ReportNo. 9623-CS Czech and SlovakFederal Republic Joint EnvironmentalStudy (In Twc Volumes) Volume Il-Technical Report Public Disclosure Authorized January22, 1992 Techni(al Department EnvirornmentDivision Europe,Middle Eas;.ard North Africa Region FOR OFFICIAL USEONLY Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized
Documentof the WorldBank Public Disclosure Authorized Thisdocument has a restricteddistribution and may be usedby recipients only in the performanceof their official duties.Its contentsmay not otherwise bedisclosed without World Bankauthorization. FOR OFFICIALUSE ONLY
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank my Czech and Slovak counterpartsincluding RNDr. Eliska Novakora, Ing. Milan Janek, and Ing. Guyova as well as the staff at Federal Ministry of the Environment,Czech Ministry of Environment, and Slovak Commissionon the Environment for their hospitality as well as their dedication and efforts to arrange and facilitatemeetings and discussionswith their colleaguesregarding the status of the environment in their country. I also appreciated the openness and candor that occurred in these discussions. Although significantenvironmental problems exist in CSFR, there also exists in CSFR dedicated and informed scientistsand engineers in the institutes, universities,and the newly created environmentalministries who can solve these problems.
Finally, I would like to give special thanks to Leslie C. Burges for the technical editing and comments on this report and the rest of the KBN staff who helped produce this report.
This documentha a roesrlleoddlparibullon iii id mnayhe usedby rocipientsonly in the performance of their oMficialdutleN. l1m conlaoniN nmy nult .ihorwloe ho dimcIwNod without World Bankauthorization. ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
A.I.D. U.S. Agerey for InternationalDevelopment BOD biochemical oxygen demand CCFS Czech Council of Forestry Society CFC chlorinated fluorocarbons cm centimeter CO carbon monoxide CO, carbon dioxide COD chemical oxygen demand CS2 carbon disulfide CSAV CzechoslavakAcademy of Sciences CSCNE CzechoslovakCommission for Nuclear Energy CSFR Czech and Slovak Federated Republics CSTS CzechoslavakiaScientific and Technical Society dBA A-weighted decibel DDT dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane EEC European Economic Community EPA U.S. EnvironmentalProtection Agency ft foot g/L grams per liter GEMS Global EnvironmentalMonitoring System H2S hydrogen sulfide ha hectare IARC InternationalAgency for Research on Cancer K2O potassium oxide kg/ha/yr kilograms per hectare per year kg kilogram kg/ha kilograms per hectare km kilometer km2 square kilometers kWh kilowatt-hour Lpd liters per day m meters m3/sec cubic meters per second MAB Man and Biosphere mg/L milligrams per liter mg/kg milligrams per kilogram mi2 square mile MT/yr megatons per year MW megawatt NO. nitrogen oxides P20 phosphorous pentoxide PAH polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbon PCBs polycholorinatedbiphenyls REZZO Emission and Atmospheric Pollutant Source Registry ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS (cont.)
SO sulfur dioxide S0I' sulfate SPC State Planning Commission TCDD dioxin (2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin) TCE tetrachloroethylene TDS total dissolved solids ton/ha tons per hectare TPH tons per hour TPY tons per year TSS total suspended solids UNESCO United Nations Educational,Scientific, and Cultural Organization VOC volatile organic compound WHO World Health Organization pg/kg micrograms per kilogram ug/L micrograms per liter pg/m 3 micrograms per cubic meter LIST OF FIGURES (Page 1 of 1)
4-1 Particulate Emission Estimates for the Czech Republic in 1988 20
4-2 SO2 Emission Estimates for the Czech Republic in 1987 . .21 4-3 NO. Emission Estimates for the Czech Republic in 1987 . .22
4-4 CO Emission Estimates for the Czech Republic in 1988 . .23
4-5 Hydrocarbon Emission Estimates for the Czech Republic in 1988 24
4-6 ParticulateEmission Estimates for the Slovak Republic in 1987 25
4-7 SO2 Emission Estimates for the Slovak Republic in 1987 26
4-8 NO. Emission Estimates for the Slovak Republic in 1987 . .27
5-1 Water Resources in Czechoslovakia .. 52
10-1 Trends of StandardizedMortality .. 80
10-2 Areas of Slovakia Where PCBs Have Been Found in Food, 1987-90 87
10-3 Relationship Between the Synthetic Index of Environmental Quality and StandardizedMortality Ratio by District .91
11-1 Degraded Landscapes in the Czech Republic .98
11-2 Regions in the Slovak Republic with Ecological Problems.99
11-3 Characterizationof Ecological Stress to the Landscape in the Slovak Republic .100
11-4 Forest Regions Exhibiting Air Pollution Damage in 1983 .105
11-5 Expected Air Pollution Damage of Forest Areas in 1990 .106
13-1 Balance of sulfur import and export in Czechoslovakia in 1983 125
13-2 The Deposition of Sulfur Import and Export in Czechoslovakiain 1987 by SHMI Model Estimation .128
13-3 The deposition of NO, Compounds on the Territory of Czechoslovakia in 1987 by SHMI model estimation .129
13-4 Contributionsof Important internal and External Air Pollution Sources (Power Plantm, Cities, and Regions) to Sulfur Deposition in the Krkonose. 130 LIST OF TABLES (Page 1 of 2)
3.1 Associated AgriculturalRegulations . . , 7
4-1 Sulfur Dioxide Emissions in Selected European Countries.12
4-2 Total Air Pollution Emissions in CzechoslovakiaDuring the Period 1985 to 1988 .15
4-3 Relative Amounts of Air Emissions in Czechoslovakia During the Period 1985 to 1988 .16
4-4 Percent of Brown and Black Coal Used in the Thermal Productionof Electricity in Czechoslovakia,1970-1985 .18
4-5 Change in Average Annual SO2 Concentrations(pg/m 3) in the Czech Republic ...... 29
4-6 RepresentativeAir Quality Standards (ug/m3) For Czechoslovakia. 36
4-7 Summary of Atmospheric Protection Funds (fees in million Kcs) for the Period 1985 to 1988 ...... 37
4-8 Penalties (Fines) for Atmospheric Pollution.39
4-9 Environment Investment in Atmospheric Protection (in million Kcs) .40
5-1 Change in the Classificationsof Clean Water in Selected Rivers in the Czech Republic from 1940 to 1980 .43
5-2 Status and Change in Water Pollution in the Czech Republic . . . 45
5-3 Change in Water Pollution from Registered Sources in the Slovak Republic.47
5-4 Summary of Water Management Fund Fees (in million Kcs) for the Period 1985 to 1988 .56
5-5 Summary of Fines for Water Management Violations for the Period 1985 to 1988 ...... 57
5-6 EnvironmentalInvestments (in million Kcs) .60 LIST OF TABLES (Page 2 of 2)
6-1 Summary of Soil FertilizationFund (in million Kcs) for the Period 1985 to 1988 ...... 64
8-1 Major Nuclear Power Stations in the CSFR ...... 70
8-? Other Associated Nuclear Safety Regulations ...... 72
9-1 All Types of Mineral FertilizerUsage in Eastern Europe in 1981 and 1982 ...... 74
9-2 Use of Artificial Fertilizers in Czechoslovakia Agriculture, 1960-1988 ...... 75
10-1 Current Life Expectancy in InternationalPerspective ...... 79
10-2 Infant Mortality in Selected Districts in the North Bohemian Brown Coal Basin Compared to the Czech Republic ...... 81
10-3 Incidence of Diseases Observed in the Populationof Northern Bohemia Compared to the Czech Republic ...... 83
10-4 Relative Contributionto Allowable Weeklv Metal Intakes of Foods from Pribram and Mnichovice ...... 85
10-5 PCBs in Human v-atTissue at Autopsy, Selected Regions in the Slovak Republic ...... 88
13-1 Average Deposition of Sulfur and Nitrogen on the Territories of the Eight Most Polluted European Countries in 1987 by MSC-W Model Estimate ...... 127 TABLE OF CONTENTS (Page 1 of 4)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT LIST OF ACRONYMSAND ABBREVIATIONS LIST OF TABLES LIST OF FIGURES
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND...... 1 1.2 INFORMATIONSOURCES ...... 2
2.0 BRIEF BACKGROUNDOF THE CZECHAND SLOVAKFEDERATED REPUBLICS
2.1 LANDAREA, SIZE, AND SIGNIFICANT FEATURES ...... 3 2.2 POPULATION...... 3 2.3 LANDUSE CHARACTERISTICS...... 4
3.0 ENVIRONMENTALPOLICIES AND ATTITUDES
3.1 HISTORY OF ENVIRONMENTALPOLICIES ...... 5 3.2 ECONOMICDEVELOPMENT AND ENVIRONMENTALPOLITICS ...... 8
4.0 AIR POLLUTION
4.1 TYPES, AMOUNTS,AND SOURCES ...... 11
4.1.1 TYPES OF POLLUTANTS...... 11 4.1.2 AMOUNTSOF EMISSIONS ...... 11 4.1.3 SOURCES ...... 14 4.1.4 AMBIENTLEVELS ...... 28
4 2 EFFECTS ...... 30
4.3 MONITORINGPROGRAMS ...... 31
4.4 CONTROLSAND EXISTING MEASURESTO CORRECTPROBLFMS . . . . . 33
4.4.1 LEGISLATIVE CONTROLS ...... 33 4.4.2 AIR POLLUTIONCONTROL AND INVESTMENTS...... 35
4.5 TRENDS ...... 41 TABLE OF CONTENTS (Page 2 of 4)
5.0 WATER QUALITY AND WATER QUANTITY PROBLEMS
5.1 TYPES, AMOUNTS, AND SOURCES...... 42
5.1.1 SURFACE WATER AND GROUNDWATER POLLUTION .42 5.1.2 ACCIDENTS AND SPILLS TO SURFACE WATER AND GROUNDWATER 50 5.1.3 WATER AVAILABILITYPROBLEMS ...... 50
5.2 EFFECTS ...... 53
5.3 MONITORING PROGRAMS...... 53
5.4 CONTROLS AND EXISTING MEASURES TO CORRECT PROBLEMS . . . . . 54
5.4.1 LEGISLATIVECONTROLS ...... 54 ,.4.2 WATER TREATMENT PLANS, PROJECTS,AND INVESTMENTS 55 5.4.3 SPILL PREVENTION AND CLEANUP PROGRAMS ...... 59
5.5 TRENDS ...... 61
6.0 SOIL POLLUTION/DEGRADATION
6.1 TYPES, AMOUNTS, AND SOURCES...... 62 6.2 EFFECTS ...... 62 6.3 MONITORING PROGRAMS...... 63 6.4 CONTROLS AND EXISTING MEASURES TO CORRECT PROBLEMS . . . . 63 6.5 TRENDS ...... 65
7.0 FAZARDOUS AND TOXIC WASTE PROBLEMS
7.1 TYPES, AMOUNTS AND SOURCES...... 66 7.2 EFFECTS ...... 67 7.3 MONITORING PROGRAMS...... 67 7.4 CONTROLS AND EXISTING MEASURES TO CORRECT PROBLEMS . . . . . 67 7.5 TRENDS ...... 68
8.0 RADIATION PROBLEMS
8.1 TYPES, AMOUNTS, AND SOURCES...... 69 8.2 EFFECTS ...... 69 8.3 MONITORING PROGRAMS...... 71 8.4 CONTROLS AND EXISTING MEASURES TO CORRECT PROBLEMS . . . . . 71 8.5 TRENDS ...... 71 TABLE OF CONTENTS (Page 3 of 4)
9.0 AGROCHEMICAL PROBLEMS
9.1 TYPES, AMOUNTS, AND SOURCES ...... 73
9.1.1 O"ERUSE OF FERTILIZERSAND PESTICIDES ...... 73 9.1.2 CONTAMINATION OF FERTILIZERS ...... 76
9.2 EFFECTS . . . I . I I ...... 76 9.3 MONITORING PROGRAMS ...... 76 9.4 CONTROLS AND EXISTING MEASURES TO CORRECT PROB'EMS . . . . . 76 9.5 TRENDe...... 77
10.0 HUMAN HEALTH PROBLEMS
10.1 TYPE, EFFECTS, AND CAUSES ...... 10.2 MONITORING PROGRAMS ...... 90 10.3 CONTROLS AND EXISTING MEASURES TO REMEDY PROBLEMS . . . . . 93 10.4 TRENDS ...... 95
11.0 LANDSCAPE, BIODIVERSITY,AND NATURE CONSERVATION
11.1 GENERAL LANDSCAPE AND BIODIVERSITY CONDITIONS IN CSFR . . . 96 11.2 AGRICULTURE ...... 97
11.2.1 TYPE, EFFECTS, AND CAUSES ...... 97 11.2.2 MONITORING PROGRAMS ...... 102 11.2.3 CONTROLS AND EXISTING MEASURES TO CORRECT PROBLEMS 103 11.2.4 TRENDS ...... 103
11.3 FORESTRY ...... 103
11.3.1 TYPE, EFFECTS, AND CAUSES ...... 103 11.3.2 MONITORING PROGRAMS ...... 107 11.3.3 CONTROLS AND EXISTING MEASURES TO CORRECT PROBLEMS 107 11.3.4 TRENDS ...... 109
11.4 LANDSCAPE RECLAMATION OF SURFACE MINED AREAS ...... 110
11.4.1 TYPE, EFFECTS, AND CAUSES ...... 110 11.4.2 MONITORING PROGRAMS ...... 111. 11.4.3 CONTROLS AND EXISTING MEASURES TO CORRECT PROBLEMS 111 11.4.4 TRENDS ...... 111 TABLE OF CONTENrs (Page 4 of 4)
11.5 FLORA AND FAUNA BIODIVERSITY ...... 11
11.5.1 TYPE, EFFECTS, AND CAUSES ...... 111 11.5.2 MONITORING PROGRAMS ...... 114 11.5.3 CONTROLS AND EXISTING MEASURES TO CORRE.CTPROBLEMS 114 11.5.4 TRENDS ...... 114
11.6 PARKS, PRESERVES,AND OTHER NATURAL AREAS ...... 114
11.6,1 TYPES, EFFECT, AND CAUSES ...... 114 11.6.2 MONITORING PROGRAMS ...... 119 11.6.3 CONTROLS AND EXISTING MEASURES TO CORRECT PROBLEMS 119 11.6.4 TRENDS ...... 120
12.0 ENVIRONMENTALPLANNING PROBLEMS
12.1 TYPES, EFFECTS, AND CAUSES ...... 121 12.2 MONITORING PROGRAMS ...... 122 12.3 CONTROLS AND EXISTING MEASURES TO CORRECT PROBLEMS . . . . . 122 12.4 TRENDS.I ...... 122
13.0 TRANSBOUNDARYPROBLEMS
13.1 TYPES, EFFECTS, AND CAUSES ...... 124
13.1.1 AIR POLLUTiON ...... 124 13.1.2 WATER POLLUTION ...... 126 13.1.3 DEVELOPMENTACTIVITIES ...... 131
13.2 MONITORING PROGRAMS: INTRACOUNTRYAND INTERCOUNTRY . . . . . 131
13.3 CONTROLS AND EXISTING MEASURES TO CORRECT PROBLEMS . . . . . 131
13.4 TRENDS ...... I . . . I...... I . . . 131 I. INTRQDUCTION
1.1 ACGRQURND
In November 1989, Czechoslovakia,or the Czech-SlovakFederated Republics (CSFR),undertook a relatively nonviolent revolution of its political and economic systems. This revolutionwas caused as much by the deterioratingenvironment as by stagnating political and economic systems. For more than 40 vears, the two republics of Czechoslovakiamade'minimal efforts to protect the environment. As a result, Czechoslovakiahas severe human and ecologic%l health problems. The most critical factors causing these human and ecological health problems are the following:
a. Air pollution, particularlyfrom S02 and particulates;
b. Pollution of surface water and groundwaterby nitrates, organic wastes, and trace metals; and
c. Mismanagementof natural resources.
Air pollution levels are above national and internationalnorms in most urban industrial,mining, and power-generationareas. Health impacts from air pollution have been observed in these areas. Large areas of forests have been destroyed from gaseous and particulateemissions, including acid deposition. Economic damage is occurring from corrosion and dust deposition. The Czech Republic is affected by both regional and point sources of air pollution. The Slovak Republic is primarily affected by point source pollution. Czechoslovakiais both an importer and a major exporter of air pollution. Under present conditions, these and other adverse impacts from air pollution will continue and become more widespread in CSFR and neighboring countries.
Water pollution has rendered most of the major rivers of Czechoslovakiaunfit for use without extensive treatment. Nitrate levels in the water supplies of some major t-Z.es (e.g., Prague, Plzen, and Usti nad Labem) and many towns and villages are 4lso above national and international norms. These water supplies are unfit for consumptionby small children. Contaminationfrom other pollut.nts (e.g., trace metals, organics, etc.) is also occurring. Less is known about groundwaterpollution, but costly problems appcar to be developing. Concern has Leen expressed about point source and non-point-sourcecontamination of surtaze water and groundwater supplies for major cities such as Prague and Bratislava. Transboundarywater pollution is also occurring. As with air pollution, the adverse effects of water pollution will continue and become more widespread.
Industrial and military wastes have been discarded into the environment. Pollution from toxic and hazardous wastes is considered to be great because of the suspected amount of toxic and hazardous wastes generated by Czechoslovakianindustry and military as well as the Soviet military and the lack of regulations. The total extent and impact of hazardous wastes is not known.
Other environmentalproblems are associated with noise, radioactivity,municipal solid wastes, pesticides, soil erosion, strip mining, urban and industrial development,industrial accidents, and agricultural and forestry management practices. These problems are significant and are affecting the human and ecologicalhealth of the country.
Situated in the heart of Europe, Czechoslovakiaexports both air and water pollution. Although CSFR imports air and water pollution from neighboring countries, available statistics suggest that it is a net exporter. Internationalagz;ements, now in force and under discussion,will impose continuing obligationson Czechoslovakiato reduce damaging impacts on i neighboring countries.
Pollution, or even the perception of it, will severely constrain Czechoslovakia'sefforts to reform its economy, improve its earnings (e.g., * from tourism), and otherwise improve its quality of life (World Bank, 1990).
The lack of environmental information and its fragmented nature among different institutes and ministries has made it difficult to fully evaluate the scope of environmental problems in Czechoslovakia. Up-to-date and correct information is necessary for environmental decision making.
The purpose of this report is to provide an overview of environmental conditions, issues, problems, regulations,controls, monitoring capabilities, data sources, and data gaps related to the environment and environmental protection in CSFR. This report is intended for use by the World Bank, U.S. Agency for InternationalDevelopment (A.I.D.),other donor agencies, and the Czechoslovakgovernment in evaluating existing environmentalconditions in CSFR.
1.2 INFORMATIONSOURCES
This report is based on a review of available literature on the environment in Czechoslovakiaas well as interviews conducted as part of two large reviews of infrastructuralissues in Czechoslovakia. The first review was by the World Bank led by Hans J. Apitz in April 1990. The environmental mission, consisting of Peter Whitford, James Newman, Piotr Wilczynski, and Eliska Novakova, visited Czechoslovakiafrom April 18 to 27, 1990, and undertook an initial review of environmentalissues (see World Bank, 1990). A followup, more detailed environmentalreview was conducted jointly by A.I.D. and the World Bank from October 29 to Novimber 16, 1990. The environmental mission consisted of the followingmembers: Peter Whitford and Hasan Tuluy of the World Bank; Satish Shaw of A.I.D.; Dan Beardsley, Peter Preuss, and Richard Walentowicz from the U.S. EnvironmentalProtection Agency (EPA); and six technical specialists,including Richard Ellis (hazardouswastes), Wes Feoll (energy and environment),Sharad Gandbhir (petrochemicalindustries), James R. Newman (natural resources),Nicholas Rickard (metallurgical industries),and Piotr Wilczynski (environmentalsconomics). Information from this mission and other recent reports (e.g., Hertzman's report on human health) was incorporatedinto this report. The available literature and recent mission have been supplementedwith interviews,discussions, and observationsof environmentalproblems recorded by the author during environmental research visits from 1976 to 1988, 2.0 ARIEF BACKGROUNDOF THE CZECH AND SLOVAK FEDERATED REPUBLICS
2.1 LAND AREA. SIZE. AND SIGNIFICANTFEATURES
Czechoslovakiais divided into two republics, the Czech and Slovak Republics. Czechoslovakiais about the same size as the state of New York. It has a land area of 127,869 square kilometers (km2 ) [49,370 square miles (i')]. The Czech Republic comprises 62 percent of the land area of CSFR [78,861km' (30,448mi 2)]. The Slovak Republic encompasses the remaining 38 percent (49,009 km2 (18,922mi 2)]. Administratively,CSFR is divided into 11 regions and 112 districts. CSFR is bordered on the west by Germany, on the north by Poland, on the east by the USSR, and on the south by Austria and Hungary.
From a geographicalperspective, Czechoslovakia can be grouped into seven regions:
a. Bohemian Mountains--Thisregion, on CSFR's western border with Germany, includes the Ore or Krusne Hory Mountains, which rise up to 762 meters (m) [2,500 feet (ft)];
b. Sudetes Mountains--OnCSFR's northwesternborder with Poland, this region contains the Krkonose Mountains, with Snezka, its highest peak, at 1,602 m (5,256 ft);
c. Bohemian Basin--This region contains the city of Prague. Three major rivers run through the basin: the Vltava River (through Prague to Labe), Labe River (goes to Germany), and the Ohre River (through northern Bohemia to the Labe River);
d. Bohemian-MoravianHighlands--Located in the west-centralpart of the country, this region has two major rivers, the Berounka and Sazava, which flow into the Vltava River;
e. Moravian Lowlands--Thisregion includes the city of Brno and the Morava River, which flows south into Dyje, which crosses to the south;
f. Western CargathianMountains- -These mountains form the western boundary of the Slovak Republic and contain the headwaters for Vah and Hron, which flow south into Danaj, and the Hornad, which flows south to the Tisza River in Hungary; and
g. DanluabianLowlands--This region includes the city of Bratislava and two major rivers, the Vah and the Hron, which flow south into Danaj River, which, in turn, flows east through Bratislava to Hungary.
2.2 POPULATION
In 1988, CSFR had a population of 15,607,479 people. The population distributionof the two republicsis proportional to their respective land areas. Two-thirds of the population lives in the Czech Republic, and one- third lives in the SlovakRepublic (Selected Indicators, 1990). The growth .4
rate in Czechoslovakiais very low; the population increased less than 0.5 percent per year from 1976 to 1988. The growth rate to the year 2010 is predicted to continue to be very low, approximately0.2 percent (Simek, 1988).
Overall, the population of CSFR has remained fairly constant within the two republics since 1960. During this period, there have been internal migrations within and between the two republics from rural areas to industrial towns, e.g., from the Slovakian mountain valleys to the cities of Bratislava, Banska Bystrica, Nitra, Ziar nad Hronom, and Kosice (Carter, 1987).
2.3 LAND USE CHARACTERISTICS
CSFR can be divided into three major land use types: agriculture lands, forest lands, and developed lands, which include urban and industrial lands.
In CSFR, agriculturallands cover about half of the land area. There are 6.7 million hectares (ha) of agricultureland in CSFR, with 64 percent in the Czech Republic and 36 percent in the Slovak Republic. The primary farming regions occur in southern and western Bohemia and in the southwesternand eastern Slovak Republic.
Forests cover about one-third of the territory in CSFR. There are approximately4.6 million ha of forest lands (woodlands)in CSFR, 2,628,616ha (57 percent) in the Czech Republic and 1,978,057ha (43 percent) in the Slovak Reiublic. The largest forest regions in the Czech Republic occur in the central and west Bohemian Hills, Bohemian Forest Mountains, Bohemian-Moravian Uplands, and Bohemian-MoravianUpland Forelands.
The Czech Republic, including Bohemia and Moravia, is more industrializedthan the Slovak Republic. Bohemia and Moravia have supported industry for more than 500 years. An intensificationof industry in these regions started with the industrialrevolution of the 1800s. With the post- war industrialdevelopment, industry has continued to increase not only in these regions but also in the Slovak Republic, which, until that time, was primarily rural and agricultural (Zvosec, 1984; Carter, 1987). Heavy industry in the Czech Republic occurs primarily in northern Bohemia and in the cities of Prague, Ostrava, and Brno. Southern Bohemia and Moravia are less industrialized,with agriculture and forestry being primary contributors to their economies. Significantagricultural and forestry areas do occur in northern Bohemia and Moravia. Along with agriculture and forestry, the Slovak Republic is involved in the processingand mining of raw materials. Industrialdevelopment is more decentralizedin the Slovak Republic. Factories are located in mountain valleys near rivers and streams. 3.0 ENVIRONMENTALPOLICIES AND ATTITUDES
3.1 HISTORY OF ENVIRONMENTALPOLICIES
As with most Western nations, major environmentalmeasures in CSFR were passed between 1965 and 1980. However, these measures were mostly administrative. By the late 1970s, more than 350 regulationswere in place concerningthe environment. Becausemany municipalitiesand enterprises (e.g., factories,state farms, etc.) were unable to meet these environmental measures, they received so-called"exceptional permission" and avoided compliancewith these laws. Governmentalenterprises asd municipalities commonly "adhered to" environmentalpolicies through the payment of fees to allow the municipalityor enterpriseto pollute in excess of the standardsand payment of fines for exceedingthe permittedstandards. These fees and fines did not reflect the real cost of the environmentaldamage caused by the "permitted"pollution.
Recent interviewswith plant managers in industryshowed that the managers were aware of the prevailingstandards regulating the dischargeof pollutants to the environment. Many were estimating (and a few measuring) their compliancewith these standards. No objectionwas raised by plant mqnagers about these standards,and, in fact, most managers viewed the fines openly as fees for noncompliance. In no case was the violationof a standard considereda catalyst for a complianceplan between the offendingplant and a regulatoryagency. In the presence of a closed and regulatedmarket, the fines simply became a cost of business to be passed on to the marketing agency. With the advent of a free market society and convertiblecurrency transactions,the prospect of meaningfulfines for pollutionviolations is worrying many plant managers (Rickard,1990).
Four major environmentallaws were passed during this period (Carter, 1987).
a. Measures for ProtectingAir Purity in 1967 (Act No. 35/1967 Code of law, amended by the CNC Act No. 146/1971Code, and the SNC Act No. 159/1971Code.) This law introduceda scale of fines for enterprisesthat exceeded admissibleair pollution levels. It establisheda central authority under the Ministry of Forestry and Water Economy that was responsible for levying these fines, paying damages, and imposingemission limits. Eight regional inspectorateswere establishedto ensure that the law would be implemented.
b. Aericultura1Land ProtectionAct of 1976 [Act No. 53/1966 Code, amendedby the Act No. 75/1976Code, (the full version No. 124/1976 Code), the CNC Act No, 37/1982 and the SNC Act No. 139/1982 Code.] This act was establishedto protect and compensatefor the conversion of agriculturalland to other uses. Provisionswere made for payments to farm organizationsfor economic losses they would suffer if lard was convertedto other purposes. Payments have to be adequate to enable the crganizationto maintain its same output and economic remults as before the transfer. Certain agriculturalareas were given special protection, including hop gardens, orchards, vegetable fields, and vinoyards. There are also a number of associated regulations for agrLcultural protection (see Table 3-1). -6-
c. Water Act of 1977 (Revised the Water ConservationLaw of 1955; No. 138/1973 Code) This law was passed to handle the increasingwater pollution from industry and agriculture in northern Bohemia. It was designed to protect both surface water and groundwaterand develop fees and fines for polluters. Regional water inspectorateswere responsiblefor its implementation. Special protectionwas afforded undergroundwater in the Czech Republic by Decree No. 85/1981 (ProtectedAreas of Natural Water Accumulation)and by a similar decree in 1981 for the Slovak Republic.
d. Revision to the Forestry Act of 1977 (Revised the Forestry Act of 1960; No. 61/1977 Code) This revision was enacted to protect forest lands from encroachment by building and damage from industrialpollution. One-fifth of a particular forested area was to be reserved for recreational purposes.
At the institutionallevel, environmentalprotection was divided. Individualministries were given the responsibilityfor different aspects of environmentalprotection according to their economic interests. Within the legislationof the Czech Republic, the former Ministry of Forest and Water Management and Woodworking Industry was responsible for the water and air purity and the forest soil resources;the Ministry of Agriculture and Nutrition, for the fund of arable soil resources; the Ministry of Health, for human health including the problems of noise and vibrations; the Ministry of Culture, for the protection of nature; and the Ministry of Building and Development,for regional planning and the building code. No governmental entity was declared responsiblefor water management. Some waste management issues were taken care of by the Ministry of Interior (later the Ministry of Interior and the Environment)and the Ministry of Industry. The exact division of rights and duties of these ministrieswas never specified (Ministry of Environment of the Czech Republic, 1990). In January 1971, Council for the Environment of the Governmentof the Czech Republic was created. In spite of some partial successes,the Council was limited by its statute which declared it to be the coordinative,initiative, and advisory organ of the Government of the Czech Republic. Table 3-1. Associated AgriculturalRegulations
The CNC Act No. 77/1969 Code, State Fund for Land Melioration Act.
The SNC Act No. 179/1969 Code, State Fund for Land Melioration Act, amended by the SNC Act No. 170/1982 Code.
The CNC Act No. 77/1976 Code, Competenceof Authorities for Agriculture Land Protection,amended by the CNC Act No. 49/1982 Code and the CNC Act No. 137/1982 Code.
