Assessment of Air Pollution Around Coal Mining Area

AtmosphericPollutionResearch5(2014)79Ͳ86

Atm spheric Pollution Research www.atmospolres.com

Assessment of air pollution around coal mining area: Emphasizing on spatial distributions, seasonal variations and heavy metals, using cluster and principal component analysis BhanuPandey1,MadhoolikaAgrawal1,SiddharthSingh2

1LaboratoryofAirPollutionandGlobalClimateChange,DepartmentofBotany,BanarasHinduUniversity,Varanasi–221005,India 2EnvironmentalManagementGroup,CentralInstituteofMining&FuelResearch(CSIR),Barwaroad,Dhanbad–826015,India

ABSTRACT JhariaCoalfield(JCF)inJharkhandistherichestcoalbearingareainIndia,whichcontainslargequantitiesofhigh gradecokingcoal.Theconventionalcoalfuelcycleisamongthemostdestructiveactivitiesontheearth,threatening thehealth,pollutingtheairandwater,harmingtheland,andcontributingtolgloba warming.Thevariationsinair

qualityintermsofsulfurdioxide(SO2),nitrogendioxide(NO2)andparticulatematteraroundJCFwereevaluated overtheperiodof2010and2011atfivesitesduringdifferentseasons.Airpollutionindex(API),calculatedonthe

basisofsuspendedparticulatematter(SPM),SO2andNO2concentrationswashighestnearthecoalminingarea.The ambientconcentrationsofheavymetals(inPM10)alsoshowedsignificanttemporalandspatialvariationsatdifferent sites around coal mining areas. Pollutants dispersion and spatial variations were explained by the use of cluster analysis(CA).Multivariatestatisticalanalyseswereadoptedincluding;principalcomponentanalysis(PCA)toidentify CorrespondingAuthor: themajorsourcesofairpollutantsinthearea.The meanconcentrationsofheavymetalsinPM10werefoundinthe Madhoolika Agrawal order of Fe>Cu>Zn>Mn>Pb>Cr>Cd>Ni. The major sources contributing to air pollution in Jharia were coal mining :+91Ͳ941Ͳ53628573 relatedactivitiesandactiveminefires,andsecondarilyvehicularemissions,whilewind–blowndustthroughunpaved :+91Ͳ542Ͳ2368174 roadsalsocontributedtosomeextent. :[email protected] Keywords:JhariaCoalField(JCF),AirPollutionIndex(API),Heavymetals,ClusterAnalysis(CA),PrincipalComponent Analysis(PCA) ArticleHistory: Received:17July2013 Revised:12October2013 Accepted:31October2013 doi:10.5094/APR.2014.010 1.Introduction The activities responsible for pollution in and around coal mine areas are drilling, blasting, overburden loading and Thelinkbetweenenvironmentalissuesandthedevelopment unloading,coalloadingandunloading,haulroads,transportroads, isoneoftheleadingissuesofthepresenttime.Thedevelopment stock yards, exposed overburden dumps, coal handling plants, progressionhascustomarilybeenaccompaniedbyrapidincreases exposed pit faces, presence of fire, exhausts from heavy earth in energy demand (Kaygusuz, 2012). Different sources of energy, moving machinery, crushing of coal to a convenient size in the from fossil fuels to nuclear, pollute the environment in different feederbreakerandworkshop(GhoseandMajee,2000a).On the ways and at different levels (Omer, 2008). Presently, energy is otherhand,burningofcoalalsoleads toincreaseinconcentrations largely produced by burning of fossil fuels such as coal, oil and of particulate and gaseous pollutants in the atmosphere causing natural gas (Veziroglu and Sahin, 2008). Among all these energy severe air pollution around coal mining areas (Tripathi and sources,coalisacrucialresource,mostabundantlypresent,andis Gautam,2007). alsothecheapestsourceofenergy(FrancoandDiaz,2009).Coal provides29.6%ofglobalprimaryenergyneeds,generates42%of Coalminingisaleadingindustrycausingfatalinjuries,andis theworld'selectricity,andglobalcoalconsumptionhasincreased associated with chronic health problems among miners, such as by 46% during 2001 to 2010 (World Coal Association, 2011). In black lung disease, which causes permanent scarring of the lung ordertomeettheenergyrequirement,theoverallcoalproduction tissues (Schins and Borm, 