The Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology
Volume 8, Spring 2018
Editors-in-chief: Rob Colgate Sierra Conine
Table of Contents
1. Comorbidity of Mild TBI and PTSD in OIF/OEF Veterans: A Review, Jamie Kiefer, University of Minnesota 2. Music as a Reward: Implications for Music Therapy in Treating Major Depressive Disorder, Anna Byrne, Union College 3. Teachers’ Impact on the Wellbeing and Achievement of Students with Special Needs in the General Education Classroom, Morgan Johnson, University of Michigan
4. The Influence of Moral Values and Victim Typicality on Victim Blame in Intimate Partner Violence Cases, Rebecca Del Toro, University of Queensland 5. The Relationship Between Attention and the Negativity Bias in Memory, Carolyn Doty, Union College 6. The Relationship between Biculturalism and Mental Health Outcomes among College-bound Latino Adolescents, Janice Dilgert, Arizona State University
Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology
Comorbidity of Mild TBI and PTSD in OIF/OEF Veterans: A Review Jamie P. Kiefer University of Minnesota
ABSTRACT: Technological advances in military protective gear have allowed soldiers who fought in Iraq and Afghanistan to survive head injuries that may have proved fatal in prior conflicts. These veterans often obtain traumatic brain injuries (TBIs), the majority of which are diagnosed as mild (mTBI). However, Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) has been found to often be comorbid with mTBI in veterans; the combination of these two diagnoses can prolong psychological and physical symptomology, which could have implications for treatment. This review aims to consolidate evidence pertaining to the comorbidity of mTBI and PTSD diagnoses in Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF) and Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF) veterans. This evidence includes: the long-term impact these diagnoses have on veterans’ cognition, experience of post-concussive symptoms, overall levels of disability, and diagnosis of other mental health issues.
Background military personnel with mTBIs experience In military conflicts, American soldiers residual symptoms for 18 to 24 months after the face a unique set of obstacles not often faced by injury (National Center for PTSD, 2007). their civilian counterparts. Two key challenges In one study of a military unit deployed experienced by military personnel during and to Iraq, 22.8% of soldiers were diagnosed by a post-deployment include diagnoses of traumatic clinician as having a TBI during their year-long brain injuries (TBIs) and Post-Traumatic Stress deployment, and most of these were diagnosed Disorder (PTSD). The symptoms resulting from as mTBIs (Terrio et al., 2009). Of the TBIs these diagnoses have been experienced by sustained by the unit, 88% were caused by soldiers throughout history, but have received exposure to a blast explosion, while the rest increased attention from the scientific involved head injury from impacts unrelated to community in recent years. blast exposure (Terrio et al., 2009). This According to the Department of Defense evidence supports a common finding that of the (2017), American soldiers obtained a total of TBIs sustained by military personnel in recent 370,688 TBIs from 2000 to 2017. Of those conflicts, most are caused by exposure to blasts. TBIs, 82.3% of were diagnosed as mild There are four types of blast TBIs traumatic brain injuries (mTBIs), which can military populations may sustain in combat include symptoms such as confusion, (Lawhorne & Cheryl, 2010; Gondusky & Reiter, disorientation, memory loss for less than 24 2005; Meyer, Maerion, Coronel, & Jaffee, hours, and loss of consciousness for up to 30 2010). These injuries include being exposed to a minutes (Department of Defense, 2017). pressure wave (primary blast injury), brain Fortunately, symptoms from mTBIs tend to clear penetration from an explosive projectile up on their own within three months of the (secondary blast injury), flying into a solid injury (Terrio et al., 2009). However, this is not surface due to the force of a blast (tertiary blast the case for everyone. In fact, Terrio and injury), and extreme loss of blood or exposure to colleagues (2009) found that in one Army unit toxic gases released in an explosion (quaternary that fought in Iraq, 7.5% of soldiers who were blast injury) (Lawhorne & Cheryl, 2010; diagnosed with a TBI reported experiencing Gondusky & Reiter, 2005; Meyer et al., 2010). symptoms after returning home from According to Lawhorne and Cheryl (2010), deployment. Another estimate claims that most quaternary blast injuries are rare, and the
1 Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology number of secondary blast injuries has decreased with valuable information on brain function. In in recent wars due to advances in technology in the aftermath of the recent conflicts in military protective gear. However, primary and Afghanistan and Iraq, however, increased tertiary blast injuries have increased in attention is being paid to closed brain injuries, frequency during the recent conflicts in Iraq and especially mTBIs. This is because the Afghanistan (Lawhorne & Cheryl, 2010). technology of military gear has minimized the Primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary occurrence of penetrating TBIs, and has blast injuries may occur individually when a increased the likelihood of military personnel soldier experiences blast exposure. However, it surviving head injuries (Gondusky & Reiter, is more likely that military personnel experience 2005; Meyer et al., 2010). Despite this progress, multiple forms of blast injury in a given there was a larger proportion of head injuries explosion, making it difficult to attribute post- sustained in OIF/OEF veterans than in any concussive symptoms (PCSs) to a particular previous wars (Gondusky & Reiter, 2005). The injury type. percentage of head wounds in military personnel Additionally, mTBI diagnoses are often was 21% in WWII, 21.4% in the Korean War, further complicated by a diagnosis of PTSD. 16% in the Vietnam War, and 30% in OIF/OEF PTSD is a mental health disorder resulting from veterans (Owens et al., 2008). According to exposure to one or more traumas, including Owens and colleagues (2008), 79% of the head combat situations. This diagnosis is wounds in OIF/OEF soldiers were obtained from characterized by four symptom clusters. These explosions, which is the highest prevalence in symptom categories include re-experiencing any large-scale combat effort. symptoms, avoiding situations that remind one Given the increase in head wounds in of the traumatic event, negative changes in recent conflicts, and increasing use of explosive beliefs and feelings, and hyperarousal (National devices in combat, it is critical to analyze the Institute of Mental Health, 2016). Estimates of impact these issues have on U.S. military PTSD prevalence in OIF/OEF veterans range personnel. Complicating the study of mTBIs and from 10-30% (Hoge et al., 2004; National PTSD, however, is the overlap in symptomology Center for PTSD, 2007). The variability in these in diagnoses; these symptoms include estimates is due to factors such as the number of irritability, memory issues, fatigue, dizziness, firefights the sampled soldiers were in (Hoge et headache, sensitivity to noise and light, al., 2004), whether they were deployed to Iraq or difficulty concentrating, depression, and anxiety Afghanistan (Hoge et al., 2004), and whether or (Lawhorne & Cheryl, 2010; Bhattacharjee, not the soldier obtained an injury during 2008). These shared symptoms make PTSD and deployment (Hoge et al., 2004; French, 2010). mTBI diagnoses highly comorbid. Stein and Additionally, many