The SNC Act No. 78/1976 Code, Competenceof Authorities for Agriculture Land Protection, amended by the SNC Act No. 52/1982 Code and No. 139/1982 Code.
Order of Czech Agriculture and NourishmentMinistry No. 119/1981 Code for AgrochemicalLand Testing.
Order of Slovak Agriculture and Nourishment Ministry No. 55/1982 Code for Agrochemical Land Testing.
Order of Federal Agriculture and NourishmentMinistry No. 36/1987 Code regulating some details of agriculturalland protection. R -
Environmentalresearch in CSFR has been supported since the 1960s. However, this research has not evaluated all the types of pollution or evaluated the extent of pollution equally in all regions for several reasons. For example, there has been an inability to measure a variety of pollutants, especially organics, because sophisticatedanalytical equipment does not exist in the country or is prchibitivelyexpensive to purchase and operate. In addition, some research was not politicallyacceptable to conduct, such as correlatinghuman health problems with environmentalpollution. In addition, most of these studies were published in Czechoslovakianor Eastern European literature,wnich had limited availabilityin the West. The lack of comprehensivestudies; the dispersed nature of research investigationsamong different institutes,ministries, and other organizations;and the inability to officiallyshare information,including obtaining informationfrom the West, has made it difficult to fully evaluate the scope of environmental problems in Czechoslovakia.
In CSFR, significantadverse effects of pollution have been observed in different sectors of society and in different locations in the country. Some adverse effects (e.g., forest death) appear after a lag period to the exposure and when the concentrationof a pollutant exceeds a threshold. Many of the reported effects indicate these thresholds have been exceeded. Even if certain types of pollution (e.g., air pollution in northern Bohemia) were stopped, damage (e.g., forest damage) would continue to be observed for some period.
3.2 ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENTAND ENVIRONMENTALPOLITICS
The Czechoslovakianeconomy has been oriented on production that demands intensive use of raw materials and energy resources. Czechoslovakia has the fourth highest per capita consumption of energy in the world. It is 20 to 50 percent higher than more industriallyadvanced Western European states (Haval, 1987). CSFR uses 40 percent of its primary energy resources for heat generation. The annual consumptionof thermal energy is 1.6 times that of Sweden, which is much colder. The industrial sector consumes 70 percent of the energy generated (Ehrenberger,1988). Industrialdemands increased power-generationrequirements by a factor of more than 18 from 1937 to 1981 (4,100 million kilowatt-hours(kWh) to 73,500 million kWh in 1981] (Zvosec, 1984). The choice and use of these resources have not been environmentallyefficient. For example, brown coal, a low quality but abundant fuel, became the primary energy source. In 1985, brown coal comprised 78.3 percent of the fuel available for thermal production. Compared to the West, Czechoslovakiauses outdated technologiesin industry and agriculture. As a consequence of these conditions, the operation of industrial,agricultural, and other enterpriseshas produced large amounts of wastes, emissions, and other forms of onvironmentaldisruption (SKVTRI, 1990).
In the 1950s and 1960s, environmentalproblems were officially considered exclusivelyWestern conditions, reflectingthe pending collapse of capitalism. Carter (1987) quotes a Soviet academicianwho insisted:
...a socialist society has undisputed advantagesover a capitalist... because in the former there is no contradictionbetween the interests .9-
of individuals....In a society with public ownership of the means of production, environmentaldisruption will invariablybe accidental (Petryanov,1971, pp 42-43).
Khachaturov (1985) continued to reflect that reasoning in an opening statement in article entitled "Nature Conservation in European Socialist Countries":
The establishmentof the socialist economic system in Bulgaria, Hungary, the German Democratic Republic, Poland, Romania and Czechoslovakiacreated conditions for more effective nature conservation in these countries. The success of the environmental protection efforts on CMEA (Council for Mutual Economic Assistance) member nations has been the result of the advantages of the socialist economic system compared with capitalism. The most important of these advantages is socialist ownership of the means of production, includingnatural resources--land,forests, water, minerals and the animal world. This means that each socialist country has the full opportunity to implementnature conservationmeasures on the basis of social interests.
The problem with this political philosophy is that state ownership of natural resources and production facilities (i.e., industry) results in a conflict of interest within the government entity charged with protecting natural resources and also responsible for developmentand use of these resources for economic purposes.
As stated previously, the environmentallaws and regulations that were passed starting in the 1960s were never completely enforced. In additien, they did not reflect the economic reality of the environmental damage because of the conflict of interest within the government ministries using and managing these natural resources. In spite of these official pronouncementsthat tiieenvironment was protected, environmentalresearchers and a small portion of the general public perceived a progressive deteriorationof the environment and the existence of severe environmentalproblems in different sectors of the Czechoslovakian environment. These views were reflected in research studies and in unofficial papers and programs (e.g., Ekofilm Festival).
With continued and increasingenvironmental problems, the deterioratingenvironment eventually could not be officially considered an "accident" in the socialist society of Czechoslovakia. An "ecological investment" system was established to clean up sources of pollution. The sixth 5-year plan (1976.1980)was the first plan with a chapter on environmentalprotection with quantified targets. Part of the state budget was appropriatedfor pollution control activities,known as ecological investments. However, in 1984, the Czech Planning Commission acknowledged the doubtful success of their ecological investments. Jirat (1987), in a discussion on protection of the human environment,conceded the following:
...The self-purifyingcapacity of streams (of Czechoslovakia]is no longer enough to kesp the purity on an acceptable level, and only - 10 -
effective protection is provided by waste water treatment plant and technologicalmeasures in production.
The state plan for the period of 1986 to 1990 called for development of so-called "ecologicalproject" investmentsof 17.7 billion K s, 11.1 billion K s of which on the territory of Czech Republic. The goal was to remove all main sources of the atmosphere,water, and soil pollution (Ministry of Environmentof the Czech Republic, 1990).
When approved in 1986, this program included 145 projects (108 works of which registeredby organs of the Czech Republic). The relative expendit-resand purposes were: 65 percent for the protection of water quality, 25 percent for the protection of the atmosphere, 10 percent for solving the problem of waste. The program included large sewage treatment plants, installationsfor separating solid fallout particles and for desulfurization,and equipment for processing or disposal of different kinds of waste (Ministryof Environmentof the Czech Republic, 1990). However, the initial goals were changed during the planning stage and later during the development.
The initiation of most projects was planned for the second part of the 5-year period. Only 25 percent of the projects were supposed to begin during the first 2 years. In spite of this, delays occurred from the beginning of the 5-year period due to insufficientlyprepared prcjects and lack of contract capacities.
The delay in the specified projects was estimated to amount to 25 percent of the plan, i.e., to 4 billion K s, according to the control report of the State Planning Commission (SPC) from 1989. As a result, the governmentsof both the CSFR and the Czech Republic accepted an emergency program involvingadditional projects. However, the modified program goals have not been met. The Boards of People's Control of the CSFR, the Czech Republic, and the Slovak Republic disclosed serious shortcomingsin investors' preparedness,contracts, financing,etc. in 133 ecological constructions (Ministry of Environmentof the Czech Republic, 1990).
In response to the growing awareness of the environmentalproblems in CSFR, the Government commissionedseveral studies in the 1980s to review the state of the environment. These studies include the following:
a. CzechoslovakAcademy of Sciences (CSAV) (1983) report entitled "Analysis of the Ecological Situation in Czechoslovakia"(Rozbor Ekologicke Situace v Ceukoslovensku),and
b. CSAV (1989) report entitled"State of the Development of Environment in Czechoslovakia"(Stav a Vyvoj Zivotniho Prostredi v Ceskoslovensku).
The conclusions of those studiesindicated the severity and extensivenessof the problem. Becauseof the conclusions,these studies were suppressed and not made availablefor generalcirculation. - 1i-
4.0 AIR POLLUTION
4.1 TYPES. AMOUNTS. AND SOURCES
4.1.1 Tyves of Pollutants
Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is considered the biggest air pollution problem in CSFR both in terms of amounts of emissions and the degree of environmental damage it causes. Particulatesinclude trace metals, such as cadtium, arsenic, fluoride, and lead. Nitrogen oxides (NO,)are also major pollutants. Although not extensivelymonitored in the past, ozone may be as important as these other pollutants. Recent measurementshave reported increasing high values.
4.1.2 Amounts of Emissions
Amounts of emissions are estimated by industry from material balances. Stack monitoring is not common. This emission information is provided to the HydrometerologicalInstitutes of the two republics, which summarize and report the results. In spite of inherent inaccuracies,a pattern of emissions is available for CSFR.
Kraus (1985) reported that total volume of all gaseous emissions doubled from 1960 to 1980. Since that time, emissions have generally stabilized. Estimates of NO. emissions from 1980 to 1985 showed a 6 percent decrease (CSAV, 1989). So2 emissions have fluctuated, increasing 2 percent in 1985 and then decreasing 8 percent from 1980 levels by 1988. There has been a general decrease in SO2 emission in Europe (see Table 4-1). The decrease in SO2 emissions in Western Europe has been dramatic compared to CSFR (e.g., ranging from a 17 percent decrease in Great Britain to a 57 percent decrease in France). During that same period, emissions in CSFR were reported to have declined by 8 percent. Czechoslovakiaranked sixth in total emissions in 1980 and fifth in 1988. Based on tons of SO2 emissions per square kilometer per year, Czechoslovakiaranks second, behind the former East Germany.
The greatezt amount of emissions comes from the Czech Republic (see Tables 4-2 and 4.3), In general, emissions in the Czech Republic are twice as great as in the Slovak Republic. Estimates of annual emission of some pollutants are predicted to be 7 to 8 percent lower in 1990 than in 1985. A number of factors have been suggested, including a change in primary energy sources (SKVTRI, 1990), installationof pollution control equipment (Jirat, 1987), and reduction in energy requirementsdue to mild winters for the last 3 years.
The Slovak Republic generates 12 tons per year per square kilometer (TPY/km2)of SO, and is seventh in Europe in relative emission. Forty-six kilograms per hectare (kg/ha) of acid deposition (sulfate (SOt) is deposited in the Slovak Republic. This value is the third highest in the world (Ruzicka, 1990, personal communications). Heavy metals, in the form of Table 4-1. Sulfur Dioxide Emissions in Selected EuropeanCountries
Total SO2 fmission (1.000 TPY) Relative S02 Specific Emissions (T7T/b1) Country 1980 1965 1986 1987 1988 1980 1985 1986 1987 1988
Cawetosaewskl 3.100 3.150 3.022 2.900 2.850 24.7 25.1 24.1 23.1 22.7
Finlad 584 370 324 324 318 1.9 1.2 1.1 1.1 1.0
Fromm 3.512 1.740 1.596 1.51B 1,518 6.4 3.2 2.9 2.8 2.8
*- a'I1.634y 1.420 1.420 1.420 1.414 17.7 15.4 15.4 15.4 15.3
Ubtb rlmnds 464 276 276 282 272 13.7 8.1 8.1 8.3 8.0
EI*t y S,OOO5.000 5.000 5.000 4.990 4.990 46.2 46.2 46.2 46.1 46.1
W*tG--_ , 3.200 2.400 2.200 2.000 1.890 13.1 9.8 9.0 8.2 7.7 pbl d 4.100 4,300 4.300 4.200 4.200 13.5 14.1 14.1 13.8 13.8
Ahtzirl 354 170 160 150 140 4.2 2.0 1.9 1.8 1.7
USSR-Eurepe 12,800 11.100 10,900 10.200 10.000 2.3 2.0 1.9 1.8 1.8
Sweden 464 270 244 232 220 1.1 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.5
Switterland 126 96 64 62 62 3.2 2.4 1.6 1.6 1.6
Great Britain 4.670 3.560 3.740 3,780 3.870 19.3 14.7 15.5 16.0 15.6
TP a tons per year. TPY/kt2 - tons per year per square kilometer. Source: Adapted from Selected Indicators. (Table 18). 1990. . 13
mercury, arsenic, molybdenum, tungsten, cobalt, and arsenic (from coals); fluoride (from aluminum factory); and pollutants from spe ial chemical processes damage the environment (Ondrus, per ional communication,1990).
The largest amount of S02 emissions (79 percent) are from power plants and heating plants burning low-qualitybrown coal, lignite, and heavy fuel oils. Home heating contributes7 percent of the SO2 emissions but representsmajor sources in the historical centers of towns like Prague.
The fly ash generated by burning the brown coal often cohtains large amounts of trace metals, namely arsenic, beryllium, cobalt, nickel, selenium, and bismuth, and radioactiveelements, particularlyuranium and thorium. Metallurgicalplants release large amounts of cadmium, cobalt, and other heavy metals.
The lead content in the atmosphere has been reduced in recent years due to the introductionof gasoline with a lower content of tetraethyl lead (0.2 grams per liter (g/L) lead]. A small amount of unleaded fuel is produced primarily for use in foreign automobiles (Gandbhir, 1990). This fuel, however, is found only in large cities at few locations. Most domestic car engines need leaded gasoline.
The total amount of the hydrocarbon emissions is estimated at 150,000 to 200,000 TPY, primarily from industry (about 50 percent), transportation (30 percent), and the home heating (17 percent). The amount is increasing with the increasing consumptionof natural gas.
Emissions from the chemical industry include various hydrocarbons, halogen compounds, etc. The incinerationhouses in Bratislava and some other towns do not work with adequatelyhigh temperaturesand are not equipped with efficient waste gas cleaning facilities. Hence, the incinerationof plastic materials emits dioxins, funans, polychlorinatedaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and polychlorinatedbiphenyls (PCBs).
Czechoslovakiaproduced about 7,000 tons of chlorinated fluorocarbons (CFCs) in 1988. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is generated mainly by burning low- quality solid fossil fuels. The estimated volume is approximately60.4 million tons of CO2 emissions annually. Czechoslovakiacontributes about 11 percent of the total volume of the global CO2 emissions. These emissions represent 4.1 tons per capita annually (convertedto carbon).
A great local hazard is the atmosphericpollution from accidents and big fires. In 1986, for example, several thousand chemicals were burned by an accident in a poorly secured storehouse for fertilizersand other agrochemicalsat Borsov near the town of Kyjov in south Moravia. Combustion products of this fire contained great amounts of undefined chemicals, among which were d'oxins and other highly hazardous compounds. (SKVTRI, 1990).
Carbon monoxide (CO) emissionsare estimatedat 1.5 million TPY, primarily from transportation(45 percent), central and local heating (29 percent), metallurgy and the foundry industry (16 percent), and energy management (10 percont).
The emission of solid materials (particularlyfly ash) and aerosols increased from 800,000tons in 1950 to 2,8 million tons in 1985. Future emissions are predicted to continue to increase gradually due to the - 14
deteriorationof the effectivenessof the electrostaticseparators installed 10 to 15 years ago (SKVTRI, 1990).
4.1.3 Sources
In the Czech Republic, the large industrialsource; (REZZO Group 1, see Section 4.3) contribute 87 percent of the total emissions of SO2. The 10 largest sources represent 35 percent of S02 emissions, and the 50 largest ones produced 58 percent of th'lestate's total emissions of SO2. The power station Prune ov (Blocks 1 and 2) occupies the eighth place on the list of major European SO0 sources, after the sources of Spain, the former East Germany, Great Britain, and the Soviet Union. It should be pointed out that the sources of Prune ov 1 and 2 anidTuAimice 1 and 2 are located within a 13-km radius of one another. The total emission from these sources is 500,000 TPY. This total represents approximately16 percent of all REZZO 1 sources and is the second largest S02 emission source in Europe. Combustion processes produce the most, 93 percent of the total SO2 emissions, and are followed by the metal industry (4 percent) and the chemical industry (2.5 percent). About 80 percent of the S02 emissions are released from stacks higher than 100 m (Ministryof Environmentof the Czech Republic, 1990).
The industrial section is tne second-largestproduce of S02' producing nearly 500,000 TPY of SO2. In the industrial section, the Litvinov Chemical Works produces the most (80,000 TPY), then Vitkovice Iron Works (21,000 TPY), VCHZ Pardubice (13,000 TPY), and Spolana Neratovice (12,000 TPY).
The primary fuel source of air pollution, e.g., S02, NO., and particulatesincluding metals, is the low-quality fuel which - burned for energy and heating. Czechoslovakiahas three major types of coal: hard coal, brown coal, and lignite. The brown coal is low quality:
a. Heating value--12.8kilogram (kg);
b. Fly ash--40 percent; and
c. Sulfur--averageof 1.5 to 2.5 percent with values as high as 11 percent (SKVTRI, 1990).
Brown coal is found in northwest Bohemia in the foothills of the Krusne Hory Mountains. It has been the major fuel source of energy and industrial development ir.Czechoslovakia, comprising about 71 percent of the total coal production in the early 1970s and more than 78 percent in the 1980s (Table 4-4). The major deposits and open-cast mining are located in the north Bohemian district, followed by the Sokolov localities,with minor amounts mined in the Handlova and Mokrokamen districts.
Hard coal of better quality is mined primarily in the Ostrava- Karvina district, followed by the Kladno district, and minor amounts from the Plzen, Trutnov, and Rosice districts (StatisticalSurvey of Czechoslovakia, 1976).
Because of differences in the history of industrial development and differences in the topography betwsen the two republics, there is a difference in the degree to which air pollution has affocted the two republics. Major industrial developmenthas been occurringfor mcre than 100 years in the Czech - 15 -
Table 4-2. Total Air Pollution Emissions in Czechoslovakia During the Period 1985 to 1988
Total Air EmissiOns (1,000 TPY)
Year Solid SO2 NO. CO Hydrocarbons
CzeChoslovakia
1985 1,372.4 2,782.9 991.9 1,238.6 197.3
19G6 1,352.3 2,782.7 1,045.9 1,084.8 202.5
1987 1,299.0 2,770.7 1,008.4 1,083.4 201.6
1988 1,144.7 2,671.6 1,054.3 1,090.0 202.4
Czech ReDublic
1985 1,014.7 2,161.4 795.0 899.3 136.4
1986 988.3 2,171.2 850.0 740.0 139.7
1987 950.5 2,163.7 816.1 738.2 139.4
1988 840.3 2,065.8 857.7 737.0 138.9
S1Ovak ReDublic
1985 357.7 621.5 196.9 339.3 60.9
1986 364.0 611.5 195.9 344.8 62.8
1987 348.5 607.0 192.3 345.2 62.2
1988 304.4 605.8 196.6 353.0 63.5
Note: CO - carbonmonoxide. NO" - nitrogen oxides, S02- sulfurdioxide. Source: Adaptedfrom Selected Indicators(Table 7), 1990. - 16
Table 4-3. Relative Amounts of Air Emissions in CzechoslovakiaDuring the Period 1985 to 1988.
Relative Amounts of Air Emissions (TPY/km 2 )
Year Solid S02 NO. Co Hydrocarbons
Czechoslovakil
1985 10.7 21.8 7.8 9.7 1.5
1986 10.6 21.8 8.2 8.5 1.6
1987 10.2 21.7 7.9 8.5 1.6
1988 9.0 20.9 8.2 8.5 1.6
Czech ReRublic
1985 12.9 27.4 10.1 11.4 1.7
1986 12.5 27.5 10.8 9.4 1.8
137 12.1 27.4 10.3 9.4 1.8
1988 10.7 26.2 10.9 9.3 1.8
Slovak Republic
1985 7.3 12.7 4.0 6.9 1.2
1986 7.4 12.5 4.0 7.0 1.3
1987 7.1 12.4 3.9 7.0 1.3
1988 6.2 12.4 4.0 7.2 1.3
Note: CO - carbon monoxide. NO- m nitrogen oxides. SO° - sulfur dioxide.
Source: Adapted from Selected Indicators (Table 7), 1990. - 17 -
Republic, with most of the development centralized in the Bohemian Basin and in the lands of northern Bohemia below the Krusne Hory Mountains. Because of this and the topographicalconditions, the Czech Republic has both major regional air pollution problems (e.g., northern Bohemia and Prague) as well as major point source air pollution problems around different industries and power plants.
The northern Bohemian region forms a part of Eastern Europe that has been characterizedalong with East Germany and Poland as the "Bermuda triangle of pollution." This region and the region around Prague have the highest emissions in the Czech Republic. (See Figures 4-1 through 4-5). The major air pollution sources, includingpower plants, chemical factories, surface mines, and heating plants, occur primarily in the districts of Chomutov, Most, Teplice, Usti nad Labem, and Litomerice. The Chomutov and Most districts of northern Bohemia are the primary source of SO, emissions in CSFR, accounting for 47 percent of total S02 emission in CSFR (Jirat, 1987).
In central Bohemia, major emission sources occur in the districts of Melnik, Prague (includingEast and West Prague), Kladno, and Beroun. In the north Moravian region, large emitting sources are concentratedin the Ostrava- Karvina districts.
In the Slovak Republic, the topography is more broken up into mountains and valleys. The industrial developmenthas occurred primarily since World War II, when there was a effort to industrializethe rural Slovak Republic by decentralizingindustrial enterprises throughout the region. Industries are commonly situated in the valleys (e.g., the Novaky power plant at Horna Nitra and the aluminum plant at Ziar nad Hronom). As a result, the Slovak Republic is affected primarily by point source pollution in valleys. Bratislava, the capital of the Slovak Republic, has many emission sources. It is located ir the Danuabian Lowlands and is a source for regional pollution in the lowland. If air pollution is not controlled, this area could develop regional air pollution problems similar Prague in the Czech Republic.
In the Slovak Republic, the major emission sources are located in the west (primarily in Bratislava district), west-central (primarily in Prievidza district), and southeast (primarily in the Kosice district)(seeFigures 4-6 through 4-8). As stated earlier, according to the Slovak Commission on the Environment, the major air pollution sources are situated in the following cities (Ruzicka, 1990, personal communication):
a. Bratislava--chemicalfactories, traffic, and heating plants;
b. Horna Nitra--powerplant Elektraren Novaky (the fifteenth highest SO2 emitter in Europe, also emits 0.5 to 1 kg of arsenic per ton), and chemical factories;
c. Ziar nad Hronom--aluminum refinery;
d. Sered-Sala--fertilizer factory and nickel smelter;
e. Ruzomberok--paperand cellulose plants and power plant (has valley inversions); - 18 -
Table 4-4. Percent of Brown and Black Coal Used in the Thermal Production of Electricityin Czechoslovakia,1970-1985
Year Brown Coal Black Coal Other
1970 70.9 25.7 3.4
1975 71.7 19.0 9.3
1980 71.1 18.9 10.0
1985 78.3 16.6 5.1
Source: Adapted from StatisticalSurvey of Czechoslovakia,1976. - 19 -
f. Stredny Spis--metalurgicalfactory;
g. Kosice--metal and steel industries,magnesite factory, heating plants, and traffic;
h. Strazske--chemicalindustries;
i. Dolna Orava--iron foundry; and
J. Jelsava-Lubenik--magnesitefactory.
In addition to power plants and heating plants, there are large numbers of other industries that contribute to the air pollution problem in CSFR, including chemical and petrochemicalindustries (Gandbhir, 1990) and ferrous and nonferrous industries (Rickard, 1990). Pollutants from these industries include not only SO2 and NO., but metals and organics also. Informationon the contributionsof these sources to the overall air pollution situation in CSFR was not obtained. However, the following are examples of the type of pollutants that are emitted. Viscose rayon plants, e.g., Spolana Chemical Works Neratovice, have problems with carbon disulfide (CS2) and hydrogen sulfide (11S)emissions. Machinery at these plants is old and dust emissions are very high. All caprolactum plants produce large quantities of ammonium sulfate. At Litvinov petrochemicalplant, furnace decoking effluent goes into the atmosphere without removal of coke particles in a pot.
Some industries that have been shut down because of past air pollution problems (e.g., human health effects) have emissions that are still causing environmentalproblems. For example, a chemical plant at Michalovce, in eastern Slovakia, produced PCBs from 1956 to 1984 for the Czechoslovak and Soviet markets. It was shut down in 1984 because of pollution problems. Emissions from the plant still contaminate the soil and cause human health effects (see Section 10.1).
In addition to normal operation of point sources, there have been numerous reports of accidents or "upsets" that have released high levels of pollutants and caused effects. For example, in August 1990, there was an accident at a polyamide polymerizationplant at Zilina that released hydrocarbon, SO2, and NO, emissions. One worker was killed and several were injured (Gandbhir, 1990). Informationon the number and extent of accidents was not obtained,but, given the engineeringproblems and old technologies, these situations are a contributingsource to acute levels of emissions in the vicinity of such facilities.
The problem of airborne deposition of metals is not confined to point sources. Although unleaded gas is refined in CSFR, -here is still widespread use of leaded gasoline in Czechoslovakia. Because of this and the generally poor quality of repair of motor vehicles, metal deposition is a problem wherever large numbers of cars are found. Studies have documented the concentrationof airbornemetal levels in various locations in Prague. These show large variations in airbornelead, zinc, and cadmium levels between high traffic and low traffic areas around town (Hertzman, 1990). 0 - 5 21 - 30 MHrnd emise luhich zneUi§IujfcIch l6tck
v roce 1980 31 - 40 ,,11mn,,,-,, - 20 Al - 50
Jednotky: t.rok'1. km 2
0~~~~~~~~~~
Fr10lE i s lfh eic i
Figure 4-1 Particulate Emission Estimatesfor the CzechRepuiblic in 1988 I I 0- 5 21 - 50 MnrE emise oxidu sifiiitdho v race 1900 1¢' '.l 6 - IQ i 51 - 100
_ i -b 20[1T111 | 11 3 nad 100
Jednotky: t.rok' km 2
Fligure 4-2 SO) E:mission Estimates fior the Czech Republic in 1987 0- 5 21 - 30 !6 - 10 31- 40
11 -20 4 1- 50
Jednotkcy:t.rok ~ km 2
0~~~~~~~~~~
a , 4~~~~~T as
9 0 4~~~~t
Flpre 4-3 NO,,Emission Estimaliesfor. the CzechRepublic In 1987 0 - 5FZZZZZZ 21 - 50 H1rnd emise axidu uhelnatdho v roce 1980 '.'6.- lo 51 - 100
Jednotky: t.rok'1. km-2
0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
F;igilre 4-4 C() EmissionEstimates fior the CRzechRepublic in IM8 E Jo0,0 - 1,0 6 - 10 Mdrn6 emiit,e uhlovodIkb v roce 1908 0 _ 1n1 1,1~~~I- 2,0 11 11-20D
2,1 - 5,0 ~~nad 20
SC ~~~~~~~Jednotky:t.rok' . km-I
*~~~~~~~~~
* S~ ~ ~ ST * aE '~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
* ~0 ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
0~~~~~
Figure 4 y a E i
Figure 4-S Hydrocarbon Emission Estimates for the Czech Republic in 1388 dm1 2-S S-0 40-2W zo-s5 rn-icc
Figure 4.6 Particulate Emission Estimatesfor the SlovakRepublic in 1987 '6~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~2 1 v-26 -
t~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~t
M ~ ~ ~ ~ =
N vu
2''''''i'"'''m' w r~~~~~~~~~~~~~4 do? 2-s r *0 i 0-O - oc nod eO*^"
_~~~ t ;t_"gg* jJo
*Figure 4-8 NO, Emission Estimates for the Slovak Republic in 1987 * 28 -
4.1.4 Ambient Levels
Reported ambient levels of SO2 have commonly exceeded annual, daily, and 30-minutenorms in many regions and cities in Czechoslovakia. This condition has been noted since the 1970s (Table 4-5). Values greater than 1,000 micrograms per cubic meter (pg/m3) per 24 hours are common. Inversions in the winter resulting in high ambient concentrationscan last up to 3 weeks. In the summer, highest ambient values are observed at night. It is reported that ambient air SO2 levels increaseduntil 1988 then leveled off because mild winters reduced energy consumption. There was a 25 percent reduction in fly ash. In northern Bohemia, the yearly average SO2 concentrationis reported to be 50 pg/mi. This is above the CSFR norm of 40 pg/m3 but below the United States norm ;f 80 pg/mi. The southern part of the region has an annual value of 30 yg/m3. Because of inconsistenciesbetween reporting in arithmetic and geometric means, there needs to be more careful work in comparing values, e.g., to the Unites States ambient standards (Foell, 1990). However, it is clear that for the past few decades, ambient SO2 levels have exceeded most norms (e.g., annual, daily) in a large number of regions and cities in the CSFR. For example, the 1989 CSAV report states that "the territory with the highest concentrationsof SO2 (which are marked by the isoline of 100 pg/M3 of annual concentrations)creates a continuous zone in the center of which there is the connecting line between the district towns from Chomutov to Hresnko." The United States arithmetic norm is 80. As mentioned previously,however, extremes of daily concentrationsof the order of 2,000 to 3,000 pg/mi occur frequently during severe winter inversions. The United States daily norm is 1,365 pg/m3, not to be exceeded more than once a year.