1999). In addition to the miners andcoalmininghavetremendouslyincreasedinIndia,whichranks themselves, communities near coal mines are also adversely third among top ten coal producing countries (World Coal affected by mining operations due to the effects of blasting, the Association,2011). collapseofabandonedmines,andthedispersalofdustfromcoal trucks(Reardon,1996).Environmentalill–effectsofcoalminingare Theminingactivitiescontributetotheproblemofairpollution potentially very broad including air, soil and water pollution and directlyorindirectly(Baldaufetal.,2001;Collinsetal.,2001).The loss of biota (Moody, 2005). Therefore environmental impact of most important emissions during coal mining and through active coal mining areas must be assessed periodically for air quality mine fires are particulate matter (PM), sulfur dioxide (SO2), assessment(Jones,1993). nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and heavy metals. These air pollutants deteriorate air quality and ultimately affect the human health, It is required to optimize the air quality monitoring network floraandfaunainandaroundcoalminingareas(Singhetal.,1991) using the practical alternative methods such as Principal Components Analysis (PCA) and Cluster Analysis (CA). PCA is a

©Author(s)2014.ThisworkisdistributedundertheCreativeCommonsAttribution3.0License. Pandey et al. – Atmospheric Pollution Research (APR) 80 multivariate statistical technique that creates new variables, pollutant concentrations, PCA was performed. Heavy metal commonly known as principal components (PCs) that are concentrations in PM10 were also estimated to understand their orthogonal and uncorrelated to each other. These PCs are linear variationsrelatedwithdifferentminingactivities. combinations of the original variables (Wang and Xiao, 2004). To simplify the influence of each original variable in the PCs, a 2.MaterialsandMethods rotationalalgorithmsuchasVarimaxrotationisusuallyappliedto obtaintherotatedfactorloadingsthatstandforthecontribution 2.1.Studyarea ofeachvariabletoaspecificPC(Piresetal.,2008).Ontheother hand,CAisacategorizationmethodusedtoseparatethedatain The present study was carried out in Jharia coalfield (JCF), classesorclusters.Itsmainaimistocreatetase ofclusterssuch located in Dhanbad district of Jharkhand state of India, between that objects in the same cluster are similar to each other and latitudes2339'to2348'N,longitudes8611'to8627'Eand222m different from objects located in further clusters (Manly, 1994). above mean sea level (Figure 1a). JCF is the most exploited This classification method can additionally be helpful for data coalfield because of available metallurgical grade coal reserves. reduction. In earlier studies, Gramsch et al. (2006) used the PCA Thiscoalfieldisengulfedwithabout70minefires,spreadoveran andCAtodeterminethe seasonaltrendsandspatialdistributionof areaofapproximately18km2. PM10andO3inSantiago,Chile.ShahandShaheen(2008)employed these techniques to identify the major sources of airborne trace For air quality monitoring, four monitoring sites namely Ena metalsinIslamabad,Pakistan. colliery, Dhansar, Bastacolla and Bhagatdih were selected in different directions and distances in coal mining area of JCF Thepresentstudywasconductedoveraperiodoftwoyears (Figure1a). A reference site, Central Institute of Mining and Fuel to quantify the spatial and seasonal variations in air pollutant Research(CIMFR),wasalsoselectedforcomparingtheairquality, concentrations around coal mining areas of Jharia coalfield, situated at six km in north direction from Jharia (Figure 1a). The situatedinDhanbaddistrictofJharkhandstateinIndia.Toidentify characterizationofmonitoringsitesisdetailedinTable1. the contribution of different activities in the mining area on air