veterans may not seek help McAllister (2009) found that not only are mTBIs for PTSD symptoms, due to stigma or fear of more likely to co-occur with PTSD than to be a appearing weak, making the prevalence difficult singular diagnosis, but PTSD symptomology to solidify. may be more severe in those who also have an Far from being new phenomenon, mTBI compared to other forms of injury. In fact, occurrences of PTSD and mTBIs have been having a combat-related mTBI could increase a recorded throughout U.S. military history soldier’s likelihood of developing PTSD by (French, 2010). PTSD symptoms were referred 300% (Lippa et al., 2015). Further illustrating to as “nostalgia” or “soldier’s heart” during the this finding, Hoge and colleagues (2008) found Civil War, “shell shock” in World War I, and that 43.9% of OIF/OEF veterans, who “battle fatigue” or “Combat Stress Reaction” in experienced loss of consciousness, and 27.3% of World War II (National Center for PTSD, 2007). those who reported alterations in consciousness, Additionally, the impact of TBIs were studied in from mTBIs sustained in combat, met criteria World War I, World War II, and the Vietnam for PTSD. War (French, 2010). Penetrating brain injuries PTSD and mTBI symptoms can be were the most studied in these conflicts due to problematic for veterans even after returning their high prevalence and provided researchers from deployment. In OIF/OEF veterans, it’s
2 Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology estimated that 20% have received a TBI in soldiers who had not obtained a mTBI (Mac diagnosis, and yet only 40% of those diagnosed Donald et al., 2015). patients are thought to have received medical care (Lawhorne & Cheryl, 2010). This Comorbid mTBI and PTSD discrepancy may be due to natural healing over Analyses have also been conducted on time. However, Terrio et al. (2009) found that how the interaction of PTSD and mTBI may 7.5% of soldiers who experienced a mTBI further impact attention and cognition in during deployment reported struggling with OIF/OEF veterans. For instance, Lange and three or more PCSs after returning home. This colleagues (2016) found that one year after illustrates the need for medical care access for returning from deployment, veterans with veterans experiencing mTBI symptoms post- comorbid PTSD and mTBI performed worse on deployment. Additionally, it’s been reported that measures of attention, short-term memory, long- despite the high prevalence of mental health term memory, verbal fluency, mental processing diagnoses such as PTSD in OIF/OEF veterans, speed, and executive functioning than veterans only 23-40% of them have sought mental health with a mTBI but no PTSD diagnosis. Another treatment (Hoge et al., 2004). It is critical to study found that veterans with comorbid PTSD assess the impact PTSD and mTBI symptoms and mTBI performed worse on have on OIF/OEF veteran functioning in order to neuropsychological assessment tasks than better address their medical and mental health veterans with a mTBI only, and attributed this care needs. difference to reduced processing speed and response inhibition in the group with both Impact on Veteran Functioning Attention diagnoses (Nelson, Yoash-Gantz, Pickett, & and Cognition Campbell, 2009). However, Nelson et al. (2009) did not find differences in cognitive flexibility Blast mTBIs between the tested groups. These findings Research is beginning to be published illustrate the impact that mTBIs and comorbid on the impact of mTBIs on OIF/OEF veterans’ PTSD have on the cognitive and attentional cognitive and attentional functioning. The focus abilities of OIF/OEF veterans. has centered on blast mTBIs specifically due to their increasing prevalence in recent conflicts. Post-Concussive Symptoms (PCSs) For example, Trudeau and colleagues (1998) Along with attentional and cognitive found that blast mTBIs resulted in problems impairment, OIF/OEF veterans with a mTBI with impulsivity, lowered attentional capacity, diagnosis may struggle with PCSs. Immediate and increased hyperactivity in veterans. The symptoms following mTBI acquisition have military personnel in this study reported that been reported retrospectively by military these attentional deficits impeded their ability to personnel to include headache, dizziness, function normally in daily tasks (Trudeau et al., balance problems, irritability, and memory 1998). Along with attentional capacity, cognitive deficits (Terrio et al., 2009). Unfortunately, functioning has also been shown to be damaged these symptoms have been found to linger in in military personnel who obtained blast mTBIs. most veterans who’ve obtained a mTBI in For example, Mac Donald et al. (2015) found combat (National Center for PTSD, 2007). In that during the week following acquisition of the samples assessed 3-4 months (Hoge et al., 2008) blast mTBI, participants did worse on tasks and 6-12 months (Mac Donald et al., 2015) after involving mathematical processing, reaction deployment, it was found that soldiers who time, code substitution learning, and sample obtained a blast mTBI experienced increased matching tasks than they had done before severity, frequency, and overall severity in deployment. These soldiers were followed-up headaches compared to veterans without a with 6-12 months after returning from mTBI. However, Lippa, Pastorek, Benge, and deployment, and it was found that cognitive and Thornton (2010) believe PCS severity may be executive functions remained more impaired in better accounted for by PTSD symptomology subjects that had experienced a blast mTBI than than mTBI diagnosis alone. These researchers
3 Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology discovered that in a sample of veterans with Interaction with Other Mental Health Issues mTBIs, increased PTSD symptomology resulted Alcohol Abuse in more PCSs being endorsed by the participant Findings for alcohol abuse in OIF/OEF (Lippa et al., 2010). These findings illustrate veterans with mTBIs and PTSD has been mixed. how mTBI and PTSD comorbidity can impact Overall, it has been found that veterans tend to aspects of OIF/OEF veteran well-being, misuse alcohol more when they return from including their experience of PCSs post- deployment than before they are deployed (Hoge deployment. et al., 2004). However, Meyer et al. (2010) claim that for veterans with mTBIs, alcohol use tends Overall Disability to decrease after injury. Additionally, alcohol Along with attentional and cognitive use does not seem to be different in veterans deficits, and increased levels of PCSs, veterans with blast mTBIs and veterans without blast with comorbid mTBI and PTSD experience mTBIs (Meyer et al., 2010). higher rates of overall disability than veterans Contradicting the findings for mTBIs, without these diagnoses (Hoge et al., 2008; PTSD has been found to be associated with Stojanoic, 2016; Mac Donald et al., 2015; Lange alcohol abuse. According to the National Center et al., 2016; Lippa et al., 2015). Addressing for PTSD (2007), veterans with PTSD are more overall levels of disability, Mac Donald and likely to abuse alcohol and binge drink than colleagues (2015) found that 63% of participants veterans without PTSD. It is critical that who had experienced a blast mTBI had moderate drinking habits be assessed when diagnosing overall disability a year after the injury, PTSD, as veterans with this diagnosis who abuse compared to 20% of veterans that hadn’t been alcohol are more likely to commit suicide than diagnosed with PTSD or a mTBI (Mac Donald veterans with PTSD that do not abuse alcohol et al., 2015). Lippa et al. (2015) and Lange et al. (National Center for PTSD, 2007). No (2016) took a more general approach to information was found