The Academy report discusses the air quality in other regions. Except for Prague, ambient concentrationsin other regions of the Czech Republic are less than for northern Bohemian regions (but still high). The center of Prague has annual concentrationsof SO2 of approximately200 pg/m3; suburban areas have concentrationsof approximately30 pg/m3. The three most polluted parts of Prague are Vltava, Podoli, and Stare Mesto. Daily SO2 concentrationsof more than 3,000 pg/mr have been reported. In Prague, air pollution is primarily from individualhome heating using brown coal. Episodic conditions occur. Episodic air pollution is common in many areas of CSFR. An episode of high atmosphericpollution is a period expressed by the number of days during which the averagedaily concentrationsof SO2 exceeded the value of 400 pg/mr in a given number tf stations (Prognosticand Signal System). The longest episode in the history of observationoccurred in January 1982, wben the unfavorableatmospheric dispersion conditions together with a record temperature inversion lasted 19 days without interruption,and when the average daily sulfur concentrationssurpasses the 400 pg/m3 limit for 10 days. The United States standard is 365 pg/mi not to be exceeded more than once a year. The maximum daily averageof SO, in Prague reached 3,193 pg/M3 and, in the town of Osek at the base of the Ore Mountains, 2,440 pg/mr; it exceeded 1,000 pg/le in a number of stations in northern Bohemia (Ministryof Environment of the Czech Republic, 1990), In December 1989, measured levels of SO, for 5 to 6 days averaged800 pg/m' daily, with 30-minutevalues greater than 1,000 pg/l. The surrounding areas of Prague had daily S02 averages from - 29 -
Table 4-5. Change in Average Annual SO0 Concentrations(pg/in) in the CzechRepublic
Location 1970 1975 1980 1485
ChomutovRegion 53 71 94 ' 126 ^
Most Region 57 80 102 * 132 ' TepliceRegion 51 77 93 110 OstravaRegion 36 36 46 55 Prague (Karlov) 100 100 ^ 128 155 Bratislava 49 67 55 60
Note: The CSFR annualstandard is 40 pg/rn. aAboveUnited States annual standard of 80 pg/m. 30 -
200 to 300 jsg/m3. Concentrationsexceed CSFR norms most of the year, especially during the winter. These air quality conditions have been observed for more than 20 years. The annual norm of 40 Mg/m3 is exceeded in the districts of Usti nad Labem, Teplice, Most, Decin, and Chomutov. Some of the highest annual S02 concentrationsoccur in the cities of these districts:
a. Usti nad Labem--187Mg/m 3;
b. Teplice--144 g/im3;
c. Most--131 pg/m3;
d. Decin--118 g/lm'; and
e. Chomutov--105pg/m 3 .
Patterns of particulatepollution are similar to SO2 pollution patterns. Particulate levels for Prague are twice the norm. The highest annual value of 199 Ag/m3 was recorded at the Dukelskych monitoring station. The United States norm is 50 Mg/m3, by arithmetic mean. NO, monitoring is not as prevalent, however, as S02 monitoring. Long-term (period of time uncertain) NO. values of 39 to 267 pg/m3 have been reported for the region (CSAV, 1989).
Ozone has been measured in Bohemia and Moravia only since 1989 (measured in the city of Bratislava and on the Chopok Mountain in Slovakia somewhat earlier). The limited measurementsdo not allow for a more detailed evaluation of the ozone in CSFR. Preliminary results show the average daily concentrationsvary in the range of 40 to 60 Mg/le; maxima of short duration and values for high ozone periods often exceed 200 Mg/M3 in the Czech Republic (Ministryof Environmentof the Czech Republic, 1990).
4.2 EFFECTS
The primary effects of air pollution that have been reported include significantadverse effects to human health, forests, and agriculture (see Sections 10.0, 11.0, and 6.0). Although informationon material effects of air pollution, including soiling, were not obtained, such damage was observed and is expected to be significant.
In general, SO, and other air pollutants directly affect 3 to 4 million people. Human health effectsattributed to air pollution include lowering life expectancy of inhabitantsin regions of high air pollution, higher rate of birth defects, and higher morbidity rates in the population. Children are evacuated twice a year from certain districts in northern and central Bohemia for health purposes (see Section 10.0). One-third of the forests and 10 percent of all agriculturalland are estimated to be affected by air pollution. It is estimatedthat by the year 2000, between 45 and 60 percent of Czechoslovakianforests will have deteriorated. Three-quartersof specially protected national parks covering 11.4 percent of the republic's territory are reported to be affected by air emission (Kraus, 1985; Zvosec, 1984). Air pollution is considered a contributingfactor in lowering agr.culturalproductivity, causing contaminationof food products, and causing animal health effects, - 31 -
4.3 MONITORING PROGRAMS
Air monitoring is conducted in each republic by two governmertal entities. The Czech and Slovak HydrometeorologicalInstitutes have responsibilityfor air quality monitoring in the "countryside." In the Czech Republic, the institute also has monitoring responsibilityfor the city of Prague. The Institute of Hygiene is responsible for air monitoring in cities. The HydrometeorologicalInstitutes monitor for the primary gaseous pollutants and dust (particulates). The Institute of Hygiene conducts specific trace metal monitoring (e.g., asbestos, arsenic, etc.) and conducts specific chemical analyses for the HydrometeorologicalInstitutes. According to the Czech HydrometeorologicalInstitute, monitoring information is shared between the two Institutes. Ambient air monitoring is also conducted by other governmental institutes for research purposes. The integrationof these data into the data collected by the HydrometeorologicalInstitutes is unclear.
Some ambient air monitoring is paid for and carried out by industry. For example, at Ziar nad Hronom, air monitoring for the Slovak HydrometeorologicalInstitute is paid by the factory. The factory pays 300,000 Kcs per year for SO2, fluoride, dust, and CO monitoring. The industry receives daily and monthly air quality values from the Institute. The factory also collects some meteorologicaldata such as windspeed and wind direction. This informationis given to the HydrometeorologicalInstitute.
For the Czech Republic, the main air quality data center is at t1. HydrometeorologicalInstitute in Prague. It has branches in the districts. The air pollution monitoring branch has mostly older air monitors. Data are transmitted to Prague by telefax. The Institutehas a network of S2 monitors in three regions:
a. Northwest -13 SO2 monitors;
b. Prague--12 SO2 and 5 NO. monitors; and
c. Ostrava--12SO 2 monitors.
Currently, S02 and NO, ambient concentrations (minimum and maximum) are given each day on the radio and television.
A background monitoring station is located at Kosetice and is part of the East European Global EnvironmentalMonitoring System (GEMS) subsystem.
The Slovak HydrometeorologicalInstitute has 43 monitors in 10 industrial areas and 7 background-levelmonitors. One background station is located in the Low Tatras and l a.n EMEP station. Sampling stations are primarily manual stations and include 24-hour monitoring for SO2, NO,,,and particulates. Information is transferred to Bratislava by computer linkage. The Institute has 15 automated (real-time)stations in Bratislava and Kosice.
A branch of the HydrometeorologicalInstitutes, the Air Quality Inspectorate, is responsible for assembling the emission inventory provided by the governmentalenterprises and industries, Emission information is collected for SO., NO,, CO, hydrocarbons,and solid emissions such as volatile organic compounds (VOCS), dust, light ash, etc. Emissions are estimated based - 32 -
on the type of fuel and type of combustion equipment. Emission sources are divided into four groups or REZZOs (Emissionand Atmospheric Pollutant Sources Register):
a. Large sources (REZZO l)--fuel combustion that is equal to or greater than 5 megawatts (MW);
b. Medium sources (REZZO 2)--for fuel combustion ranging from 0.2 to 5 MW;
c. Local and central heating (REZZO 3)--up to 0.2 MW; and
d. Mobile sources (REZZO 4)--road, railroad, ships, and air transport.
Emission data from REZZO 1 are calculated by each industrial enterprise once a year. Emission data for REZZO Groups 2 through 4 are estimated every several years.
According to the Institute staff, verificationof the industrial emissions informationis done when equipment is installed or replaced. The most complete data are SO2 emission data based on estimations of SO2 from raw material supplies of combustion processes and selected technologiesand on periodic control measurements. Somewhat less precise data are those on the solid emissions. The emission of NO. depends to a large extent on the regime of the combustion process. A decisive improvementof the data on NO. emissions cannot be expected before continuous monitoring of emissions from the most important sources is established (Ministryof Environment of the Czech Republic, 1990). The present data on emissions of NO. from stationary sources tend to approach the upper limits, whereas those given by REZZO on the emissions from car traffic represent the lower limits of estimates. The present calculationsof REZZO probably underestimatethe emissions by heavy transport vehicles. The participationof car transport in the total emissions of NO., estimated for Czechoslovakiaat about 16 percent, is evidently low in comparison with data from other European countries with the same level of motorization;values of 25 to 30 percent appear to be more realistic. Emissions from other sources, including the technologiesof surface finishing, storage of fuels, small-scaleproduction of special chemicals, and agriculturalproduction, are not estimated.
Standard ambient air analyses conducted by the Hydrometeorological Institutes include:
a. S02--Westgate method (colorimetric)for manual stations, and Phillips for automatic, sensitivlty to 10 pg/m3;
b. NO,--Colorimetricfor manual stations and Phillips for automatic stations; and
c. Fly ash--Dust collectors. - 33 -
Most of the air monitoring conducted in CSFR is not real-time monitoring but 30-minute averages. From this information,24-hour averages and other values are derived.
The location of air monitors has not always been chosen at the highest impact location or at critical receptors but has been located in areas that are convenient, e.g., in cities, air monitors are located outside windows of accessible offices and apartments.
Air quality modeling is done in CSFR at the Hydrometeorological Institutes. The Institute staff has indicated the need for good terrain models as well as area/regionalmodels.
Prague has eight noise monitors but only one mobile unit. The responsibilityfor noise monitoring is uncertain.
Meteorologicalinformation is collected by the Hydrometeorological Institutes,but not all pollution sources or localitieshave meteorological stations. For example, Austrian meteorologicaldata is used for air pollution modeling of air quality conditions in Northern Bohemia. A complete meteorologicalstation does not exist in the northern Bohemia region.
4.4 CONTROLS AND EXISTING MEASURES TO CORRECT PROBLEMS
4.4.1 Legislative Controls
In 1967, CSFR passed an air pollution act entitled Measures for Protecting Air Purity (No. 35/1967). This included the following:
a. The CNC Act No. 36/1975 Code--The Fines for Breaking the Law Regulations of Creating and Protecting Health Life Conditions, amended by the CNC Act No. 137/1982 Code;
b. The SNC Act No. 53/1975 Code--The Fines for Breaking the Law Regulations of Creating and Protecting Health Life Conditions, amended by the SNC Act No. 139/1982 Code;
c. Offense Act--The CNC Act No. 200/1990; and
d. National Committee's Targets for Ensurance of SocialisticOrder, No. 60/1961 Code (in the Slovak Republic the Offense Act is still valid).
This air pollution act and associated regulations that dealt with human health introduceda scale of fines for enterprises that exceeded admissible air pollution levels. Law No. 35/1967 does not apply to all polluters of the atmosphere. It pertains only to those exceeding the acceptable pollution level, which depends on the height of the stack, to the pollution by steam engines, and to the burning or spontaneous fires of mines and coal stockpiles (Ministry of Environmentof the Czech Republic, 1990). The act established a central authority, the Czech Technical Inspection of Atmospheric Protection under the Ministry of Forestry and Water Economy, that was responsible for levying these fines, paying damages, and imposing emission limits. Eight regional inspectorateswere established to ensure the law's implementation. - 34 -
The present air pollution act does not cover mobile sources. The allowable amounts of pollutants are based on stack heights; therefore, stacks as high as 300 m are common (Moldan, 1990, personal communication).
Table 4-6 provides a partial list of air quality standards. In addition to these standards, there is a system of standards adopted in northern Bohemia to control emissionswhen the 24-hour SO2 standards are exceeded. There is a warning system to power plants at 200 Mg/m3/24 hours and energy regulation at 300 pg/m3/24 hours.
The effectivenessof the air quality law and associated regulations has been limited for several reasons. When the law was passed, enterprises unable to meet the regulationswere given special exemptions from controlling air emissions. These exemptionshave been renewed in many cases. In addition, enterpriseswere allowed to pollute if they paid "nominal" fees. In addition, the fines imposed by the National Committees often deviated considerablyfrom those of the inspectorates. Air pollution fees that were established in 1967 have not been changed since then. The fee rate is 100 Kcs per ton of solid emission, SO2, and CO in the Czech Republic and includes NO. in the Slovak Republic. Finally, fines were imposed when the limits to pollute were exceeded. Overall, the amount of fees collected has fluctuated from year to year. During the period of 1985 to 1988, total fees have decreased (see Table 4-7). Fees in the Slovak Republic were the lowest but showed an increase compared to the Czech Republic during the same period.
The number of fines (i.e., number of polluters) has decreased (Table 4-8). This decrease is due to a reduction in the number of fines collected in the Czech Republic compared to the Slovak Republic. Based on the number of fines, the number of atmosphericpolluters has stayed relatively constant in the Slovak Republic. Given the uncertainty in enforcement,the significanceof these differences is uncertain.
For example, chlorinatedhydrocarbon emissions at Novaky are 60 times higher than the limits that were agreed to by the plant and local authority. Dust emissions are 5 times higher than set limits (Gandbhir, 1990). Air pollution regulations are not complied with because of politics and economics (Kalal, 1990, personal communications). Polluters are levied a fee which is less than the cost for control. If actual environmentalcosts were taken into considerationand the fees and fines for polluting were assessed, they would be extremely high. Under the present governmentalsystem, these fees and fines ultimately come from the state budget.
Forty percent of the air pollution fees collected go to the republic. Sixty percent of the fees go to the district government that is the source of the pollution in spite of the fact that the air pollution goes beyond the district boundaries. In addition,the fees are not necessarily spent for air quality control or protection. As a result, the fees are an important source of financial revenue for the district governments (e.g., Teplice district). Only in northern Bohemia must fundsbe used for air pollution related projects. In other areas,fees can be used for development purposes. - 35 -
4.4.2 Air Pollution Control and Investments
Many of the chemical and petrochemical industries in CSFR are quite old (some more than 100 years old). In most cases, the technology and equipment is about 50 years old. Coupled with old technology, there has been little emphasis on pollttion control (Candbhir, 1990). In the energy sector, many of the power plants are 20 to 30 years old (Foell, 1990).
Observationsat small industries indicated no pollution controls (Rickard, 1990).
At the present time, there is no desulfurizationequipment in common operation in CSFR. Particulatecontrols have been installed in some emission facilities. The effectivenessof these controls is variable. NO, emission controls have been installed at some chemical industries, in particular, fertilizer factories. No air pollution control systems exist on local heating and home furnaces. Attempts to control air emissions appear to have been initiated in the sixth 5-year planning period (1976-1980). Table 4-9 presents environmentalinvestments for the years 1986 to 1988, which are a part of the eighth 5-year plan. The overall investmentsdeclined in 1988 from 1987 primarily due to a decrease in investmentsin the Czech Republic. In the Slovak Republic, investments increased.
Different federal ministries are responsible for identification, financing, and installationof air pollution control equipment for their enterprises. In the past, central government authority oversaw air pollution control planning and enforcement. Jirat, a member of the Czech Planning Commission, summarized pollution control investments to demonstrate the responsivenessand effectivenessof environmentalprotection in Czechoslovakia (Jirat, 1987). The following are air pollution control projects listed by Jirat as a part of the seventh 5-year plan.
a. Tusimice II 200-MW coal-firedpower plant installed a Soviet-style SO2 filtering system (Albrecht, 1987) using a magnesite method, with a planned efficiency of 90 percent;
b. VTZ Works at Chomutov installed a device for desulfurizinggases but technical difficultieshave kept it from working;
C. Fuels complex at Uzin has been building a desulfurizingsystem since 1982. It is supposed to reduce emissions by 6,000 TPY and have approximately 74 percent efficiency.The system is expected to be more effectivein reducingH1S emissions. An NO. controlsystem is also planned;
d. A prototypeboiler for producing27.5 ton per hour (TPH) in which desulfurizationtakes place duringcombustion, was installedat heatingplant at Trmice;
e, The FederalMinistry of Fuelsand Energystarted construction of an air pollutioncontrol systemthat will eliminatethe smell of expansion gases in pressure gas works in the fuels complexin Vresova; 36 -
Table 4-6. RepresentatliveAir Quality Standards (ug/r 3 ) for Czechoslovakia
Period Parameter 30 Minutes 24 Hours Annual
Sol (pg/mr) 500 150 40
NO. (pg/rn) 300 100a
Suspended Particulates(pg/l) 500 150 - Soot (pg/rn) 150 50 - CO (pg/rn) 6,000 1,000 _
NH4 300 100 _ Arsenic - 3 -
Phenol (CHCH) 30 10 - Fluoride 30 10 - Formaldehyde(HCHO) 50 15 _ CL, 100 30 _ Lead - 0.7
CS2 30 10
H,S 8 8
Note: - - standard does not exist. 'AsNO,. 37 -
Table 4-7. Summary of Atmospheric Protection Funds (fees in million Kcs) for the Period 1985 to 1988
Reported District Income Resulting Total from Atmospheric Fund Application Year Fees Pollution Fees Total
Czechoslovakia
1985 141 101 96
1986 107 66 115
1987 122 82 121
1988 132 94 182
Czech Republic
1985 128 88 95
1986 95 55 108
1987 107 66 90
1988 115 77 143
Sloval1Republic
1985 13 13 1
1986 12 11 7
1987 15 16 31
1988 17 17 39
'Furtherexplanation needed.
Source: Adapted from Selected Indicators (Table 14), 1990. - 38 -
f. The Federal Ministry of Metallurgy and Heavy Engineeringstarted constructionin 1985 of a dust eliminationsystem in NHKG Works in Kuncice, at NHKG Ostrava, and at VZKG Ostrava. Installationof dust reduction equipment was started at a power unit at Sigma Hranice and at a galvanizingplant in Karvina;
g. The Ministry of Industry started environmentalprotection projects at:
i. Sklo Union Works Lesni Brana (Teplice); ii. VCHZ Pardubice (chemical factory); iii. Dukla Works in Hrusov;
h. Ministry of Agriculture and Food and Ministry of Industry;
i. MCHZ Ostrava (reconstructedsulfuric acid plant); ii. Moravian Glassworks at Vrbno and Karolinka; iii. Glassworks at Jenstejn; iv. ZAZ Vladislov;
i. The Ministry of Health started six projects, mostly at spas, including Teplice, Ostrozna Nova Ves, and Dubi; and
J. The Ministry of ConstructionIndustry started installationof dust control equipment at cement plant at Mokra, in the ceramic works at Chlumcany, Horni Briza, RAKO, Opatovice, and five other locations.
Heating plant improvementsto reduce CO emissions were made in the iron works at Hradec nad Moravici, in MEZ Vsetin, in NHKG Works in Kuncice, in a coking plant Victorious February in Ostrava, and at a coal black producing plant in the Urx Works in Valasske Mezirici,
Several works started in the sixth 5-year plan period were reported completed during the seventh 5-year plan period, including:
a. Skoda Works at Plzen reconstructedand reduced SO2 emissions;
b. Gas works at Uzin with desulfurizationequipment;
c. Chemical plant at Lovosice with NO, controls;
d. Fosfa Postorna with fluor absorption;and
e. Ceramsite plant at Vintirov with a separatingdevice.
Jirat stated the limited capacity to produce particulate trapping systems at ZVVZ Works in Milevoko during 1981 to 1985 has slowed the installationof these controls in the country. Hs also stated that the *Narrow branch and enterpriseinterests often led to efforts to solve operational problems (production]at the expense of the quality of the environment." Fines have been a standard condition during the previous 5- year period (Jirat, 1987), - 39
Table 4-8. Penalties (Fines) for Atmopsheric Pollution
Fees and Penalties Specific Fee Imposed For Atmosphere Number of Per Atmosphere Pollution (1.000 Kcs) Atmosphere Polluter Fees Per Year Polluters (1,000 Kcs) Year Penalties
Czechos2lovaia
1985 1,278 176 224,746 13,804
1986 1,255 161 201,642 21,832
1987 1,223 165 201,275 22,341
1988 1,186 181 215,043 11,187
Czech Reoublic
1985 961 199 190,896 13,118
1986 958 179 171,273 20,314
1987 921 177 163,080 21,935
1988 867 190 165,006 9,612
Slovak ReMublic
1985 317 107 33,850 686
1986 297 102 30,369 1,518
1987 302 127 38,195 406
1988 319 157 50,037 1,575
Source: Adapted from Selected Indicators (Table15), 1990. - 40
Table 4-9. Environment Investment in Atmosheric Protection (in million Kcs)
Atmospheric Protection Year Investment
Czechoslovakia
1986 574
1987 707
1988 663
Czech Reoublic
1986 501
1987 609
1988 517
Slovak Republic
1986 73
1987 98
1988 146
Source: Adapted from Selected Indicators (Table 13), 1990. 41 -
Noi&e is recognizedas a problem(see Se^tion10.1), and noise abatementprograms have been implemented,including constructing noise barriersbetween apartments and highwaysand reducingspeed limits(Jirat, 1987).
4.5 IR|DS2 Since 1980, the reportedemission estimates showed a declineof approximately8 percent. However,total amountsof emissionsare some of the highestin Europe. Ambientlevels of SO2 and other pollutantsas well as damageto the environmenthave not shown any improvementin spite of the pollutionscontrol investments. Officially, the Governmentconceded that effortsto improvethe "purityof the air" were not entirelyadequate (Jirat, 1987). The Governmenttook creditfor eliminatingair pollutionat 3 of more than 1,000polluters. Jirat (1987)stated in his reviewof the human environmentof Czechoslovakiathat "Pollutionwas definitivelyeliminated by shut down of cokingplant Trojicein Ostrava,of K2 boilerin the Tatra Works in Koprivnice,and calciumcarbide plant at Sokolov." Accordingto Rickard(1990) the decisionto shut down the coking plant Trojicein Ostrovawas due, in part, to environmentalobjection from Poland. No overallassessment of the effectivenessof the environmental investments,including the efficiencyand operatinglife of the variousair pollutioncontrol system installed,being built,or planned,has been made. This analysisis neededgiven the problemassociated with thes.econtrol systems,including operational and maintenanceproblems and the fact that emissionsand ambientconcentrations have not significantlydeclined.
Unlesssignificant changes in energyconsumption, energy sources, industrialefficiency, governmental responsibilities, and regulatory enforcementof air qualitystandards occur, the air emissionand ambientair concentrationswill not significantlydecline. The internationalcommitment to reduceSO2 emissions by 30 percentbefore 1993 will not be realized. Acute and chronicair pollutionwill continueto occur,causing both regionaland point sourceeffects to human health,agriculture, forestry and other sectors of the environment.
The air pollutionact must be changed. Absoluteamounts of emissions must be determined.Periodic inspections must occur and strictenforcement applied. Fees and fines need to be increasedto reflectthe real environmentalcosts. Jirat (1987)estimated these costs to be 10 times more than prescribedfees. 42 -
5.0 WATER QUALITY AND WATER QUANTITY PROBLEMS
5.1 TYPES. AMOUNTS. AND SOURCES
Two major water problems exist in CSFR: poor water quality and limited water quantities. Both surface water and groundwater quality are affected. The inefficientuse and contaminationof surface water and groundwaterhave threatenedthe quantitiesof availablewater. 5.1.1 SurfaceWater and GroundwaterPollution Water pollutionin CSFR has resultedfrom uncontrolledindustrial and municipaldischarges, agricultural runoff, air emissionsassociated with industrialand energydevelopment, and accidentsand spills. Seventypercent of all waterwaysin Czechoslovakiaare reportedto be heavilypolluted (Albrecht, 1987). In 1982, Slovakofficial radio reported that 3,000 kilometers(km) (1,800miles) of the republic's6,250 km (3,750 miles)of riverswere pollutedby 1,500 industriesand 2,400 agricultural enterprises(Zvosec, 1984). Nationwide,6,984 km (4,340miles) of the 25,833km (15,500miles) of the major river lengthshave been classifiedin the worst pollutioncategory, i.e., incapableof sustainingfish or containinginedible fish. In the Czech Republic,significant pollution of the major rivers occurredin the 1950s and 1960sand has not improvedsince then (Table5-1). The qualityof water flows has deterioratedsignificantly during the last decades. In 1940, for example,87 percentof the total flow lengthof the Labe River was classifiedin the two superiorwater qualityclasses (I and II) as was 91 percentof the JizeraRiver flow, 72 percentof the VltavaRiver flow, 56 percent of the Berounka River flow, and 99 percent of the Ohre River flow. By 1980, the proportionof the flow lengthsin these classesof purity decreasedto only 3 percentof the lengthof Labe River,26 percentof the Jizera,45 percentof the Vltava,0 percentof the Berour.ka,and 21 percentof the Ohre (SKVTRI,1990). The Berounkaand Labe Riversare the most polluted, with almostthe entirelengths of these riversin the lowestwater quality categories. In northernBohemia, only 10 percentof the segmentsof riversand streamsare classifiedClass I. Fifty-sevenpercent are in Class II, 18 percentare in Class III, and 15 percentare in Class IV (poorestquality). The most pollutedriver is the Bilina;the secondmost pollutedis the Labe. - 43 -
Table 5-1. Change in the Classificationsof Clean Water in Selected Rivers in the Czech Republic from 1940 to 1980
Water Quality Percentage of Length of River in Class River Class 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980
Labe I-II 87 63 30 4 3 III-IV 13 37 70 96 97
Jizera I-II 91 85 70 33 26 III-IV 9 15 30 6, 74
Vltava I-II 72 53 55 50 45 III-IV 28 47 45 50 55
Berounka I-II 56 34 29 11 0 III-IV 44 66 71 89 100
Ohre I-II 99 92 46 6 21 III-IV 1 8 54 94 79
Morava I-II 11 11 11 III-IV 89 89 89
Dyje I-II 41 S1 24 III-IV 59 59 76
Odra I-II 49 26 26 III Iv 51 74 74
'Water Quality Classifioat±ons: I-II--clean to moderate degradation. III-.V--strongto heavily polluted.
Source: Adapted from CSAV (Table 2.13), 1989. - 44
In the Slovak Republic, about one-half of all the water flows qualified for Class IV. Virtually all the major water flows in Czechoslovakia--withthe exception of the Dunaj--have their headwaters on Czechoslovakianterritory (SKVTRI, 1990).
In 1981, 21 percent of samples from public water mains in western Slovak Republic were considered contazsnated,and 78.6 percent of the well water was coasidered polluted. In central and eastern Slovak Republic, 71.4 percent of the public water mains were considered contaminatedand 81.4 percent of the well water was considered polluted (Ruzicka,1990; personal communication).
From 1970 to 1980, the release of biological wastes, expre&ied as biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), rose 18.7 percent to 184,000 tons annually. Since then, there has been a slow decline (see Table 5-2) (CSAV, 1989). The monitored sources of water pollution rose more than 400 percent from 1,164 to 4791 in 1980 after showing some improvementin the 1960s (CSAV, 1983).
Increase in other pollutants such as PCBs, CHC1, and metals likely has increased as a result of industrializationand the lack of water treatment. Because of the lack of instrumentationand limited monitoring, only scattered informationexists. In the Czech Republic, organochlorines, tetrachloroethylene(TCE) and PCBs occur in streams at concentrationsof 10 to 30 pg/m3 (200 pg/m3 in the Bilina River). Heavy metals were found in streams at the following concentrations: copper at up to 280 pg/m3 in the Zlaty Brook, zinc at 1,400 pg/m3 in the Cerny Brook, nickel at 280 pg/m3 and lead at 102 pg/m3 in the Rakovnicky Brook, cadmium at 16 pg/ml in the Labe River, chromium at 71 ug/m3 in the Dyje River, and mercury at 2.6 pg/mr in the Jilava River. Heavy metals were found to exceed the obligatory standard in 123 places (supplying 553,000 inhabitants),cyanides in 10 places (10,000 inhabitants),phenolics on 57 sites (230,000 inhabitants),and petroleum substances in 169 cases (1 million inhabitants). An enhanced content of radioactivesubstances was reported from 100 sources (300,000 inhabitants) (Ministryof Environment of the Czech Republic, 1990). The use of leaching in underground mining of uranium in northern Bohemia creates a high risk of contaminatingpart of the Czech cretaceousband (Ministryof Environmentof the Czech Republic, 1990). In the Slovak Republic, high levels of PCBs and formaldehydewere found in the Laborec River (formaldehyde--44mg/L; PCBs 15- -pg/L) and the Sirava Reservoir (formaldehyde--120mg/L; PCBs 1.5 to 2.9 pg/L) because of pollution from the PCB plant at Michalovce (Hertzman, 1990).
In the Czech Republlc, there were 4,979 registered water pollution sources in 1985; 0.3 percent (15) of the registered water pollution sources contributed to 43 percent of tho BOD discharge and 31 percent of the total dissolved solids (TDS) discharge (CSAV, 1989), The following factories were the highest sources of pollution,as expressedin BOD:
a. South Bohemian Paper Factoriesat Votrni and Cesky Krumlov--14,056 TPYP;
b. UCOV Prague-.13,000TTY; and c. Synthesiaat Ustin-s9,140TPYf - 45 ^
Table 5-2. Status and Change in Water Pollution in the Czech Republic
BOD Concentration Year (1,000 TPY)
1975 138 1980 184 1981 173 1982 164 1983 154 1984 141 1985 144 1986 142 1987 138
Source: Adapted from CSAV (Table 2.6), 1989. - 46 -
Major water pollution sources in the Czech Republic (CSAV, 1983) considered in gross violation of the law, threateninghuman health, and requiring cleaning up or closing include:
a. Rychnov nad Kneznou and Myto in the Rokycany area--cyanides;
b. Practice--nitrouslime;
c. Chemko Strazske--PCBsand formaldehydes;
d. Cheb--mercurysalts;
e. Prague-Podoli--viralcontamination; and
f. Zelivka--mercury(in fish meat).
Visits to industrialfacilities commonly revealed potential water polluting conditions, e.g., hydrocarbon and chlorinatedhydrocarbon contaminationin three disposal lagoons at the Ostramo Refinery, Ostrava (Gandbhir,1990). In contrast to the Czech Republic, water pollution in the form of BOD and organic pollution has increased significantlyin the Slovak Republic (Table 5-3). Similar trends in pollution of the rivers have occurred.