Figure1.Locationofthestudysiteandmonitoringstations(a) andwindrosediagramofstudyareaduringmonitoringperiod(b). Table1.Detailsofdifferentsites,theirlocationandactivitiesinJhariacoalfield S.No. Site Location Activities Miningactivities,coalhandlingplant,vehicularmovement,transportonpavedandunpaved 1. Enacolliery Enaprojectcoalmine road,haulroadandexposeddump/exposedpitsurface. Miningactivities,coalhandlingplant,vehicularmovement,transportonpavedroadand 2. Dhansar Dhansarprojectcoalmine unpavedroad,haulroad,exposeddumpandindustrialactivity. Near(Approximately1km) 3. Bhagatdih Vehicularmovement,transportofcoal,domesticcoalburningandresidentialactivities. Kushtourcoalmine Near(Approximately)1km 4. Bastacolla Vehicularmovement,transportofcoal,domesticcoalburningandresidentialactivities. Bastacollacoalmine 5. CIMFR 8kmaway(NE)fromJCF Goodplantation,institutionalarea. Pandey et al. – Atmospheric Pollution Research (APR) 81 Theregionexperiencessub–tropicalclimate.Itiscoolduring stored in inert glass until analyzed byusing atomic absorption winterseasonfromNovembertoFebruary.ThemonthofMayhas spectrophotometer (Model AAnalyst 800, Perkin–Elmer, USA). been the hottest. It remains hot until the monsoon outbreaks, Heavy metal concentrations were quantified from twelve towards the middle of June. With the setting of rains, the replicatesfilterpapersrepresentingdifferentmonthsinayearand temperature falls and humidity rises. The rainy season continues thedatawereshownasannualaverage. fromJulytoOctober.Thedominantwinddirectionsintheareaare SE/SSE with low calm conditions (5.3%). Dominant wind speed 2.4.Statisticalanalyses generallyrangesbetween4to6mhо1(Figure1b).Thevariationof meteorological parameters in the area is given in the Supporting Obtained data were processed for statistical analyses Material(SM)(FigureS1). includingthree–waymultivariateanalysisofvarianceforexamining theeffectsofsite,season,yearandtheirinteractionsondifferent 2.2.Monitoringofparticulateandgaseouspollutants parameters.Inordertoidentifysourcesofairpollutantsandheavy metalsinPM10atstudysites,PCAwasconductedbytheVarimax TheairqualitymonitoringforSPM,SO2andNO2wasdoneat rotated factor matrix method, based on the orthogonal rotation different study sites for two consecutive years from 2010–2011, criterionwithKaisernormalization.CAonAPIwasutilizedtogroup while PM2.5 and PM1.0 were monitored only during 2011. The thesitesbasedonthesimilaritybetweenthem.Rescaleddistance gaseouspollutantswereanalyzedthroughwetchemistrymethod cluster combine (RDCC) was employed to compute the distance using portable gas samplers (Precision Instruments Ltd., India) among monitoring dstations an the clustering method between– once in a fortnight at each site for eight hours from 09:00 to grouplinkagebasedontheZ–scoresstandardizedtransformation. 17:00h. To determine the SO2 concentration in ambient air, All the statistical analyses were performed by using IBM SPSS sample was collected by drawing air at flow rate of 1.2Lmin–1 Statistics 16 software and all the presentation was done using through absorbing solution of 0.04M potassium tetra chloroͲ SigmaPlot11.0(SystatSoftware,Inc)software. mercurate (K2HgCl4). A dichloro sulphitomercurate complex thus formedandreactedwithsulphamicacid(0.6%),pararosanilineand 2.5.Qualitycontrolanalysis formaldehyde (0.2%) to form intensely colored pararosaniline methyl sulphonic acid. The absorbance of the solution was ThewetchemistrymethodsforSO2andNO2monitoringwere measured at 560nm using UV–VIS spectrophotometer (Model standardized with automatic SO2 photometric analyzer (Model 2450, Shimadzu Corporation, Japan) by following the improved 319, Kimoto, Japan) and chemiluminescence NO/NOX analyzer methodofWestand Gaeke(1956). (Model 200E, Teledyne Instruments, U.S.), respectively. Precision and accuracy of heavy metal analysis was assured through ForNO2,samplewascollectedbydrawingairatasimilarflow repeated