regarding alcohol misuse assessing overall disability in veterans, relying in veterans with both mTBIs and PTSD on self-reported quality of life. These diagnoses. Given the negative impact alcohol researchers determined that veterans who have a can have on veteran health, it is critical that mTBI with comorbid PTSD report having a research be conducted on whether or not alcohol lower quality of life than veterans without these abuse exacerbates symptoms of comorbid mTBI diagnoses (Lippa et al., 2015; Lange et al., and PTSD, and that alcohol use be taken into 2016). Although these researchers used a broad account during treatment of veterans with these and subjective form of measurement, these diagnoses. findings are important to ascertain veteran perceptions on overall functioning. Hoge and Depressive Disorders colleagues (2008) took a more detailed Overall, it has been found that approach, assessing specific factors related to depressive disorders are more prevalent in veteran health. Through the study, it was found soldiers after deployment than before that veterans with comorbid mTBI and PTSD deployment (Hoge et al., 2004). Depressive had more medical visits, missed work days, and disorders also tend to be highly comorbid with experienced overall poorer health than veterans mTBIs and PTSD. According to Mac Donald et without these diagnoses (Hoge et al., 2008). al. (2015), depressive symptomology tends to be Also addressing disability levels through health higher in military personnel with mTBIs than in measures, Stojanovic et al. (2016) assert that those without mTBIs in the week following veterans with PTSD and mTBIs self-report injury as well as 6-12 months later. In fact, higher levels of overall pain intensity than Lippa et al. (2015) found that depressive veterans without one or both of these diagnoses. disorders were 140% more likely to be These studies reflect the severe effect comorbid diagnosed in veterans with mTBIs than in mTBI and PTSD can have on veterans’ ability to veterans without mTBIs. As for PTSD, it is function in their lives after serving in combat. estimated that 3-25% of OIF/OEF veterans with this diagnosis are likely to have also developed
4 Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology
Major Depressive Disorder since deployment report. This can be problematic due to poor (National Center for PTSD, 2007). These recollection of the injuring event from loss or findings indicate the need to assess for alteration of consciousness following a mTBI. depressive symptomology when diagnosing Combat zones are often chaotic, making it mTBIs and PTSD in military personnel, as it unlikely that another person could accurately may have important influence on veterans’ well- observe the injured soldier’s symptoms being. following injury and thus increase the accuracy of a diagnosis. Soldiers also may not seek Implications for Treatment treatment while in the field due to safety reasons Due to the attentional and cognitive or feeling as if their injuries are less severe than deficits, PCSs, overall disability, and additional those sustained by their comrades. Another issue mental health problems faced by veterans with with recent studies of mTBI and PTSD in mTBIs and PTSD, it is important for healthcare veterans is researchers compare those with a providers to take a multidisciplinary approach to given diagnoses to those without, as there is treatment (Hoge et al., 2008). However, it can be little baseline data on the soldiers. Although difficult for the approximately 27.9% of attempts are made to control for differences in OIF/OEF veterans with mental disorders variables such as age and education between (French, 2010) to seek care. One cause of this groups, it would be more accurate to compare could be lack of awareness of mTBI and PTSD veteran functioning to an established personal symptomology in veterans and their families baseline. Finally, many studies only analyze the (Meyer et al., 2010). Another barrier to impact of mTBI and PTSD on veterans for up to treatment could be fear of stigma. According to a year after they return from combat. Hoge and colleagues (2004), soldiers who Neurodegeneration takes time, and one year may reported struggling with mental health post- not be long enough for the resulting deployment were twice as likely to express symptomology to appear. Therefore, these concern over experiencing stigma if they were to studies may not be capturing the long-term get help than soldiers who reported no mental impacts of mTBI and PTSD as they so claim. health issues. Due to these barriers to treatment, Although some flaws in current studies it is critical that open discussions are had with of mTBI and PTSD in military personnel may be veterans and their families regarding mTBI and difficult to overcome, there are steps that can be PTSD symptomology and available treatment taken to minimize these issues and improve options. This allows for greater identification of future studies. For example, baseline data could symptoms the veterans may struggle with, and be collected on soldiers before they are reduces the stigma and fear surrounding getting deployed, allowing for utilization of a stronger help. within-subjects design. By comparing a veteran’s post-deployment and pre-deployment General Discussion data, it would increase the likelihood that Despite the long history of mTBIs and changes between time points would be due to PTSD obtained in combat, analyzing the impact experiences the veteran obtained in combat. the comorbidity of these diagnoses has on Additionally, participants should include greater veterans is a relatively new field of study. diversity for increased generalizability of Current scientific findings are also not without findings. Longitudinal follow-ups with veterans flaws. To begin with, participants in studies of diagnosed with mTBIs and PTSD are also military personnel are mostly white males, important, as they allow for detection of future which limits generalizability to female and alterations in functioning that may indicate minority veteran populations. There can also be further neurodegeneration. Finally, it is critical issues with diagnosing veterans in military that future studies utilize scientifically valid studies. For example, most mTBI diagnoses are assessment measures for diagnosis in veterans. not often diagnosed in combat zones, making Currently, some researchers are developing their most diagnoses retrospective and based on self-
5 Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology own assessment tools, which have not been increased survival rate of those experiencing proven to be reliable or valid. In order to gather head trauma. Veterans with symptoms from accurate data on mTBIs and PTSD, empirically these diagnoses can face extreme mental, based measurements must be used. By emotional, and physical distress making it incorporating these improvements to future difficult for them to reintegrate into their civilian study designs, the impact of comorbid mTBI and lives. Therefore, it is imperative that research PTSD on veteran functioning can be more continue on the impact mTBIs and comorbid accurately determined. PTSD have on OIF/OEF veterans’ cognition, Throughout history, soldiers have experience of post-concussive symptoms, endured symptoms that are now known to be overall levels of disability, and diagnosis of related to diagnoses such as mTBI and PTSD. other mental health issues. By studying these The recent conflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan diagnoses, better treatment plans can be have led to more American military personnel developed to assist U.S. veterans and improve meeting criteria for these diagnoses due to the their quality of life.