In general, nitrate contaminationfrom agriculturalactivities is the primary cause of pollution in surface water and groundwater in the Slovak Republic. It is estimated by the Water InspectionBoard of the Slovak Republic that 80 percent of the surface water in rivers is polluted by animal waste products. Only 8 percent of the 3,360 livestockproduction farms are considered in conformitywith present day environmentalprotection requirements. The largest polluters are large-scalepig farms with stall capacity of over 3,000 swine. Seventy-nineexist in the Slovak Republic. Only 11 have effective programs for management of liquid manure. Of the 234 cattle farms, only 38 percent are considered to have effective liquid manure management systems (Janik, 1990, personal communication). In the Slovak Republic, the major water systems consideredpolluted (Ruzicka, 1990, personal communication)include:
a. Nitra River--has the worst pollution, 70 percent of river above the norm from contaminationfrom industry and chemical industries;
b. Maly Dunaj--oiland chemical pollution, cooling water from the Slovnaft refinery represents 50 percent of the river flow;
c. Hordra--organic,chemical and fertilizers;and
d. Vah--industrial wastes,
Negligence is sxemplified in SlovnaftChemical Works in Bratislava. In the 1970,wastes leaked on & dailybasis [an estimatedtotal of 35 tons of untreatedeffluent (Albrecht, 1987)) into the Dunaj and Maly Dunaj. As stated previously,50 percent of the flow of Maly Dunaj is from the coolingwater effluent from the refinery, In 1974, a major spill at the Slovnaftrefinery 47
Table 5-3. Change in Water Pollution from Registered Sources in the Slovak Republic
Organic Year Undissolved Solids BOD Pollution
1980 176.7 136.3 258.3
1981 188.2 134.4 239.1
1982 200.6 138.6 217.7
1983 174.0 140.2 277.2
1984 185.7 142.9 228.5
1985 154.0 145.3 272.7
1986 128.0 145.5 305.3
Note: Measurements are in 1,000 TPY.
Source: Adapted from CSAV (Table 2.12), 1989. - 48 -
occurredthat endangeredtheentire underground reservoir (ZitnyOstrov aquifer)for the city of Bratislava. A water purificationplant was not approveduntil 1977. This plant was not completeduntil 1985. The effectivenessof the facility is unknown. Water from the Maly Dunaj currently is used for irrigationof corn grown in the area (Gandbhir,1990).
Groundwatercontamination is mainly from non-pointsources of nitrates,pesticides, and fertilizerresidues, and specific substances, includingchlorinated hydrocarbons. During the last 30 years, the average nitrate concentrationsin groundwatersof the developedareas of settlements and their surroundingsincreased 4-fold [from 30 to 120 milligramsper liter (mg/L)],and, in agriculturallymanaged areas, increasedmore than 2-fold (from 24 to 56 mg/L). The highest nitrate concentrationsfound, however, exceeded 1,200 mg/L (the drinkingwater standardsin CSFR allows 15 mg/L nitrates for nursingbabies and 50 mg/L nitrates for adults). In agricultural lands, a 'nitratecloud" is spreadinggradually and, in many areas, reaches a depth of 10 to 25 m, thus representingan acute or potentialhazard for the groundwaters(SKVTRI, 1990). The greatest increase in nitrates was recorded in recent years in water from the quaternarybasin of the Labe River. The concentrationswere from 700 to 800 mg/L, 14 to 16 times higher than the norm for drinking water.
Groundwatercontamination of undergroundreservoirs (i.e., aquifers) by the petroleumindustry is also cited as a serious problem. Contamination by chlorinatedsubstances has also been observed,including values of 0.6 microgramsper liter (pg/L) in the surroundingareas of Prerov, 77 pg/L at Hradec Karlove, and 1,000 pg/L in Rozmital pod Tremsinem.
Concernhas been expressedfor areas of importantunderground sources, for instance,the cleft Vysoke Myto, was and still is occupied by military forces of the Soviet Army. The protectionof these water sourceshas been beyond governmentcontrol (The Ministry of Environmentof the Czech Republic,1990). As mentionedpreviously, the Zitny Ostrov aquifier is affectedby the Slovnaft oil refinery,which is situated above the aquifer. Groundwateris already partiallypolluted. In addition,this aquifer is threatenedby leaks from the oil pipelinecrossing the aquiferand by the proposed Gabcikovodam. The dam will increasethe infiltrationof contaminatedsurface water into the aquifer. (Ondrus,1990, personal communication). The Niklova Huta Nickel Works at Sered is reported to have caused two undergroundplumes of water containingelevated levels of sulfur, chlorine,and ammonia. One of the plumes is migratingand is within 100 m of the Vah River (Rickard,1990).
The effects of municipalpollution is exemplifiedin the loss of water quality in sections of rivers downstreamof urban and residentialareas (e.g., Vltava below Prague,Svratka and Svitavabelow Brno, and Odra and Ostravicebelow Ostrava), Followingthe oil spill in 1977 at the Slovnaft refinery,the city of Bratislavais using hydraulicscreens to prevent hydrocarbonpollution (CSAV, 1983).
The lack of adequatesewage treatmentin cities and rural areas is a problem: there are more than 2,500 sewage systemswithout wastewater treatmentplants. Water qualitywas so poor that the cities of Prague, Bratislava,Hradoc Kralove, Usti nad Labom were granted exemptionsfrom Law No. 138/1973mandating constructionof new sewagetreatment plants (CSAV, 1983). Hradec Kralove, Pardubics, and Usti nad Labom regional capitals with - 49 -
populationsmore than 100,000people, 25 district towns, and most newly built residentialsettlements have no facilitiesfor filteringwastewater. The three cities are locatedin the Labe River basin. The release of wastewater throughpublic sewers rose almost 70 percentbetween 1970 and 1980 (CSAV, 1983).
The drinking water processingsystems (chemicalpurification, filtration,and disinfection)are consideredtotally inadequatefor the populationsof many cities, includingPrague, Bratislava, Hradec Kralove, Usti nad Labem, Brno. In some cases, there is dischargeof untreatedwastewater upstream of water filtrationplants [e.g., Ohre River and the city of Louny (CSAV, 1983)]. Fifty percent of the drinkingwater samplingsdo not comply with existing staniards.
The Academy report (CSAV, 1983) stated that direct water pollutionby industryhas roughlymaintained the same level in recent years. Dischargeby the celluloseindustry into the Upper Vltava, Upper Labe, and other rivers is cited as a continuingproblem. Radionuclidecontamination is also described as a water quality threat (see Section8.0).
Agriculturehas had a significanteffect on groundwaterand surface water resourcesof Czechoslovakiaand is considereda major source of nitrate contamination. Agriculturalpollution is often from dispersedor non-point sources and is difficultto control. Most of the pollution is caused by organicmatter, industrialfertilizers, pesticides, and oil products. It is estimated that 50 percent of the pollutionof surfacewaters is from agriculture[e.g., fields, feedlots,silage, storage, etc. (CSAV, 1983)]. Agriculturalrunoff from overuse of fertilizershas caused high levels of nitrates in surface water and groundwater. Nitrate concentrationsin drinking water as high as 1,200 mg/L have been reported. These values are 24 times greater than the standard for adults and 80 times greater than the standard for babies (SKVTRI, 1990). It is estimatedthat 40 percent of the pesticides applied to the soil end up in groundwaterand surfacewater.
Runoff from feedlotshave contaminatedsurface water and groundwater with pathogenicmicroorganisms and high levels of pesticidesfrom soils. Special problems exist from raw waste collectionareas and silo wastes called "silo juices," which are more concentratedthan sewage wastes. In many cases, the holding facilitiesare undersizedto contain the volume of these wastes. As a result, these wastes are dischargedinto surface water systems. The dam/reservoirat Zelinka has concentrationsof greater than 20 mg/L of nitrates because of past agriculturalactivities in the forested watershed (HydrometeorologicalInstitute, 1990, personal communication). This is above the drinking water standard for small children. Petroleumwaste from farm equipment is also a problem.
Contaminationhas already made somewaters entirely unusable. For example, the NovomlynskeReservoirs in Moravia, which were constructedfor irrigationand recreationpurposes, ar* no longer fit for irrigationor direct utilizationin animal production. Waterfowlbreading has been affected in other areas. The waterquality is reported to be so poor that certain industrialbranches (e.g., electronicsand film producing enterprises)are limited in productionbecause of the lack of clean water (CSAV, 1983).
Air emissionare contributlngto the acidificat:l of streams and soils (see Section 6.2), leachingof elements,and increasingrunoff and - 50 -
erosion. The mountainousareas in the Czech Republicare the most affected, includingthe non-industrialregions of the Czech Republic(e.g., the Sumava Mountains)(CSAV, 1983). 5.1.2 Accidentsand Spillsto SurfaceWater and Groundwater Accidentalspills into surfacewaters and groundwatersincreased more than 240 percentfrom 142 incidentsper year in 1971 to an averageof 344 per year duringthe period1980 to 1981. In 1986, therewere 225 reportedoil spillsin Czechoslovakia.The followingare some esxamplesof the spills referredto in the literature. a. Airplanefuel at the RuzyneAirport seeped into the drinkingwater of nearbycommunities from 1966 to 1974; b. Heatingoil spilledinto Oder River near Ostravaand caused downstreamwater qualityproblems in Poland(Poland was not notified); c. Specialproblems are associatedwith the sugar industry,including a leak from the accumulationtank in the sugar refineryin Mnichovo Hradistein the JizeraRiver in 1982 (Jirat,1987); d. Acids from a copperplating bath at a car factoryin Mlada Boleslav leakedinto the JizeraRiver (Jirat,1987); and e. The pollutionof the Lipno Dam reservoirwas causedby lightheating fuel from the enterpriseLIRA in Horni Plana (Jirat,1987). No informationwas presentedon cleanupand prevention.
5.1.3 Water AvailabilityProblems
Surfacewater and groundwaterare used for drinking,industrial purposes,and irrigation.Water sourcesare unequallydistributed in CSFR (Figure5-1). In the Czech Republic,the largestwater sourceareas are the mountainousareas, which are surfacewater accumulationregions. A numberof areas,especially in the SlovakRepublic, are experiencing shortagesof drinkingwater. The totalannual amountof water withdrawnin the Czech Republicvaries around 3.5 x 10 ma (2.7 x 10'e' of surfacewater and 0.8 x 101 m3 of undergroundwater). Publicwater works use 36 percent;agriculture, 4 percent;and industry,together with others, use 60 percent. The principal sourcesof water for Pragueinclude groundwater and surfacewater (including the VltavaRiver). The major reservoirsin SCFR include: a. LiptovskaMara and KralovaReservoirs on the Vah River;
b. The barrageon the Orava River (OravokaPriehrada);
c. NechraniceReservoir on the Ohre River;
d. NovomlynokeNadrae Roervoir on the Dyje River;and e. ZemplinekaSirava Reservoir the LaborecRiver. - 51 -
In 1983, the Academy indicated that there was debate about the seriousnessof water availabilityin the Czech Republic. Some scientist felt the problem was already "very tense" while others felt the water could become limited by the year 2000. The water requirementsof industry and agriculture are being met at present. However, new developmentsin certain regions will require new water sources, e.g., cooling water will have be supplied in some regions for proposed nuclear plants (e.g., northern Moravia) from newly built dams. The further expansion of crop irrigation in the region of the upper and middle Labe River and along the Moravo River can happen only if water conservationoccurs to provide necessary water quality and quantfty (Ministry of Environmentof the Czech Republic, 1990).
Certain parts of Czechoslovakiaare known to have water shortage problems, including the Ostrava area and central and north Bohemia, including the towns of Brno, Prerov, Breclav, Hodonin, Zlin, Hradec Kralove, and Pardubice and also in smaller areas of towns of Pribram, Tabor, Strakonice, Pisek, Havlickuv Brod, Kolin, Jihlava and Sumperk. These areas have turned into water deficit areas because of a population growth and a limited availabilityof water sources. Moreover, the local quality of both underground and surface water sources has been contaminatedto such an extent that they cannot be used for the production of drinking water.
Continued contaminationof importantwater sources (e.g., aquifers) and/or long-lastingdroughts could cause a sudden crises. For example, widespread water rationing occurred in many regions of the republic during 1982 as a result of a drought (CSAV, 1983). Because of constructionof centralized group water systems, deep water zones have been depleted. The use of deep water zones has declined 43 percent (CSAV, 1989).
As mentioned previously, some regions in CSFR have naturally limited water supplies both in terms of water quantity and water quality. For example, the Slany region is the driest region in northern Bohemia. Without significant surface water sources, the region is dependent on groundwater,but this water is poor quality because it is associatedwith coal deposits.
In spite of these conditions and predictions,water consumption is increasing. Water consumption increased47 percent from 1960 to 1985 (SKVTRI, 1990). Drinking water consumption in the Czech Republic is 1.5 times more than neighboring Bavaria. Prague uses 2 times more water than Munich or Vienna. The European standard is 300 liters per day (Lpd) per capita. For Prague, drinking water consumptionper capita increased from 230 Lpd in 1960 to 533 Lpd in 1985. In the Czech Republic, the average per capita consumption of drinking water in 1985 was 387 Lpd (SKVTRI, 1990). Bratislava and Kosice consume 600 Lpd per capita (CSAV, 1989), In the Slovak Republic, drinking water consumption increased from 579 Lpd per capita in 1960 to 810 Lpd per capita in 1980, compared to Belgium and Norway in 1979, where the consumption was 204 and 276 Lpd per capita (Zvoscc, 1984). - 52
4f~MofUyuideomw
@ FagIwwit Ohosh g. of drho w&tor
CO ProtectedWa cawhnient
Flpre 5.1. Water ResourcesIn Czechoslovakia
(Souro: Ad" Ofth CSSR,vol 2. Geogaphicl ldtute, CoehoalovakAcademy of Scencea,1987.) - 53 -
Also contributingto this problem is the inefficiencyin water distributionin Czechoslovakia. Fifty percent of communities (representing2 million people) have no water supply systems (Wilczynski,1990). High water losses have been reported. Losses of drinking water are estimated to be 70 percent higher than normal (value not provided). Prague is reported to have 3 times the normal losses. This is attributed to the fact that only 50 percent of repairs or maintenance is performed (CSAV, 1989). In 1982, 23.1 percent of the water mains in the Czech Republic leaked and wasted water (Zvosec, 1984). It is estimated that there is a 30 to 40 percent loss of drinking water in households.
Another factor affecting water availabilityis that for the next 20 to 30 years (Academy estimates), the forestry regions especially in the Czech Republic will be continuallyaffected by air pollution. If present trends continue, the Academy predicts that 1 million ha of forest will be damaged, and the watershed functionswill be damaged or lost. Sixty percent of the springs and other water sources and a great proportion of the reservoirs are located in these affected areas (CSAV, 1983). The Academy predicts the following changes will occur to the natural hydrology of these polluted regions:
a. Discharge from mourLtainstreams will increase several percent to several dozen percent;
b. Peak through-flowwill rise especially in spring, and flood conditionswill increase by tens or hundreds of percent;
c. "Crash" erosion will increase significantly,especially furrow-type erosion by hundreds of percent depending upon the land type; and
d. Siltation of reservoirswill continue, e.g., at the Jirovska Reservoir in Krusne Mountains, an area of naturally relatively low susceptibilityto erosion, and also at risk are flysch area, e.g., the Bezkydy Mountains.
These changes will reduce surface water availabilityand recharge in the aquifers in the aquifers in the Czech Republic.
5.2 EFFECTS
Surface water and groundwater contaminationhas lead to both human and ecological health problems. Epidemics of dysentery,jaundice, and virus- based hepatitis have been caused by water pollution in Usti nad Labem, Jablonec, Kysucke, Novo Mosto, and other localities. Children in certain regions of Czechoslovakiaare given bottled water because of the contaminated drinking water to avoid methemoglobinemLa(see Section 10.0). Fishery resources of rivers have been depleted. Most amphibian populations are endangered. Water supply functions have been lost in mountain forests, resulting in ecological damage and economic losses (see Section 11.0).
5.3 MONITORTINPIgORAMS
Studieson hydrological effectsof deforestationon smallstreams and rivers have not been conducted (CSAV, 1983). - 54 -
Water quality sampling is conducted by the River Basin Authorities of the two republics. The water quality data collectedby the River Basin Authorities are provided to the HydrometeorologicalInstitutes for summary. Water analyses include the standard parameters,such as:
a. BOD;
b. TDS;
c. Total suspended solids (TSS); and
d. Special analyses based on specific toxic conditions or accidents (e.g., oil spills).
The ability to monitor metals and organics is limited. Measurements are made daily, weekly, and monthly, depending on the pollution source. In the Slovak RepuDlic, the Institutemonitors both surface water and groundwater. It has 240 river stations that are monitored monthly, with 13 main stations that are monitored three times a week. The primary rivers that are monitored include the Vah, Hron, and Dunaj. Since the early 1980s, the Institute has monitored groundwater in more than 200 localitiesnear rivers. Twice a year, 250 wells are monitored. On the Zitny Ostrov aquifer, there are more frequent observations. In the Czech Republic, groundwatermonitoring is not as extensive. The pui:estgroundwater is found in deep zones, at depths greater than 80 m.
The Slovak Republic HydrometeorologicalInstitute (as well as its Czech counterpart)is limited in its water quality monitoring capabilities. The Institute cannot measure specific types of hydrocarbons, it only performs gross organic analysis. Probes are needed for specific organic analyses. No flow discharges are measured from sampling stations. Continuousmonitoring is uncommon or does not exist. Polluters are required to monitor wells, but this is not always done. The Slovak HydrometeorologicalInstitute has developed groundwatermodels (type unknown) for underground dispersion of contaminants from the Dunaj River. These models can predict the extent and directions of contamination.
5.4 CONTROLSAND EXISTING MEASURESTO CORRECTPROBLEMS
5.4.1 Legislative Controls
The Water Act of 1977 revisedthe Water ConservationLaw of 1955, which was passed to handle the increasingwater pollution from industry and agriculture in northern Bohemia. Its basis is formed by laws No. 138/1973 for water and No. 130/1974 for the state administrationin water economy. It was designed to protect both surfacewater and groundwater. Undergroundwater sources were given special protection in 1981 by decrees, e.g., No. 85/1981 for the Czech Republic,
Federal regional water inspectorateswere responsible for implementationof regulations. Water regulationsare limited to basic characteristicslike chemical oxygendemand (COD), BOD, dissolved solids, pH, etc. There is a fee and penalty seruoturefor polluters; however, like air quality regulations,this is not stringentenough to deter the polluters, who prefer to pay the panaltiesrather than reducethe pollution. It also does 1 4 r,r nrnv4A .r eil e.- Y '- Ras to r tre consnrvation. The act is considered 55
a good system of regulations that have not been enforced (Ministryof Environmentof the Czech Republic, 1990).
Water quality standards are set by law. Standard drinking water limits for nitrates in water are:
a. 15 mg/L for small children; and
b. 50 mg/L for adults.
Water bodies, including rivers and streams, also are classified based on the degree of pollution (see Section 5.1.1). The Water Act provided for exemptions from compliance, fees for polluting, and fines for violators. Similar to air pollution fees, water pollution fees were established that allowed for discharge of wastewater (i.e., BOD, TDS, TSS, and oils) into surface water. Water permits are required and set forth the content and waste load discharged. If the permit limit is exceeded, an additional fee is paid that increases depending upon the level of pollution. The fees for polluting (total amount) have fluctuated from year to year, with an overall increase in Czechoslovakiafrom 1985 to 1988 (see Table 5-4). This increase is due to the increase of fees from Czech Republic in 1988. Fees in the Slovak Republic have fluctuated and are less than in the Czech Republic. Informatienon the number of enterprises paying the fees, the changes in amounts of fees, and differencesbetween republics was not available.
Table 5-5 summarizes the reported number and amount of penalties or fines for water pollution during the period from 1985 to 1988. The number of fines rose 136 percent, with a 141 percent increase in the Czech Republic and 125 percent increase in the Slovak Republic. The average fine in the Czech Republic ranged from 23,000 to 34,000 Kcs, or approximately$1,500 to $2,000, at the official exchange rate of 15 KCS/$US in 1990. The average fine was less in the Slovak Republic than in the Czech Republic. Differenceswere not explained.
Approximately 2,300 exemptions were granted between 1957 and 1970 to permit enterprises to release untreated wastes. According to Czech officials, exemptions are not unusual but a prslude to adherence to standards and make it possible for an enterprise to adjust to new regulationswithout undue harm to the production processes. However, these exemptions were renewed indefinitely and were used to avoid necessary investmentsin pollution control (Albrecht, 1987).
5.4.2 Watmant P Projects, nd Investments
In the Czech Republic, the Ministry of Agriculture and Food is the founding institution for the public water and sowage enterprises. This ministry is responsible for designing a new system of user charges for 56 -
Table 5-4. Summary of Wat-erManagement Fund Fees (in million Kcs) for 1985 to 1988
Reimbursement for Fund Application Year Total W&ter Pollution Total'
Czechoslovakia
1985 1,104 1,022 1,049
1986 1,069 1,042 1,026
1987 1,129 999 1,131
1988 1,168 976 1,206
Czech Republic
1985 692 636 668
1986 670 666 645
1987 637 628 701
1988 772 613 779
Slovak ReRublic
1985 412 386 381
1986 399 376 381
1987 492 371 430
1988 396 363 427
aFurther explanationneeded.
Source: Adaptedfrom SelectedIndicators (Table 14), 1990. - 57 -
Table 5-5. Summary of Fines for Water Management Violations for the Period 1985 to 1988
Total Average Penalty Year Number (1,000 of Kcs) Amount (Kcs)
Czechoslovakia
1985 1,521 35,281 23,196
1986 1,737 50,590 29,125
1987 2,104 74,401 35,362
1988 2,065 70,058 33,926
Czech Republic
1985 1,045 25,674 24,568
196o 1,073 32,734 30,507
1987 1,513 55,070 36,398
1988 1,469 54,112 36,836
Slovak ReRublic
1985 476 9,607 20,183
1986 664 17.856 26,892
1987 591 19,331 32,709
1988 596 15,946 26,755
Source: Adaptedfrom SelectedIndicators (Table 15), 1990. - 58 -
drinking water and sewage and preparing a new structural system for those companies. It is also responsiblefor designing a privatizationprogram for that part of the public sector (Wilczynski,1990).
Water treatmentplans, projects, and investmentshave been made by the previous government. Jirat (1987) described the water pollution protection measures implementedunder the seventh 5-year plan. He concedes that no real improvementin water quality in the seventh 5-year plan was achieved. He attributes this to a restriction in constructionwork, shortages of materials such as organic flocculantsand spare parts, continued use of obsolete plants (e.g., Plzen, Ceske Budejovice,Olomouc), and the admission that "organizationsand enterprisescontinue to underestimatethe importance of protectingwater purity, and continue to breach regulationsand norms." The 1983 Academy report states that the constructionof communal water filteringplants in the Czech Republic dropped during this period. Table 5-6 presents more recent water quality investment informationindicative of continued "support" for water protection.
The most importantwastewater treatment plants started include:
a. National Committee Projects
i. Prague-HorniPocernice; ii. Tabor-SezimovoUsti (south Bohemia); iii. Klatovy (west Bohemia); iv. Louny (northwestBohemia); v. Chrudim (east Bohemia); vi. Pec pod Snezkou (northeastBohemia) and vii. SpindleruvMlyrn (northeast Bohemia).
b. Ministry of Forestry and Water Economy
i. Cesky Krumlov (south Bohemia); ii. Havlickuv Brod (east Bohemia); and iii. Hulin (south Bohemia).
c. Ministry of Health
i. Olomouc in the Farmakon enterprise (north Morovia).
d. Ministry of Agriculture and Food
i. Brezhad at a meat industry complex; and ii. Opocno at dairy plant (southeastBohemia).
e. Ministry of Industry
An undergroundprotection project in Koramo Kolin (central Bohemia); and i. A waste water treatmentplant in Jablonec and Nisou at Bizuteria enterprise (north Bohemia).
f. Federal Ministry of Fuels and Energy, with three unidentified projects; - 59 -
g. Federal Ministry of Electrical Engineering Industry; and
i. Mohelnice at a MEZ enterprise (central Morovia).
In the 5-year plan period 1981-1985, 159 water purity project were completed, alc.tgwith 200 small water treatment projects mostly under the "Z" (community improvement)programs. A new washing line was completed in South Bohemian Paper Enterprise in Vetrni, and pulp plants were closed at Vratimov (north Morovia) and Hostinne (north-centralBohemia).
According to Jirat (1987), these actions accounted for reducing BOD by 17 percent compared to 1981 values, and undissolved solid pollution (1987) was reduced by 17 percent in the Czech Republic. [These reported reductions are based on estimates, not measured amounts. Table 5-2 does show a reduction (approximately11 percent) during this period].
Water treatment is not effective at most industrial facilities. For example, at Ziar nad Hronom, there are severe problems of waste dispGsal and leakage of wastes into undergroundwater. Ziar nad Hronom does have a water treatment system, i.e., neutralizer for wastewater and a (primary or secondary) treatment for sanitary wastes. Some wastewater separation is conducted. The plant does not separate or treat stormwater runoff from the plant site; therefore, oils and grease go directly into sanitary system and are directly discharge into Hron River. Oil and grease are not measured at outfall. At Slovnaft oil refinery, extensive measures to control water pollution have been implemented,but the plant is located in sensitive location (i.e., over the Zitny Ostrov aquifer) and groundwaterprotection is difficult (Ruchova, 1990, personal communications).
The 1983 and 1989 Academy reports state that, in spite of all fees, fines, and investments in water treatmentprojects, water pollution control has not been successful.
5.4.3 SRill Prevention and CleanuR Programs
Although accidents and spills are frequent occurrences in Czechoslovakia,it is unknown if formal spill prevention and cleanup programs exist at federal, republic, or local levels. 60
Table 5-6. EnvironmentalInvestments (in million Kcs)
Water Waste National "Z" Programs Protection Disposal and Targeted (Community Year Action Treatment Action Program Improvement)
Czechoslovakia
1986 1,606 590 463 93
1987 1,830 735 389 174
1988 2,206 787 548 296
CZecAh ReRublja
1986 1,013 401 233 82
1987 1,145 485 120 134
1988 1,432 495 316 210
Slovak Reoublic
1986 593 189 230 11
1987 685 250 269 40
1988 774 292 232 86
Source: Adapted from Selected Indicators (Table 13), 1990. - 61
5.5 TRENDS Even with the fees, fines, and investmentprograms, water quality continues to deteriorate in Czechoslovakia. Unless there are significant changes in the enforcementof existing laws and improvementsin the efficiency of existing treatment facilities,as well as a significant expansion of treatment at industries and municipalitiesalong with closure of major polluters unable to meet water quality standards,no change in this trend is expected. Human and ecological health effects will continue. Excessive water consumptionand contaminationof surface water and groundwater systems, if continued,will result in increasingwater shortages in CSFR. - 62 -
6.0 SOIL POLLUTION/DEGRADATION
6.1 TYPES. AMOUNTS. AND SOURCES
Soils in CSFR have been degraded because of overuse and misuse by agriculturaland forestry activities and contaminationby wastes, pesticides, and air emissions. Almost 50 percent of the arable land is situated on slopes steeper than 3 degrees, 13 percent is on slopes greater than 7 degrees, and approximately2 percent is on inclines greater than 12 degrees (Cerovsky, 1989). As a consequence,soils in CSFR are susceptible to erosian. Soils are devastatedby wind and water erosion and pollution.
Water and wind erosion has accounted for loss of 300,000 ha of land (CSAV, 1989). Approximately54 percent of the total agriculturalland resources on CSFR are affected by erosion--42percent by water erosion (with 17 percent considered medium to strong erosion conditions) and 12 percent by wind erosion (SKVTRI, 1990).
Industry is a contributor to soil pollution in a number of areas of CSFR. For example, soils around the smelter at Pribram are contaminatedwith lead, cadmium, and mercury. Lead levels greater than 5,000 ppm have been measured. These levels are considered an underestimate (Hertzman, 1990). Soils in the vicinity of the former PCB production plant in Michalovce are contaminae:edwith PCBs.
Examinationof potential hazardous waste sites (Ellis, 1990) has revealed extensive soil contamination.
6.2 EFFECTS
Overuse and misuse of soils for agriculturalproduction has decreased humus content, which has led to increase runoff (Albrecht, 1987). A 30 to 40 percent annual decrease in organic matter is reported (SKVTRI, 1990). The soil structure and nutrient absorption capacity in many areas has been diminished. Heavy mechanizationhas resulted in soil compaction to as much as 50 to 70 percent in some agriculturalareas. This has led to reduced infiltrationof water, reduced moisture for plants, and increase surface runoff and furrow erosion. Waterloggingis occurring (CSAV, 1983).
Much of the farmland in hilly areas is eroded due to past improper agriculturepractices. Since the mid-19th century, regional erosion has risen more than 50 percent in some areas. Erosion is an irreplaceableloss of arable land because it takes 80 to 100 years to replace 1 centimeter (cm) of soils (CSAV, 1983).
Forestry practices such as clearcutting,use of heavy machinery, and transportvehicles have caused similar problems. For example, timber harvesting practices in the Jizerske Mountains have caused erosion furrows 100 m long (CSAV, 1983).