analysis of samples against National Institute of ratethroughamixtureof0.4%sodiumhydroxide(NaOH)and0.1% Standards and Technology, Standard Reference Material (SRM 2– – sodiumarsenite(NaAsO ).Theconcentrationofnitriteion(NO2 ) 1570)foralltheheavymetals.Theresultswerefoundwithin±2% produced during sampling was determined colorimetrically by of the certified values. Quality control measures were taken to reactingthenitriteionwithphosphoricacid,sulfanilamide,andN– assess contamination and reliability of data. Blank and drift (1–naphthyl)–ethylenediamine di–hydrochloride (NEDA) and standards (Sisco Research Laboratories Pvt. Ltd., India) were run measuring the absorbance of highly colored azo–dye at 540nm after five determination to calibrate the atomic absorption using a UV–VIS spectrophotometer (Model 2450, Shimadzu spectrophotometer. The coefficients of variation of replicate Corporation, Japan) by the method described and modified by analysis were determined for different determinations for JacobsandHochheiser(1958). precision of analysis and variations below 10% were considered correct. TheSPMwascollectedforeighthourfrom09:00to17:00hby drawingairataflowrateof1.1m3min–1throughWhatmanglass 3.ResultsandDiscussion fiberfilter(20.4cm×25.4cm)usingahighvolumesampler(Model APM 415, Envirotech, India). The difference of weight of filter Assessment of air quality monitoring data showed that all before and after sampling was used to calculate PM10 particulate and gaseous pollutants (SPM, PM10, PM2.5, PM1.0,SO2 concentrationandSPMconcentrationwascalculatedbyaddingthe and NO2) and API showed significant spatial and seasonal concentrationofparticulatecollectedthroughhopper.Eighthourly variationsduringboththeyearsofmonitoring(Figures2and3;see monitoringofPM1.0andPM2.5wasalsodonebyportableaerosol the SM, TableS1). Concentrations of all types of particulate spectrometer(Model1.109,GrimmtechnologyInc.,USA). matterswereatthehighestduringwinterfollowedbysummerand rainyseasonsatallthesites(Figures2and3). Similartrendswere Theairpollutionindex(API)isameasureoftheratioofthe reportedforparticulatematterfromdifferentareasofIndiasuch pollutantconcentrationinambientairtothenationalstandardsof as Jharia coalfield (Ghose and Majee, 2000b), Sambalpur region, thepollutants.APIwascalculatedbytheformulagivenbyRaoand (Chaulya,2004),Raniganj–Asansolarea(ReddyandRuj,2003)and Rao(1989). aroundDhanbadcity(JainandSaxena,2002).SPMconcentrations varied significantly between sites and seasons (see the SM, ͳ ܵܲܯ ܱܵଶ ܱܰଶ TableS1).g Amon thesites,thehigherconcentrationsofSPMwere ܣܲܫ ൌ ቈ ൅ ൅ ቉ ൈ ͳͲͲ (1) observedatEna,Dhansar,BhagatdihandBastacollasituatednear ͵ ܵௌ௉ெ ܵௌை ܵேை మ మ active mining locations. SPM concentration exceeded the –3 where, S , S and S represent the ambient air quality prescribedlimitofNAAQS(500μgm ;CPCB1995)ofIndiaduring SPM SO2 NO2 winteratEna,DhansaranBhagatdihandduringsummerseasonat standards(CPCB,2009)forSPM,SO2andNO2. Ena and Dhansar (Figure2). Coal dust is reported as the major 2.3.Metalanalyses pollutant in the air of open cast coal mining areas (Vallack and Shillito, 1998). The primary source of fugitive dust at fully For the analysis of heavy metals in PM , glass fiber filter operational surface mine may include overburden (OB) 10 removal, blasting, mineral haulage, mechanical handling opeͲ paper was digested in HNO3 and HClO4 solution at a ratio of 9:4 according to the methodology by Gaidajis (2003). The extracted rations, minerals stockpiles and site restoration (Appleton et al., solution was filtered and washed by double distilled water and 2006). Pandey et al. – Atmospheric Pollution Research (APR) 82

Figure2.SeasonalvariationsinSPMandPM10during2010to2011andPM2.5 andPM1.0 during2011 (Mean±SE).Barswithdifferent lettersbetweensitesshowsignificantdifference(p<0.05)atdifferentsitesandataspecificseason.