REFERENCES 10.1093/arclin/acw043 Bhattacharjee, Y. (2008). Shell shock revisited: Solving the Lawhorne, C., & Cheryl, P. (2010). Combat-related puzzle of blast trauma. Science, 319(5862), 406- traumatic brain injury and PTSD: A resource 408. doi: 10.1126/science.319.5862.406 and recovery guide. Plymouth, UK: Government Department of Defense, Defense and Veterans Brain Injury Institutes. Center. (2017). DoD numbers for traumatic brain Lippa, S. M., Fonda, J. R., Fortier, C. B., Amick, M. A., injury worldwide- totals. Retrieved from Kenna, A., Milberg, W. P., & McGlinchey, R. E. http://dvbic.dcoe.mil/files/tbi- (2015). Deployment-related psychiatric and numbers/worldwide-totals-2000-2017_aug-10- behavioral conditions and their association with 2017_v1.0_2017-09-21.pdf functional disability in OEF/OIF/OND French, L. M. (2010). Military traumatic brain injury: An veterans. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 28(1), 25- examination of important differences. Annals of 33. doi: 10.1002/jts.21979 the New York Academy of Sciences, 1208(1), 38- Lippa, S. M., Pastorek, N. J., Benge, J. F., & Thornton, G. 45. doi: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2010.05696.x M. (2010). Postconcussive symptoms after blast Gondusky, J. S., & Reiter, M. P. (2005). Protecting military and nonblast-related mild traumatic brain injuries convoys in Iraq: An examination of battle injuries in Afghanistan and Iraq war veterans. Journal of sustained by a mechanized battalion during the International Neuropsychological operation Iraqi freedom II. Military Society, 16(5), 856-866. doi: Medicine, 170(6), 546-549. Retrieved from 10.1017/S1355617710000743 http://login.ezproxy.lib.umn.edu/login?url=https:/ Mac Donald, C. L., Adam, O. R., Johnson, A. M., Nelson, /search-proquest- E. C., Werner, N. J., Rivet, D. J., & Brody, D. L. com.ezp3.lib.umn.edu/docview/17168396?accou (2015). Acute post-traumatic stress symptoms ntid=14586 and age predict outcome in military blast Hoge, C. W., Castro, C. A., Messer, S. C., McGurk, D., concussion. Brain, 138(5), 1314-1326. doi: Cotting, D. I., & Koffman, R. L. (2004). Combat 10.1093/brain/awv038 duty in Iraq and Afghanistan, mental health Meyer, K.S., Maerion, D.W., Coronel, H., & Jaffee, M.S. problems, and barriers to care. New England (2010). Combat-related traumatic brain injury Journal of Medicine, (351), 13-22. doi: and its implications to military healthcare. 10.1056/NEJMoa040603 Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 33(4), 783- Hoge, C. W., McGurk, D., Thomas, J. L., Cox, A. L., 796. doi: 10.1016/j.psc.2010.08.007 Engel, C. C., & Castro, C. A. (2008). Mild National Center for PTSD (2007). Traumatic brain injury traumatic brain injury in US soldiers returning and PTSD. Retrieved from from Iraq. New England Journal of https://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/co- Medicine, 358(5), 453-463. doi: occurring/traumatic-brain-injury-ptsd.asp 10.1056/NEJMoa072972 National Institute of Mental Health (2016). Post-traumatic Lange, R., Lippa, S., French, L., Gartner, R., Dilay, A., stress disorder. Retrieved from Driscoll, A., … Thompson, D. (2016). B-49 https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/post- neuropsychological outcome from concurrent traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd/index.shtml posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and mild Nelson, L. A., Yoash-Gantz, R. E., Pickett, T. C., & traumatic brain injury in US military service Campbell, T. (2009). Relationship between members: A cross-sectional perspective of processing speed and executive functioning recovery in the first 12-months of performance among OEF/OIF veterans: injury. Archives of Clinical Implications for postdeployment Neuropsychology, 31(6), 631-631. doi: rehabilitation. Journal of Head Trauma
6 Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology
Rehabilitation, 24(1), 32-40. doi: (PTSD) on pain intensity levels in 10.1097/HTR.0b013e3181957016 OEF/OIF/OND veterans. Pain Medicine, 17(11), Owens, B. D., Kragh Jr, J. F., Wenke, J. C., Macaitis, J., 2017-2025. doi: 10.1093/pm/pnw042 Wade, C. E., & Holcomb, J. B. (2008). Combat Terrio, H., Brenner, L. A., Ivins, B. J., Cho, J. M., Helmick, wounds in operation Iraqi freedom and operation K., Schwab, K., … Warden, D. (2009). enduring freedom. Journal of Trauma and Acute Traumatic brain injury screening: Preliminary Care Surgery, 64(2), 295-299. doi: findings in a US Army brigade combat team. The 10.1097/TA.0b013e318163b875 Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 24(1), Stein, M. B., & McAllister, T. W. (2009). Exploring the 14-23. doi: 10.1097/HTR.0b013e31819581d8 convergence of posttraumatic stress disorder and Trudeau, D. L., Anderson, J., Hansen, L. M., Shagalov, D. mild traumatic brain injury. American Journal of N., Schmoller, J., Nugent, S., & Barton, S. Psychiatry, 166(7), 768-776. (1998). Findings of mild traumatic brain injury in doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2009.03101604 combat veterans with PTSD and a history of blast Stojanovic, M. P., Fonda, J., Fortier, C. B., Higgins, D. M., concussion. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Rudolph, J. L., Milberg, W. P., & McGlinchey, Clinical Neurosciences, 10(3), 308-313. doi: R. E. (2016). Influence of mild traumatic brain 10.1176/appi.ajp.2009.03101604 injury (TBI) and posttraumatic stress disorder
7 Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology
Music as a Reward: Implications for Music Therapy in Treating Major Depressive Disorder Anna Byrne Union College ABSTRACT: Music has the power to elicit intense feelings of pleasure, and these feelings are intimately tied to the neural system for processing reward. This review will (1) examine the brain regions in humans that are associated with reward processing in addition to areas that have altered activity while listening to pleasant music, (2) demonstrate that the symptom of anhedonia that characterizes major depressive disorder (MDD) is largely due to reward system dysfunction and abnormal dopamine activity, and (3) consider the field of music therapy as a potentially successful treatment for people with MDD due to the ability of music to activate the brain’s reward system. This review concludes that music therapy, specifically improvisational music therapy, is a promising complementary treatment method for those with MDD, though further research is needed to clearly explain its efficacy and demonstrate its potential to alleviate symptoms of MDD and other disorders that are associated with reward circuit malfunction and/or aberrant dopamine activity.