The observed effects of air emissions on soils vary depending upon the natural fertilities of soils. North of Mila, 10 km from Most, the effects of air pollution on soils and production is not as great because of the naturally higher fertility of soils. Lower productivity is observed in other areas with the same amount of air pollution. - 63 -
Acidification of soils has occurred in northern Bohemia. Soil pH of 2.2 has been recorded in the Krusne Hory and Orlicke Mountains. This is well below the value (pH 4.2) minimally necessary for regeneration (SKVTRI, 1990). Soils in the Usti nad Labem district area range from pH 3 to 4. Acid deposition has lead to leaching of nutrient such as calcium, magnesium, potassium, and phosphorus. Liming at the rate of 5 to 20 tons per hectare (ton/ha) is needed in some areas. In the Czech Republic, 30 percent of the forest areas require liming (CSAV, 1983). Land managers are concerned about leaching of aluminum into surface water and groundwater. Some scientists say this has already happened, causing poisoning of the groundwater and killing tree and plant roots (Simons, 1990). In addition, current practices of broadcast liming may not be effective in combating acidification.
6.3 MONITORING PROGRAMS
The Ministries of Forestry and Agriculture are responsible for the monitoring of soil conditions in CSFR.
6.4 CONTROLS AND EXISTING MEASURES TO CORRECT PROBLEMS
Soil protection is directed in the Agriculture Land Protection Act of 1976 and other associated regulations (see Section 3.1). This legislationdoes not deal with soil quality. Its emphasis is on increasing the agricultural land and the arable soil. The law provides for a compensatory land reclamation in case land is no longer used for agriculture. This request is specified in Decree No. 292/1981 that states for each hectare of agriculturalsoil used for other purposes, at least the same area of nonagriculturalsoil has to be ameliorated. This has resulted in dubious projects of land reclamation under inappropriateconditions, where the outcome has been only erosion and other negative effects. The quality of agriculturalsoil is partly dealt with in the law No. 20/1966 on people's health. In the new Law No. 36/1987, soil quality is addressed. However, the emphasis is still on agricultural production, in spite of specifying a number of regulations intended to protect the soil from erosion, excessive use of fertilizers,pesticides, etc. A soil fertilizationfund exists for fees for conservationof agriculturalsoils. Table 6-1 presents a summary of fees collected from the period 1985 to 1988. There has been little fluctuation in these fees. The use of these fees for soil restoration is not known.
Soil conservationefforts were the responsibilityof the Ministry of Agriculture and Nutrition and Ministry of Forest and Water Management. - 64 -
Table 6-1. Summary of Soil FertilizationFund (in million Kcs) for the Period 1985 to 1988
Fees for Depriving Fund Application Year Total Land to Agriculture Totala
Czechoslovakia
1985 3,154 2,164 3,124
1986 3,373 1,644 3,544
1987 3,253 1,717 3,455
1988 3,043 1,597 3,092
Czech Re2ublic
1985 1,631 1,600 1,707
1986 1,875 1,214 1,985
1987 1,816 1,288 1,987
1988 1,723 1,195 1,743
Slovak Republic
1985 1,523 564 1,417
1986 1,498 430 1,559
1987 1,437 429 1,468
1988 1,320 402 1,349
*Furtherexplanation needed.
Source: Adaptedfrom SelectedIndicators (Table 14), 1990. 65
Extensive soil restorationprograms (e.g., liming) are conducted -a northern Bohemia. Soil liming is reported to cost 3,000 Kcs/ha on 10,000 ha (Simanek, 1990, personal communication).
6.5 TREN
Unless there is significantchange in agricultural (e.g., smaller fields, buffers) and forestry practices (e.g., use of lighter vehicles, use of lines or cableways on slopes and selective cutting) and a reduction in air and water pollution, soil degradationand pollution will continue. . 66
7.0 HAZARDOUS AND TOXIC WASTE PROBLEMS
7.1 TYPES. AMOUNTS AND SOURCES
As recently as 3 years ago, hazardous and toxic wastes were not officially recognized as environmentalissues. Jirat (1987), in his analysis of environmentalprotection in CSFR, discusses "utilizationand disposal of wastes," but confines his discussion to solid and municipal wastes. He makes no mention of hazardous and toxic wastes. The emphasis of his analysis is on governmentalprograms for reducing the volume of solid waste by tecycling (which the author concedes is itself not fully realized).
Recent discussionswith environmentalofficials at the federal and republic level indicated a great concern for the seriousness of the problem. They conceded,however, that little informationexists on the extent and degree of the problem. According to Ellis, more than 170 Soviet military installationsexist in the Czech Republic. These installationsrange in size from 500-km2 (193 mi2) training sites to small radar or rocket sites. Surface water and groundwatercontamination has been observed at these type of sites. For example, at a So-iet command base and airfield (BOZI Dar) at Milovice 50 km (31 miles) northeast of Prague, leaking underground storage tanks have resulted in 4-m-thick (13-ft-thick)plumes of fuel moving toward the wellfield supplying drinking water to Prague. PCB and metal contaminationis likely. At Sliac, a large Soviet airbase is located near the banks of Hron River and upgradient to groundwatersupplying the nearby spa. Five locations of serious groundwatercontamination have been recorded. Free hydrocarbons also 4 m (13 ft) thick exist in the groundwaters.
One of the most serious hazardous waste sites is located near Usti nad Laben at Chabarovice,an old chemical plant site, Spolchemie Chemical Works, built in 1908. A mountain 30 m (98 ft) high containing 2.5 million cubic meters of waste reflects 80 years of uncontrolleddumping. The site contains various organic chemicals, includinghexochlorobenzene and metals as well as cylinders containing unknown chemicals dumped by retreating German armies at the end of World War II. Leaching and exothermic reactions have been observed. A human health risk also exists to the local population from release of toxic gases from the site. The Spolana Chemical Plant at Neratovice has produced a wide range of organic chemicals from pesticides to polymers. Buildings are contaminatedwith TCDD-dioxin and mercury. A hazardous waste lagoon and landfill is situated in a bend at Labe River (Ellis, 1990). Wastes from the plant have been dumped into a former coal mine Hajek, which has resulted in polluting a small lake situated near the recreationalarea of the Velky Rybnik Pond at Ostrov nad Ohri. The seepage represents an acute danger to the whole surroundingsand the Ohre River (Ministryof Environment of the Czech Republic, 1990).
Detailed and comprehensive informationis not available on the types, amounts, and sources of hazardous and toxics wastes in CSFR. However, recent preliminary studies (Ellis, 1990), along with the experience in western countries, the degree of industrialization,and the lack of environment protection, indicate that hazardous and toxic waste problems are likely to be extreme in CSFR. Sources of hazardous and toxic wastes include all segments of the economy,especially the military sector,
A total of 844 dumpscovering 5,883 ha exist in the Czech Republic. In 1987, thesedumps wereat 69 percentcapacity, More than two-thirdsare - 67 -
located in northern Bohemia, eastern Bohemia, and northern Morovia (Ministry of Environment of the Czech Republic, 1990). The contents of these dumps is unknown. Approximately 1,400 unauthorizeddumping sites have been located in the Czech Republic (EnvironmentalInformation Center, 1990, personal communication). In the Slovak Republic, waste dumps are not controlled and their contents are unknown. A study was conducted by Hydroconsultwhich 'inventoried'wastes based on the industrial products produced (Ruzicka, 1990, personal communication)(results were not available for review).
Waste management problems also exist with ash disposal associated the thermal power plants. The siting of these ash disposal areas has been questioned by national committees and public initiative. The life expectancy of many of the existing ash dumps is limited. The following are the planned years of closing for these waste storage areas at several of the major power plants in the Czech Republic:
a. Prunerov II--1992;
b. Prunerov I--1994;
c. Tusimice I and II--1993;
d. Chvaletice--1993;
e. Melnik I, II, and III--1995; and
f. Opatovice--1997.
Also of prime concern is the disposal of nuclear wastes associated with the six existing and planned nuclear power plants. In the past, wastes were shipped to the Soviet Union.
7.2 EFFECTS
Although further informationis needed to fully understand the total environmentaleffects of hazardous wastes, Ellis (1990) reports that several hazardous waste sites show not only existing significantair and water quality problems but also a significant risk to human health. Recent reports (Green, 1990) cite similar problems (e.g., soil, surface water, and groundwater contamination)with abandoned waste dumps at military sites at Frenstat pod Radhostem in Moravia and Vysoke Myto in Bohemia.
7.3 MONITORING PROGRAMS
No formal or comprehensivemonitoring programs exist. Stavebni Geologie, technical consultants to the Czech Ministry of the Environment,have been conducting monitoring at several locations (Ellis, 1990). Recently, the Czech Republic entered into a contract with a United States firm to use remote sensing to evaluate potential hazardous waste sites associated with abandoned Soviet military bases and has solicited feasibilitystudies on several sites.
7.4 CONTROLSAND EXISTING MEASURES TO CORRECT PROBLEMS
No laws or specific ministries are currently responsible for hazardous and toxic waste control and management. Municipal wastes are dealt with bY municipalities. Several solid waste incineratorsare being built. v 68 -
However,there is concernthat incineratortemperatures are not high enough for completecombustion of wastes. There is concernabout PCB emissionsfrom combustion.(Ruchova, 1990 personalcommunication).
7.5 REENDS Althoughthe total extcntof hazardousand toxicwastes in CSFR is unknown,this issue is considereda seriousproblem which will have long-term effectson the ecologicaland human healthof CSFR. More informationis criticallyneeded. - 69 -
8.0 RADIATION PROBLEMS
8.1 TYPES. AMOUNTS. AND SOURCES
The primary sources of radiationproblems in CSFR are associated with radiation from nuclear power plants and radon gas from uranium, iron, and shale clay mines. There are six nuclear power stations in operation or planned for CSFR (Table 8-1). The first nuclear power plant was put in operation around 1964 at Jaslovske Bohunice in the Slovak Republic. It is a Soviet-designed,heavy-water reactor cooled by CO2. Additional nruclearpower plants have been completed at Dukovany in the Czech Republic and are under constructionat Mochovce in southern Slovak Republic and at Temelin in southern Bohemia (Havel, 1987). A fifth nuclear power station is planned for Melnik, north of Prague. The present facilitiesproduce 20 percent of Czechoslovakia'selectricity (Albrecht,1987). Exposure can also come from radioactivebuilding materials. For example, radioactive ash from the former power plants at Rynholec and Trutnov-Poricihas been used for making concrete building blocks (Ministryof Ernvironmentof the Czech Republic, 1990). 8.2 E£FECIS
Information on radiation effects is very limited. Officially stated, there have been no situations that have caused the escape of radioactivityor endangeredpower plant personnel or the environment (Havel, 1987). However, scattered reports exist that show accidents have occurred causing environmental contamination. The contaminationof surface waters by radionuclideswas identified in the 1983 Academy report. No data are presented,but the report states that radionuclideshave been monitored near sites of radioactive raw material extraction (Turnov and Pribram regions) and in the operation of nuclear power plants as well in electric power plant burning of brown coal. The Academy report predicted that contaminationof the Vltava River is likely to occur downstreamof the Temelin nuclear power plant, limiting the use and threateningthe water supply of Prague (CSAV, 1983). Radon problems have been reported in the region of the town of Jindrichuv Hradec (SKVTRI, 1990). Two accidentswere reported at Jaslovske Bohunice, one in 1976 and one in 1978. Two deaths occurred (Albrecht,1987). The 1978 accident caused the closing of one of the units at the site. Austria has accused the previous Czech governmentof covering up constructionproblems at two sites along the Austrian border. No details were presented.
In 1977, there was a major accident in the aluminum plant in eastern Slovak Republic. Large quantitiesof radionuclideswere dumped into the Dudvah River. In November and December of 1989, contaminationof groundwater was still being detected. In two monitoringwells, the activities of tritium were 24,000 and 4,000 Beq per liter. The average activity of Cs"' in soil was found to be 7 Beq per liter. In August 1990, soil contaminationalong the banks of the Dudvah River was found near Bucany. Cs' 3 ' activities reached 16,000 Beq per kilogram of soil. At the same time, several wells near the village were found to be contaminatedwith tritium. No radioactive nuclides have been found in crops in the area. However, Ag"' has recently been found itl cows' milk (Hertzman,1990). - 70 -
Table 8-1. Major Nuclear Power Stations in CSFR
Capacity Start-up Station (MW) Year
Jaulovsky-Bohunice V-1 2 x 440 1979 Jaslovsky-BohuniceV-2 2 x 440 1985 Dukovany 4 x 440 1986 Mochovce 4 x 440 1992 (est.) Temelin 4 x 1,000 1996 (est.) Kecerovce 2 x 1,000 2000 (est.)
Source: adapted from Ellis (1990). - 71 -
Epidemiologicalstudif' have been conducted on the exposure of miners to radon gas. According to Heitzman (1990),miners are a high-risk group to develop cancer from radon expostre.
The lack of informationdissemination is reflected in the fact that the public was not told officially about the Chernobyl accident until summer 1989. According to official reports, the design of the facilities at Jaslovske Bohunice and Dukovany are sufficientlydifferent (pressurizedwater reactors) than the Chernobyl plant that "...an accident similar to that in Chernobyl is technicallyimpossible" (Havel, 1987).
8.3 MONITORING PROGRAMS
No detailed informationon environmentalmonitoring was obtained. Nuclear safety is the responsibilityof the CzechoslovakianCommission for Atomic Energy. The role of the Commission and Nuclear Power Institute in monitoring is undetermined. The Nuclear Power Institute has a meteorological station at the existing facility at Jaslovske Bohunice. They have radiation monitors including high-volume samplers and a thermal dosimeter.
8.4 CONTROLSAND EXISTING MEASURESTO CORRECTPROBLEMS
Nuclear safety criteria are specified in State Control of Nuclear Equipment Safety Act No. 28/1984 Code and associated regulations (See Table 8-2).
P.5 TRENDS
Although insufficientinformation is available to draw any strong conclusions, the number of reported incidents indicates that accidents have happened and environmentalcontamination has occurred and still exists. The extent and risks to the human food chain have not been reported. - 72 -
Table 8-2. Other Associated Nuclear Safety Regulations
CzechoslovakComission for Nuclear Energy (CSCNE) Order No 28/1977 Code for "Filling and Control Nuclear Materials"
CSCNE Order No 67/1987 Code for "Ensuranceof Nuclear Safety during the Work with the Nuclear Waste"
CSCNE Order No 100/1989 Code for "Safe Protection of Nuclear Equipment"
CSCNE Regulation No 2/1978 for "Ensurance of Nuclear Safety during Proposing, Permitting and ConstructingBuildings with Nuclear Energy Equipment" (registeredin the Code of law No 28/1978 Code)
CSCNE Regulation No 4/1979 for "Genetal Standards for Locating Buildings with Nuclear Energy Equipment" (registeredin the Code of law No 9/1979 Code)
CSCNE Regulation for "Quality Ensurance of Chosen Equipment in Nuclear Energy" (registeredin the Code of law No 29/1979 Code)
CSCNE Regulation No 6/1980 for "Safety Ensurance During Starting and Operating Nuclear Energy Equipment" (registeredin the Code of law 13/1980 Code)
CSCNE Regulation No 9/1985 for "Ensurance of Nuclear Equipment for Research Safety" (registeredin the Code of law No 11/1985 Code) - 73 -
9.0 AGROCREMICALPROBLEMS
9.1 MYPES.AMOUNTS. AND SOURCES
Although a significantproportion of land in CSFR is devoted to agriculture (approximately53 percent), agricultureplays a small role to the domestic economy, contributingabout 10 percent of the country's nationt. income and utilizing 10 percent of ccuntry investment resources (Schweitzer and Phillips, 1988). However, this sector of the economy appears to be a primary contributor to the surface water and groundwaterpollutioh. Two agrochemicalproblems have been identified: the overuse and misuse of fertilizers and pesticides and the use of contaminatedfertilizers.
9.1.1 Overuse of Fertilizersand Pesticides
CSFR's agriculturalproduction is heavily dependent on the use of industrial fertilizers. In 1982, Czechoslovakiaranked second to East Germany in total fertilizer use (see Table 9-1). Total artificial fertilizer consumption (kg/ha)has increased 373 percent from 1960-1961 to 1987-1988 (see Teble 9-2). CSFR rar.kssixth in Europe in fertilizer application. The Netherlands has the greatest application rate, 346 kg/ha (Mlnistry of Environment of the Czech Republic, 1990). In 1989, CzechosLovakiaused approximately255 kg/ha of fertilizers [nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P2O), and potassium (K20)]. Rates as high as 600 kg/ha have been rer.orted.(CSAV, 1983).
Nitrogen fertilizer usage has shown a slight decLine (approximately4 percent) from 1985 to 1988. Average annual applicationhas been 95 kg/ha. Calcium fertilizer consumptionhas shown a overall slight increase from 515.3 kg/ha to 572 kg/ha. However, this increase has been due to an increase usage in the Czech Republic (560.5 to 653.3 kg/ha). The Czech Republic uses 1.5 times more calcium fertilizersthan the Slovak Republic, wt4ere the use of calcium fertilizershas remained relatively constant at 431 kilograms per hectare per year (kg/ha/yr) (SelectedIndicators, 1990). This increase' use in calcium fertilizersmay be related to the requirement for liming in regions with heavy acid depositions,e.g., the northern Bohemian region.
Besides the increase in the use of fertilizers,there also has been a shift away from the use of organic fertilizers to industrial fertilizers. In 1983, only 18 percent of the fertilizersused were organic fertilizers. From 1960 to 1979, the use of industrial fertilizersrose 3.6 times compared to the use of organic fertilizers. Nitrate fertilizer usage increased 4.1 times (CSAV, 1983).
Detailed pesticide use inform'tion was not obtained. Pesticide consumption has averaged 2.2 to 2.48 kg,ha during the period 1985 to 1988, with approximately68 percent being herbicides (Selected Indicators, 1990). Some estimates indicate only 1 to 2 percent of pesticides are utilized, and the rest is lost to the soil and water (SKVTRI, 1990). Use of mercury, DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane),and other chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides reportedly is not allowed. Pesticides and fertilizers are commonly applied by aerial application. - 74 .
Table 9-1. All Types of Mineral FertilizerUsage In Eastern Europe in 1981 and 1982
Country Usage (kg/ha)
East Germany 344
Czechoslovakia 338
Hungar; 288
Bulgaria 255
Poland 226
Romania 154
Source: Khachaturov,1985. - 75 -
Table 9-2. Use of !.rtificialFertilizers in CzechoslovakiaAgriculture, 1960-1988
Artificial Fertilizer Year (kg/ha)
1960-1961 68.3 1965-1966 126.1 1970-1971 182.4 1975.1976 242.8 1980-1981 262.6 1984-1985 254.6 1987-1988 238.0 1989 255.0
Source: Adapted from StatisticalSurvey of Czechoslovakia,1976; Albrecht, 1987; Selected Indicators, 1990; Ministry of Environment of the Czech Republic, 1990. - 76 -
It should be noted that the estimates of both fertilizer and pesticide usage are based on official estimates and do not reflect actual application rates.
9.1.2 Contaminationof Fertilizers
Contaminationof fertilizerswith trace metals has occurred. High levels of cadmium associatedwith less expensive fertilizers from Africa have been reported (Schweitzerand Phillips, 1988). The extent and degree of contaminationis not reported.
9.2 EFFECTS
The primary effect of the overuse of fertilizershas been surface water and groundwater contamination. On average, 20 percent of the nitrogen applied to the soil is lost. It is estimated that up to 80 percent of nitrogen applied to winter cereal grains on lands is lost. The fertilizer ends up .n groundwaterand surface waters. It is estimated that 88 percent of the nitrates and 48 percent of the calcium in the Labe River are from ..gricultural runoff (CSAV, 1983). As a result, most waters in agricultural regions and rivers draining these regions show high concentrationsof nitrates (see Section 5.1.1). Human health effects in children have been reported from drinking water with high concentrationsof nitrate (see Section 10.1). Restrictionson use have been enacted.
Effects to natural resources have been observed. In the caves of Moravsky Kras, the stalactitesand stalagmitesare dissolving (CSAV, 1983). Adverse effects to fish and wildlife, includinggame animals, have resulted from the indiscriminateuse of pesticides (see Section 11.4). Resistance to * nherbicidesand insecticidesis occurring.
* 49.3 MONITORING PROGRAMS
There are no surface water or groundwatermonitoring programs within the Ministry of Agriculture in the Slovak Republic. A similar situation likely exists in the Czech Republic. An experimentalmonitoring facility is run by the Ministry of Water and Forestry at a large-scalecdttle farm (7,600 head) at Mliecany in the Slovak Republic. Monitoring details were not available.
9.4 CONTROLS AND EXISTING MEASURES TO CORRECT PROBLEMS
Informationon the role of the Ministry of Agriculture and Food in regard to fertilizer usage was not obtained. The Ministry of Agriculture is responsible for pesticide use. This ministry will not be a part of the new Ministry of Environment. Pesticide toxicity testing is conducted in different institutes, including game animal testing in the Game Management Institute, human toxicity testing by the Hygienic Institute, domestic animals testing by the Veterinary Medicine Institute, and bees by the Institute of Agriculture.
Specific informationon applicable laws and pesticide registration procedures were not obtained. CSFR does have licensed pesticide applicators.
Each agriculturalenterprise has plans for pesticide usage. However, the plans for application generally are not followed. Idhenpest problems arise, the enterprises tend to use pesticides quickly and in great amounts. - 77 -
Pesticide use is increasing and groups argue over amounts versus types.
Integrated pest management has partially been used but specific informationwas not obtained. It is primarily a research activity.
9.5 TRENDS
Fertilizer and pesticide usage on Czechoslovakiais among the bighest in Europe. Unless agriculturaland forestry management practices change, there will be continuing and increasinguse of fertilizers and pesticides. The resulting water quality effects and other types of contaminationwill continue. - 78 -
10.0 HUMAN HEALTH PROBLEMS
10.1 TYPE. EFFECTS. AND CAUSES
Significanthuman health problems have been attributed to environmentalpollution in CSFR, including lower life expectancy in certain regions, higher morbidity rates in the general population particularly in lower age groups (i.e., infants, preschool and school age), frequent outbreak of waterborne diseases, and social disruption including indicators of psychologicalstress. These problems have been reported primarily in short- term research studies. Informationfrom chronic epidemiologicalstudies emphasizing accurate incidenceand prevalence rates has not been available (Hertzman, 1990).
Areas of CSFR reported to have significanthuman health problems associated with environmentalpollutants include the region of northern Bohemia in the Czech Republic, numerous cities in the Czech Republic (e.g., Prague and Ostrava), and the Slovak Republic (e.g., Bratislava, Ziar nad Hronom, and Nitra). These areas have high levels of air and water pollution. Thirty-two percent of the population is estimated to live in heavily damaged environments (SKVTRI, 1990). In northern Bohemia, more than 3 million people are exposed to high air and water pollution (see Section 4.0 and 5.0 for details).
In CSFR, as with other developed countries, life expectancy rose until the 1960s. From 1929 to 1960, mean life expectancy in Czechoslovakia rose from 51.9 to 67.8 years for men and from 55.2 to 73.2 years for women. In the late 1960s, the life expectancy started to drop, whereas l.fe expectancy in Western industrialcountries continued to increase. This drop in life expectancy was the result of a decline in the life expectancy of the male population. This trend has continued until the present day. Mean life expectancy in CSFR is 3 to 7 years shorter than in other developed European countries; higher mortality in the productive middle-age male population has been reported (SKVTRI, 1990). In 1988, male life expectancy,at 67.7 years, is 8.1 years less than in Japan, and female life expectancy,at 75.3 years, is 6 years less than in Japan, (Table 10-1). Figure 10-1 illustrates that this differential life expectancy emerged largely since the mid-1960s. Until 1965, the age-standardizedmortality rates for males and females in Czechoslovakia were within Western European norms. Although mortality continued to fall in the rest of the industrializedworld, in Czechoslovakiaand other East Bloc countries, it stopped declining for females and actually began to rise for males in the period from the mid-1960s to the mid-1980s.
The principal reasons for the failure of Czechoslovakianlife expectancy to increase over the last 25 years is related to the fact that cumulative mortality from the chronic diseases of mid- and late-life has not been reduced during a period of marked reductions in the West. Comoarative studies of mortality trends between France and the Czech Republic show excess mortality from lung and breast cancer, cerebrovasculardiseases, and cardiovasculardiseases, but not from alcoholism, road accidents, or suicide. CSFR has had continued success in reducing overall infant mortality and mortality from infectious diseases (Hertzman, 1990). - 79 -
Table 10-1. Current Life Expectancy in International Perspective
Life Expectancy
Country Year Hales Females
Japan 1988 75.8 81.9 Sweden 1987 74.2 80.4 Switzerland 1988 74.0 81.1 Netherlands 1987 73.6 80.3 Canada 1987 73.3 80.2
Australia 1987 73.2 79.8 Norway 1987 72.8 79.8 France 1987 72.6 81.1 West Germany 1988 72.3 79.1 Austria 1988 72.1 78.7
United Kingiom 1988 72.5 78.2 United States 1987 71.6 78.6 Belgium 1986 71.4 78.2 Finland 1987 70.7 78.9 Portugal 1988 70.5 77.7
East Germany 1988 69.7 76.0 Yugoslavia 1987 68.5 74.3 Bulgaria 1987 68.3 74.6 Czechoslovakia 1988 67.7 75.3 Poland 1988 67.1 75.7
Romania 1984 67.1 72.7 Hungary 1988 66.1 74.2
Source: Hertzman, 1990. - 80 Trends of standardized mortality 1955-1984 male 170 Austria Czechoslovokia
1500 ~~~~~~~~~~~France
1~~~~~ - frnc ''-S4 ? ;' -- °-' BRD
Hungary
1100 * *. Great Britain .,, ''b'Japan-. 4-. 900^ , , n I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~toly 1955-9 1960-4 1965-9 1970-4 1975-9 1980-4 Y
Trends of standardized mortality 1955-1984 female t1200 > ~ -i *- Aust. ia
1 100 i Czechoslovakiae ~ ~ ~~
1000 i France
9GO - "40- BRD
Boo0- s_ wl~Hungary 700- 700 _ Great Britain
600* **''*'' Japan
500 1955-9 1960-4 1965-9 1970-4 1975-9 1980-4 Italy
Figure 10-L Trends of Standardized Mortality
(Source: Institute of Health Iuformation and Statistics,adapted from Hertzman,1990.) - 81 -
Table 10-2. Infant Mortality in Selected Districts in the North Bohemian Brown Coal Basin Compared to the Czech Republic
Infant Mortality (number Rer thousand) Location 1979 1980
Chomutov 18.7 20.7
Most 17.2 17.7
Teplice 17.3 19.2
Usti nad Labem 17.1 22.6
Brown Coal Basin Average 17.6 20.1
Czech Republic 15.8 16.8
Source: CSAV, 1983. - 82 -
During the period 1960 to 1963, the Teplice district had the highest death rate in the country. This higher mortality rate was attributed to S02 and arsenic emissions (Zvosec, 1984). Hertzman (1980) has shown sociodemographicdifferences, such as distributionof Gypsies, also contribute to observed differences in mortality rates. The average life span was 3 to 4 years shorter (Kraus, 1985). In addition, there is a high percentage of miscarriagesand children afflictedwith Down's syndrome (Zvosec, 1984).
The 1983 Academy report refers to a report on the health of children in the northern Bohemian brown coal basin, which includes the districts of Chomutov, Most, Teplice, and Usti nad Labem. It states that infant mortality in this region was 11.4 percent higher in 1979 and 12 percent higher in 1980 than average in the Czech Republic (Table 10-2). Overall infant mortality had been declining. In the Most District, the rate of infants released from the hospital with illnesses contractedduring their stay at the hospital or on release from the hospital were 3 times higher (36.65 percent) than rates for infants in the republic as a whole (9.54 percent).
In 1980, preventativephysical examinationsof adolescents in the districts of northern Bohemia found only 38.4 percent of the adolescents without conditionsthat indicate diseases, compared to 57.7 percent for the Czech Republic as a whole. This same trend of higher incidencesof disease was observed in the general population from northern Bohemia (see Table 10-3).
Similar trends have been observed in central Bohemia. For example, a study of child illness in relation to air pollution was conducted between 1982 and 1984 in three towns in central Bohemia: Neratovice, Kralupy, and Benesov (Kodl and Kriz, 1987). In Neratovice, the environmentalexposures included dusfall, S2, HS, carbon disulfide,ammonia, and chlorinatedhydrocarbons. In Kralupy, exposures were from dustfall, SO2, styrene, ethyl benzene, and acrylonitrile. Benesov served as the control town.
The study was carried out in two parts. Approximately 200 school- age children per location were given six examinationsover 3 years. Also, the incidence of pediatric respiratorydisease in the three study areas was establishedusing pediatrician'sreports.
The study showed that the cuwulative incidenceof acute respiratory disease from birth to 15 years old, including pharyngitis,sinusitis, laryngitis,tonsillitis, bronchitis, asthma, flu, and pneumonia (ICD9 460- 511) were collectivelyhigher in Neratovice than Benesov. The largest source of increase was for sinusitis,where the incidence rate in Neratovicewas approximately7 times higher than that in Benesov. In Kralupy, the overall incidence of respiratory disease was about 2.4 times higher than in Benesov. The two main sources of this increase were sinusitis and acute bronchitis. Acute bronchitis was reported as being 3 times more frequent in Kralupy than Benesov. The sample survey showed no statisticallysignificant trends towards poorer spirometric and hematologic function in the industrial towns compared to the control town. Bone growth measurementswere also taken, suggesting - 83 -
Table 10-3. Incidence of Diseases Observed in the Population of Northern Bohemia Compared to the Czech Republic
Northern Bohemia Czech Republic (percent of population (percent of population Disease affected) affected)
Respiratory Infection 4.1 2.5
Digestive System Disease 1.3 0.4
Skin Disease 4.6 1.7
Muscle and Bone Disorders 12.7 8.6
Viral Liver Infections 2.2 times higher than Czech Republic
Parasitic Disease 3.6 times higher than Czech Republic
Mental Disorders 1.2 times higher than Czech Republic
Source: CSAV, 1983. - 84 -
that boys in Neratovice were 9.0 months behind boys in the control town, whereas boys in Kralupy were 11.0 months behind. For girls, the delays were 5.6 months for Neratovice and 5.9 months for Kralupy (Hertzman, 1990).
