compound, complex, or compound-complex. In order to determine the type of a sentence, this can be done through the following steps: Step 1: Determining the position of the subordinate clause Initially, medial, or at end of the sentence. Step 2: Finding finite verbs First, it is important to identify main clauses and dependent clauses. As only finite clauses can be main clauses, at least one of the finite clauses is a main clause. If there is more than one finite clause, the translator should know if the sentence contains only one or two or more main clauses. If there is a semi-colon (or sometimes a colon), almost sure it is a compound sentence, with a main clause on each side. The finite

verbs are printed in boldface, for example: They did not know his name, because he was absence for a long time. لم يتعرفوا علي اسمه ،ألنه كان غائباً لفترة طويلة.

Step 3: Finding coordinator(s) and subordinator(s) Another way to see whether there are main clauses or dependent ones is to find coordinators and subordinators; these will also help where clauses begin. Clauses introduced by subordinators are always dependent. The coordinator(s) and subordinator(s) are printed in boldface, for example, While Ahmed reads magazines, Ali reads stories, but Nadir only reads novels. يقرأ أحمد المجالت، بينما يقرأ علي القصص لكن يقرأ نادر الروايات فقط. Step 4: Determining sentence type Once identifying main clauses and dependent clauses, that can classify the sentence type: if there is only one finite clause, it is a simple sentence. If there are two complete, independent clauses, each with its own subject and predicate, separated by a semi-colon (or sometimes even a colon) or connected by a coordinate conjunction or a correlative conjunction, it is a compound sentence. If there is an independent clause and one or more dependent clauses, it is a complex sentence. Finally, if the sentence has both coordinate and subordinate clauses it is a compound-complex sentence. Step 5: Finding parts with main clauses Example of Analyzing Complex Sentence, They did not know his name, because he left.

Each part of the complex sentence can be analyzed at Level 1 into sentence constituents (S, P, DO, IO, and so on). Below, the function and realization of each constituent at sentence level is named. The first part consists of only one clause. [[They] [did [not] know] [his name,] , [because he left] as it can be illustrated below in figure 2.3:

Function: Realization They S NP did know P VP not A AdvP his name DO NP because A FC (Finite Clause) He S NP left P VP Figure (2.3): Level 1: Part 1 into ‘clause constituents’ Source: Verspoor and Sauter, (2000) Each of the sentence constituents mentioned above consists of a phrase. Each of these can be analyzed at yet a second level, into phrase constituents as below in figure (2.4) Function: Realization They NP head pronoun did know VP head lexical verb aux auxiliary verb not AdvP head adverb his name NP head noun det possessive pronoun becuase subordinator . Conj ------he NP head Pronoun 41

left VP head main verb Figure (2.4) Level 2: ‘Constituents Phrase level’ Source: Verspoor and Sauter, (2000) The levels within phrases and clauses can theoretically go further down indefinitely. A clause can contain further dependent clauses and a phrase can contain further phrases or dependent clauses. Of course, if sentences contain too many different levels, they become quite incomprehensible. 2.8 Concept of Arabic Sentence Jiyad, (2010:9) mentions that the closest equivalent in Arabic a syntactically ,"جمــلة" grammar to the Western notion of a 'sentence' is complete string of words that expresses a semantically complete message. In a sentence, there is always one head word that relays or determines the sentential functions resulting in markers in the form of case endings. 2.8.1 Types of Arabic Sentence According to the Western analysis of Arabic sentence structure, there are two types of sentence: nominal and verbal. The Arab Grammarians differ and suggest three types. is where the subject takes an الجملة االسمية a) The Nominal Sentence) initial position for emphatic purposes, followed by the verb, [subject+ Verb + object]. Consequently, the verb is marked by the number and gender of its subject. The defining property of a nominal sentence is that األوالد .the subject precedes the verb. For example, The boys play basketball يلعبون كرة السلة

+is the basic sentence. Its order is [Verb الجملة الفعلية b) Verbal Sentence) Subject + Object]. In this type of sentence, a verb is marked by the gender of its subject. The defining property of a verbal sentence is that the verb يَسُرُّنِ يْ أَنَّكَ هُنَاْ .precedes the subject, for example, I am glad that you are here is made of a subject and a جملة المبتدأ والخبرc) The Equational Sentence) predicate without any expressed verb. The verb "to be" is understood, predicate<--- subject. Both the subject and the predicate have to be in the nominative case. For example, Surt “Taahaa” Verse (31)

}فَأَلْقَاهَا فَإِذَا هِيَ ) حَيَّةٌ تَسْعَى( {

)مبتدأ أول( )مبتدأ ثاني( جملة فعلية خبر للمبتدأ الثاني

جملة أسمية خبر المبتدأ األول Surt “Taahaa” Verse (31) He threw it, and Behold! it was a snake, active In motion

2.9 Conditional Sentences They can be considered like all complex sentences, the conditional sentence consists of two clauses, one main and one subordinate. So, the researcher focuses more attention on this area because it is the most problematic area in translating the English complex sentences. 2.9.1 Condition in English Most of the definitions emphasize that the word ‘condition’ is something that has to be fulfilled before something else can happen, If X happens (then)Y follows, for example,

If she passes the exams, I will give her a present.

X Y

The condition clause subsequent clause سأعطيها جائزة، إن نجحت في االمتحانات. A conditional sentence contains two clauses: the condition clause and the subsequent clause that are dependent on each other. The majority of these statements are introduced by the subordinating conjunction ‘if’’ Quirk et al (1985:1091-97) mention the following types: (a)The Zero (Cause and Effect) Conditional This form is used to describe universal statements like facts, rules, and certainties. In this conditional, both the condition and the subsequent clauses are in the simple present. For example: إن أكلت كثيراً،تمرض .If you eat too much, you get sick (b) The First (Open) Conditional This type is also called potential or indicative conditional. It is used to express a hypothetical situation that is probably true, but the truth of which is unverified. إذا حضرت متأخراً، ستجد األبواب .If you come late, you will find the doors closed c) The Second (Unreal) Conditional)مغلقة. It is usually used to describe less probable situations and to state preferences and imaginary events. For example, If I finished my work yesterday, I should visit him. كنت سأزوره، إن أنهيت عملي باألمس. (d) The Third Conditional

It is used to describe impossible (contrary- to- fact) past events. For instance: If he had studied well, he would have passed the test. إذا درس جيداً كان سينجح في االختبار.( لم يدرس جيداً لذا لم ينجح( فالنجاح مشروط بالمذاكرة Sometimes conditionals are not directly expressed by conditional clauses. There are different ways of expressing implied condition in English. Sultan(2011:10) mentions some rules for conditions without ‘if’ among which: 1. Noun Phrases Adverbial clause of condition can be replaced by a noun phrase for example, A man of manner, he would help them. ) fact) أي إنسان ذو أخالق سيساعدهم )أي هذه شيمة أي شخص له أخالق( In translating such sentence, the noun phrase can be replaced by adverbial condition clause to give a clear meaning as: If there was a man of manner, he would help them. إذا كان هناك رجل ذو أخالق ، كان سيساعدهم. )أي الحصول علي المساعدة مشروط بوجود رجل ذو أخالق( 2. Prepositional Phrases A conditional relationship may be expressed by using a prepositional phrase within a sentence. For example: Under the governments’ control, gold might be cheaper .(fact) تحت سيطرة الحكومة سيكون الذهب أرخص.