Figure3.Seasonalvariationsingaseouspollutant(SO2 andNO2)concentrationsandairpollutionindex(API)atdifferentsitesduring 2010to2011(Mean±SE).Barswithdifferentlettersbetweensitesshowsignificantdifference(p<0.05)ataspecificseason. Pandey et al. – Atmospheric Pollution Research (APR) 83 The concentrations of PM10 at Ena, Dhansar, Bhagatdih and concentration(PioandFeliciano,1996).TheconcentrationofSO2 Bastacolla during winter of 2010 were respectively 271.9, 233.9, atEna,Dhansar,BhagatdihandBastacollaexceededtheprescribed 213.4and196.1μgm–3andwere2.7,2.3,2.1and2timeshigher limitofNAAQSIndia(80μgm–3)duringwinterin2011.Thelowest –3 thanNAAQS(100μgm ;CPCB2009)guidelinesofIndia(Figure2). concentrationofSO2inrainyseasonmaybeattributedtowashout Duringsummer2010,PM10concentrationswere1.9,1.9,1.7and by rain as rainfall was about more than 90%during rainy season 1.6times higher than NAAQS at respective sites. During rainy (seetheSM,FigureS1).HighSO2atEnaandDhansarsitesmaybe season only Ena had slightly higher concentration of PM10 ascribed to active mine fires near Ena colliery and hard–coke –3 (135.9μgm ) than NAAQS. The trends of variation in PM10 conͲ industriesintheDhansarregion.Becauseoftheeasyavailabilityof centrationsweremoreorlesssimilarduring2011(Figure2).PM10 coalasthecheapestenergysource(WorldCoalAssociation,2011), concentrationvariedsignificantlyduetoseason,siteandseason× frequent use of coal for domestic purposes is also the reason of siteinteraction(seetheSM,TableS1).Thecoarseparticles(PM10) highSO2concentrationinthearea. are formed due to mechanical disruption (e.g. crushing, grinding –3 andabrasionofsurfaces),evaporationofspraysandre–suspension Concentration of NO2 was below NAAQS (80μgm ) of dusts (Cole and Zapert, 1995) near coal mining areas, hence guidelines of India during all the seasons and at all the sites proportionsofcoarseparticleswerehighinthecoalminingregion. (Figure3).ThetrendofmeanconcentrationofNO2duringwinter season was Ena>Dhansar>Bhagatdih>Bastacolla>CIMFR (Figure3). The concentrations of PM2.5 at Ena, Dhansar, Bhagatdih and However, in summer and rainy seasons, the trends were Bastacolladuringwinterof2010were1.9,1.8,1.6and1.6times Dhansar>Ena>Bhagatdih>Bastacolla>CIMFR during 2010. Mean –3 higher than NAAQS (60μgm ; CPCB 2009) guidelines of India concentrations of NO2 showed more or less similar spatial and (Figure2).Duringsummer,PM2.5concentrationswere1.6,1.6,1.5 seasonalvariationsintheyear2011(Figure3).NO2concentrations and 1.5times higher than NAAQS at respective sites (Figure2). showedsignificantvariationsduetoseasonandsite(seetheSM, DuringrainyseasononlyEnahadslightlyhigherconcentrationof TableS1). Anthropogenic emissions of NO2 in the area may be PM2.5thanNAAQS.PM1.0concentrationwasrecordedthehighest mainly due to combustion processes, including vehicle exhaust, atEnafollowedbyDhansar,Bhagatdih,Bastacollaandtheleastat coal,oilandnaturalgas,withsomeemissionsduringblasting.The CIMFR (Figure 2). PM2.5 and PM1.0 concentrations showed seasonal variations in NO2 concentrations are mainly determined significantvariationsduetoseasonandsite(seetheSM,TableS1). bythevaryingdaylengthovertheyear.Inabsenceofsunlight,NO2 Fineparticles(PM2.5)andultrafineparticles(PM1.0)areformedby has a longer lifetime in the atmosphere (Li et al., 2008), which chemical reaction; nucleation, condensation, coagulation, evapoͲ explainsthereasonofhigherNO2duringwinter.ThereisconsidͲ rationoffogandclouddroplets,inwhichgasesalsodissolveand erablylessmixinginthelowerairboundaryduringwinter,which react(WilsonandSuh,1997).Combustionofcoalisamajorsource leadstoelevatedlevelsofNO2duringthisseason(AtkinsandLee, forfineandultrafineparticlesandtheactiveminefirespresentin 1995). Higher