The Academy authors stated in 1983 that the causes of the observed differences in human health conditions in northern Bohemia include a number of factors; however, the deterioratingenvironment, in particular, air quality, is a rmaincontributor to these conditions (CSAV, 1983). This conclusion is supported by Hertzman and is similar to the situation in the Silesea region of Poland where air quality has been found to have an important impact on human health (Hertzman,1990). As mentioned previously, demographic differencesare also a contributingfactor.
Although most of the references cited refer to humaa health problems in northern Bohemia, problems associatedwith industrialpollution have been reported for other localities. In Beroun in central Bohemia, for example, reduced calcium levels were observed in the 1970s in children living near a steel mill. At Horna Nitra in the Slovak Republic, high arsenic levels were * observed in tissues of children living in the vicinity of the Novaky power plant. Hearing loss was also observed (Bencko and Symon, 1977). Fluorosis has been found in workers and children living near the aluminum smelter in c Ziar nad Hronom.
Epidemiologicalstudies done among workers from aluminum smelter operations that have PAHs in the electrodes used in the manufacture of aluminum have consistentlydemonstrated increased risks for bladder cancer among the workers. Although no similar evaluation had been carried out on the workers at Ziar nad Hronom, cancsr incidencerates by district, published by the Slovakian Cancer Registry of the Institute of ExperimentalOncology, shows that Ziar nad Hronom had a high rate of bladder cancer among males (although not among females) for the period 1975 to 1984 compared to other districts (hertzman, 1990).
Besides air quality, there is a great deal of evidence regarding regional and local differences in exposure to a wide variety of toxic pollutants. For instance, there are wide variations in metal concentrations (e.g., aluminum, arsenic, cadmium, mercury, and others) in drinking water samples from the Czech Republic. For most of the metals, variations greater than 10-fold are noted. The high end of the range usually includes concentrationsat which the contributionto total body burden may be of health significance. A high proportion of drinking water samples has shown mutagenic activity. Mutagenicityof river water at its waste outlet and downstream for several hundred meters from chemical plants has also been observed. Evidence of widespread mutagenic activity in drinking water and other surface waters is very unusual and potentially of public health significance (Hertzman, 1990).
Lead and cadmium have been documented in food, which, like water, can be a sigr.ificantsource of exposure to toxic metals. For example, studies of fruits, vegetables, and potatoes grown in the vicinity of smelters in Pribram compared to controlled areas have shown contaminationof foods grown near the smelter (see Table 10-4) (Hertzman,1990). - 85 -
Table 10-4. Relative Contributionto Allowable Weekly Met.alIntakes of Foods from Pribraa and Knichovice
Lead Cadmium Mercury Food Pribram Mnichovice Pribram Mnichovice Pribram Mnichovice
Potatoes 13.72 0.25 0.975 0.088 0.099 0.0014
Fruit 10.21 0.7 0.546 0.034 0.001 0.0007
Vegetables 13.28 0.09 0.045 0.007 0.017 0.0009
TOTAL 37.2 0.41 1.566 O.i29 0.117 0.003 Difference in Contributionto Allowable Weekly Intake 36.79 1.437 0.1139 Estimates of Allowable Weekly Intake Based on Home Produce Only 1,042% 13-15% 31% 25-30% 14% 2%
Source: Adapted from Hertzman, 1990. - 86 -
In addition, there is evidence of population exposure to local point sources of metals. Studies have shown a 3-fold variation in the average concentrationof lead in children's teeth when comparingbetween a lead smelter area and other regions of the countr,. Moreover, dentine lead levels even in the background areas are approximately10-fold that found in teeth from the pre-industrialperiod (Hertzman, 1990). Similarly, elevated levels of arsenic in blood, urine, and hair of boys residing near a power plant that uses high arsenic coal and others at various distances from this point source have been observed (Bencko et al., 1988).
There is exposure to chlorinateddioxins, furans, and biphenyls from emissions from waste incinerationplants and emissions, effluents, and solid wastes associated with the manufactureof PCBs (e.g., Michalovce Plant in the Slovak Republic). PCBs have be-n used as materials in agricu±i;ure(e.g., paints) and in industry (e.g., home radiator fluids, Rozmidal pod Drems4nem). PCBs have been found in food in wide areas of the Slovak Republic between 1987 aad 1990 (Figure 10-2). Other studies have documented hexachlorobenzene throughout the food chain as late as 1983, although it had not been used in Czechoslovakianagriculture since 1980. Taken together, these observations indicate significant local variations in exposure to classes of chlorinated hydrocarbons,which are stored in human fat and are potential cancer risks. When PCB measurementshave been done on human fat samples, the levels measured have tended to be highest near point sources of emission (Table 10-5). In two of these three sampling locations (Bratislavaand Trencin), the male and female PCB levels were well above levels reported from Western coun':ries (Hertzman, 1990).
At the chemical factory at Michalovce in the Slovak Republic, no special measures were taken for protection of the environmentand liquid waste was regularly spilled into the Laborec River. Solid wastes were put into a local dump without treatment. In the late 1970s, the local hygiene station found increasing levels of PCBs, formaldehyde,and nitrates in water in the Laborec River and the Sirava Reservoir (a recreationallake).
In 1980, a pathologist in Michalovce reported that a very high proportion of the congenital abnormalitiesknown as Potter's Syndrome were found among newborns. This syndrome, which is basically the congenital underdevelopmentor nondevelopmentof kidneys, has been related to PCB exposure in other scientific research. Past records have shown that 20 cases of Potter's Syndrome had occurred in Michalovce between 1975 and 1980, with 9 of them occurring in 1980 alone. The overall rate of occurrence of Potter's Syndrome was 12 times higher than expected. As a result of this finding, the local drinking water source was closed and water was imported from other sources. In January 1984, PCB production was stopped at the plant.
Since that time, PCBs in the local water supply have decreased to negligible levels, and the local water supply has been reopened. However, PCBs have persisted in the breast milk of women in the area as well as in the fat tissue of hospital patients who have been tested on an occasional basis. In Michalovce in 1988 and 1989, average breast milk PCBs were approximately4 to 4.4 milligrams per kilogram (mg/kg) of fat. In Trabisov, concentrations ranged from 2.5 to 3.4 mg/kg. Some samples exceeded 20 mg,/kg. Apparently, PCBs in breast milk is a problem throughout CSFR because of a past practice of using PCB paints in animal feed containers. The average PCB levels in the fat of hospital patients have ranged from 3.8 to 8.6 mg/kg, and the maximum measured values have ranged from 9.6 to 27.2 mg/kg. These levels are higher S ~ ~ ~~ ' 'hh 1hQ4Is * oxs . -.aL\\ U
U ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~U
/ ^@w \sth tQZ.3sot +by"industy"'C
1986 Invenitory v 20,00 liectares farmland contaminated
.50,000 liectares farmlands contaminUted by automobile edmissions
Figure 10-2. AreaS of Slovakia Where PCBs Have Been Found in Food, 1987-1990
(Source: Institute of Food,Bratislava, adapted from Ilcrtzman, 1990.) - 88 -
Table 10-5. PCBs in Human Fat Tissue at Autopsy, Selected Regions in the Slovak Republic
Region Male Female
Bratislava (16) 4,105 (9) 2,243
Martin (15) 1,045 (7) 920
Trencin (10) 3,142 (4) 2,622
Note: Measurementsare in pg PCB/kg fat. The number of samples is provided in parentheses.
COmparativeValues:
United States (637 specimens) <1,000 pg/kg - 69 percent 1,000 to 2,000 pg/kg - 26 percent >2,000 pg/kg - 5 percent
Japan (30 specimens) Range - 400 to 2,500 pg/kg Average - 1,000 pg/kg
Source: Baselt, 1980 (from Hertzman, 1990). - 89 -
than found in similar studies in Western countries. Although the main source of PCB exposure has been closed, the effects of long-term exposure are still a concern. One exacerbatingfactor may have been the burning of 90 tons of PCB waste products in the local cement plant between 1984 and 1988. Another 2,500 tons must be disposed (Hertzman,1990).
There is disagreementbetween agencies as to how complete the process of identifyingand impounding foods contaminatedwith PCBs really is. Contaminatedbutter is being kept off the market. Currently, butter and other PCB-contaminatedfoodstuffs are stored in warehouses.
Water pollution has lead to epidemics of dysentery, jaundice, and virus-basedhepatitis in Usti nad Labem, Jablonec, Kysucke, Nove Mesto, and other localities (CSAV, 1983; Zvosec, 1984).
Bottled water is commonly given to infants in CSFR to prevent methemoglobinitis. Methemoglobinemiahas been an on-going problem in many areas of the Slovak Republic due to high levels of soil nitrates from overfertilization. The problem primarily occurs in newborns, where high levels of absorbed nitrates poison the oxygen-carryinghemoglobin molecules within the red blood cells and lead to a form of chemical asphyxiation. Drinking water and breast milk are usually considered the main sources of exposure. Uhnak et al. (1989) have demonstratedpersistent high levels of nitrates in crops from around the country, which could also be a contributing source through the maternal diet.
Between 1971 and 1985, there were 2,255 methemoglobinemiacases (150 cases per year) reported in Slovak Republic, including 12 deaths. Between 1985 and 1990, there were 281 cases (56 cases per year) and one death. Authorities attribute the apparent decline in methemoglobinemiato a voluntary progrp in which pediatriciansand obstetriciansare encouraging parents to check the levels of nitrate in their home water supplies. If nitrate levels are high, then the parents are encouraged to buy drinking water for their newborns. The local hygiene stations have been cooperatingby analyzing the water for free. In adults, drinking water with high nitrate content can lead to the risk of carcinogenousnitrosamines in the digestive tract and gall bladder.
Acceptable ncise levels have been set at 65 A-weighted decibels (dBA) (Public Notice 13/1977) with daytime levels allowed to range from 60 to 70 dBA, and nighttime levels, from 50 to 60 dBA (Ministryof Environment of the Czech Republic, 1990). Noise levels effect 40 percent of the population. In certain parts of Prague, the noise levels have risen from 65 dBA in 1935 to 90 dBA in 1975. Data from 1987 to 1989 show that the average noise levels in downtown areas range from the 70s (in decibels) to the low 80s. These values are approximately 13 decibels higher than in the suburbs (Hertzman, 1990). Increased stress, neurntic disorders, and loss of hearing have been attributed to increased noise (CSAV, 1983). The Academy report also discusses the lowering of the quality of life in the city
Other environmentalhealth problems often associated with industrializednations, such as lead contaminationin water and asbestos exposure in building materials, have not been mentioned in the information provided to date. Radiation exposure from contaminatedbuilding material has been identified as a potential health risk (Ministryof Environment of the Czech Republic, 1990). - 90 -
Industrial accidentshave been reported (e.g., polyamide polymerizationplant at Zilina, See Section 4.1.3) where human health has been affected by air emissions.
A summary of the relationship,the overall pollution effects (axr, water, soil, and food), and overall quality of human health is roughly represented in a synthetic index of environmentalquality which has been calculated for each district in CSFR. Figure 10-3 shows the relationship between this synthetic index of environmentalquality and standardized mortality ratios by district. Districtswithin a region have been outlined by "contour lines." The figure shows a strong correlationbetween rising standardizedmortality ratios and declines in environmentalquality (representedby an increasing index score along the vertical axis). It also shows important exceptions: the fourth quadrant (districtsof relatively good environmentalquality but high mortality) and first quadrant (districtsof relatively poor environmentalquality and low mortality). These exceptions indicate that other determinantsof health, e.g., sociodemographicfactors, compete with the physical environmentin explaining the relative decline in health status of Czeclhoslovakianscompared to Western countries and explain regional variations within the country.
Although there are other factors influencinghuman health in CSFR and additional studies need to be conducted to fully evaluate the environmental health problems, sufficient evidence is available to conclude that environmentalpollution (air, water, and hazardous wastes) have caused a significantdecline in human health in CSFR especially in northwest and central Bohemia and north,Moravia, compared to other districts in CSFR.
10.2 MONITORING PROGRAMS
In general, the human health data reviewed to date are incomplete. According to the Academy reports (CSAV, 1983; Ministry of Environment of the Czech Republic, 1990) and Herztman (1990), Czechoslovakiadoes not have long- range or thorough monitoring of human health problems. As stated previously, this is due, in large part, to the fact that in the previous government, it was not politically acceptable to conduct studies on the effects of the environment on human health. As a consequence,exchange of informationand appropriate investigativemethods with the West, which in the late 1960s and 1970s began conducting such studies, was not officially possible.
In CSFR, there are a 127 district hygiene stations and 12 regional hygiene stations. At the regional stations, there are multidisciplinaryteams responsible for evaluating environmentaland industrialhygiene, occupational disease, epidemiology,and laboratory sciences. In the Czech Republic, this network is backed up by the multidisciplinaryInstitute of Hygiene and Epidemiology. In the Slovak Republic, it is supported by the Research Institute of Preventive Medicine, which is also multidisciplinaryin character (Hertzman, 1990). Collaborativecenters with the World Health Organization (WHO) and the InternationalAgency for Research on Cancer (IARC) have been _veloped. The Institute of Hygiene and Epidemiologymaintains 42 national reference laboratories,and the Research Institute of Preventive Medicine has 19 such laboratories. However, the emphasis of this laboratorynetwork has - 91 -
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so ______OIX x (Sorce RyHiaiOv ia Soudc:Dzurtoakv x~~~~ZionePordc.
-~~~SoreSloaL -yiaicv Dzrvai - 92 -
been on infectious diseases. This emphasis was the principal thrust of public health efforts in Western countries until the early 1970s. In CSFR, the level of sophistication in dealing with problems of bacteria and viruses is much higher at the institutes than it is for problems related to multifactorial chronic disease and environmental pcllution. For instance, 18 of the 19 national reference laboratories at the Research Institute of Preventive Medicineare set up for infectious disease concerns.
There is a generalshortage of equipmentfor valid and reliable measurement of metals (and organics) in blood. In the Czech Republic, where there are severalconcerns with lead pollution,it appearsthat the only atomic absorptionspectrophotometer linked to a graphitefurnace is at the Instituteof Hygieneand Epidemiology(none are found in regionalhygiene stations). There is a completelack of portablespirometric equipment for doing field studiesfor lung function(rather than having to bring children and other study subjectsinto hospitalfor measurements).Finally, there is a large void in the whole area of chronicdisease epidemiology and direct health status measurement,with severalexceptions (Hertzman, 1990).
The demographygroup in the geographydepartment at Charles University in Prague has particular expertise in developing multifactorial statistical models of the determinants of health, including both environmental and social factors. The epidemiologists associated with the cohort studies of miners exposedto radon gas are characterizedas conductingstudies that meet and exceed internationalstandards for chronicdisease epidemiology. The SlovakianCancer IncidenceRegistry, which has been developedin collaboration with IARC, is of international caliber. Attention has been given to the quality and comprehensiveness of information reporting (Hertzman, 1990).
Another consequence of the lack of development for a chronic disease epidemiologyhas been the strategyfor using routinelycollected data has not been established.There are many agenciescollecting data which could be of tremendous relevance to a comprehensive strategy for evaluating health and environmental relationships in Czechoslovakia. The Institute of Health Informationand Statisticsproduces data by districtson life expectancyand disease-specificmortality. The census collectsinformation on potential social determinantsof health status. Disease-orientedagencies, such as the Institutefor ExperimentalOncology in Bratislava,create registriesof cancer incidence. Other agencies,such as the Instituteof Food, have vast amounts of routinelymeasured data on pollutantsin the food supply. Finally, statisticson hospitalutilization and visits to practitionerssuch as pediatriciansare being collectedand recorded. At present,there does not seem to be a group within either of the lead instituteswhich has overall responsibilityfor integratingthis information,evaluating it for its significancein environmentalhealth, or proposingways to modify and improve it for these purposes(Hertzm&n, 1990).
VladimirBencko, from the PostgraduateFaculty of Medicine and Pharmacyin Prague,and his coworkershave conducteda numberhuman health studiessince the 1970s on human health problemsassociated with air emissions,including arsenic, nickel, beryllium, and cobalt from industrial facilitiesat Nitra, Sokolov,Galanta, and other localities(Bencko et al., 1977; Bencko and Symon, 1977; Bencko et al., 1980; Bencko et al., 1983; Bencko et al., 1988). These studieshave includedoccupational exposure and environmentalexposure. Althoughelevated levelsof these pollutantshave been observedin tissues (e.g.,hair, urine, etc.) and correlatedwith human -93
health problems (e.g., higher morbidity rates includinghigher incidence of respiratorydiseases and eye, skin, and subcutaneousskin diseases in children), the authors frequently state that no longitudinalstudies of persons exposed to such conditions have been conducted.
The Institute of Food has a massive program of testing for metals and other pollutants in foodstuffs. This program involves approximately 300,000 samples per year and 86 tested outcomes. Acceptable standards in CSFR for many substances, such as cadmium and mercury, are much more stringent than the internaktionalstandards. The food surveillanceprogram allows the authorities to restrict certain crops in particular areas from being used for human consumption. Informationwas not obtained on specific monitoring procedures and removal of contaminatedfood from the marketplace. The 1983 Academy report stated there had been an insufficientanalysis of food products. However, warnings of reported food contaminationhave not always been heeded. For example, studies conducted in Plzen in 1985 showed that 75 percent of the kidneys of slaughteredpigs had mercury levels greater than 11 micrograms per kilogram (pg/kg) and 11 percent showed levels of 101 pg/kg, 80 percent.of cattle kidneys had levels greater than 11 pg/kg and approximately 10 percent had levels higher than 101 Ag/kg (values in dry or wet weights not given). The norm for CSFR is 10 pg/kg. Recommendationsfor prohibiting sale of kidneys were ignored (Ministryof Environmentof the Czech Republic, 1990).
Although conducting studies that directly related pollution to human health (except for some occupationalexposure studies) was not permitted, it was acceptable to conduct research on biomonitors or bioindicators that could be used as general measures of environmentalquality as well as human health. As a result, there is an extensive research effort in CSFR that has been devoted to biomonitoring and bioindication. This research dates from the late 1960s, with the research of RNDr. Eliska Novakova and her coworkers as well as others in the Czech Republic and the research of RNDr. Eva Reichrtova and her coworkers as well as others in Slovak Republic. This research was conducted at ecological institutes, frequently in collaborationwith medical researchers and researchers associated with the Institutes of Hygiene. The biomonitoring studies used either wild animals, such as roe deer, hares, or voles, found in the vicinity of pollution sources or laboratory animals, such as rabbits, placed in the vicinity of pollution sources. Many of the studies included physiologicalmeasures (e.g., immunologicalresponses) developed by medical research. Although this research cannot be used to show cause-and-effects relationships in human health, it can indicate the widespread threat to human health from pollution. In general, animals are more sensitive to pollution than humans.
10.3 CONTROLS AND EXISTING MEASURES TO REMEDY PROBLEMS
There are a number of acts and regulations related to environmental health including:
a. 'Nation'sHealth Care Act" No. 20/1966 Code amended by the SNC Act No. 159/1971 Code;
b. Health Ministry Order No. 45/1966 Code for "Creating the Health Life Conditions,"amended by the CNR Act No. 146/1871 Code and the SNC Act No. 159/1971 Code; - 94 -
c. The CNC Act No. 36/1975 Code "The Fines for Breaking the Law Regulations of Creating and Protecting Health Life Conditions," amended by the CNC Act No. 137/1982 Code; and
d. The SNC Act No. 53/1975 Code "The Fines for Braking the Law Regulations of Creating and Protecting Health Life Conditions amended by the SNC Act No. 139/1982 Code.
Standards (norms) exist for permissible levels of metals, organics, etc. in various foods. The health regulationsrepresent a relatively complex legal regulation in comparison with other environmentallegislative regulations. These regulations are designed to protect the human health by means of preserving or creating healthy living conditions These laws also specify the criteria for such regulations,i.e., the hygienic criteria, given by human sensitivity.
The protection against noise, vibrations, and ionizing radiation also are under protection of human health. Noise and vibration are postulated in Decree No. 13/1977 on the protection against the effects of noise and vibrations. Ionizing radiation protection is provided by No. 59/1972 on the protection of health against ionizing radiation.
Legal protection of the environment against chemical substances is inadequate. Legislationis scattered in several legal decrees. It is not clear and does not cover the whole set of human health problems resulting from the chemical contamination. As with other legislation,it ignores the protection of nature (Ministryof Environmentof the Czech Republic, 1990).
The air and water quality acts have hygienic norms but these are generally ignored (see Sections 4.0 and 5.0). To date, the solution to correcting the human health problems caused by environmentalpollution has been to treat the symptoms. For example, in northern Bohemia and certain areas of central Bohemia, school children from first grade to eighth grade have been given 2- to 3-week "vacations"twice a year at nature schools in clean mountain regions. Followup studies in central Bohemia have shown that these vacation periods have a therapeuticeffect on children (Bubakovaet al., 1987). In addition, they are provided special lunches of cheese and milk during the school week along with vitamins to combat health problems. Working-agemen and women are given an extra 2,000 Kcs per year to live in the region. Pensioners and old people do not receive similar compensation. It appears only when there has been a pronounced human health problem that corrective action has been undertaken e.g., closure of the PCB factory on Michalovce in eastern Slovak Republic.
The issue of securing suitable drinking water is recognized and the protected hygienic zones for drinking water has been identified by the republics. However, the Academy states that although "directives"are "perfect," the principles for application are not clear and often in conflict with other segment of the economy (i.e., conflict of hygienic requirementsand agriculturalproduction). In addition, there are gross violations of environmentalregulations at the source, which should require the closing down of the operation or treatment (CSAV, 1983). - 95 -
10. 4 R=S
Human health problems will continue to occur until air quality, water quality, and other environmentalconditions are corrected. Additional informationis neoded on specific problems, monitoring, controls, and methodologies to more specificallyaccess present conditions and address future trends. Broader and more systematic evaluations of the health status of children and adults living in polluted regions are needed. - 96 -
11.0 LANDSCAPE, BIODIVERSITY, AND NATURE CONSERVATION
11.1 GENERAL LANDSCARE AND BIODIVERSITY CONDITIONS IN CSFR
The natural landscapes and biodiversity in CSFR have been degraded and adversely threatened an the result of air and water pollution (Sections 4.0 through 9.0). The misuse of the landscape is associated with urban and industrial development activities, as well as agricultural and forestry practices. In addition, agricultural and forestry landscapes as well as park and preserves, have been affected by environmental pollution and- mismanagement.
The pollution, the landscapes of Czech Republic have been classified (CSAV, 1989) into three categories of ecological stress or degradation based on the type and degree of environmental:
a. Categorx 1--Regions with very strong conflicts in the land
i. The most important emission sources of air pollution (more than 5,000 TPY of solid emissions, mure than 15,000 TPY SO., and more than 2,000 TPY of other emissions); ii. The most important discharge sources of water pollution (more than 3,000 BOD); iii. Regions with high ambient air pollution by dust (average yearly concentration more than 80 Mg/m3 ); iv. Regions with high ambient air pollution by SO2 (average yearly concentration more than 100 pg/m3); v. Regions with high emission pollution and landscape that has forests classified as "A," defined as life expectancy for spruce trees for of up to 20 years; vi. Polluted rivers (Class IV); and vii. Regions with large devastation of relief or topography (more than 1 km2).
b. Category 2--Regions with strong conflicts
i. Important sources of water pollution (500 to 3,000 TPY BOD); ii. Regions with polluted air (dust) (average yearly concentration 40 to 80 pg/imn); iii. Strongly polluted rivers (Class III); iv. Medium impact of emissions and have landscape with forest classified as "B," defined as life expectancy for spruce trees of 21 to 40 years; and v. Traffic regions (more than 5,000 vehicles per day).
c. Category 3--Regions with light conflicts
i. Medium pollution of water sources (Class II); ii. Regions with polluted water close to dams and rivers; and iii. Light pollution of emission and landscape which has forests classified as "C," defined as a life expectancy for spruce trees of 41 to 60 years.
Figure 11-1 shows landscapes of the Czech Republic classified according to these categories of stress degradation because of the existing pollution conditions. A fourth category, showing areas with significant v 97 -
stresses to forests, is also shown. Tho largest degraded landscapes occur in northern and western Bohemia.
The Slovak Republic also has landscapes with significant ecological degradation. A slightly different claAsificationhas been developed fo, the republic (Figures 11-2 and 11-3). Major landscape areas considered environaentally degraded include southwestern Slovak Republic surrolunding Bratislava, north-central Slovak Republic, and eastern Slovak Republi., as well as corridors along the major rivers.
11.2 AGRICULTURE
11.2.1 Tv2e. Effects. and Causes
Agricultural land, which represents more than hajf the land cover in CSFR (See Section 2.1) includes arable land, hopfields, vineyards, gardens, orchards, meadows, and pastures. The main crops harvested in Czechoslovakia include wheat, rye, barley, oats, maize for grain, edible pulse crops, potatoes, fodder roots and crops, hay, rape, flax-raw stalks, and sugar beets (Statistical Survey of Czechoslovakia, 1976).
In Czechoslovakia, there are five types of farms or agricultural enterprises:
a. State farms (equaled 30 percent of all agricultural land in 1971);
b. Cooperative farms (equaled 56 percent of agriculture land in 1971);
c. Private farms greater than 0.5 ha belonging to individuals and pastoral societies (equaled 7.5 percent of agricultural land in (1971);
d. Individual farms which are individual plots of cooperative farmers (equaled 4 percent of agricultural land); and
e. Agricultural land holdings not exceeding 0.5 ha and owned by the rest of population (less than 2.5 percent of the agriculturp.1land).
Conversion of agricultural land has generally stabilized. From the period of 1985 to 1988, there has been an approximately 1 percent loss in agricultural land per year (Selected Indicators, 1990). During the period 1966 to 1980, there was a decrease of 421.000 ha. Industrial and vrban development accounted for 13.3 percent of the decrease, transfer to fallow lands was 31 percent, and conversion to forestry was 41 percent (CSAV, 1983). aL~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~'
Calepty1: HecellDeansd AIDr
Catcgoy 2: StronglyDamaged Ac Categwy3: Dans ed Amu TeitO Wih Vet: SkmugCm_d is Fea Ec.syseo
FIpre 11-1 Degrded Landscapes in the Czech Republi II
e 0 g aencFal cmloglcalproblems
-ljjjj >Primarily Impactsfrom air pollutim
Primarily Impactsfrom aIr mad ogricultural pa ltms
± Primarilyimpacts from agrculture
ImKOJPrimarily Impacts hom recreatlooacivitiks
Figure 11-2 Regions In the Slovak Republic with Ecological Problems
Source: CSAV,1989. 0I-.
> . *a_>, t Region*wlib multiple environmentalproblems _.* r. , _.-
Reglonswith specificenvironmental problems
3. ~ Corridorswith unfavorble ecologicalimpacts (tram; pollted wers)
Figure 11-3 Characterizatiobof EcologicalStress to the LandscapeIn the Slovak Republic - 101 -
Agriculture in Czechoslovakiafollows the Soviet model of large- scale systems. The average size of cooperativesis 2,584 ha, and state farms average 8,579 ha. Agriculturalfields have been expanded to the maximum physical extent possible. Natural buffers of vegetationhave been eliminated. Ecologicalconditions in CSFR do not support such large-scaleoperations. Soil types, typography,and productivity are variable in a given region. Past agriculturalpractices have lead to soil erosion, lower productivity,and high-energy inputs (i.e., fertilizers) (Schweitzerand Phillips, 1988).
The 1983 Academy report stated that although precise analyses were lacking, agriculturalproduction was not efficient. An inordinateamount of energy was used to transport food because of the "excessive"concentration of production and separationof plant production and animal production. The Academy recommendeddispersing agricultural production into smaller and relatively independentfarms and shifting from dependenceon pork production to beef because cattle make better use of solid fodder (especiallygrain and hay) (CSAV, 1983).
Large-scale agriculture of CSFR has eliminated green belts between fields, including those along river banks. Overuse of soils for agricultural production has decreased humus content, which has led to increase runoff. The soil structure and nutrient absorption capacity in mar.yareas has been diminished by soil compaction from farm machinery. This has led to reduced infiltrationof water and reduced moisture for plants and increased surface runoff and furrow erosion and, consequently,lower agriculturalproduction. Waterlogging is occurring. This is especially true in hilly areas. Since the mid-19th century, regional erosion has risen more than 50 percent in some areas (CSAV, 1983). Erosion is an irreplaceableloss of arable land since it takes 80 to 100 years to replace 1 cm of soils. Agricultural erosion problems have resulted in flooding and silting of villages, for example, the town of Litomysl, Luka nad Jihalavou (Ministry of Environment of the Czech Republic, 1990) and villages like Mochenik (personalobservation). Forestry practices have caused similar problems. Water and wind erosion has accounted for loss of 300,000 ha of land. Natural biological controls also have been lost (e.g., insectivorousbird populationshave been severely reduced). Increases in doses of nitrogen from fertilizers,repeated cultivation of grain (three to four times in row), and unsuitable agrotechnology(harvesting combines blow the chaff seed back on the field) have created untenable chaffing in the fields, requiring greater herbicides usage. Herbicide usage represents 68 percent of the pesticidesused (Selected Indicators,1990).