The prepositional phrase Under the governments’ control should be replaced by a condition sentence to give suitable translation, If gold is under the government control, it would be cheaper. إذا كان الذهب تحت سيطرة الحكومة سيكون أرخص . )أي انخفاض سعر الذهب مشروط بوضعه تحت سيطرة الحكومة( 3. Time and Place Clauses The meaning of several subordinators that primarily express time, place, or condition may express implied condition. For instance: Whenever (Once) possible, tell the truth. قل الحقيقة ما أمكن. The subordinator “whenever” implied condition, and the above sentence قل الحقيقة، إن أمكنك ذلك. .can be translated as If it is possible, tell the truth

4. Coordinating Conjunctions There are a number of coordinators which can be used with an implied conditional relationship between elements. These coordinators are: A. And is used to express a declarative condition. For example: Do as required, and you will be respected from everyone. أفعل ما هو مطلوب منك تكون مقدراً من الجميع. The coordinator “and” in the above sentence implied declarative condition, so the sentence is translated as: If you do as required, you will be respected.) إن فعلت ما هو مطلوب منك، تنل تقديراً من الجميع . B. Or Unlike and, it is used to express a negative condition as in : Kick the ball , or we shall lose the match . 47

أركٌل الكرة و إال سنخسر المباراة The coordinator “or” in the above sentence can be used to express negative condition so the sentence is translated as: If you do not kick the ، إن لم تركل .ball , we shall lose the match : C. Otherwise indicates a negative condition as in سنخسر المباراة الكرة Buy this book; otherwise you will be illiterate. أشتري هذا الكتاب وإال ستكون أُمياً. The correct translation of the above sentence is: إن لم تشتر هذا الكتاب ستكون .If you do not buy this book, you will be illiterate Restrictive Modifiers .5أُمياً. Modification is divided into two types: restrictive and non- restrictive. Only restrictive modification may express an implied condition. It is either an adjective or a relative clause. 5.1 Restrictive Adjective المصارع القوي من الصعب أن .A strong wrestler is difficult to lose يخسر. The correct translation of the above sentence is, If a wrestler is strong, إذا المصارع قوي، فمن الصعب أن يخسر. .he' is difficult to lose' 5.2 Restrictive Relative Clause A man who cheats for the first time will cheat all his life اإلنسان الذي يغش للمرة األولي ، يغش طوال حياته. The above sentence is translated as: If a man cheats for the first time, he will cheat all his life. إن غش اإلنسان للمرة األولي، فسيغش طوال . حياته 48

6. Aphoristic Sentence This type of sentence may be used as equivalent of an if-clause .It is so common in proverbs. It indicates two equivalent structures which are against each other as in: ال حياة بال طعام .No food no life The above sentence is aphoristic sentence so it is translated as, إن لم يكون هنالك طعام، فسوف لن تكون هنالك .If there is no food, there will be no life Infinitive and Participle Clauses .7حياة. It is clear that there are two classes of lexical verbs in English: finite and non-finite, so there are two types of clauses. The first type is a finite clause because it indicates a finite verb. The second type is a non-finite clause because it indicates a non-finite verb. Only the latter type can express an implied condition. 7.1. To + Infinitive Clauses الفوز يحتاج لمجهود كبير. .To win, needs hard effort The correct translation of the above sentence, “to” infinitive should be replaced by the condition expression If you want to win, you will need to exert hard effort. so the sentence is translated as: إن ترد الفوز ،فذلك يحتاج لمجهودٍ كبير.

7.2 Ing- Participle Clause Reading American and African literature continuously improve the sense of translation skill. قراءة األدب األمريكي واألفريقي بإستمرار يطور الحس المهاري للترجمة. The correct translation for the above sentence is: 49

If you read American and African literature, you will improve the sense of translation.

إن تقرأ األدب األمريكي واألفريقي، ستطور الحس المهاري للترجمة.

2.9.2 Condition in Arabic All grammarians emphasize that conditional sentences in Arabic (conditional clause) جملة الشرط are made of two parts. The first is called conditional particle) .The second provides the)أداة الشرط and it indicates answer of conditional) جواب الشرط outcome of the condition and is called clause). Al-Mashtah, (2010:197-198)states that, “there are a number of particles which are generally regarded conditionals”. Some of these jussive conditional particles ) and these) أدوات الشرط الجازمة particles are Other particles .أن، كأن،أ ذما ، ،أين ، أيان، متي ، أي ، مهما ، ما ، من أني: involve :non-jussive conditional particles) which involve) أدوات شرط غير جازمة are Below are some examples and their standard . إذا، كيفما،لو، لوال، لو ما translations : إن تأخرت فلن .If you were late, you would not understand the lesson - تفهم الدرس. لو كنت غنيا الشتريت سيارة .If I were rich, I would buy a new car - أن ذهبنا مشيا علي األقدام فسوف .If we go on foot, we shall be lateجديدة. - كلما / لما يسافر .Whenever my brother travels, I travel with himنتأخر. - .Who studies a lot succeeds أخي أسافر معه. من يدرس كثيرا ينجح. 2.10 Difficulties of Translating Complex and Compound-Complex Sentences into Arabic

There are many difficulties that are faced by EFL students when translating complex and compound-complex sentences into Arabic, among which: 2.10.1 Word order Word order could be defined as the syntactic arrangement of words in a sentence, clause, or phrase. Baker, (0333:001) states that “word order is extremely important in translation because it plays a major role in maintaining a coherent point of view and in orienting messages at text level”. The differences in English and Arabic represent one of the causes of the problems encountered by EFL students in the process of translation. Arabic shows more flexibility in the movement and distribution of its components in word order although it has basic order “VSO. Besides the basic sentence structure of “V S O”, “Arabic has a nominal sentence structure of a subject phrase and a predicate phrase, with no verb or copula. In contrast, word order in English is “SVO” and changing the word order can change the meaning of the sentence. Massey, (2008:305) asserts some pointers to keep translation into Arabic in line when translating complex sentences: - Putting the verb firstly and then stating the subject. For example: Ahmed loves his mother, because she is very kind. يُحِبُ أحمد أُمهُ ألنَها عطوفةً جداً - Adjective is always placed after the noun. If you bought a new car, I would buy one. إذاَ اشتريِتَ سِيارةً جديدةً، سَأشترِى وَاحدةً. - Adverb must be placed at the end of the sentence. For example 50

We will travel tomorrow to Egypt in order to spend a good holiday. سَنُسَافِر إلي مصر غَداً لِنُمضِي إجازةً سَعِيدةً 2.10.2 Code Shifting

The term ‘code shifting’ means when a student in the process of translation use standard language, suddenly he/she shifts to use colloquial ’لم يخبرني الحقيقة" language .For example, ‘He did not tell me the truth’ means ’ما خبرني الحقيقة‘ this standard Arabic, but he/ she shifts to use

2.10.3 Punctuation Johnson, (1991:81) states that " punctuation can be thought of as a means of indicating in writing the pauses and changes of tone that are used in speech (or writing) to help communicate the meaning of sentences”. In the following the researcher will discuss only the most important, recurrent and complicated punctuation marks: (a) The Comma (,) It is by far the most frequent mark of punctuation within the sentence, and it is the most frequent misused. Its function is very simple: to separate one word, phrase, clause, from another such as the other separators. In translating sentences from English to Arabic, errors with the comma occur because the translator is unsure of how to deal with it. The use of the comma is primarily determined by the structure of the sentences Hodges and Whitten, (1971:104-109) provide the following rules which cover the usual practices of the commas: 1. Precede the coordinating conjunctions, for example, Justice stands upon power, or there is no justice.

2- Commas follow introductory elements such as: (a) Adverb clauses Adverb clause, main clause

- When Americans are not happy, they feel guilty. (b) Interjections, as well as transitional expressions such as, in fact, on the other hand, in the second place, they are ordinary followed by a comma, for example, Well, move the ball or move the body. ( 3- Commas set off: Commas set off the following: (a) Non-restrictive clauses and phrases Adjective clauses and phrases are non-restrictive when they are not essential to the meaning of the main clause and may be omitted. Such modifiers are parenthetical and are set off by commas, for example, this intrigued Newton, who sought knowledge in many strange places. [the who clause is non-essential to the meaning of " This intrigued Newton”.