concentrations of NO2 at four sites around mining JCF play a major role in generation of PM2.5 and PM1.0 at all the areaarealsoattributedtopresenceofactiveminefires,highload four monitoring sites around the coal mining area. Lowest of vehicular movement for coal transport and other mining concentrationofparticulatesatCIMFRisduetothefactthatthe activities. siteisfarawayfromtheminingareas.Verysmalldifferenceinthe concentration of PM1.0 during summer and winter season APIshowedsignificantseasonalandspatialvariations(seethe (Figure2) may be attributed to the fact that PM1.0 remains SM,TableS1).ThehighAPIvaluesatsitesnearcoalminingareas airborne through nonlinear processes for days–to–weeks during are due to high concentrations of nearly all the air pollutants monsoon months as washout processes are least effective for monitored(Figure3).TheincreaseinAPIvaluewasmainlydueto cleansingtheseparticles. increase in SPM concentration. During winter, sites in or near to coalminingareas(Ena,Dhansar,BhagatdihandBastacolla)showed Pollutant dispersion mechanisms suggest that the site heavy pollution (index value was 76–100), while during summer topography and the meteorological conditions strongly influence EnaandDhansarsiteswereheavilypolluted(indexvaluewas76– the concentrations of particulates (Charron and Harrison, 2005). 100) (Figure3, TableS2). Bhagatdih and Bastacolla were modeͲ Higher concentrations of particulate matter during winter can be rately polluted during summer and rainy seasons. Light air attributed to low temperature (see the SM, Figure S1) and low pollution (indexvaluewas26–50)wasobservedatCIMFRduring windspeed,whichleadtolowermixingheightandpoordispersion winterseason(seetheSM,TableS2). conditions. During summer season, particulate matter concenͲ trations were found to be lower than winter due to enhanced Figure 4 shows the mean concentrations of heavy metals in dispersion caused by high wind speed. The lowest concentration PM10obtainedfromambientairfromvariousmonitoringsites.The wasobservedduringmonsoonseason,whichmaybeattributedto highestmeanconcentrationwasfoundforFefollowedbyCu,Zn, washoutbyrainfallandalsoduetohigherrelativehumidity (see Mn,Pb,Cr,CdandNiduringthebothyearsofmonitoring.Fe,Cu, theSM,FigureS1),whichreducesre–suspensionofdust. Zn, Mn, Pb, Cr, Cd and Ni contributions in PM10 were 70.6, 14.6, 6.7, 5.6, 1.1, 1.1, 0.3 and 0.1%, respectively in sites near coal TheconcentrationsofSO2werehigharoundcoalmineareas miningareaand74.6,12.6,8.3,2.5,1.5,0.6,0.5and0.1%atCIMFR comparedtoCIMFRinalltheseasonandinbothyears(Figure3). situated far away from coal mines (see the SM, Figure S2). The Three–wayANOVAanalysisshowedthatvariationsinSO2concenͲ mean concentrations of Pb, Ni and Cr were recorded highest at trations were significant between the sites and seasons, yearly Dhansar,whileCu,Mn,FeandZnwerehighestatEna.MeanCd variations were, however, not significant (see the SM, TableS1). concentration was highest at Ena colliery during 2010, but at The seasonal trend of SO2 concentration (winter>summer>rainy) Dhansar during2011. Three–way ANOVA test showed that variaͲ can be explained by the chemistry of SO2. It is directly emitted tionsinallheavymetalconcentrationsinPM10weresignificantdue (fossilfuelcombustion,industrialprocesses)andthenlostfromthe toseasonandsite(TableS1).Cu,however,alsoshowedsignificant atmospherethroughdrydepositionatthesurfacesoroxidationto season×siteinteraction(seetheSM,TableS1). sulfate (Pio and Feliciano, 1996). Oxidation of SO2 in the atmosphere can occur homogeneously in the gas phase and OurresultsfurtherindicatedthatFe,Cu,MnandZnwerethe aqueous phase (raindrops), heterogeneously on the surfaces of largest components of the heavy