Introduction reward, such as responses to aversive stimuli Music, an art form which nearly every and both positive and negative reinforcement, human society has developed, not only for the purposes of this paper it will be referred influences our emotions, but can also become an to as the reward system (Volman et al., 2013). expression of the emotions which we Given the involvement of the reward circuit in consciously feel. One of the most important both music-evoked emotion and major powers of music is its ability to elicit intense depressive disorder (MDD), these findings must feelings of pleasure. In this sense, the term be integrated to better explain and advance the “emotion” refers to the relatively brief, often field of music therapy as an evidence-based unconscious physiological and psychological treatment method. responses to a particular external or internal event (Juslin, Barradas, & Erola, 2015). Music as an Abstract Reward “Feelings of pleasure,” alternatively, correspond Typically, the human reward system is to the conscious subjective awareness of a activated by physical stimuli. This can be in the number of components related to positive form of primary rewards, such as food and sex emotion, such as affect, mood, and various that are necessary for survival, or secondary biological states, such as hunger. While most rewards, like money or other tangible items studies have focused on neural activation based (Salimpoor, Benovoy, Larcher, Dagher, & on the acoustic and cognitive components of Zatorre, 2011). However, humans have music, little is known about its basis as a developed a unique cognitive ability to derive rewarding stimulus (Menon & Levitin, pleasure from abstract stimuli. Music, 2005). Because it has long been acknowledged considered by some as an example of one such that music can evoke pleasurable feelings that abstract stimulus, is not a primary or secondary are intimately tied to the brain system for reward in the strict sense, but through processing reward, research in recent years has generations and across cultures continues to delved into the neural mechanisms underlying provide a source of pleasure (Salimpoor et al., the relationship between music and activation of 2011). Because music is able to utilize the neural the so-called reward system. Though this processing of reward through the same mesocorticolimbic pathway and related mechanisms as other more biologically-salient structures are involved in processes other than stimuli, this shows how human cognition has
1
Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology evolved to accommodate more complex When a stimulus activates the VTA and classifications of reward (Blood & Zatorre, causes dopamine release in its various target 2001). When taken from an evolutionary regions, the experience will be felt as rewarding. standpoint, this seemingly odd capability of an These reward-related experiences in humans, abstract stimulus becomes clearer. Because which are linked to dopamine activity, will be music has often been experienced in a social remembered by creating associations between setting, activation of the reward system specific stimuli and pleasure, which is useful for encouraged interpersonal relationships and directing future behavior. This indicates that cooperative efforts through sharing pleasurable dopamine plays a central role in the motivational feelings with others. It is believed by some processes that lead humans to seek out a researchers that music then became a source of particular rewarding stimulus (Bressan & social cohesion and the neural circuitry Crippa, 2005). underlying this adaptive mechanism was passed Dopamine release from the VTA is on from generation to generation (Brown, critically important for reward processing Martinez, & Parsons, 2004). because the neurotransmitter is implicated in A major signal component required for motivation, reward-seeking behaviors, and normal reward processing is the neurotransmitter working memory (Stegemoller, 2014). All of dopamine, which has been shown to be altered these cognitive functions are necessary for in people with MDD (see discussion below) potentially rewarding stimuli to effectively (Tremblay et al., 2005). One of the main sources activate the reward circuit and for feelings of of reward-related dopamine signaling in the pleasure to be elicited. For example, some types brain is the ventral tegmental area (VTA), and a of drugs, such as cocaine and amphetamines, are major target for these cells is the nucleus able to produce pleasurable feelings by accumbens (Menon & Levitin, 2005). Other disrupting the normal activity of dopamine and main targets of the VTA are the prefrontal increasing extracellular dopamine concentrations cortex, an area associated with decision making throughout the brain. After dopamine is and planning, and the dorsal striatum, implicated released, excess neurotransmitter usually is in habit formation. The VTA also releases taken back up by the cell and re-packaged for dopamine through projections to the amygdala later use. However, cocaine and amphetamines and the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), as both prevent this process from occurring, allowing regions are centrally involved in emotion-related dopamine to exert its effects on target neurons learning and subjective experience (Lepping et for a longer period of time. Amphetamines also al., 2016). The ACC is typically divided into bind to proteins that transport excess dopamine two subregions: ventral (vACC) and dorsal into the neuron and, once across the neuronal (dACC). Both areas receive input from the membrane, stimulate the release of dopamine prefrontal cortex in addition to the VTA and are back into the synapse. As a result, these drugs involved in positive and negative emotional create highly intense, long-lasting feelings of processing. However, the vACC is mainly pleasure (dela Pena, Gevorkiana, & Shi, 2015). activated by emotional stimuli while the dACC Evidence that music, specifically, is more active during cognitive tasks (Lepping et activates reward-related circuitry in humans has al., 2016). The ACC is not only involved with been provided using neuroimaging methods. emotion generation, but emotion regulation as Utilizing functional magnetic resonance imaging well. Along with other regions associated with (fMRI), which uses blood flow as a measure of emotion regulation, the ACC plays a role in brain activity, Menon and Levitin (2005) appraising emotional stimuli and also producing observed significant activation in the nucleus emotions that are appropriate for a given accumbens and VTA in response to self-reported context. People with MDD struggle with pleasurable music listening. They also noted emotional regulation, likely as a result of increased activity in the left and right inferior abnormal ACC signaling and reduced ACC frontal cortex and the ACC. Because pleasant volume (Donofry, Rocklein, Wildes, Miller, & music was considered a rewarding stimulus, Erickson, 2016). activation of these areas was expected, but still a
2
Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology necessary first confirmation in humans. people today and have been throughout history Moreover, there were significant correlations (Salimpoor et al., 2011). between ongoing activity in the nucleus In addition to reporting brain regions accumbens and VTA, nucleus accumbens and which increased activity during pleasant music, hypothalamus, and VTA and hypothalamus Blood and Zatorre (2001) also noted several while listening to pleasant music (Menon & areas where activity levels decreased from Levitin, 2005). This indicates that the nucleus baseline during music listening. Using positron accumbens, the VTA, and the hypothalamus (a emission tomography (PET) scans, which used region that regulates autonomic responses), are blood flow as a measure of brain metabolism, highly interconnected during music processing. they observed decreased blood flow to the left Because the nucleus accumbens and VTA are and right amygdala, left hippocampus, and known to play crucial roles in the neural reward ventromedial prefrontal cortex while listening to circuit, these findings suggest that music can pleasant music. On the contrary, activity also serve as a source of reward system increased in the left ventral striatum, activation and stimulate dopamine release. dorsomedial midbrain, and anterior cingulate Additional studies have also implicated cortex under the same conditions. Interestingly, the neural circuit for reward in response to these regions are known to be directly affected music listening, both during anticipation of by dopaminergic neuronal projections and are musically-elicited feelings of pleasure and also more active while listening to pleasant during actual peak emotional responses. music. The authors also noted increased activity Salimpoor et al. (2011), based on the results of in the supplementary motor area and cerebellum, their fMRI study, reported increased activity of both areas involved in movement and motor the caudate and nucleus accumbens during control. As music often produces an inclination anticipation of pleasure while listening to to move or dance, activation in these regions is pleasant music as compared to neutral music. unsurprising – though whether this activation is While the caudate became less active during related to the experience of pleasure is as yet subjects’ peak feeling of pleasure, activity in the unclear. Overall, these results are consistent with nucleus accumbens continued to increase. The the findings of Salimpoor et al. (2011) and caudate, a subregion of the striatum, has Menon and Levitin (2005), further suggesting connections to the sensory and motor cortices that pleasant music activates the reward circuit. and is important for establishing stimulus- Due to the relatively poor spatial response associations (Salimpoor et al., 2011). resolution of PET scans, it is unclear whether The dorsal striatum, also known as the caudate activity in the midbrain was localized to the nucleus, plays a role in encoding a specific VTA or also to the periaqueductal gray region stimulus as one that elicited positive feelings so (PAG) or the pedunculopontine tegmental that in the future it will be remembered as a nucleus (PPT) (Blood & Zatorre, 2001). pleasurable experience, which helps guide future However, both are also thought to be involved in reward-seeking behaviors (Valentin & reward processing. The PAG has many opioid O’Doherty, 2009). As a result, this area may be receptors and thus is associated with reward crucial for creating the association between derived from opioids, such as endorphins. Using pleasant music and reward. Since the nucleus the chemical naloxone, these opioid receptors accumbens is a main target for dopamine, these can be blocked, which can decrease or inhibit results also suggest a mechanism by which subjects’ subjective feelings of pleasure in dopamine can contribute to the subjective response to pleasant music. The PPT, on the feelings of pleasure over time. Taken together, other hand, is innervated by the nucleus these results show that music can be perceived accumbens and projects to areas including the as a reward in humans and can activate the same VTA, thalamus, and amygdala. This region of dopaminergic pathways as other more tangible the midbrain is hypothesized to be involved in rewards do. If music can stimulate dopamine creating associations between drugs and reward release, then this begins to explain why musical (Blood & Zatorre, 2001). This means that the emotional experiences are sought out by many PPT may be involved in learning that a certain
3
Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology drug elicits pleasurable feelings, and thus may system functioning that are associated with also be important for establishing the memory many other types of pleasurable experiences. that pleasant music produces similar feelings. Since feelings of pleasure can be difficult to Even though it remains unclear whether one or measure quantitatively, physiological responses both of these areas were activated by music (in that occur are often used to judge emotional addition to the VTA), both are involved in arousal (Salimpoor et al., 2011). This includes reward processing. As the PAG and PPT are not frequencies of “chills” or “goose bumps” typically regarded as major parts of the reward experienced while listening to pleasurable music system, this indicates that pleasurable music has as well as measures of autonomic activity the ability to activate a wide range of regions changes, such as heart rate, respiration rate, and within the reward circuit to contribute to greater skin conductance. These same autonomic pleasurable feelings, and also raises questions reactions accompany pleasure responses to other about where the boundaries of the so-called rewarding stimuli, like a favorite food. reward system lie (though this discussion is Pleasurable music listening results in beyond the scope of this paper) (Volman et al., significantly higher autonomic nervous system 2013). activity. Increases in heart rate, respiration rate, Another mechanism by which music and skin conductance and decreases in body may achieve maximum feelings of pleasure is by temperature and blood volume pulse amplitude, simultaneously activating the reward system and or the amount of blood pumped by a single inhibiting areas that are associated with heartbeat, are typical. Intensity and frequency of processing negative emotions (Blood & Zatorre, chills has been shown to be significantly related 2001). Both the amygdala and hippocampus to all five of these measures of autonomic have been shown to be active during emotions nervous system arousal (Salimpoor et al., 2011). that are considered negative, such as fear, and Since the hypothalamus is involved in tend to be overactive in people with major monitoring autonomic responses, it makes sense depressive disorder. While this is certainly not that listening to pleasurable music would their only function, both regions do play a role activate this specific region, as observed by in experiencing negative emotions. Blood and Menon and Levitin (2005). These results show Zatorre (2001) showed that while subjects that pleasant music elicits the same listened to pleasant music, activity in the right physiological responses as many other typical and left amygdala and left hippocampus primary and secondary rewards (such as the decreased. Additionally, the amygdala and psychostimulant drugs discussed above), hippocampus receive direct inhibitory input providing further evidence that music can itself from the nucleus accumbens. This suggests that act as a rewarding stimulus. when the nucleus accumbens and therefore the In summary, studies have clearly shown reward circuit are active, the amygdala and that music can elicit physiological responses and hippocampus, areas that are involved in activate brain reward regions associated with the processing negative emotions, are inhibited. As processing of primary and secondary rewards a result, music can both activate the reward (Blood & Zatorre, 2001; Menon & Levitin, system and inhibit pathways related to the 2005; Salimpoor et al., 2011). As the VTA is the processing of negative emotions, presumably site of dopamine production and projects leading to a maximal pleasure response signal. directly to the nucleus accumbens, these areas These findings are especially relevant to the are typically considered as fundamental discussion below of music as a potential components of the neural basis of reward. treatment for people with MDD, as they have Listening to pleasant music elicits feelings of difficulty experiencing pleasure as well as pleasure, activates the reward circuit, and should hyperactivity in areas involved in processing be considered as a type of abstract reward. This negative emotions. is of critical importance because it illustrates that In addition to activating brain regions the reward system in humans does not need an that mediate the subjective feeling of pleasure, explicit reward, such as food or money, to music also causes changes in autonomic nervous become activated (Menon & Levitin, 2005). It