(b) Parenthetical elements The term parenthetical is correctly applied to all non-restrictive elements, and it is applied to such transitional expressions as on the other hand, first, in the first place, in fact, to tell the truth, however, that is, then, therefore, for example and to such expressions as I hope, I believe, and he says. For example, Language, then, sets the tone of our society. (c) Miscellaneous elements - Leslie applied for the job in October, 1975,and accepted it on Thursday, May, 13, 1976. 51

Or Leslie applied for the job in October 1975and accepted it on Thursday,13 May 1976. (4) Non-restrictive appositive Appositive is defined according to Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics as" two words, phrases or clauses in a sentence that have the same reference, they are said to be in opposition" for example, in the sentence Davis, our guide, did not see the grizzly.( guide is in the apposition with Davis) (5) Expressions with direct equations, for example, He said, "our rose-hips tea is really different." Unnecessary or misplaced commas are false or awkward sights that may confuse the translator. They are not used to: - Separate the subject from its verb, or the verb from its object, for example, The encircled commas below should be omitted The man said , that the old tires were guaranteed. - misuse a comma before or after a coordinating conjunction, for example, The facts were selected , and organized with care. (b) The colon (:) Johnson, (1991:125) states that the specific function of the colon is to introduce whatever follows: a list, a statement, an example, or anything else that earlier part of the sentence has led the translator to expect. Hodges and Whitten (1971:151-152) also give the following rules for using of the colon:

- May direct attention to an explanation or summary, an appositive, a series, or a quotation. For example, Theories which try to explain the secret of fire-walking fall into three categories: physical, psychological, and religious. 1- May separate two main clauses or sentences when the second explains or amplifies the first, for example, American conceives of fishing as more than sport: it is his personal contest against nature. 2- Between figures in scriptural and time references and between titles and subtitles. For example, the text of the sermon was Mathew 6:10 (16) (c) The Dash (-) Usually translators take care of this mark in Arabic, because it helps to complete the meaning of the sentence. Hodges and Whitten (1971:153-154) points out the following rules for using dash in sentence: 1- Marking a sudden break in thought or an abrupt change in tone, For example, A hypocrite is a person who- but he is not? 2- Indicating unfinished or interrupted statement and faltering speech in dialogue, for example, "would- would- you mind telling me-" he said to the guide, much deflated, "what was so stupid about that?" 3- Setting off a parenthetical element for emphasis or, (if it contains commas) for clarity), for example, four states-IIIinois, Ohio, Albama, and New Jersy- are putting up highway signs in metric language. (d) Parentheses ( ) Johnson, (1991:136) states that parentheses have the obvious function of isolating some words from other words within a sentence, or some sentences from other sentences within a paragraph. Hodges and Whitten (1971:153-154) mention the following examples: 55

1. Setting off Parenthetical, supplementary, or illustrative matter and to enclose figures when used for enumeration within a sentence, For example, “you have seen the point" says a PLA (People’s Liberation Army) cadre with a knowing grin, "but up side down". 2. Tending to minimize the importance of the elements they enclose, for example, Man's mind is indeed (as Luther said) a factory busy with making idols. (e) The Slash (/) Hodges and Whitten (1971:154) assert that it can be used when needed to indicate options, for example, recent experiments in playing down the importance of grades- including the pass / fail idea-are being scuttled (f) The Exclamation Point (!) Johnson, (0330:043) states that “it is essentially an indicator of emotion, anger, pleasure, surprise, and strong resolve”. So, it can be used after an emphatic interjection and after a phrase, clause, or sentence to express high degree of surprise, incredulity, or other strong emotion. For example, Wow! What a desperation pass! When it is used too frequently, it loses its force and is annoying to the translator. Certain sentences require it because they are worded as exclamation: what a sunset! , other sentences are given it to change them from declaration to exclamation: the sunset was magnificent!. Frequently,

exclamations are not grammatically complete sentences, and they can be single word(s). (h) Hyphen (-) Johnson, (1991:183) indicates that it is the only mark of punctuation that has specific function of joining words together. Hodges and Whitten (1971:172) mention the main using of hyphen as follows: 1- Joining two or more words serving as a single adjective before a noun, for example, the bluish-green see. 2- With compound numbers from twenty- one to ninety-nine and with frication. 3- Avoiding ambiguity or an awkward combination of letters or syllabus between prefix and root, or suffix and root, for example, His re-creation was perfect. [But fishing is good recreation.] 4- Is generally used with prefixes like ex, ("former") self-, all-, and great-, between a prefix and a proper name; and with the suffix- for example, self-made , all- purpose,. (i) The Apostrophe (s’) Johnson, (1991:172) mentions that it is not actually a mark of punctuation, but a part of the spelling of word, it occurs as a part of a word, not as something between words. Its primarily functions are to form the possessive case and to indicate contractors and dropped letters. Hodges and Whitten (1971:133) mention the following examples: - To indicate the possessive case of nouns and indefinite pronouns. The possessive case expresses ownership or comparable relationship, which 57

may often be otherwise expressed by the substations of a phrase or another modifier, for example, Everybody's friend. The friend of everybody. Singular nouns and indefinite pronouns, apostrophe and s For example, somebody's coat. Plural nouns ending in "s" , the apostrophe and s' For example, boys' shoes. But : Children's nights. - For compounds or word groups, add the apostrophe and s to the last word, for example, my sister-in-law's shop. - To indicate individual ownership, add the apostrophe and ‘s’ to each name, for examples: - Al's and Sue's car. The doctor's and the dentist's offices. (j) The Translation of Punctuation Marks into Arabic Punctuation may have a certain meaning in a complex sentence when the translator translates into Arabic. That can be indicated through the following examples by Yousif, (2006:163-164): - While feeling his way in the dark , thunderbolts fell unceasingly over his head. ذكر بأن الفاصلة توحي بالتتابع، لذلك ترجمت هنا في هذه الجملة بـ " فإذا ": The sentence is translated as: بينما يتحسس طريقه في الظالم، فإذا بالصواعق تنهال فوق رأسه. - He entered the room expecting to find his guest, but found -– an empty room. 58

توحي " الشرطة " الكبيرة في هذه الجملة بالمفاجأة، وتترجم بكلمة مثل " فلدهشته ". The sentence is translated دخل الحجرة متوقعاً أن يجد ضيفه فيها، ولكن لدهشته وجدها خالية. In the two sentences: -It is indeed hard to overestimate the value of language in communication but it is even harder to overestimate its value in thinking . Language is tied to the very process of thought. هنالك اتصال للفكرة في الجملتين. لذلك يمكن ترجمة النقطة الواقعة بين الجملتين بـ:"حيث" أو"إذ " The two sentences are translated: إنه حقا من الصعب أن نتجاهل قيمة اللغة كوسيلة لالتصال، بل األمر األصعب هو تجاهل قيمتها في التفكير، حيث / إذ ترتبط اللغة بصميم عملية التفكير. - The OAU conference recommended that domestic investment should be enhanced and that tourism and other hard currency resources should be promoted, particularly as capital inflows into the continent are diminishing ; limiting its capacity to industrialize. تعني الفاصلة المنقوطة في هذه الجملة "األمر الذي أدى / مما أدى "، كما يلي: أوصى مؤتمر الوحدة اإلفريقية بوجوب تعزيز االستثمار المحلي وتشجيع موارد النقد األجنبي من السياحة والمجاالت األخرى، خصوصا إذا ما أخذنا في الحسبان تضاءل تدفقات رأس المال الداخلة للقارة، والتي حجّمت ) األمر الذي أدى إلى تحجيم / مما أدى إلى الحد من ( قدرتها على التصنيع. - Several countries in the Sahel , after the stimulus of earlier years provided by a gradual recovery from the long drought and by parallel diversification efforts , suffered a significant setback in 1978 because of renewed drought conditions.