metal load in PM10. Higher Fe particles or combinations of all three (Finlayson–Pitts and Pitts, concentrationmaybeascribedtohighlevelsofFeofcrustalorigin 1986). Rates of oxidation of SO2 were suggested to be higher in presentinlooselybounddustofcoalfield(Mahowaldetal.,2005). summerthaninwinter,whiledrydepositionvelocitywasfoundto WhenFeisassociatedwithZn,pollutionmayberelatedtofossil behigherinwinterthansummer(PioandFeliciano,1996).Wind fuel combustion, incineration, or natural origin (Manalis et al., speed, air masses and height of mixing layer also govern SO2 2005). Pandey et al. – Atmospheric Pollution Research (APR) 84

Figure4.Annualvariationsinheavymetalconcentrationsatdifferentsitesduring2010to2011(Mean±SE).Barswith differentlettersbetweensitesshowsignificantdifference(p<0.05)ataspecificyear. Useofleadedgasolineisnotcontinuing,butre–suspensionof PrincipalComponent(PC)loadingsforparticulateandgaseous PbrichdustduetovehiclemovementincreasesPbconcentration pollutantsandheavymetalsfortheyear2011withcorresponding in ambient air. Mining activities itself are responsible for Pb eigenvaluesandvariancesaregiveninTable2andloadingfactors emissions into atmosphere as it occurs in the earth crust (Cheng of air pollutants in three dimensional spaces are presented in andHu,2010).Astheresidencetimeandtransportofatmospheric Figure6. Pbislinkedto thecharacteristicsofaerosols(U.S.ATSDR,2005), particleswithaerodynamicdiametersof>2.5ʅmsettleoutofthe atmosphere fairly rapidly and are deposited relatively close to emissionsources,hencelowconcentrationofPbwasrecordedat site away from mining area. Only natural windblown dust and vehiclesarethesourcesofPbatCIMFRsite. Results of cluster analysis on API grouped monitoring sites differently on the basis of RDCC values (Figure 5). In the winter season,whenthepollutantdispersionwaslowduetolessmixing in lower air boundary, Ena and Dhansar sites, where monitoring wasdoneclosetominingarea,formedasinglecluster(Figure5a). BhagatdihandBastacollaformedanothergroupasthemonitoring at these sites was done in the residential area adjacent to coal mines (Figure 5a). In summer season, the mixed cluster of these foursiteswasfound,whichalsoindicatedtowardsrelativelyhigh pollutantdispersionduringsummerwhenwindspeedwashighest (Figure5b).Duringrainyseason,BastacollaandBhagatdihformed a cluster, while other three sites did not show any proper clustering(Figure5c).Inallthethreeseason,CIMFRwasfaraway fromotherfoursitesonRDCCduetoitsspatialdistancefromthe coalmines. Figure5. Dendrogramsresultingfromtheapplicationofclusteranalysis toairpollutionindexatdifferentsitesduringwinter(a),summer(b) andrainy(c)seasons. Pandey et al. – Atmospheric Pollution Research (APR) 85 4.Conclusion AssessmentofairqualitymonitoringdataaroundJCFshowed significant spatial and seasonal variations in concentrations of PM10,PM2.5,PM1.0,SO2,NO2andheavymetalsinPM10depending on pollutant emission or formation and pollutant dispersion mechanisms, which are also influenced by meteorological conditions and distance of the site from sources. Wind speed, relative humidity, temperature and rainfall were the governing parametersofseasonalvariationsinairpollutantconcentrationsin the area. Sites near coal mining areas resided under heavily polluted category on API. CA showed that pollution behavior of siteschangedindifferentseasons.PCArecognizedthatcoalmining andactiveminefires(57.71%variance)arethemaincontributors of air pollutants in the study area. Vehicular emissions (17.85% variance) and windblown dust through unpaved roads and over burdens (7.54% variance) are the other causes of air quality Figure6.ThreeͲdimensionalfactorsloadingofairpollutantsinJCFduring deterioration around the coal