4
Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology also suggests that pleasant music may have the feelings of pleasure in those with MDD potential to be an incredibly useful treatment (Tremblay et al., 2005). Those with MDD were option for disorders that are associated with an hypersensitive to the drug, meaning they aberrant reward system and dopamine experienced heightened feelings of pleasure dysfunction, as in the case of MDD. relative to the control group. Furthermore, the degree of hypersensitivity was associated with Reward System Dysfunction in Major the severity of anhedonia reported. The fact that Depressive Disorder subjects with MDD experienced a Research in recent years has begun to hypersensitivity to dextroamphetamine indicates explore neural reward mechanisms as targets for that dopamine release or activity is not treatment of certain neurological and psychiatric functioning correctly in these people and disorders. This is largely due to the ability of supports the hypothesis that the reward system is dopamine and the reward regions themselves to implicated in the symptoms of MDD (Tremblay undergo synaptic and connective alterations in et al., 2005). circuitry. Because drug use, environmental Additional evidence for the idea that factors, and childhood development are known reward system malfunctioning is involved in to induce changes in the brain’s reward circuit, it MDD lies in the brain regions that showed is hypothesized that this system can be decreased activity compared to healthy subjects. artificially altered using medication or modified These areas include the right ventrolateral through naturally rewarding stimuli, particularly prefrontal cortex, caudate, and orbitofrontal pleasant music (Tremblay et al., 2005). cortex (Tremblay et al., 2005). In terms of One such illness that this approach may neuroimaging, often times the regions that are be particularly effective for is major depressive deactivated are just as important as those that disorder (MDD), given the changes noted become more active. The caudate, specifically, throughout the reward-related circuits. Although is important in that it is associated with reward other disorders such as schizophrenia and processing and contains dopaminergic generalized anxiety disorder may also benefit projections. The researchers believed that from music therapy for similar reasons, this is dextroamphetamine (which may have inhibited beyond the current scope of this paper. MDD is receptors for glutamate) results in the characterized by the symptom of anhedonia, a disinhibition of dopaminergic neurons, cells that markedly reduced interest in activities or are normally inhibited in people with MDD. experiences that used to elicit pleasure, which This dextroamphetamine-induced disinhibition can include music listening (Tremblay et al., could explain the hypersensitivity they 2005). Additionally, abnormal activity of some experienced (Tremblay et al., 2005). If exposure neurotransmitters and neuroendocrine systems, to pleasant music can result in the same process such as serotonin, dopamine, and of dopamine disinhibition, then it would be an norepinephrine, are common in those with MDD invaluable treatment for MDD patients, as it (Tremblay et al., 2005). Since dopamine would more naturally produce intensely malfunction and anhedonia are both associated pleasurable feelings. with MDD, this implicates the neural reward Another possible mechanism of system in the pathophysiology of MDD and also irregular dopamine activity is through D2 and suggests that pleasant music may be able to D3 dopamine receptors. These receptors are selectively target this circuit in order to alleviate concentrated in the temporal cortex, providing symptoms. an extrastriatal target for dopamine. However, if Normal dopamine activity is essential these receptors are abnormally blocked in people for a fully functioning reward circuit, but this is with MDD, dopamine cannot effectively bind typically not the case for people with MDD. For and produce its cascade of effects. This example, a drug which is known to greatly decreased accessibility of D2 and D3 dopamine stimulate dopamine release throughout the receptors has been associated with anhedonia, a reward system in healthy people, key symptom of MDD (Tremblay et al., 2005). dextroamphetamine, results in much greater Because MDD is associated with altered brain
5
Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology functioning in areas implicated in the neural traditional forms of psychotherapy in treating basis of reward in addition to abnormal symptoms of major depressive disorder. In a dopamine activity, it is clear that a key factor study by Castillo-Perez et al. (2010), participants underlying anhedonia as a symptom for MDD is with MDD were either exposed to pleasant irregular reward circuit activity. Music has been classical music as music therapy or underwent shown to activate areas within the reward typical psychotherapy treatments. After eight system, and thus it may be a method for weeks, the music therapy group displayed more correcting the malfunctioning reward circuit that improvement in depressive symptoms than the underlies the anhedonia seen in MDD. subjects who participated in psychotherapy (Castillo-Perez et al., 2010). This demonstrates Music Therapy: Integration of Music and that, not only is music an effective tool in Reward for MDD decreasing levels of depression, but it may also As has been previously discussed, music be more successful than psychotherapy under at is an effective source of activation for the least some conditions. As this is the most brain’s reward system and this circuit can induce common form of therapy currently used to treat changes in neuronal wiring. Because major depression, these results suggest that depressive disorder is associated with a incorporating music into existing therapeutic malfunctioning reward circuit, music could be a methods may have significant benefits for potential therapeutic tool. This approach could treatment outcomes. With the recent be applied to other neurological and psychiatric development of music as a formal method of disorders as well, such as schizophrenia and therapy, some therapists have begun to do bipolar disorder (Castillo-Perez, Gomez-Perez, exactly this. Velasco, Perez-Campos, & Mayoral, 2010). In While simply listening to pleasant music the case of MDD, listening to pleasant music is considered one form of music therapy for could alter the reward pathways