نجد هنا أن الجزء االعتراضي ) الذي يأتي بين الفاصلتين ( طويل للغاية. وإذا ترجمناه في نفس موضعه كما بالجملة اإلنجليزية، فقد يتشتت القارئ العربي ويفقد متابعته للجملة. ولذلك فمن األفضل أن نضع هذا الجزء االعتراضي في آخر الجملة المترجمة، كما يلي: The sentence is translated عانت بلدان عديدة في إقليم الساحل من انتكاسة خطيرة في عام 0378 بسبب تجدد حاالت الجفاف، وذلك بعد أن شهدت انتعاشا في السنوات التي سبقت هذه الفترة إثر التماثل التدريجي من حاالت الجفاف الطويل وما واكب ذلك من جهود على دروب شتى. - Nervously, they await the supreme accolade : a visit from the patron of the London Gardens Scheme. النقطتين تعني أيضا إعطاء توضيح أكبر للفكرة التي سبق ذكرها في الجزء األول من الجملة. ولذلك يمكن ترجمتها ب " أال وهو "، The sentence is translated as: واستبد بهم القلق وهم ينتظرون التكريم السامي، أال وهو زيارة راعية هيئة العناية بحدائق لندن. 2.10.4 Ellipsis According to the http://www.merriam-webster.com, the origin of the word ‘ellipsis’ comes from the Greek ‘elleipsis’, from ‘elleipin’ which means "leave out". Jonson, (1991:6) defines an elliptical sentence as that which "leave(s) out one or more words that the listener or reader can be expected to supply". The missing word or phrase is called an ‘ellipsis’. The relevance of ellipsis to translation cannot be overemphasized. The translator should be aware as to what missing word or words is/are omitted in a text. Not all omission can readily be provided; some of them are language- and culture-specific and in situations for example, an English sentence of the type: Have you been studying the whole afternoon?

may have answer of the type: Yes, I have, (with been studying the whole afternoon) omitted. An elliptical sentence is not like a fragment, because fragments are faulty grammar for example, My father is always planting a spring garden because he likes fresh vegetables. But elliptical sentences are usually quite respectably grammatical. Sometimes they are ambiguous. For example, Joseph loves money more than Mary, has an elliptical clause and it can be يحب يوسف المال أكثر مما : translated in three different ways (1) تحب ميري المال )3( يحب يوسف المال أكثر من ميري. )2( يحب يوسف المال أكثر من حبه لـــميري. The second is translating the sentence with its ambiguity; the first and third should not thus be rendered unless the translator is quite sure as to the implicit meaning from the context The choice of the pronoun form is very important in the meaning of an elliptical sentence for example: She admires Kurt more than I. It can be translated as: هي معجبة بكورت أكثر من إعجابي به. If it is compared with She admires Kurt more than me. هي معجبة بكورت أكثر من إعجابها بي. Replacing the object pronoun by the subject pronoun clarifies the ambiguity.Sometimes the semicolon may be followed by a main clause with elliptical elements. For example, the author of each sentence below omitted clearly implied words that have been inserted in brackets: - Popularization is one thing ; dedicated music-making(is) 60

- All snowflakes look very much alike ; (they look) like little white dots. In the process of transferring meaning of elliptical sentences, the translator should be aware to supply the suitable missing words, or phrases to complete the sentence and then give the exact translation for sentence. 2.10.5 Ambiguity in Complex sentences Ambiguity can be defined as a word, phrase, or sentence which has more than one meanings. The word 'light', for example, can mean not very heavy or not very dark. The notion of ambiguity has philosophical applications. It can be divided into two types: 2.10.5.1 Ambiguity Arising from Lexical meaning - Although she is young, she can’t bear children. These sentence can be translated in two ways: )0( رغُمأنها في مُقتَبل العمر إال أنها ال تستطيع تحمل األطفال. )3( رغُمأنها في مُقتَبل العمر إال أنها ال تستطيع إنجاب األطفال. The word “bear” in the above sentence has multiple meanings: endure, stand, or give birth… which is called “Homonomy”. Another example, the word “cell” has different meanings: خلية (The smallest basic unit of a plant or an animal. (organism 1- خلية .A device for producing electrical energy from chemical energy 2- كهربية خلية سياسية .A small group forming a nucleus of political activity 3- 4- A small room with not much furniture, especially in a prison or a سجن ، صومعة، دير monastery or convent

Another ambiguity that arises from lexical meaning is “Homophones” which are words that are not spelled alike but have the same sound. ‘Peace’ and ‘piece’ are homophones. An example of homophones: - Tarig has noticed that it was quite quiet in the library this evening. الحظ طارق الهدوء التام في المكتبة هذا المساء. - If the new berg has got a festival of toys of burg, I will come. سأحضر أن احتفلت القرية الجديدة باأللعاب الجلدية. - The Finnish and the French finish their, at the same time Obama visits the two countries. يُنهِي الفنلنديون و الفرنسيون محادثاتهم في الوقت الذي يزور فيه أوباما البلدين. In the process of translating complex sentences to figure out the exact meanings of such words, it demands careful consideration of specific context when rendering the meaning of the sentence into Arabic. 2.10.5.2 Structural Ambiguity Quirk et.al (1985: 1042-1044) emphasize that structural ambiguities arise in the complex sentence when two interpretations are plausible. For example, I’ll let you know whether I’ll’ need you here when the doctor arrives. سأخبرك عندما أحتاجك هنا إذا حضر الطبيب This can be can be interpreted into: (1) When the doctor arrives, I’ll let you know whether I’ll need you here. عندما يحضر الطبيب أوالً، سأخبرك بأنني أحتاجك هنا.

(2) I’ll let you know whether, when the doctor arrives, I’ll need you here. سأخبرك ما إذا كنت أحتاجك هنا إذا حضر الطبيب

Another example, While the man was hunting, the dear ran through the forest. )0( بينما يحاول الرجل اصطياده ركض الغزال إلي الغابة. :Can be translated as )3( أسرع الرجل إلي الغابة بينما كان يصطاد الغزال. In order to avoid structural ambiguity in complex sentences that can be through changing the word order of the clauses, using punctuation to mark the major clause boundary, and supplying ellipted elements of the sentence. 2.10.6 Using of Bilingual Dictionary (Extension of Meaning) Translation involves the transfer of "meaning" contained in one set of language signs into another set of language signs through component use of the dictionary and grammar. Foreign learners who have grown up with their native language expect to find translational equivalents when they refer to a bilingual dictionary. This will facilitate their use of the foreign language for communication. So, using a good bilingual dictionary is essential to get the meaning of a word in a sentence because sometimes the meaning of the whole phrase is different from the combined meaning of the constituent words for example, in Arabic there are many words to classify ‘camels’ while there is one word in English which is supposed to be equivalent:

اإلبل , الناقة، الفحل، المطية، البعير، البكرة، الخلفة،اللقحة -الخلوج، البدنه، الهجن، الركايب، الهمل، الراحل ، الذلول, العشراء، الزمل، الحيل، القعود ....الخ Another example the verb (look) has many different meanings into رمَقه )نظر إليه بمجامع عينيه(، و لَحظه )نظر إليه من جانب أذنه(، و لَمحه )نظر إليه :Arabic بعجلة(، و حَدجه بحده، و نَظر إليه شذراً أي )نظرة العداء(. 02.10.7 Cultural Differences Cultural differences are variation in the way of life, beliefs, traditions and laws among different countries, religions, societies and people. Many people see culture as an encompassing overview of large groups of people. However, the word ‘culture’ can be used to describe the way of life of much smaller groups. Cultural differences are important to identify and provide a sense of belonging. The important elements of cultural differences between English and Arabic are shown below in table (2.4). Table:( 2.4) Examples of Cultural Differences between English and Arabic (a) Religious culture Term English Arabic مسجد ."a mosque" 1 محراب ”Aniche“ 2 صالة اإلستخارة istikhaarah' (the request to God to’ 3 help us make the right decision) سحور SaHuur’ (Food that is eaten‘ 4 before down). قطيعة األرحام Qaii'at-arHaam” (being on bad“ 5 terms with family members) عدة Iddah (the period during which a 6

Muslim woman stays at home , not wearing make up or perfume, this 130 days for widows) (b)Social Relationship

7 Appropriate to have a foot note in Such "Mohammed" and the translation to explain religious "Abdullah" are common in dimensions of proper nouns Islamic culture.