The agricultural landscape of CSFR has been damaged by air pollution, overuse of agrichemicals (Section 9.0), inappropriateagricultural practices, and the conversion to nonagriculturalactivities, includingmining and waste dumps.
Environmentalproblems associatedwith agriculturalactivities include:
a. Overuse of fertilizers and pesticides,causing water pollution and effects to nontarget organisms (see Section 9.0);
b. Improper treatment of wastes, causing water pollution;
c. Soil contaminationfrom air pollution and surface mining (Section 4 0n- nd - 102 -
d. Loss of wildlife habitat and natural communitiesbecause of economicallybased agriculturalpractices and disregard for principles of landscapeecology, leading to overuse and soil erosion (Schweitzerand Phillips, 1988).
Air pollution and the indiscriminateuse of fertilizersand pesticides have resulted in a reported 15 to 20 percent drop in plant yields. Poor barley yields were reported due to the increase in acidic and slightly acid soils and the fact that barley has not adapted to "contemporarysoil conditions" (Zvosec, 1984). Soybeans had reduced yields near ir6n and steel works in east Slovak Republic (Hronec, 1982). Maize has been contaminatedby nickel from fugitive dust from a stockpile4 km away at Sered (Zelenokovaand Holub, 1985).
Special pollution problems exist in agriculturebecause of improper agriculturalmanagement. PCB contaminationof cattle in the Czech Republic is attributed to the painting of watering and feed troughs with PCB-based paints. In the Slovak Republic, the same PCB problem exists, along with PCB contaminationfrom industrial activities in agriculturalareas in eastern Slovakia (see Section 10.1). Cadmium contaminationof soils and grain crops is reported from the use of phosphate fertilizersfrom Africa. Baked goods have been reported to be contaminatedwith cadmium (Albrecht, 1987). Cabbages grown in areas with heavy S02 emissions have been found to produce toxic organic sulfur compounds (HydrometeorologicalInstitute, 1976, personal communication).
Overall animal production has risen in recent years but appears to be slowing down. For the past 10 years, cattle production has included the slaughter of young cows (brakovani),which negatively affects milk production. Concern was expressed for the overuse and contaminationby trace metals, antibiotics,and hormones (CSAV, 1983).
More than 60 percent of "forced" animals (mostly pigs and cattle) slaughtered have been affected by various kinds of poisonings and dietary problems caused by poor fodder quality, compared to the normal rate of 3.7 percent with problems, e.g., from infectious diseases. Fodder is contaminatedwith nitrates, pesticides, and heavy metals, including mercury, lead, and cadmium. Lead, cadmium, and mercury poisoning resulting from improperly controlled mining activities has been reported in domestic livestock (i.e., cattle) in mountainous regions (Albrecht, 1987). High mercury values have been reported in central Bohemia near Plzen (see Section 10.2). Faulty storage of fodder has resulted in risk of contamination from mycotoxins. Mass breeding of infections such as salmonella have spread in feedlots. Inadequate hygiene and veterinary care for cattle is the cause of the high incidence of masticides (up to 70 percent in some farms) and has resulted in situations where the quality of milk is so poor that it cannot be used for cheese processing (CSAV, 1983). Occasionally,milk has been discarded as unfit because it contained steroids and growth hormones (Albrecht, 1987).
11.2.2 Monitoring Programs
Informationwas not obtained on specific agriculturalmonitoring programs. It is assumed that the Ministry of Agriculture and Ministry of Ag,riculturalIndustries have various monitoring responsibilities. - 103 -
CSAV (1983) stated there is insufficientanalysis of food products to determine the type and degree of contamination. The authors state the lack of control is also used to fraudulentlyadvartise problems with food products; the governmentcannot counter these claims because of lack of data. The Academy said this can have significant effects on other segments of the economy, such as foreign trade and tourism.
11.2.3 Controls and Existing Measures to Correct Problems
An agriculturalland protectionact (No. 75/1976) was passed in 1976. This act was established to prote_.cand compensate for the conversion of agriculturalland to other uses. Provisionswere made for payments to farm organizationsfor economic losses they would suffer if land was converted to other purposes. Payments have to be adequate to enable the organizationto maintain its same output and economic results as be:jre the transfer. Certain agriculturalareas were given special protection, including hop gardens, orchards,vegetable fields, and vineyards. There are also a number of associatedregulations for agriculturalprotection (see Table 3-1).
11.2.4 Trends
Unless there is a change in agriculturalmanagement and enforcement of air and water quality laws, agriculturalproblems will continue to increase.
11.3 FORESTRY
11.3.1 TyDe. Effects. and Causes
Approximately 4.4 million ha of forest land exists in Czechoslovakia (StatisticalSurvey of Czechoslovakia,1976). At present, almost all forests are owned by the state or by cooperatives. Only a small percentage (3 percent) of forest lands are privately owned. These people own the soil but the forests belongs to the state. The forests in Czechoslovakiarange from coniferous evergreen forest (e.g., spruce) at the highest elevations to deciduous forest (e.g., oak-beech) at lower elevations.
More than half the forests in Czech republic are coniferous and are more susceptible to air pollution than broadleaf forests. Originally. these forests were mixed broadleaf coniferous forests of beach, fir, and spruce, but economic forces in the wood industry at the turn of the century changed forest planning (i.e., planting monoculturesof coniferous forests, in particular, spruce forests). In 1950, spruce reforestationwas 27 percent of the total reforestation;in the 1980s, this increased to 50 percent. In the Slovak Republic, spruce reforestationsometimes reaches 40 to 50 percent (SKVTRI, 1990).
These monocultures altered not only the plant biodiversitybut also the habitat for fauna. Nonnative pollution resistant species have also been cultivated. No large-scaleattempt has been made to save and cultivate resistant native genotypes.
Ai. pollution is continuing to cause both primary and secondary effects on forests, with particular problems in the more sensitive evergreen species such as spruce and pine. Forest damage was first noted in northern Bohemia in the 1950s. The rate of forest death has incrpacpd ovpr tho verrt. - 104 -
For example, between 1950 and 1959, 608 ha of forest in northern Bohemia was killed at a rate of 61 ha per year; between 1960 and 1969, the rate increased to 391 ha per year, a 641 percent increase. Between the years 1970 to 1973, the rate was 650 ha per year, almost double the preceding period (Materna, 1976, personal communications). Estimates have been reported that one-third of the forests have been lost or have reached the first step of irreversible damage (Zvosec, 1984).
Spruce forest devastationin northern Bohemia was exacerbated in 1976 when a winter storm caused widespread windfall. This windfall allowed for deeper penetration of air pollutants into forest stands and resulted in greater damage. Because of the storm and air pollution damage, the government decided to harvest the entire damaged forest, including areas not severely damaged. Wood volume output was 4 times higher than reforestationefforts. It was not until 1984 that reforestationefforts caught up (Simanek,1990, personal communication).
Conifers exposed all year to air pollution grow to less than one- fourth of their normal size and die early, instead of the normal 80- to 120- year lifespan (Simons, 1990). It is estimated that by the year 2000, between 45 and 60 percent of Czech forests will be affected (CSAV, 1983). Productivity (i.e., timber volume) is also dropping, and the time between good harvests is getting longer (CSAV, 1983). Fir trees are vanishing from the Sumava mountains and spruce is vanishing from the Ore mountains. In the Slovak Republic, the predictionsare not as grim because regional air pollution is not as serious. However, deciduous forests (beech) are now showing injury, which in some regions, is attributedto a combination of air pollution and fungal disease (Stolina, 1990, personal communication).
In 1984, 40 forest regions in the Czech republic were evaluated for damage from industrialemissions. Specifically,these forest were evaluated for the degree of damage and their economic importance. A ranking of forest regions based on the degree of damage and forest value was estimated for "counter-pollution"measures. Forty-eightpercent of the 40 forest regions were considered to show air pollution damage to coniferous trees in 1983. These forest regions occur along the borders in western and north-central Bohemia and northeasternMoravia (Figure 11-4). The authors predict, if present conditions continued,nearly all but 2 of the 40 forest regions will show damage in the 1990s, ranging from physiologicalstress resulting in stunted growth and loss of sensitive species to forest death, including destruction of large areas (Figure 11-5) [CzechoslovakianScientific and Technical Society (CSTC) and Czech Council of Forestry Society (CCFS), 1984]. According to a survey organizedby the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe in 1988, a total of 70.5 percent of the forests in CSFR are damaged, 5.4 percent are considered dead or dying forest, and 22 percent are classified as medium damaged forests (SKVTRI, 1990).
Much of the preceding discussionhas focused on regional air pollution damage. Significant local damage to forests is occurring from point sources. This is especiallynoticeable in the Slovak Republic, including forest effects from the Krompachy and Rudnany smelters (Mankovskaet al., 1989), the smelter at Ziar and Hronom, (Mankovskaet al., 1988) and iron mines at Nizna Slana (Kaleta, 1988). Forest stands have been killed 4p 01-~~~~~~~~~
A
Figure 11-4 Forest Regions Exhibiting Air Pollution Damage In 1983 i~~~~~~
LUI10 CM t *VWiC ..
ZJD" =0 S.bt = '. ~~.~ -~ c ~' ~ ~ - ...... e IZJE*At4& ZVOAXE14)rVVO auuV( 4Wf=Ot3 .AAA
* .JI~( 4" 4 O1111N W' ', - 1-. e-.
Figure 11-S ExpecteuAMr Pollution Damage orForest Areas In 1990 - 107 -
by ammonia resulting from animal fatteninghouses in the Czech-MoraviaUplands (Pelisek, 1983).
Air emissions are affecting forest management in several ways:
a. Direct loss of timber;
b. Reduced timber growth, especially with conifers; and
c. Reduction in timber diversity, e.g., the loss of Bezkydy fir (CSAV, 1983).
Secondary effects have included loss of trees naturally resistant to insects) and frost and the loss of water supply functions. Damage from these natural stresses are higher in heavily polluted areas. Examples of secondary effects (e.g., pest infestations)are reported by Skuhravy (1986). Thirty- three percent of spruce forest have been damaged by insects. Air pollution is contributing to pest outbreaks; for example, the grey larch budmoth (Zeirapheradiniana) is now associated with high emission levels and the period between outbreaks is growing shorter.
The loss of forests has resulted in large, bare areas in the mountains. These areas are large enough that the spring thaw period in the mountains in the Czech Republic has been shortened. In addition, the change in species composition and the younger age structure has lowered the water retention capabilitiesof forest soils and caused subhydration (CSAV, 1983). In northern Bohemia, the frequency and intensity of floods in the valleys, including flooding of the coal mines, has increased.
11.3.2 Monitoring Programs
As stated previously, nearly all forest are state owned and managed. The forestry institutes and managers of the state forest have chronicled the extent of injury, death, and economic losses to forests in Czechoslovakia. Monitoring of forest condition is conducted routinely as part of regular forest management. Currently, Czech and Slovak foresters participate in an internationalforest monitoring program. Although specific information on monitoring procedures was not obtained, present forest monitoring programs have adopted internationalmonitor'ng methodologies (e.g., IUFRO forestry monitoring programs).
11.3.3 Controls and Existing Measures to Correct Problems
The legal form of the forest protection is contained in a series of decrees which were issued in the years 1977 and 1978. The legal basis is formed by Laws No. 61/1977 on the forests and No. 96/1977 on the management of forests and the state administrationof forest management. These decrees are considered relatively progressive (Ministryof Environment of the Czech Republic, 1990). The law specifies the basic functions of the forest, and, in order to provide for their fulfillment,it divides the forests into three types: productive, protective, and those of special purpose. The categories of forests are defined in further detail by Decree No. 13/1978, which also sets policy for and management of forests for forestry economic planning (Ministryof Environmentof the Czech Republic, 1990). - 108 -
The law and the decrees defining the ecological functions of the forests are vague and do not specify different regimes of forest management correspondingto different forest functions. They do not fully take into account that the productive forests have important non-economicfunctions.
Non-economicfunctions are restricted to protective forests and forests of special purpose. This is especially true in Decree No. 13/1978. The legislationdoes not consider how to make the forestry enterprises and their workers economicallyinterested in the maintenance and developmentof non-economic,ecological forest function.
There is also no linkage between the forest laws and the decrees on state nature conservation.
Environmentalprotection measures have been short-sightedand ineff ctive in stopping the damage to forests in Czechoslovakia. The control measures similar to human health control measures have focused on treating the symptoms rather than the causes for damage (i.e., the amount of air emissions). For example, the forestry group (CSTC and CCFS, 1984) that evaluated the condition of forest in the Czech Republic suggested a number of remedial measures, including:
a. Establish forest stands resistant to pollution; and
b. Cultivate genetically resistentnative species.
No mention is made of reducing emissions.
Ing. Simanek, Vice Director Forests, North Bohemia District (1990, personal communication),has stated, however, that the forest enterprises are compensated for their losses due to air pollution. In 1989, the state gave the enterprises 200 million Kcs in compensationfor damages to the forest. This amount does not include all costs to forest from damages (e.g., costs for reforestation)but is based estimated loss of timber volume. It also does not reflect the actual value or damages from the loss of other functions (e.g., watershed values). Each emission source is assessed in proportion to the amount of its estimated emissions.
Forest management practices in damaged forests are also unsatisfactory. To maximize short-term economic return, the Ministry of Forests cuts all trees regardless of apparent resistance some stands have to air pollution. In addition, nursery stocks are inadequate for reforestation. Because of lower pay than in other industries, the labor force is less than what is needed for reforestation.
As mentioned previously, replanting of trees, including more- resistent deciduous trees, in destroyed forest areas is common. However, the planting of pioneer deciduous trees in some mountainous areas does not meet the ecological requirementsof these areas. Coniferous trees are better ecological species for soil protection. For example, in some areas, birch and mountain ash are planted even though they do not resist erosion as well, especially in the winter.
In four forest districts of northern Bohemia, 40,000 ha had to be reforested. The costs for reforestationin these mountains is 10 times more than normal reforestationcosts (30,000 to 50,000 Kcs/ha versus 3,000 to 5,000 - 109 -
Kcs/ha). Areas of extensive roil liming have been required in northern Bohemia (Simanek,1990 personal communication;also see Section 6.0).
Significant damage to reforestedareas is caused by rodents and game animals, which eat the seedlings and bark. Significantpopulation increases of rodents (e.g., Microtus) have occurred in damaged areas as a result, changing the landscape to more favorable to rodents. Red deer and mouflon strip the bark of trees and red deer and hares eat seedings. In some areas, deer numbers are 6 to 7 times the acceptable numbers for hunting areas (SKVTRI, 1990). Since game management goals for increasing deer'population numbers are based in economic return for the hunting association,these goals are in conflict with forest management practices of a same forests.
The forestry group (CSTC and CCFS, 1984) recommended a change in forest management practices in damaged forests to minimize further damage and accelerate recovery of these ereas:
a. Develop specific forest management plans for areas affected by air pollution;
b. As soon as possible, establish a suitable base for producing seedlings for affected areas;
c. Leave stands of dead or dying trees and/or establish stands of more resistent species as barriers against air emission and starting points for rehabilitation;
d. Revise and integrate game management goals, in particular, game control for hunting areas, within these affected areas to facilitate forest rehabilitation;
e. Develop timber harvesting plans based on replacement ability of region;
f. Introduce measures to restore watershed functions, such as leaving rows of dead vegetation along contour lines to prevent runoff;
g. Minimize soil surface disturbance in tree-fellingand log transport operatirins;and
h. Establish and equip forest ameliorationstations in mountain regions.
11.3.4 Irends
The loss of forest resources will continue even if emissions are reduced to European Economic Community (EEC) or World Bank standards because much of the currently affected forest is damage beyond the threshold for recovery. Given the inability of the government to significantly reduce emissions, it is likely the predictionsof the forestry group (CSTC and CCFS, 1984) will be realized. The net rate of loss will depend upon initiationof changes in forestry managementpractices outlined by the forestry group. - 110 -
11.4 LANDSCAPE RECLAMATION OF SURFACE:MINED AREAS
11.4.1 Type, Effects. and Causes
The history of mining in CSFR dates from before the 13th to 14th centuries. However, the greatest exploitationhas been in the 20th century. Surface mining activities have disturbed large areas in CSFR, especially in northern Bohemia. By 1977, mining activity (including the discharge dumps) in the Northern Bohemia basin had affected about 13,500 ha. An additional 50,000 ha will be devastated if the whole mining district is fully exploited. The area covered by dumps of waste rock will reach approximately6,300 ha in the district of Sokolov if the mining operations were stopped in or around the year 2025 (Ministry of Environmentof the Czech Republic, 1990). Topographicalreclamation appears to be completed after mining, but agricultural,forestry, or natural landscape reclamation is often unsuccessful. In some of these areas, "water" reclamation (e.g., construction of lakes for recreationalpurposes) and "urban" reclamation (e.g., building auto speedways) has been undertaken.
The deep mining of black coal is the cause of extensive subsidence. The extent of the affected area and the intensityof subsidence depend on the geology of the area and on the thickness rf the deposits and their depth. Subsidence of relatively low intensity is expected in the subsidence hollows already established in the Ostrava part of the basin. In contrast, the subsidence processes are expected to destroy totally the original topography, surface water hydrology, and the system of undergroundwater, and cause flooding of the deepest parts of the subsidence hollows within the Karvina part of che basin. This area can be demarked roughly by a line cor.necting Orlova, Dolni Sucha, Stonava, and LAzn Darkov. The final maximal depth of subsidence (up to 16 m) is expected in the areas of Orlova, Stonava, Barkov, and Luka, where the original housing and that of the present spa Darkov will b3 destroyed (Ministryof Environmentof the Czech Republic, 1990).
In the Slovak Republic, mining is not as extensive. Ores and some minerals (e.g., magnesite) occur mostly in Kremnica, Banska Striavnica, and Spis-Gemer regions. Mining constructionmaterial, such as stone, gravel, sand, and limestone, is scattered throughout the republic.
The problems with agriculturaland forestry reclamationof mined areas are due in part to the fact that not enough nurseries exist for growing soil-tolerantspecies and not enough workers are available to conduct the replanting. Also, most of the areas requiring reclamationare in heavily air- polluted regions, making plant growth difficult. Some of the reclaimed areas have very high metal and acid contents in the soils. Methods are needed for detoxificationof these soils.
Reclamation of mine wastes sites have changed. Present practices no longer attempt to first plant pioneer grasses; instead trees, such beach and oak, are planted first. Where groundwater is close to the surface, alder is planted as a pioneer species. 11.4.2 Monitoring Proerams
Reclamationof mined lands is the responsibilityof the mining enterprises. Two instituteshave been responsible for evaluating and planning reclamation actions in the Czech Republic: one in Most, which is responsible for surface mine reclamation,and one in Ostrava, for underground mining reclamation.
11.4.3 Controls and Existing Measures to Correct Problem&
In che Slovak Republic, there are two basic laws governing mining, the Mining Act (No. 44/1988) and associated,regulations and the Geology Act (No. 52/1988). Other associated regulations include the Mining Activities and ExplosivesAct No. 51/1988 and the Building ActivitiesAct No. 50/1976. These laws have an economic emphasis and do not consider environmental and natural resource protection. The Slovak Mining Authority is responsible for the exploitationof reserved minerals (e.g., magnesite) and issues mining permits (Slovak Commissionon the Environment,1990, personal communication). Similar information from the Czech Republic was not obtained.
Ecologistshad the opinion that there was sufficient ecological understandingfor the reclamationof most mined lands and spoil areas. Some problems did exist with spoil banks containinghigh levels of toxic material. Detoxificationtechniques are needed. Many of the problems associated with reclamationwere the result of the improper storage of surface soils.
11.4.4 Trends
Unless significantchanges in mine reclamationoccur and air pollution levels are reduced, reclamationproblems will persist.
11.5 FLORA AND FAUNA BIODIVERSITY
11.5.1 Type. Effects. and Causes
Most of the plant and animal species occurring in the Czech Republic (and in most of the Slovak Republic) lived in a cultured (or agricultural) landscape-modified,area colonized and exploited by man since the Neolithic period. The species have adapted to this landscape transformedby man. However, in the last 40 to 50 years, the flora and fauna of CSFR has suffered significant declines due not only to changes in the landscape but also to air pollution and pesticides. Terrestrialbiodiversity is primatily threatenedby improper land use practices and management and by air pollution.
The intensificationof forestry during the last two centuries resulted in a change in habitats through the establishment of extensive pine and spruce monoculturesand later (mainly from the beginning of the 20th century), because of environmentaldamage from pollution. In the agricultural sector, it has been the transitionfrom small farms to large-scale agriculturalproduction that has resulted in habitat loss. During the last 35 years, the Czech agriculturallandscape has lost 240,000 ha of grassy field boundaries, more than 4.000 km of lineal greenery, 3,600 ha of dispersed greenery, and 20 percent of all meadows. Most wetlands have been dried out, and a greater part of streams have been channelizedand straightened (Ministry of Environment of the Czech Republic, 1990). * 112 -
Aquatic biodiversityis threatened by water pollution and destruction of breeding areas through channelizationand other hydrologicalalterations. Air pollution has significantlyaffected the flora of CSFR, especially in the forest regions (see Section 11.3). Although informationis available on the effects to tree species, similar information on other vegetation types is lacking. Species compositionand floristic diversity has been altered significantly. A,secondary effect has been the alterat'.onof habitats and the change in animal biodiverisityassociated with these habitats (Stastny and Bejcek, 1983). The complet.eextent of the effects of air polluhtionon plant biodiversityand animal habitat biodiversity in CSFR has not been studied. Since the early 1960&, there have been reports of acute and chronic injury and death to wildlife due to air pollution in Czechoslovakia(Newman, 1979a).
These die-offs a'.sohave been associated with indiscriminateuse of pesticides. A survey of 19 districts in the Czech Republic where Endrin-20, a rodenticide,was broadly used resulted in the death of 16,076 hares, 619 pheasants, 1,129 partridges, 128 rabbits, and one sporting dog (Janda, 1969).
It is not surprisingwith the amount and extent of environmental pollution that a significantpercentage (approximately50 percent) of the total flora and fauna in CSFR are considered endangered. These figures are alarming compared to other developed countries and rank high in the world. According to the CSAV (1983) report, 30 percent of fish, 60 percent of amphibians, 30 percent of reptiles, 30 percent of the birds, and 35 percent of the mammals in Czechoslovakiawere considered threatened (actual classificationis not given but assumed to be endangered). Only 20 percent of the native butterflieswere left in "open country" and 5 percent in agriculturalareas.
The trend toward endangered status has continued _, show a dramatic increase. In 1986, 68 percent of fish in the Czech Republic were considered endangered, 72 percent of the amphibians, 83 percent of the reptiles, 37 percent of the birds, and 57 percent of the mammals. Thirty-threepercent of the flora were considered endangered.
In 1988, there appeared to be some recovery of fish, with 61 percent considered threatenedcompared to 68 percent in 1986. The status of amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals has worsened, with 95 percent of the amphibians, 91 percent of the reptiles, 52 percent of the birds, and 60 percent of the mammals considered threatened (CSAV, 1989). There are only four species of cyclostomata. Two of the species are extinct and the remaining two are classified as endangered.
Game animals, which are an intenselymanaged species (Newman, 1979b), have also been affected by the deterioratingenvironment. The 1983 CSAV report states that there has been a drop in waterfowl and small game harvests compared to 1970. Hunting yields have declined 40 percent for pheasants, 90 percent for partridges,and 80 percent for hares. In the damaged forests of northern Bohemia, entire populations of birds and wild game reportedly have collapsed. The authors state that these declines have resulted in economic losses as well. Informationon specific causes for the decline in wildlife is not available at this time. Pesticides,air pollution, water pollution, and habitat loss are considered contributingconditions. Although specific information is lacking on the status of flora and fauna in the Slovak Republic, the threat to flora and fauna is not as great as in the Czech Republic. 113 -
Nongame animals have shown significant declines. For example, in the agriculturallandscApe, there was a rapid decrease of the numbers of birds feeding on insects and plant seeds (e.g., butcher-bird decreased by 91 percent and redstart and wren by 80 percent). Formerly numerously representedspecies also collapsed; the numbers of partridges, for instance, decreased 80 percent. These species perform significant function in pest control. The 1.25 million partridges lost would have consumed about 940 wagons of insects and 625 wagons of weed seeds annually. Of the 46 butterfly species living in the fields and meadows in the 1940s, only 11 species were found in 1982; the number of forest butterfly species decreased from 26 to 9.
The primary impact on aquatic biodiversity is point-sourcewater pollution from urban and industrialareas and non-point-sourcepollution from agriculture. Water pollution is caused by uncontrolled industrialand municipal discharges, agriculturalrunoff, air emissions associatedwith industrialand energy development,and accidents and spills. Seventy percent of all waterways in Czechoslovakiaare reported to be heavily polluted. Nationwide, 28 percent of the major river lengths have been classified in the worst pollution category, i.e., incapable of sustaining fish or containing inedible fish.
Rivers and streams in Czechoslovakiahave also been significantly affected by alteration of their hydrological regimes especiallyby channelization. In the Slovak Republic, 17 percent of the 33,000 km of the river systems have been hydrologicalaltered. Where such alterations have taken place, natural fish productionhas declined 5-fold compared to production under natural conditions.
In addition, the gene pool of species has been threatenedby pollution and land management activities. Reproductionof native fish species has been reduced because natural breeding areas have been destroyed. As a result it has been necessary to start artificial breeding programs (e.g., breeding stations for H1ch2 hucho).
The wild apple and the wild pear tree are on the verge of extinction as a result of agriculturalproduction. According to some estimates, there are about 1,500 apple varieties in Czechoslovakia;nevertheless, only 27 of them are on the list of approved varieties. The same situation exists with respect to the regional varieties of pulses, root-crops, small domestic animals, fish, and bees. Only about 3,000 items of the 5,000 listed in the gene pool of cultured plants of the CSFR represent the original regional and older Czechoslovianvarieties (Ministryof Environmentof the Czech Republic, 1990).
The situation is also unfavorablewith respect to the gene pool for game animals. Some types, namely artificial breeds, have ',en introduced into the CSFR and, after having been released into the wild, gradually have influencedthe original gene pool or have completelyreplaced the original biotypes (e.g., the Czech pheasant and the March duck). The introductionof foreign species into the wild is a serious problem also, e.g., Virginia deer and Sika deer. In the case of Sika deer, crossbreedingwith red deer has taken place; Virginia deer competes with the roe deer for food (Ministry of Environmentof the Czech Republic, 1990). 114
11.5.2 Monitgring Rroargms
No coordinatedand systematicprograms for monitoring the status of flora and fauna exist in CSFR. In the Czech Republic, the Game Management Instituteconducts research and monitoring on game populations. Nongame animals are not systematicallymonitored. Studies on individual species are conductedby individual researchersand institutes. These studies have resulted in the publishing of "red lists" reflecting the degree of endangerment. The following lists have been prepared: red liet of endangered species of vertebrates of the CSFR (1988), red list of vertebrates of the Czech Republic (1988), and red list of extinct endemic and of endangered taxa of higher plants of the flora of the Czech Republic, published in 1979 dnd currently revised in a new edition. An analogous Slovak red list was published in 1983. The situation with the invertebratesis different: at present, cnly the drafts of red lists of some groups of insects and molluscs are ready. A list of endangered plants has also been developed. One limitation to these lists ie that they include many economically and ornamentally important specie:,,ye: some truly rare species are not represented.
11.5.3 Controls and Existing Measures to Correct Problems
Nature conservationwith respect to wildlife is specified under Law No. 100/1960 (Article 15), which, in the past, was under the Ministry of Culture. Ministry of Culture had small conservationdepartments and advisory bodies. These inclAidedState Institute for Protection of Monuments and Nature Conservation,Conservition Section in Prague, and the Central Board for Nature Conservationin Lip7ovsky Mikulas for the Slovak Republic. There are also Regional Centers thrt operated for the Institute for Protection of Monuments and Nature Conservati(a. A third level of nature conservationexisted in the National Committees.
Currently, in tileSlovak Republic, conservation is administered within the Slovak Commis ion on the Environment.
11.5.4 Trends
Since the 1960s, there has been a drastic increase in the numbers of plant and animals that are moving towards extinction. Unless the present environmentaldeterioration is stopped, the current trend towards extinction of native flora and fauna will continue.
11.6 PARKS. PRESERVES. AND OTHER NATURAL AREAS
11.6.1 Tv2es. Effect. and Causes
Although "environmental"protection as is known in the United States and Western Europe does not truly exist in Czechoslovakia,nature protection and a strong public awareness of nature protection does exist. CSFR has well established national parks and protected areas system that was started in the eE-rly19th century. The first forest preserveswere established in 1883. After World War I, the Ministry of Education and National Culture was - 115 -
responsible for the protection of nature and national monuments. By 1938, there were 160 nature preserves. In 1955, the first national park, the Tatra National Park in Sloakia, was designated. There are several categories of parks and preserves including:
a. National parks (Narodni park);
b. Protected landscapes including biosphere preserves (Chranena Krajinna oblast);
c. State nature preserves (Statni prir odni rezervance);
d. Protected habitats (Chranene naleziste);
e. Protected parks and gardens (Chraneny park, zahrada);
f. Protected study areas (Chranena studijni polcha);
g. Protected natural features (Chranena prirodni vytvor); and
h. Protected natural monuments (Chranena prirodni pamatka).