mining areas. Pollution prevention 2011. advanced mining technology and effective strategies as well as public awareness and education may be reasonable and useful Three PCs with eigenvalues greater than 1.0 were extracted ways to reduce hazardous air pollutant emissions around coal with 79.1% cumulative variance for coal mining areas. The relaͲ mining areas. The outcomes of this study may provide a tionships between the principal component and the chemical comprehensive catalogue for outlining a proper scheme for compoundsareindicatedbythefactorloadingsandrelatedtothe requiredmitigative/preventivemeasures. sourceemissioncomposition.Allthesourcecategoriesforthecoal mining area have distinct characteristics, and hence assigned on Acknowledgments the basis of marker species. High loadings for SPM, PM10, SO2, PM2.5, PM1.0, Ni and Cu in PC1 indicate coal mining (SPM, PM10, We thank, Head, Department of Botany, Banaras Hindu PM2.5andPM1.0),coalburning andactiveminefires(SO2,Niand University and Director, Central Institute of Mining and Fuel Cu)asmajorsources.MostofthevarianceofPM10,SO2,PM1.0,Ni Research, Dhanbad for providing all the necessary laboratory andCuappearedinPC1,providingevidenceforminingoperations, facilities during the research work. Authors are also grateful to coalburningandactiveminefires.Themaximumpercentvariance Ministry of Coal, Government of India, New Delhi for financial (53.71%)forthisPCsuggeststhattheseoperationsarethemajor assistance(EE/39). sources of pollutants in this area. In PC2, the direct vehicular sourcescanbeidentifiedbyhighloadingsofNO2,Pb,CdandCr.Pb SupportingMaterialAvailable andNO2aregoodvehicularmarkers(Dubeyetal.,2012).CdandCr have significant contributions from crude–oil combustion and Monthly rainfall, relative humidity and temperature during metallurgical units housed in the industrial areas and vehicular 2010 and 2011 in the study area. (Figure S1), Percentage metal emissions (Tasdemir et al., 2006). One of the most important contribution in PM10 in coal mining region (a) and at CIMFR (b) sourcesofCd,CrandPbintheurbanenvironmentisroadtraffic. (Figure S2), F values and significance levels for various air There is a small distance in position of Pb in three dimensional pollutantsandheavymetalsasobtainedbythreewayANOVAtest space from the group having Cd, Cr and NO2, suggesting that Pb (TableS1),Airpollutionindexandqualityremarks(TableS2).This hasmorethanonesignificantsourceinthecoalminingarea.The information is available free of charge via the Internet at PC3with7.54%totalvarianceshowshighestloadingsforFe,Mn http://www.atmospolres.com and Zn. This revealed close association of Fe and Mn, mainly contributed by earth crust/wind–blown soil/coal fly ash (Quiterio References etal.,2004). Appleton, T.J., Kingman, S.W., Lowndes, I.S., Silvester, S.A., 2006. The Table2.Rotatedprincipalcomponentsloadingforgaseousandparticulate developmentofamodellingstrategyforthesimulationoffugitivedust pollutantsinJhariacoalfield emissions from in–pit quarrying activities: A UK case study. InternationalJournalofMining,ReclamationandEnvironment20,57– PC1 PC2 PC3 82. SPM 0.589 –0.159 0.636 Atkins, D.H.F., Lee, D.S., 1995. Spatial and temporal variation of rural SO2 0.662 0.413 –0.046 nitrogen dioxide concentrations across the United Kingdom. NO2 0.095 0.917 0.16 AtmosphericEnvironment29,223–239. PM10 0.776 0.327 0.378 Baldauf, R.W., Lane, D.D., Marote, G.A., 2001. Ambient air quality PM2.5 0.697 0.267 0.512 monitoring network design for assessing human health impacts from PM1.0 0.65 0.21 0.484 exposures to airborne contaminants. Environmental Monitoring and Pb 0.363 0.834 0.312 Assessment66,63–76.

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