8 Equivalent words such as "Hello", Arabic greetings such as السالم عليكم و or السالم عليكم Hi", "Good morning" or "Good" can be رحمة اهلل تعالي وبركاته ."afternoon translated literally as "Peace be upon you and the mercy of God and His blessings".

(c) Issues Related to Kinship 9 "mama", "pa", "papa", Translated formally into "mammy", "dad", "daddy", Standard Arabic "mother", "granny" or "graruna" "father", other informal colloquial Arabic ماما equivalents, such as .بابا and 10 The term "sister" can mean sister In Islam, two persons can from the same father, but not the also be regarded as brothers same mother. or sisters if they breast-fed from the same woman. In this situation, someone is اخ بالرضاعة-اخت termed بالرضاعة-اخت غير شقيقة-اخ غير شقيق-

11 "grandfather", Can be translated by two

.جدor سلف grandsire"/"grandsir", "ancestor", Arabic words" "forefather", "forbear\"forebear" (d) Issues related to food 12 Sweets such as "Black Forest Difficult to find Arabic Gateau" and "Yorkshire equivalents. The appropriate pudding". equivalents are likely to be types of sweets in Arabic.

in قطايف food such as “Pancake” which looks like 13 Arabic.

14 “Bread” Arab bread has a different shape from the British loaf. رغيف Thus, the Arabic word does not have a complete equivalent in English. Nan bread looks like Arab bread to some extent.

Source: Abed Al Latif, (2003:45-46) 2.11 Promoting the Performance of EFL Students in Translating Complex and Compound-Complex Sentences into Arabic There are many techniques in order to promote the performance of EFL students in translating complex sentences, among which: 1- Focus on Specific Issues It is preferable that students have systematic translation practice to improve the quality of their translation in translating complex sentences. Using more activities such as "functional texts" which convey specific information relevant to the students' needs help to promote the performance. The appropriate selection of these texts is essential for their 67

success in the teaching process. The difficulty of these texts should parallel students' progress in the translation course. Lecturers can rely on their intuitions and experiences to assess the difficulty of texts. Lecturers can also develop specific translation exercises that deal with students' problems in translation Delisle, ( 1988: 8-11). 2- Student-Centered Instruction Kiraly, (1995: 33) argues that it is important that the focus in class should be on students' translations and their evaluation. It is also advisable that lecturers avoid giving only lectures about the process of translation but adopt new teaching methods that encourage students' responsibility, independence and the ability to see alternatives. It is also important for lecturers to encourage collaborative learning through using small group techniques. It is also essential for lecturers to teach translation as a realistic communicative activity through providing students with translation tasks, parallel texts, textual analysis and devoting time for practice. However, it is important for teachers to develop a sense of profession through a basic course in translation studies that develops broad translation principles and attaches students to translation practice. 3- Analyzing the complex sentences into components That can be through identifying the clauses, phrases, word order, punctuation, and so on and giving adequate time. 4- Taking purpose of translation, context and readers into account Purpose, context and readership should be known to the translator in order to have a successful contextual information translation task. 68

5- Developing students' confidence Confidence can be developed by working in groups sharing ideas together and improving the translation product. Another technique for improving students' confidence is not to give marks for students in class and home. Proper comments that starts with "fine” and “good” “but” .... are better than marks and help explain students' weaknesses in translation. Thus, they will have the chance to learn from their mistakes. 6- Using back translation It is useful for students to check the accuracy of their translations through the use of back translation technique. This helps students spot differences in meaning between the source and target texts and overcome problems in their translations. 2.12 Previous Studies The researcher has surveyed the studies carried out by researchers in different universities. A closely relevant study to this study ‘Problems of Translating the English Complex and Compound-Complex Sentences into Arabic’ has not found yet as an academic subject and linguistic activity. However, there are many studies that are dealing with translation in general. First study, Satti,(2006) has the title “The Impact of Translation on English Language Leaner’s Communicative Competence at University Level” a PhD thesis. The study aims at findings out the ways to develop EFL learners’ ability in translation. The main findings are: the translation courses in EFL programmes aimed at developing student’s competence. The time allocated for teaching translation is inadequate. The important 69

recommendations are the best method of teaching is that the teacher points out and discusses the linguistic features, structures, semantics, stylistics and culture. The second study, Abed Al Latif, (2003) Doctoral thesis on “Areas of Cultural and Linguistic Difficulty in English-Arabic Translation”. A case study at ‘Al –Azhar’ University-Palestine. The study aims to investigate types of cultural and linguistic errors made by students due to the differences between the source and target cultures. The findings indicate that students have a tendency for literal translation from the source texts. In addition, the research indicates that students faced difficulties in translating cultural texts due to the differences between the two culturally linguistic systems. However, the study has recommended that Students should be encouraged to use proper Arabic punctuation marks. The third study, Masaad, (3114). “Analyzing Sentence Structure in Student’s Translated Texts”, A case study, Faculty of Education- ‘Hasheisa’. The study attempts to investigate some errors that are committed as a result of differences between (SL) and (TL) in translating texts. The researcher has drawn special attention to the mistakes in the process of translation such as punctuation, word order and that occurred as a result of interference between the two languages. He also recommended that students have to observe the differences between ‘L1’ and ‘L2’ structure to overcome the problems in translating texts. Fourth study, Fahd, A. (0333). “Aspects of Sentence Analysis in the Arabic Linguistic Tradition, with Particular Reference to Ellipsis”. A case study, University of ‘Durham’ (The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia).The main 71

aim of this study is to provide a better understanding of sentence analysis in Arabic linguistic tradition and to discuss its syntactic and semantic aspects, with particular reference to ellipsis. The major findings of this study are that the attention of Arab grammarians seem to have focused mainly on the form of the sentence, without giving priority to the meaning. In addition, any Arabic linguistic phenomenon, including ellipsis, should be treated in accordance with both subjects because each of them complements the other. Among the recommendations of this study is comparative study comparing traditional Arabic linguistic terms with contemporary linguistic terms would represent a useful contribution to the field of translations. The present study is different from the above mentioned studies since it attempts to investigates the EFL students’ performance in translating the complex and compound-complex sentences into Arabic.

The following chapter discusses the methodology of the study.

CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY

3.0 Introduction

This chapter is concerned with the procedures followed in carrying out the study. It describes the sample, the study design and tools for data collection. Moreover, this chapter includes the calculation of reliability and validity of the two English diagnostic tests for EFL students and the questionnaire for the EFL lecturers and experts in the domain of translation.

3.1 Study Design

The researcher has adopted the descriptive and analytical approach. The cross sectional method (selecting a representation sample from the study population) is the most suitable study design for this study as it helps in obtaining the overall picture of EFL students’ performance in translating the English complex and compound- complex sentences into Arabic.