Currently, there are four national parks (one in the Czech Republic and three in the Slovak Republic), 34 protected landscapes areas, and more than 1,600 small protected areas such as state nature reserves, protected localities, parks and gardens, study areas, and natural views (SKVTRI, 1990). Two more national parks are proposed for the Czech Republic, the Sumava National Park in Southern Bohemia and Podyj in South Moravia (JuDr. Vaclav Mezricky, 1990, personal communication). The system of parks and protected areas covers about 15 percent of the land area of the country.
Other national parks are planned for Slovakia including the Protected Landscape Area, Vyohodne Karpaty (Eastern Carpathian Mountains). This area adjoins Poland and the Soviet Union.
There are several landscape reserves including the Krkonose National Park which have on-going ecological monitoring programs. These areas serve as part of MAB international ecological monitoring [e.g., United National Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)/Man and Biophere (MAB) Biosphere Reserves]. These areas are described in the following paragraphs.
Rrivoklat Landscage Reserve (also UNESCO/MAB Biosohere Reserve)
This reserve is a unique area because of the occurrence of a variety of natural and seminatural broadleaved forest preserved in the region of prevailingly coniferous plantations of Bohemia. Integrated botanical- zoological research along with forestry and hydrology studies only recently started. Less than 40 km from Prague, this area is suitable for the participation of well-organized science institutions and a recommended area for the education of university students.
Trebon LandsQaDe Reserve (also UNESCO/NAB Aiosphere Reserve)
This reserve has a unique pattern of seminatural ecosystems, arable land, forests, and wetlands, that have historical value as well as ecological value. - 116 -
Recently,this area has been endangeredby extensiveeconomic development. It is an importantarea for displayingthe biodiversityin the ecotone area of fishponds,bog mires, ana forest. An integratedresearch study alreadyhas shown good resultsand applicationin ecologicaloptimization of management, but the research team has disintegrateddue to lack of funds. A landscape ecologicalsynthesis needs continuationand a modern approach.
KrkonoseNAtional Park (2roDosedas UNESCO/MABBiosphere Reserve)
This park is an internationallyrenown ecologicalisland of subarctic,subalpine, and mountainecosystems in the center of Europe. In recent decades, it has been thoroughlystudied within particularsciences; its biodiversityis outstanding. However, integratedecological research is missing. Modern ecologicalresearch is highly recommended,particularly in view of the increasingpollution. Decline of forestsand dying off of unique plant and animal populationsdeserve urgent action. The authoritiesof the nationalpark receivelittle supportfrom scientificcenters, mainly due to lacking funds in central institutions.
Palava LandscaDeReserve (also Unesco/NABBiosphere Reserve)
The reserve is a limestonearea situatedon the margin of Central EuropeanUplands and Par.nonianBasin. Valuable floodplainforests also are present. Its marginal positionresulted in a number of unique ecosystemsand a species-richflora and fauna. For many decades, this reservehas been a center for the integratedstudies of various academic institutionsin brno, a field laboratoryfor ecologicaleducation. In the recent years, the typical pattern of land use has been abandonedand valuable ecosystemshave been endangered. Successfulattempts for a new land use alreadyhave started,but both the monitoringand surveyingsuffer from lack of funds.
JesenikX danscapeReserve
Th's reserve is a unique mountain range situatedbetween the Sudeten and the Carpathians. Its forests,bog mires, and alpine ecosystemsrepresent a refuge for numerousbiogeographically and ecologicallyrare plant and animal populations,including valuable tree varietiesimportant for forestry. Although pioneeringexploration is finished,detailed and integrated ecologicalresearch is still missing. The area needs the cooperationof a competentresearch team to synthesizegeological, climatological, and biologicaldata and propose adequateecologic/economic management.
Parks and preservesare threatenedby air and water pollutionas well as overuse. It was estimatedin 1983 that 75 percent of the protectedareas and nature parks in the Czech Republichave been affectedby air pollutionand 25 percenthave been seriouslydamaged (CSAV, 1983). KrkonoseNational Park, located in the Czech Republic,receives 9 millionvisitors per year. Eighty percentof the park is forest,and half of the park's forest is showingdamage (Zvosec,1984). Completedisruption of the forest ecosystemhas occurred at attitudesof 750 to 800 m (SKVTRI,1990). The Jeseniky LandscapeReserve is now showingdamage. Accordingto park personnel (1990),70 percent of the trees in Tatra National Park are affectedby air pollution. The southern slopes are affectedby local emissionsources. The northernand northwestern slopes are affectedby regionalemissions from Poland and the Czech Republic. Greatest effectsare observedat higher elevation,greater than 1,300 m. Significanteffects to nationalparks come from transboundaryair pollution. - 117 -
Based on forestryprojections, most parks with coniferoustrees will be affectedby the 1990s.
Mineral development,especially limestone and dolomitemining, have affected severalnatural areas. The most flagrantcase of total disrespect for the natural environmentis presentedby the operationof the large quarry *rtoby Schody (Devil'sStaircase) of the enterpriseCEVA Beroun, situated very close to the Kon prusy Caves. The buildingof new walls of the DP Suchomastyas well as on the slope oppositeto the Kon prusy Caves has brought about an almost completedevastation of the immediatesurroundings of the most spectacularsection of the BohemianCarst LandscapeReserve. The situationis somewhatsimilar to that of the castleJeze i, where about half of the elevationpoint (475 m), called-Zlatjki (goldenhorse), is surroundedby mining walls.
The increasingfuture demandsof agriculturefor limestone,dolomitic limestone,and dolomiticlime (fertilizationof acidic soils) are putting pressureon developmentof lower qualityreserves from regions less important as far cement production,but with a high qualitynatural environment(the Danubiumof the Bohemian Forest,the crystallinebasement of the Giant Mountainsand the JizerskeHory Mountains). The CEVA enterpriseat .'unice plans to build a mill for agriculturallimestone at Vrchlabi and to intensify productionfrom the mine at LAnov (very close to the Giant MountainsNational Park). A similar plan to exploitdolomitic limestone for agricultureis intendedby the South BohemianCounty, where the integratedagroenterprise Sumavaplans to mine and processmaterial from the deposit at Muckov-Bednae near the recreationalarea of Lipno Lake (Ministryof Environmentof the Czech Republic,1990).
Overuse by recreationalvisitors has affectedparks and preserves. The Poprad and Tatra National Parks in the Slovak Republic are consideredto be overusedby the public. Visitoruse in the Tatra NationalPark has increasedfrom 500,000 in 1950 to 5.5 million in 1990, with 1.8 million visitorsvisiting the upper levels in the park. Visitor use in the park should be regulated (Turok,1990, personalcommunication).
Proposedprivatization will have the greatest impact on recreational facilities(e.g., hotel facilities,which are managed by Interhotel). Mountaincottages and transportis managedby the Ministry of Schools and PhysicalCulture. Other nationalparks have less commercialrecreational developmentthan Tatra NationalPark. These parks contain commercialforest operations. Privatizationof forest lands will affect the managementof those parks (and preserves)with forest lands. Privatizationwill have an adverse effect on the managementof smallerpreserves such as forest,ponds, and meadows.
The managementof some nationalparks may also be affectedby the privatizationof forest within theseparks. This is a particularconcern in the Tacra National Park, where privateownership of large areas of forest lands may result. Somewhatless concern for the potentialeffects of private ownershipexists for the Mala Fatra and Low Tatra National Parks. Slovak Paradice is entirely state owned.
Only 10 percent of the major streams in the Czech Republic are consideredto be in their naturalstate (Ministryof Environmentof the Czech Republic, 1990). Channelizationhas decreasednatural stream length by about - 118 -
one-third. The Labe River between Jaromer and Melnik was shortened from 400 km to 178 km. Most realignments in the Czech Republic were done in the late 19th century and first half of the 20th century. These actions were taken to increase agricultural lands (CSAV, 1989).
Currently, there are no policies or laws that protect wetlands as a natural resource. Wetlands have been viewed as unvaluable lands that can be made productive for agriculture by draining. Although no estimates of wetland losses or total wetlands remaining in CSFR were obtained, it is assumed that past and present land use practices, especially channelization of streams and rivers, have had significant effect in reducing wetlands in CSFR. A number of wetland sites have been proposed for listing under the Ramsar Convention, including the following:
a. Novozomecky Rybnik (northern Bohemia);
b. Brehyne-Pecopala (northern Bohemia);
c. Modravske Slate (southern Bohemia);
d. Trebonske Rybniky (southern Bohemia);
e. Lednicke Rybniky (southern Moravia);
f. Sur (southern Slovak Republic);
g. Cicovske Mrtve Rameno (southern Slovak Republic);
h. Parizske mociare (southern Slovak Republic); and
i. Semne-Rybniky (eastern Slovak Republic).
The listed wetland sites in the southern Slovak Republic are in the floodplain of the Dunaj River.
Czechoslovakia does have a number of protected areas that have transboundary counterparts, including Czechoslovak and Polish national parks in the Krkonose and Tatra Mountains. Three Biosphere Reserves are situated along the borders, including Trebonsko and Palava alongside Austria and Slovensky Kras next to Hungary. The Sumova Protected Landscape (proposed as a national park and biosphere reserve) borders the Bavarian National Park and Biosphere Reserve in western Germany, the Labske piskovce (Labe Sandstones) is along a similar protected area in eastern Germany, and Horna Orava (upper Orovo) is situated next to the Polish National Park of Babia Gora (Cerovsky, 1989). In the past, western border areas have been restricted areas where little or no development activity has occurred. The biodiversity and natural resource importance of these area have not been thoroughly inventoried. In border areas along the Dunaj and Morava Rivers, preliminary surveys indicated these areas are heavily used by endangered and protected wading birds and waterfowl. The biodiversity of these riverine border areas is threatened by proposals for development (e.g., bridges, transportation canal). Without the proper inventories and planning, the natural resource value of these border areas could be lost. This also has transboundary implications (see Section 13.1.3). - 119 -
11.6.2 Monitoring Protrams
In the past, the protection of parks, preserves, and monuments in the Czech Republic was under the Ministry or Institute of Preservation of Monuments and Nature Conservancy. This is a coordinating body with a counterpart in the Slovak Republic. This organization is generally charged with mitigating human impacts to parks, etc. and is responsible for protection of natural features of protected landscapes (Skrivanek, 1976, personal communication). Information on specific responsibilities is needed.
National park administration and management is in a state of transition. In the Slovak Republic, all of the national parks, with the exception of the Tatra National Park, are under the administration of the Slovak Commission of the Environment, Department of Nature Protection. The Tatra National Park is managed by a committee of specialists led by the Slovak Commission of Environment and the Ministry of Forestry and Water Management. Tatra Park personnel feel the Tatra and Plienry National Parks should be administered by the Ministry of Forestry and Water Management. Reasons are unclear for this feeling but there is probably a feeling of closer affinity with foresters and probably a greater sense of economic autonomy within the Ministry than within the Commission.
In the Czech '.epublic,the Tatra National Park (and other proposed national parks) is under the authority of the Ministry of Environment. In addition to formal park and preserve administration and subsequent responsibility for monitoring, numerous institutes, universities, and researchers are involved in various monitoring programs for the resources. This monitoring is done in cooperation with international organizations.
11.6.3 Controls and Existing Measures to Correct Problems
Laws and regulations exist for nature protection, including the Nature Conservation Act (Law No. 40/1956) of 1956. This act was amended in 1958 to add natural areas for protection. The Nature Conservation Act is a general law that says "the State protects nature, its important elements and creation, as well as the landscape with all its individual components." In the past, nature protection has emphasized "special protection" of specific areas and individual species. This law is considered outdated. The general protection of nature as a system was not emphasized in the legislation. Protection of habitats for endangered species was not provided for in policies and legislation. The law does not postulate regular recording of the condition of ecosystems and of their changes due to anthropogenic processes and unecological resources management.
There is no legislation on efficient mechanism which could influence man's economic and social activities and direct them toward the good of the ecological stability of nature and of its diverse parts and elements.
Governmental entitles responsible for nature conservancy were given no substantial authority by the law. Even the most severe protection regimes, those of the national parks and state nature reserves, are conditioned by the consent of the existing users or are limited by their dissent.
Of a highly problematic nature is Decree No. 142/1980 on the protection of dispersed greenery. Its relation towards other legal prescriptions also dealing with dispersed greenery is unclear (Ministry of - 120 -
Environmentof the Czech Republic,1990), Air and water pollutionlaws and regulations,if enforced,would help control impactsto protectedareas in Czechoslovakia.
11.6.4 rends
Unless there is a change in enforcemento' air and water quality regulations,there will be a continuingdegradation of parks and preservesin CSFR. These parks and preservesnot only are importantto the republicsand the countryas a whole but are importantto CentralEurope in representing naturalareas of CentralEurope. - 121 -
12.0 ENVIRONMENTALPLANNING PROBLEMS
12.1 TYPES. EFFECTS.AND CAUSES Comprehensiveenvironmental planning in Czechoslovakiahas been conductedin the past by two organizations,Terplan for the Czech Republic and Urbion for the Slovak Republic. Regional plans known as territorialplans were developedby these organizationsat the request of national comaitteesof the districtsand were "adopted"at the local level with state assistance (Territorialplans appear to be equivalentto comprehensiveenvitonmental land use plans developedin the United States.) These plans were seen as parts of other plans includingurbanization plans and socioeconomicplans. According to Terplan, regionalplans exist for 70 percentof the Czech Republic. Currently,no local land use regulationsor planning approval system exists. Many of the land use recommendationhave not been followed at the district or local level (e.g.,buffers along waterways). Agriculturaldevelopment has significantlyand adverselyaffected natural resourcesin rural areas and has not been in concertwith territorialplans.
In the West, considerableattention is given to environmental concerns in regionaland urban planning. Although such considerationsare often identifiedin regional and urban plans in Czechoslovakia,implementation of these considerationsdoes not occur or only partiallvoccurs. Significant environmentalproblems have been identifiedwith plans for regional,urban, and industrialdevelopment in CSFR. The followingare examples of environmentalplanning problems associatedwith developmentin CSFR.
The south Moravianwater managementplan was developedwithout ecologicalconsiderations. The water from the Dyje River is not considered good for irrigation. It is contaminatedby agriculturalrunoff and also discharges from an Austrian starch and citric acid factories. Artificial ponds that were constructedwere too shallow;because of high nutrient levels, the ponds have become eutrophicated. Mosquito problemshave developedand riverine wetlands have been destroyed.
Municipalwaste dischargeshave been located upstream of water purificationplants. Industrieshave been sited in environmentallysensitive areas (e.g., the Slovnaft refinerywas built over the undergroundaquifer for Bratislava,limestone and dolomitemining in the Bohemian Carst Landscape Reserve.
Industrialdevelopment including mining has resultednot only in the loss of towns and villages (e.g., the town of Most, a city of 40,000 people, and the village of Kopisty were relocatedbecause of a surfacemine), but also the social and cultural characterof these communitieshave been lost. The replacementhousing for relocatedcommunities and new housing have been "neighborhoodunit estates,"comprising multistory (10 to 15 stories)and several-bloc'.-!ongapartment complexes. These complexesoften have been built at the expense of parks and greenspace. Studiesof the inhabitantsof these "concretejungles" indicatean increase in social and psychologicalstress. Studies of these conditionshave concludedthat the optimum-sizeapartment complexesare 4 to 5 storieshigh. The large cement works of Kraluv Dvur borders directly on a housing zone in Beroun. A similar situationexists at Hranice Na Morave. - 122 -
In both the Czech and Slovak Republics,housing and urban planning has been poor. For example, the suburb of Bratislava,Petrzalka, where 100,000people live in such estates,has experiencedconsiderable problems. People were moved in before the complexwas complete. The estate had faulty construction,including cracked walls, leaky windows, and inadequatenumbers of shops and services. In addition,there was inadequatetransportation availableacross the Dunaj River to jobs in Bratislava (Ruchova,1990 personal communication).
To solve the housing shortage in Prague,multistory neighborhood estateshave been built around the perimeterof the city, includingthe southwesternsuburb (120,000inhabitants), the southern suburb (100,000 inhabitants),and the northern suburb (120,000inhabitants) (Carter, 1987). Significantsocial problems (e.g.,high crime rate in a new estate east of the city) have been associatedwith these developments. The Prague plan set aside 16 to 17 percent of the land as greenspace. However, this land is being used for other purposes. Because of the need for stormwaterretention, the city is building reservoirsin greenspace. In addition,the greenspacethat does exist is not a usable or healthfularea. For example, polluted streams that go throughthe city are considered greenspace.
12.2 MONITORINGPROGRAMS
Further informationis needed.
12.3 CONTROLSAND EXISTTNGMEASURES TO CORRECTPROBLEMS
In Czechoslovakiaas in other socialistcountries, planning has been centralized. Economic,social, industrial,and scientificdevelopments are set forth in a series of 5-year plans. The first 5-year plan in Czechoslovakiaspecifically dealt with regional planning. It and subsequent 5-year plans emphasizedindustrial and economic development. Environmental considerationswere first identifiedin the sixth 5-year plan, 1976-1980(see Section 4.4.2).
A Town and CountryPlanning Act was adopted in 1958. This act distinguishedbetween three types of plans--regional,master, and detailed. Regional plans should clearly describe the long-termprinciples for developmentand includeareas between 300 and 5,000 km2. Master plans should describe the major principlesfor long-termconstruction or renovationof either whole settlementsor parts of them and to take into account, among other things, greenspace,sewage disposal,and water supply. The third type of plan, the detailed plan, refers to developmentat specific sites governed by regulationssuch as building height and the ratio of built-up to open space (Carter,;987). In theory,these planning tools are supportedby the environmentallaws and regulations.
The role of the State Planning Commissionand other planningbodies at the regional and district levels needs to be identified.
12.4 TRENS
Environmentalprotection has been a constant theme in official legal, political,and technicalliterature of Czechoslovakia. A considerableamount - 123 -
of research has been supported, research programs have been funded, and instituteshave been formed. However, actual environmentalplanning, protection, and enforcementhave been minimal and inadequate. The information gained through research has not been utilized in correcting the environmental problems or adopted in the planning function of the government. To an outsider, the formal attempts at solving the environmentalproblems have been shortsighted,with an emphasis on treating the symptoms, not the causes. For researchersand managers, environmentalprotection has been a "Darwinizing" approach, or selection of the fittest. Unless these conditions change, environmentalplanning will largely be ineffective.
Currently, Terplan (CzechoslovakInstitute for Regional Planning) is working on planning problems of rural areas in the Czech Republic, since these areas were given little emphasis in the past. It is using an Austrian/Bavarianland use planning model, which focuses on rural landscapes and compatible economic development. It is an objective of Terplan to develop ecologicallyoriented plans for rural areas that surround urban areas so that future development in rural areas will ameliorate the unpleasant living conditions in these urban areas (e.g., provide green space extensions into urban areas that can be used for recreation and nature protection). How these plans are reflecting future economic and land use conditions (i.e., privatization)was not determined.
Concerns were expressed with the impact of short-term and long-term economic change as well as privatizationon rural area planning and development. Terplan estimate that 20 to 30 percent of the present state lands in the Czech Republic will revert to private land owners. Most of the remaining rural lands will stay as large agriculturaland forestry enterprises but under private ownership as companies or cooperatives. - 124 -
13.0 TRANSBOUNDARYPROBLEMS
13.1 TYPES. EFFECTS. AND CAUSES
Czechoslovakiahas significanttransboundary environmental problems. These problems involve the cross-borderair and water pollution and projects with cross-borderenvironmental disruptions. CSFR has been characterized as the "roof crest of Europe," exporting both air pollution and water pollution. It also imports air and water pollution. Northern Bohemia forms a part of Eastern Europe that has been characterizedas the "Bermuda Triangle of pollution." This area is a major source of transboundarypollution because of major air emission sources located in Chomutov, Most, and Teplice districts and the polluted Vltava and Ohre Rivers, which drain into the Labe River that flows into East Germany. The Ostrava area in north-centralCzechoslovakia is a second major source of transboundarypollution along with Bratislava and Kosice in the Slovak Republic.
CSFR itself is affected by transboundarypollution. The mountains in north and west Bohemia, including the Krkonose Mountains and the mountains in north Moravia, are being damaged by air emissions not only from northern Bohemia but also from Poland and East Germany. Water quality in southern Moravia is affected by pollution from Austria. The environment of the Slovak Republic is affected by the Czech Republic (e.g., from Ostrava) and by neighboring countries (e.g., Poland).
13.1.1 Air Pollution
Based on review of available informationand limited review of the literature,Czechoslovakia both imports and exports air pollution in the form of sulfur and nitrogen compounds and CO2. Figure 13-1 depicts the balance of sulfur import and export in CSFR. CSFR is a net exporter of sulfur by about 20 to 60 percent. The range reflects yearly fluctuations(SKVTRI, 1990). According to Zavodsky and Pukancikova (n.d.), Czechoslovakiaranks second to East Germany in its total sulfur deposition at 60 kg/ha of sulfur versus 91 kg/ha for East Germany in 1987, based on modeling results. The authors present modeling results mapping the deposition of sulfur and nitrogen compounds in Czechoslovakiaas well as the contributionfrom neighboring Eastern Europea,.countries (Table 13-1). Based on these modeling results, t1'- regions of highest deposition are northern and western Bohemia, north-central Moravia, south-centralMoravia and Slovak Republic, and northeasternSlovak Republic (Figures 13-2 and 13-3). East Germany, Poland, and Hungary contribute 7 to 33 percent of the total sulfur deposition to these areas. A similar pattern is described for NOX compounds. S Um tJ.d0uy Soo. t/rok * dXIKo.
In 1I3. exportin Czechoslovakia import and Balaunceof suifur Figue 13-i - 126 -
CSFR also contributesto the global CO2 emissions. It is estimated (SKVTRI,1990) that global CO2 emission from CSFR are 267 megatons per year (MT/yr). CSFR ranks as one of the biggest contributorsof CO2 behind China and before the former East Germany, Poland and the Soviet Union. The productionsphere (industry)of the economycontributes 62 percent; individualsand the nonproductivesphere, 28 percent;public transportation,6 percent;and agriculture,4 percent.
A completeassessment of the transboundaryeffects of air pollution is not availableat this time. The followingare representativeeoxamplesof these problems. In June 1982, the Bavarian governmentof West Germany gave the Czechoslovakgovernment a report saying 22.4 percent of the spruce forest on the Bavarian side of the border were damagedby air pollutionfrom Czechoslovakia(Zvosec, 1984). Forests in the former East Germany along the border with Czechoslovakiaare severelydamaged by air pollutionboth Czechoslovakiaand East Germa.y.
In 1984, 50 percent of the forest of the Krkonose National Park was estimatedto be damagedby air emission,including SO, (Zvosec,1984). Figure 13-4 depicts t-e estimatedsulfur depositioncontribution to the park by regionsin Czech Republic,Poland, and East Germany. According to this evaluation,approximately 47 percent of the sulfur depositioncame from East Germany and 26 percent from Poland (CSAV, 1989).
Western Slovak Republic forestsare reported to be effectedby air emission from emission sources in Poland'sUpper Silesia. Informationwas not obtained on specific point sourcescausing transboundaryproblems. However, it can be assumed that the locationof industryalong border areas is causing local transboundaryeffects. For example, a coke productionplant (OKK-OKO Coke Works) at Ostrava on the Polish border was shut down because of objectionsregarding air pollution(Rickard, 1990).
13.1.2 Water Pollution
Czechoslovakiais a major contributorto transboundarywater pollution. As mentionedpreviously, because of geographicaland geological conditions,CSFR is known as the "roof crest of Europe,"where major rivers and streams flow out of and not into CSFR. In the Czech Republic, the pollutedLabe River, which drains the pollutednorthern Bohemia, flows into easternGermany.
In the Slovak Republic,a number of polluted rivers also flow out of the country, includingthe Slana River, which flows into the Sajo; the Bodrog River, which flows into the Tisza River in Hungary; the Poprad River, which flows into Poland (with untreatedmunicipal wastes); and Hron River, which flows into lungary via the Dunaj (Ruzicka,1990, personal communication).
Czech and Slovak rivers,including the Morava, Dyje, Vah, and Nitra, which drain into the Dunaj, are contaminatedwith nitrates.
Czechoslovakiaalso importswater pollutionfrom Austria via the Dyje, and Dunaj Rivers, and from Russia via the Vah River. PCB spills have been reported in the Dunaj. A significantproblem of water pollutionfrom Austria comes from the Dyje River. The river water is pollutedby starch and citric acid factoriesin Austria; this has caused eutrophicationand poor irrigationwater in south Moravia (see Section12.0). 127 -
Table 13-1. Average Deposition of Sulfur and Nitrogen on the Territories of the Eight Most Polluted European Countries in 1987 by MSC-W Model Estimate
Sulfur Deposition (kg S/ha) NO. DeRosition (kg N/ha) Country Total Domestic Foreign Country Total Domestic Foreign
East Germany 91 67 24 Austria 10.0 0.3 9.7 Czechoslovakia 60 30 30 Czechoslovakia10.0 1.9 8.1 Poland 48 25 23 West Germany 9.7 3.7 6.0 Belgium 39 16 23 East Germany 9.3 1.6 7.7 Hungary 36 20 16 Switzerland 8.3 0.6 7.7 Netherlands 34 8 26 Belgium 8.0 0.9 7.1 West Germany 33 13 20 Netherlands 7.6 1.2 6.4 United Kingdom 29 23 6 Poland 6.5 1.7 4.8
Note: kg S/ha - kilograms of sulfur per hectare.
kg N/ha - kilograms of nitrogen per hectare.
Source: Zavadsky and Pukancikova,n.d. 128
,~~~~~~~~~~~~ ! IC
8 E~~~~~~~~~~~~~ -4- $i,#- -'L'
_ . . .~~S..-,. . ^ .
I I~~ 0
. .7.
Note: A a total depositon tom aU eiion sources. B* wet deposition fom aE sources CDEF * total deposition from CzechoslovakcEast German, Polish, and Hungarian emission sources Values are in grams of tuftr per square meter.
Figure 13.2 Ile deposition of sulfur on the terrtoryr of Czechoslovalda ill 1987 by SM model estimat:.on om Zavadsky and Pukancikova, nd. - 129 -
______| A '., - ___ -
, /- f, .- -
_ 2f ' I. r_,f, W.~ - %_,
e .~~~~~I /,'> r51-^*f'- \sB,1- >_12, ;0 e, __..$-y.~,. I
t~ ~~I _.__ _ _§_ L o...I_7 _' 8_
IL Om~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Note: A - total depsition &om a miuion sources. - wet deposition fom au sou CDEF - total depostin fm Chosbvakc, West Crman, East German, ad Polh sourca Values am inDrm of nitrogenper sqare mt.
Fiure 13-3 The deposiion of NO. compounds on the erritory of Czechoslovalda in 1987 by SIMI model estimation&om Zavadskyand Pukancilcva, n.d. 130 -
TUROV-HIRSOfSfOR LULICE LEIPZWs-H - 1 I. PLR- E4T
0*- LltiNVIt: ~j~* 4~ 4?/. PiR-WRJBRZYCH
0.91 OSTAThLMtZOJE
| CP9~~WTWVICE .i4M.NIKl-lII C!TICE
Fipre 13-4 Contributdos of important internal and external air pollution sources (power plants, cities, and regions) to sulfur deposition in the Krkonose from CSAV,1989 - 131 -
Natural resources along the borders of CSFR are affected by the border development. The Pieniny TransfrontierNational Park, on the border of Poland and Czechoslovakia,is under threat of a plan for a dam on the Polish side of the border. The project threatens the limestone landscape, a 400-m- deep gorge of the Dunajec River. More than 1,000 vascular plant species (some endemic), 100 species of nesting birds, and 1,600 butterfly species occur in this area. The wain channel will also change the downstream aquatic ecosystem (Council of Europe, 1989).
Gabcikovo-NagymarosDam system is the most controversial cross- border project. Two hydroelectricdams are being built. The dams will generate 300 MW of power. The flow will be altered for a 32-km (20 mile) stretch of the Dunaj drainage. The primary problems are water quality impacts to surface water and groundwater quality and the loss of wetlands.
The shallow aquifer (Zitny Ostro) that provides drinking water for Bratislava is immediatelyadjacent to the new channel and has a high likelihood of being contaminated. The hardwood wetland forests and other wetlands will be lost when the flow is reduced from 2,000 cubic meters per second (m3/sec) to 200 m3/sec (Schweitzerand Phillips, 1988). The wetlands are also the nesting sites for a number of protected waterfowl, wading birds, and raptors, including the black stork and white eagle.
13.1.3 DevelopmentActivities
Development along the border of CSFR has created transboundary development problems [e.g., Gabcikovo-NagymarosDam (see Sections 13.1.2)1 and will continue to result in environmentalproblems unless bilateral environmentalprotection is considered and agreed to. CSFR not only adjoins significant parks and protected areas of other countries but has parks and preserves that adjoin parks and preserves in Austria, Germany, Poland and Hungary (see Section 11.6.1).
13.2 MONITORING PROGRAMS: INTRACOUNTRYAND INIERCOUNTRY
Further information is needed.
13.3 CONTROLSAND EXISTING MEASURES TO CORRECT PROBLEMS
Although bilateral cooperationhas occurred occasionally, Czechoslovakiahas not been a signature to any major international conservationconcerns.
13.4 TRENDS
Unless current environmentalprotection conditions improve, the export of air and water pollution to neighboringcountries is not expected to change. Air pollution effects will continue despite the reduction of emissions in the West and because of the inability of CSFR to substantiallyreduce air emissions in the short term.
Negotiations are underway to resolve the issues associated with the Gabcikovo-NagymarosDam (Ruchova, 1990, personal communication).