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Ocean Fertilisation:Science and Regulation

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Ocean Fertilisation:Science and Regulation Ocean Fertilisation: Science and Regulation By Julia Patricia Mayo-Ramsay LLM, MAppSc, LLB, BLJS, GDLP, GDA. Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of Tasmania September 2011 Declaration This thesis contains no material which has been accepted for a degree or diploma by the University or any other institution, except by way of background information and duly acknowledged in the thesis, and to the best of the my knowledge and belief no material previously published or written by another person except where due acknowledgement is made in the text of the thesis, nor does the thesis contain any material that infringes copyright. Julia Patricia Mayo-Ramsay ………………………………………… Date…………………………………… ii Statement of Access This thesis may be made available for loan and limited copying in accordance with the Copyright Act 1968. Julia Patricia Mayo-Ramsay ………………………………………… Date…………………………………… iii Acknowledgements We are made wise not by the recollection of our past, but by the responsibility for our future. George Bernard Shaw I have always been interested in the sea having grown up in Sydney and spent much of my time in the water. I now live on the South Coast of New South Wales where the attraction of the sea stills draws me to dive with the fish, the sharks, the dolphins and other beautiful creatures of the deep. Since I first started diving over twenty years ago, I have noticed a considerable change in the biodiversity of the ocean ecosystems on the South Coast of NSW. In particular the Grey Nurse sharks, once plentiful at Montague Island, are now a rare sight to see. This reduction in fish and animal life is probably a result of many factors. Over fishing and climate change being just two. Both these issues need to be addressed and were the catalyst for my embarkation on this journey through my doctorate research. I would like to thank the Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies, the Institute of Antarctic and Southern Ocean Studies and the Antarctic Climate Ecosystems Cooperative Research Centre for their financial and moral support. I also acknowledge the assistance of the Australian Postgraduate Award Scholarship provided by the Australian Government and thank the many people who assisted me on my journey. Firstly I thank Dr Julia Jabour of the University of Tasmania. Without her feedback, enthusiasm, encouragement and guidance I may well have given up long ago. I also thank Professor Tom Trull, Associate Professor Marcus Haward, Professor Gustaaf Hallegraeff and Dr Rosemary Sandford, for their expertise, guidance and encouragement. But most of all I would like to thank members of my family, Rosalie, Marianne, Tamara, Matthew, Damien and Kurt, for standing by me, my Mother who inspired me to work hard and follow my heart and my close friends and colleagues Matthew, Chris, Philippa, Wendy, Mark, Claudio and Brad. Above all my thanks goes out to my son Joshua, who always believed in me and was my inspiration to follow my dreams. Swim free beneath the ocean waves. iv Abbreviations ACC Antarctic Circumpolar Current ACCC Australian Competition and Consumer Commission AFZ Australian Fishing Zone CCAMLR Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources CBD Convention on Biological Diversity CER Certified Emission Reduction CDM Clean Development Mechanisms COP Conference of the Parties CSD Commission for Sustainable Development EEZ Exclusive Economic Zone EPA Environmental Protection Authority ESD Ecologically Sustainable Development FAO Food and Agriculture Organization Fe Iron GESAMP UN Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Pollution GHG Greenhouse Gases GtC Gigatonne of Carbon HNLC High Nutrient Low Chlorophyll LNLC Low Nutrient Low Chlorophyll ICJ International Court of Justice ILC International Law Commission IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change IUUF Illegal, Unregulated and Unreported Fishing IMO International Maritime Organization ISO International Organization for Standardization IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources LOSC United Nations Law of the Sea Convention MPA Marine Protected Area MPA Marine Parks Authority (NSW) MSR Marine Scientific Research v NGO Non-Government Organisation NSW New South Wales OIF Ocean iron fertilisation ONC Ocean Nourishment Corporation OUF Ocean urea fertilisation OTG Ocean Technology Group RFMO Regional Fisheries Management Organisation PPB Parts per billion PSSA Particularly Sensitive Sea Area QLD Queensland SA South Australia TPA Trade Practices Act UNCED United Nations Conference on Environment and Development UNCLOS I First United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea UNCLOS II Second United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea UNCLOS III Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea UNEP United Nations Environment Programme UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change WTO World Trade Organization WWF World Wildlife Fund vi Disclaimer Australian spelling is used throughout this thesis except where there is a direct quote which uses other than Australian spelling and grammar, or where the American spelling of ocean fertilization may be used for consistency throughout the document. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS Declaration............................................................................................................................ii Statement of Access...........................................................................................................iii Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................iv Abbreviations .......................................................................................................................v Disclaimer ...........................................................................................................................vii TABLE OF FIGURES....................................................................................................xii ABSTRACT..........................................................................................................................1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................2 Formulation of a problem .......................................................................................................... 2 Research question......................................................................................................................... 3 Framework of analysis................................................................................................................. 4 Methodology ................................................................................................................................. 5 Outline of chapters ...................................................................................................................... 7 CHAPTER 1 – CLIMATE CHANGE AND THE OCEANS............................. 11 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 11 IPCC ............................................................................................................................................. 12 Greenhouse gases....................................................................................................................... 14 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL OCEAN PROCESSES................................ 14 The oceans as a carbon sink.....................................................................................................14 Redfield Ratio.............................................................................................................................. 18 MITIGATION MEASURES................................................................................. 19 Carbon storage in the oceans...................................................................................................20 Carbon sinks................................................................................................................................ 22 Carbon capture and storage......................................................................................................23 Deep-ocean storage.................................................................................................................... 25 THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT..................................................................... 27 Marine biodiversity..................................................................................................................... 28 Marine pollution ......................................................................................................................... 29 CHAPTER 2 – OCEAN FERTILISATION............................................................ 31 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 31 THE HISTORY OF OCEAN FERTILISATION........................................... 32 Iron hypothesis ........................................................................................................................... 32 Iron fertilisation .......................................................................................................................... 33 OCEAN FERTILISATION RESEARCH........................................................
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