3.2 The Sample

The sample of the study is composed of two groups. The first group consists of ten (10) EFL lecturers and experts in the field of translation, from the Faculty of Education-Hantoub, University of Gezira, Wad Medani Ahlia University and the University of the Holy Quran-( Wad Medani) for the questionnaire. While the second group, 71

consists of one hundred (100) EFL University students, from the Faculty of Education – Hantoub, University of Gezira, Batch (32), semester (8) who have already covered two courses in translation. They were chosen randomly through selecting random names from the attendance sheet.

3.3 Tools of Data Collection and Procedures

For the sake of collecting reliable data, the researcher has used two tools as methods of data collection. These tools are two diagnostic tests and a questionnaire. The questionnaire is designed for lecturers and experts in the field of translation to find out their points of view about EFL students’ performance in translating the English complex and compound-complex sentences into Arabic. While the two diagnostic tests are used to investigate the performance of EFL students in translating the English complex and compound-complex sentences into Arabic.

These tools have been constructed to ensure the maximum validity and reliability of the collected data. The following is a detailed account of the constructions of both tools.

2.2.0 The Tests’ Design

The two tests are designed according to the criteria of a good test. The sentences are chosen carefully from different resources in order to detect the points of weakness of EFL students’ performance in translating the English complex and compound-complex sentences into Arabic.

3.3.2 The Content of the two Tests

The two diagnostic tests consist of appropriate sentences (See

Appendix 2). The researcher has composed the two tests as follows: - The first test consists of thirteen (13) sentences which include simple, compound and complex sentences. They were designed to elicit some problems such as: punctuation, word order, subordinator, ellipsis, cultural differences and ambiguity in order to investigate the performance. - The second test consists also consists of twelve (12) sentences which include complex and compound-complex sentences. They were also intended to measure some problems such as: tenses, word order, cultural differences, ellipsis, and so on. 3.3.2 Validity of the Two Tests Validity is considered as an essential characteristic of a good test. Richard, J et al (1999:93) define validity as “a test is said to be valid when it measures, what is supposed to measure”. Face validity was checked by presenting the test to four lecturers at Faculty of Education-Hantoub, Department of English, University of Gezira. All the lecturers agree that the test is valid. 3.3.4 Reliability of the Two Tests Reliability is highly considered as one of the specific qualities that determines the overall usefulness of a test. It is defined by Brown, (0387:331) as “a reliable test is a test that is consistent and dependable”. To measure the reliability of the diagnostic test, each test was divided into odd and even numbers so as to get two marks for each student. A co- efficient was calculated for each tests using Spearman Rank- Difference 74

Method to measure the tests’ reliability. The degree of reliability obtained for the first test was (99.1),and the second test was (89.3) which indicates that they are considerably reliable. 3.3.5 Administration of the two Diagnostic Tests The researcher was helped by two other lecturers administrating the tests to EFL students at the Department of English, Faculty of Education- Hantoub, University of Gezira in May 2013. A hundred (100) students were selected to be involved in the study and it was optional to write one’s name. The time of each test is about an hour. The students were also assured that the results would be used only to serve the purposes of the study. 3.3.6 The Questionnaire The questionnaire is designed to find out the lecturers and the experts points of view about ‘Problems of Translating the English Complex and Compound-Complex Sentences into Arabic’. The researcher has chosen five ended questions for this study because the two tests were covered most of the causes of low of EFL students’ performance when translating the English complex and compound-complex sentences into Arabic.

3.3.6.1 The Content of the Questionnaire The questionnaire of this study consists of five questions to know the lecturers opinions and the suggestions’ about the problems of translating the English complex and compound-complex sentences into Arabic.  The first question:

What are the most complicated types of English sentences for the English/Arabic translator?  The second question: What are the main difficulties in translating the English complex and compound- complex sentences into Arabic?  The third question: How can you promote your students’ performance in revealing the meaning of the English complex and compound-complex sentences into Arabic?

 The fourth question: What extent can giving more activities and devoting time to practice help to promote the performance of EFL student in translating complex and compound-complex sentences into Arabic?  The fifth question: What are the other suggestions would you make for promoting EFL students’ performance in translating the English complex and compound-complex sentences into Arabic? 3.3.6.2 Validity of the Questionnaire To obtain the validity of the questionnaire the face validity was implemented .The questionnaire is designed and then checked and judged by four experienced lecturers in the Department of English language at 76

Faculty of Education –Hantoub, University of Gezira. Their modification were taken into consideration . 3.4 Procedures for Data Analysis The technique used to analyze the data is by manual percentage, and computer which were used to convey the statistical information.

In the following chapter, the results of the data analysis will be displayed and discussed in relation to the hypotheses of the study.

CHAPTER FOUR

ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION, AND DISCUSSION OF DATA

4.0 Introduction

This chapter is concerned with presenting the data which has been collected by means of the two diagnostic tests and the questionnaire. They were analyzed statistically by manual percentage and computer. Hypotheses of the study will be also discussed based on the results obtained.

4.1 The Tests Results

The two diagnostic tests were administered purposefully to investigate the performance of EFL students in translating the English complex and compound-complex sentences into Arabic. The following tables summarize the results obtained from the performance of the EFL students in the two tests.

 Test One Table 4.0: EFL Students’ Performance in Translating the Simple Sentences into Arabic.

Items Sample Correct Incorrect Total

Sentence 1 100 80% 20% 100%

Sentence 2 100 87% 13% 100%

It is clear that in table (4.1) (80%), and (87%) of the students translate both simple sentences into Arabic correctly, and the results indicate that they do not face difficulty in translating the simple sentences into Arabic. While (20%), and (13%) of the students fail to translate the sentences into Arabic.

Table 4.2 EFL Students’ Performance in Translating the Compound Sentences into Arabic.

Items Sample Correct Incorrect Total

Sentence 3 100 55% 45% 100%

Sentence 4 100 56% 44% 100%

Sentence 5 100 36% 64% 100%

Table (4.2) illustrates that (55%), (56%), and (36%) of the students are able to render the meaning of the sentences into Arabic correctly, while (45%), (44%), and (64%) fail to translate the sentences correctly. So, it is obvious that the EFL students’ performances is low, because translating compound sentences is more difficult than simple sentences in the process of translation into Arabic.

4.2 EFL Students’ Performance in Translating the English Complex Sentences into Arabic.

Table 4.3.1 Word order

Items Sample Correct Incorrect Total

Sentence 6 100 11% 89% 100%

Sentence 7 100 21% 79% 100%

Sentence 8 100 18% 82% 100%

Table (4.3.1) indicates that (11%), (21%), and (18%) of the students are able to translate the sentences into Arabic correctly, whereas a great number of the students (89%), (79%) and (82%) of the students are unable to translate the sentences into Arabic. These results indicate that the differences of word order between English and Arabic reveal difficulty for the participants when translating the English complex sentences into Arabic.

Table 4.3.2 Punctuation

Items Sample Correct Incorrect Total

Sentence 9 100 7% 93% 100%

Sentence 100 8% 92% 100% 10

Sentence 100 30% 70% 100% 11

Table (4.3.2) demonstrates (7%), (8%), and (30%) of the subjects are able to translate the sentences into Arabic correctly whereas, a great number of the students (93%), (92%) and (70%) fail to translate the sentences correctly. From these results, it is clear that EFL students are not able to recognize the location of punctuation which identifies the exact meaning of the complex sentences into Arabic.

Table 4.3.3 Ellipsis

Items Sample Correct Incorrect Total

Sentence 12 100 19% 81% 100%

Sentence 13 100 20% %80 100%

It is clear that in table (4.3.3), a small number of the students (19%), and (20%) are able to transfer the meaning of the two complex sentences into Arabic. While (81%) and (80%) of the respondents are unable to give the suitable missing words, or phrases to complete the sentences and translate the English complex sentences into Arabic correctly. This failure is due to unknown reference of the elliptical item.

 (Test Two) Table 4.3.4 Cultural Differences Item Sample Correct Incorrect Total

Sentence 1 100 16% 84% 100%

Sentence 2 100 38% 62% 100%

According to table (4.3.4) a small number of the students (16%), and (38%) are able to translate the English complex sentences into Arabic while (84%), and (62%) of the students fail to differentiate the cultural differences between English and Arabic. This reveals that lack of knowledge of culture causes difficulty in translating the English complex sentences into Arabic.

Table 4.3.5 Lexical and Structural Ambiguity

Items Sample Correct Incorrect Total

Sentence 3 100 3% 97% 100%

Sentence 4 100 2% 98% 100%

Sentence 5 100 0% 100% 100%

It is observed that in table (4.3.5) a large number (97%), (98%), and (100%) of the participants find difficulty in translating the sentences correctly because of the multiple interpretation of meanings in the above English complex sentences into Arabic, while a small number (3%), (2%) and (0%) of the participants succeed in giving the exact translation.

Table 4.3.6 Conditional Sentences

Items Sample Correct Incorrect Total

Sentence 6 100 6% 94% 100%

Sentence 7 100 10% 90% 100%

Table (4.3.6) shows that EFL students face difficulty in translating the conditional sentences into Arabic (94%), and (90%) of the students are unable to translate the sentences correctly, because of the lack of equivalence of this statement in Arabic. While (6%), and (10%) of the students are able to translate the sentences into Arabic.

4.4 EFL Students’ Performance in Translating the English Complex and Compound-Complex Sentences into Arabic

Table 4.4.1 Word Order

Items Sample Correct Incorrect Total

Sentence 8 100 8% 92% 100%

Sentence 9 100 15% 85% 100%

It is noticed in table (4.4.1), that the majority of the students (92%), and (85%) find difficulty in translating the compound-complex sentences into Arabic, due to misunderstanding of the word order between English and Arabic, whereas (8%), and (15%) of the students succeed in translating the sentences into Arabic.

Table 4.4.2 Code Shifting

Items Sample Correct Incorrect Total

Sentence 10 100 26% 74% 100%

Sentence 11 100 20% 80% 100%

Table (4.4.2) shows that the majority (74%), and (80%) of the students are unable to translate the sentences using Arabic standard language, because there is an unconsciously shifting from standard language to colloquial. Whereas (26%), and (20%) translate the sentences correctly.

Table 4.4.3 Punctuation

Item Sample Correct Incorrect Total

Sentence 12 100 20% 80% 100%

Table (4.4.3) proves that (20%) of the participants able to translate the sentences correctly. Whereas (80%) of the students fail to get the exact translation. Punctuation always spots as well as clarifies ambiguity in translating the English compound-complex sentences into Arabic. According to this fact students face difficulty to catch the intended meaning

Table 4.5 EFL Students’ Performance in Translating the English Sentences into Arabic.

The researcher has chosen three sentences from test (1) and one sentence from test (2) because the number of the sentences of each type is not equal to deduct the average for each one. The following table (4.5)below indicates that the performance of EFL students is poor in translating the English complex and compound-complex sentences into Arabic.

Items Test Type Sample Correct Incorrect Total Sentence 2 (1) Simple 100 87% 13% 100% Sentence 3 (1) Compound 100 56% 44% 100% Sentence (1) Complex 100 19% 81% 100% 12 Sentence 8 (2) Compound- 100 8% 92% 100% complex

100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% Correct 20% Incorrect 10% 0%

Figure: (4.1) The Performance of EFL Students in Translating the English Complex and Compound- Complex Sentences into Arabic

4.3 The Questionnaire Results 85

The researcher has chosen five open-ended questions in order to elicit opinions and suggestions to obtain the required data that serve the study. The questionnaire was analyzed by calculating the responses of the lecturers and translators using manual percentage in question (1), and question (4). While in questions (2), (3), and (5) the researcher has summarized the lecturers’ opinions textually.

4.3.1 What are the most complicated types of English sentences for the English/ Arabic translator?

The majority of the lecturers (80%) state that the English complex and compound-sentences are the most difficult types to be translated into Arabic. While (20%) indicate that the English compound sentences is the most difficult.

80% 70% 60% 50% سلسلة1 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% Complex and Compoud Compound-Comple %20 %80 سلسلة1

Figure: (4.2) Complex and Compound-Complex is the most difficult type to be translated into Arabic 86

4.3.2 What are the main difficulties in translating the English complex and compound- complex sentences into Arabic?

The opinions of the lecturers and translators are quite different, so the researcher has summarized the important difficulties into the following:

1- Students are often not aware of how such type is structurally composed. 2- The possibility of lack of Arabic equivalence of words. 3- In the process of translating the English complex and compound- complex sentences into Arabic, the sequence of the chain of meanings in reaching the final product is so difficult due to the structural differences between English and Arabic. 4- When the subject of the subordinate clause in a complex or compound-complex sentences is a ‘to-infinitive’, ‘participial adjective’ or ‘adverbial expression’, it is difficult to catch the meaning due to different derivations between source language (SL) and target language (TL). 5- Word order and punctuation. 4.3.3 How can you promote your students’ performance in revealing the meaning of the English complex and compound-complex sentences into Arabic?

Different views are also given to reveal the meaning of the English complex and compound-complex sentences into Arabic, among which:

1- Practicing more translation activities concerning the English complex and compound-complex sentences. 2- Analyzing the English complex and compound-complex sentences into their components to facilitate the process of translation into Arabic. 3- Explaining the meaning of complex and compound-complex sentences via a provision of various Arabic equivalents which help students understand and absorb the meaning into Arabic. 4- Comparing similarities and differences concerning the English complex and compound-complex sentences between source language (S.L) and target language (T.L). 4.3.4 To what extent can more activities and devoting time to practice help to promote the performance of EFL student in translating complex and compound-complex sentences into Arabic?

(100%) indicate that regular practice and time are acceptable to be helpful and almost two important keys for promotion and enhancement of EFL students’ performance in translating the English complex and compound- complex sentences into Arabic. Figure (4.2) below indicate this fact.

100%

80%

60% سلسلة1 40%

20%

0% Storng opinion Disagree %0 %100 سلسلة1

Figure: (4.3) Devoting time and regular practice help in promoting EFL students’ performance in translating complex and compound-complex sentences into Arabic.

4.3.5 According to your experience in the field of translation, what suggestions would you make for promoting EFL students’ performance in translating the English complex and compound- complex sentences into Arabic?

The lecturers have suggested different techniques for promoting EFL students’ performance among the important are:

1. Students should do lots of practice in translating the English complex and compound- complex sentences into Arabic. 2. They should study guides and reference books on English structure.

3. It is useful to read translated texts such as literal books, fictional, non- fictional novels, narrative and detective stories. 4. Students should use supporting materials, consulting dictionaries both (monolingual and bilingual) ones in addition to that, they should contact experts. 5. Motivating and encouraging the students when they do tasks in a good way by using such expressions as ‘good’, ‘well done’, and ‘excellent’ . 4.4 Discussion of the Results in Relation to the Hypotheses

4.4.1 The First Hypothesis

“The EFL students' performance is poor in translating English sentences particularly complex and compound-complex sentences into Arabic to a large extent.” Table (4.5) and figure (4.1) Show that (81%), and (92%) of the sample face difficulties which reflects their poor performance in translating the English complex and compound-complex sentences into Arabic. So this hypothesis is proved.

4.4.2 The Second Hypothesis

“The most difficult types of English sentences to be translated into Arabic are the complex and compound-complex sentences”. Figure (4.1), represents that (81%), and (92%) of the participants are unable to translate the two types correctly, in addition, figure (4.2),

(80%) of the tenth (10) lecturers indicate that the English complex and compound-complex sentences are the most complicated type to be translated into Arabic. So, the hypothesis is verified. 4.4.3 The Third Hypothesis

“Punctuation is one of the main reasons of poor performance in translating the English complex and compound-complex sentences into Arabic”. Table (4.3.2) in test (1), (93%), (92%), (70%) and in test (2) table (4.4.3), sentence (12), (80%) of the sample are unable to recognize the location of punctuation in the process of translating the English complex and compound-complex sentences into Arabic, this reveals difficulty for the EFL students to have correct translation. Hence, the results support the hypothesis. 4.4.4 The Fourth Hypothesis “English learners' low performance can be improved through devoting time and offering more activities for rendering meaning of English complex and compound-complex sentences into Arabic.” Figure (4.3), (100%) of the lecturers reported that the most essential and effective technique to promote EFL students’ performance in translating complex and compound-complex sentences into Arabic is by devoting time and offering more activities. So, this hypothesis is supported. Summary, findings and recommendations will be presented in the next chapter.

CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.0 Introduction

This chapter is the final chapter of the study. It is limited to cover the summary, findings and the recommendations, in addition to topics suggested for future research.

5.1 Summary

This study is an investigation into EFL students’ performance in translating the English complex and compound-complex sentences into Arabic. A questionnaire for the lecturers and two tests for the EFL students were used as a tool for collecting the data. Hundred (100) EFL students form university, Batch (32), semester (8) answered two tests, while (10) EFL lecturers responded to the questionnaire. The data was analyzed manually by percentage and the results which obtained provide the following findings.

5.2 Findings

Based on the results of both the two tests for the EFL students and the questionnaire for the lecturers, the findings are stated as follows:

1- The simple English sentences are the easiest type of English sentences to be translated into Arabic.

2- English complex and compound- complex sentences are the most complicated type of English sentences to be translated into Arabic. 3- EFL university students are unaware of punctuation when translating the English complex and compound-complex sentences into Arabic. 4- EFL university students do not recognize the differences between word order in English and Arabic in the process of translating the English complex and compound-complex sentences into Arabic. 5- There is a ‘code shifting’ from standard to colloquial language when translating the English sentences into Arabic ones. 6- Engaging EFL students at university in activities and giving time for practicing are the most helpful techniques to facilitate translating the English complex and compound-complex sentences into Arabic 5.3 Recommendations In the light of the above mentioned findings, the researcher recommends the following:

1- In translating complex and compound- complex sentences it is advisable to analyze them into their components to ease or catch the intended meaning into Arabic. 2- When translating a complex or compound- complex into Arabic it is useful to know the location of punctuation marks that control the meaning.

3- Because word order is not universal, EFL students need to know the sequence of words in each language. 4- EFL students should promote translation sense by developing skills such as: practicing, consulting professional references and dictionaries (bilingual and monolingual) and gaining supporting materials in order to master the two languages.(English/ Arabic). 5- EFL students at university should be encouraged as a psychological challenge to deal with translating complex and compound-complex sentences by giving more activities and devoting time so as to take command for the two languages. 5.4 Suggestions for Further Studies During the study the researcher has come across a number of unsearched topics related to this study. Thus, he suggests the following topics: a. An Investigation of EFL Students’ Performance in Translation of English Conditional Sentences into Arabic. b. Impact of Ellipsis on Translating the Arabic Sentences into English.

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Appendix (1)

University of Gezira

Faculty of Education – Hantoub

Department of English Language

A questionnaire for English language Lecturer or Translator

Dear, lecturer or expert in the field of Translation,

This questionnaire is designed as a data-collection tool for an M.A research entitled ‘Problems of Translating the English Complex and Compound-Complex Sentences into Arabic’. The researcher has chosen five open ended questions. Your views will greatly be helpful and your participation is highly appreciated.

Question (1)

What are the most complicated types of English sentences for the English/ Arabic translator?

………………………………………………………………………………...Question (2)

In your opinion, what are the main difficulties in translating the English complex and compound- complex sentences into Arabic?

010

………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………

Question (3)

How can you promote your students’ performance in revealing the meaning of the English complex and compound-complex sentences into Arabic?

……………………………………………………………………………….………………… ……………………………………………………………..

Question (4)

To what extent can more activities and devoting time to practice help to promote the performance of EFL student in translating complex and compound-complex sentences into Arabic?

………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………..

Question (5)

011

According to your experience in the field of translation, what suggestions would you make for promoting EFL students’ performance in translating the English complex and compound-complex sentences into Arabic?

011

Appendix (2)

Two Diagnostic Tests EFL students

Test (1)

Translate the following sentences into Arabic

1- The train was late.

…………………………………………………………………………

2- Some students like to study in the mornings.

…………………………………………………………………………..

3- He could not go home, for he had no place to go.

…………………………………………………………………………..

4- John waited for the train, but it was late.

…………………………………………………………………………..

5- Fires are dangerous, and they cause great damage.

…………………………………………………………………………..

6- The alarm was raised as soon as the fire was discovered.

…………………………………………………………………………..

7- Take an umbrella with you in case it rains.

…………………………………………………………………………..

8- Dave began to feel better before the doctor arrived.

014

…………………………………………………………………………..

9- My wife, who is in Paris, will return tomorrow.

…………………………………………………………………………..

10- "The law, which was passed March 11, 1997, authorized a reduction in the city sales tax."

…………………………………………………………………………..

11- Dave, the King, began to feel better before the doctor arrived.

…………………………………………………………………………..

12- The man serving at the counter is very helpful.

…………………………………………………………………………

13- Being lost, I had to ask someone the way.

…………………………………………………………………………

Test (2)

Translate the following sentences into Arabic.

1- Muslims use religious register in mosques when they give a ‘Jumaa speech’

…………………………………………………………………………..

2- According to our religion, a woman must spend ‘iddah’ months when her husband dies.

…………………………………………………………………………..

3- John knows a richer man than Peter.

015

………………………………………………………………………….…………..………… ……………………………………………………………..

4- He promises to give me a ring tomorrow as soon as he arrives.

…………………………………………………………………………..……………………… …………………………………………………………….

5- Some people say that rabbit fur is really simply hare hair.

……………………………………………………………………………..

6- If I were him, I would tell the truth.

……………………………………………………………………………..

7- Had I known you were ill, I would have called to see you.

………………………………………………………………………………

8- If the weather is bad, we will go camping, or we might stay in a hotel.

…………………………………………………………………………..……………………… ……………………………………………………………

9- While Tom reads novels, Jack reads comics, but Sam only reads magazines.

………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………

10- Although I like to go camping, I haven't had the time to go lately, and I have not found anyone to go with.

016

………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………

11- You have finished your work which I assigned to you yesterday, so you may go home now.

………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………

12- Jack, who is a friend of mine, came to our house today but she did not tell me that she is going aboard next week. ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………

017

Appendix (3)

A key of the Two Tests

Test (1)

Item

Sentence (1) Simple Sentence

Sentence (2) Simple Sentence

Sentence (3) Compound Sentence

Sentence (4) Compound Sentence

Sentence (5) Compound Sentence

Type Problem

Sentence (6)

Sentence (7) Complex Word order

Sentence (8)

Sentence (9) Complex

Sentence (10) Punctuation

Sentence (11)

Sentence (12) Complex Ellipsis Sentence (13)

018

Test (2) Sentence (1) Complex Cultural Differences Sentence (2)

Sentence (3) Complex Ambiguity Sentence (4)

Sentence (5) Complex Lexical Meaning

Sentence (6) Complex Conditional Sentences Sentence (7)

Sentence (8) Word Order Sentence (9) Compound- Sentence (10) Complex Code Shift Sentence (11)

Sentence (12) Punctuation

25 Sentences

019

001