and thus depression, others more directly involve the alleviate symptoms, such as anhedonia, and patient in the musical experience. One example contribute to more intense feelings of pleasure. of this is improvisational music therapy, in Research on the therapeutic use of which both the patient and the therapist use pleasurable music for MDD has only recently musical instruments, oftentimes drums, to gained traction. A review of current studies interact. The therapist carefully listens to the investigating the potential effects of pleasant patient’s improvised rhythms and actively music on symptoms of MDD was conducted by encourages the patient to express their emotions Chan, Yang Wong, and Thayala (2011). Of through a form of nonverbal communication. seventeen studies included, eleven showed clear This can lead to a process of self-discovery, evidence of reduced self-reported depressive allowing the patient to gain insight into their scores after repeated sessions of music listening. feelings that cannot necessarily be achieved These beneficial results continued even after the using words alone (Erkkila et al., 2011). The music listening sessions were stopped, therapist can then utilize these realizations in indicating that the improvement in MDD later reflective discussions to better explore the symptoms in response to pleasant music could patient’s depressive thoughts and emotions. be long-term. An important component of this Another important component of research is that all music listening periods did improvisational music therapy is that it can not involve the direct involvement of a music allow for a deeper, more meaningful relationship therapist (Chan et al., 2011). The reduced to develop between the patient and therapist. depressive symptoms were produced entirely by Through music-making, both the patient and the the music, which shows the power of pleasant therapist are encouraged to experience each music to alter cognitive functioning and also other differently than in traditional demonstrates that music is a treatment available psychotherapy sessions. This allows them to to anyone with MDD. relate to each other in a way that simply talking Additionally, this form of music therapy may not achieve, building a stronger patient- may even be more effective than more therapist bond (Maratos, Crawford, & Procter,
6
Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology
2011). Given these characteristics of both of these elements are incredibly important improvisational music therapy, it may be able to due to their general lack of motivation to seek help break down barriers that prevent patients out social encounters that also involve emotional from discussing their feelings, which is often the expression. This form of therapy may be a case for those with MDD, and lead to more particularly useful strategy for MDD patients or successful therapy sessions. those affected by other disorders, such as Additionally, Erkkila et al. (2011) generalized anxiety disorder or schizophrenia, demonstrated that this form of therapy is more who can be unusually difficult to engage effective in improving symptoms of depression, (Maratos et al., 2011). as well as anxiety and overall brain functioning, Most importantly for this argument, it is than standard therapy alone. Based on results hypothesized that a major contributor to the from various psychiatric tests (i.e. Montgomery- success of all forms of music therapy in Asberg Depression Rating Scale, Hospital reducing the severity of depression is its ability Anxiety and Depression Scale, and Global to activate the neural reward system. As Assessment of Functioning), subjects who previously discussed, MDD involves a participated in improvisational music therapy malfunctioning reward system and abnormal had significantly greater decreases in depression dopaminergic activity, typically associated with and anxiety levels and increases in overall low levels of both dopamine and its receptors functioning compared to those who engaged in (Castillo-Perez et al., 2010). By activation of traditional psychotherapy. These findings many of the brain regions associated with demonstrate that integrating improvisational reward processing, music can also elicit music-making with more traditional pleasurable feelings and therefore increase psychotherapy adds another dimension to the positive affect in patients with MDD (Castillo- therapeutic approach that can significantly Perez et al., 2010). Given these findings, it improve the symptoms of those with MDD. seems plausible that the music component of However, a similar study should be performed music therapy can increase dopamine release using fMRI to assess symptoms of depression, and its transmission throughout the brain in anxiety, and general brain functioning to patients with MDD, just as listening to pleasant corroborate the results obtained by Erkkila et al. music does in those without the disorder. Up- (2011). regulation of dopamine release due to music can Improvisational music therapy is then, to some extent, combat the dopamine successful in reducing levels of depression, but dysfunction that is associated with MDD and there are several factors which are thought to lead to reduced symptoms. Even though MDD is contribute to this phenomenon. One aspect is characterized by anhedonia, a lack of interest in that, through active music-making, the patient previously pleasurable experiences, music must partake in physical movement. The therapy provides a means by which this benefits of physical exercise for preventing symptom can directly be targeted through depression and reducing its symptoms have been activation of the reward circuit. well documented, but in this case the active Music as a therapeutic tool has many participation in music-making encourages additional benefits outside of possibly being an physical experiences with others (Maratos et al., effective method for alleviating MDD 2011). This dimension of music therapy seems symptoms. However, few studies have been to be important to MDD patients, and thus is conducted that clearly demonstrate the success thought to play a role in the effectiveness of of music therapy. Initial research suggests that it improvisational music therapy (Erkkila et al., is a promising therapeutic method for reducing 2011; Maratos et al., 2011). Additionally, symptoms of MDD, but further investigation is producing music is both a mentally and needed to clarify its potential efficacy. As physically engaging task and becomes inherently opposed to many of the oftentimes costly social as the patient must interact with the medications currently available to treat MDD therapist on an intimate, emotional level. For that can cause unwanted side effects, tolerance, people with MDD, activities that incorporate and withdrawal, music is inexpensive and carries
7
Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology no unforeseen health risks. Additionally, even reward circuit point of view. Knowledge about without the assistance of a therapist, music has the effectiveness of music in alleviating been shown to decrease levels of depression in symptoms of MDD is becoming widespread, but people with MDD. In this form of music oftentimes those who practice music therapy are therapy, there is no added cost of the therapist unaware of the neural mechanisms underlying because the treatment can be self-administered these benefits, mainly that music activates the (Castillo-Perez et al., 2010). This makes it reward system and increases dopamine levels incredibly easy for people with MDD to increase throughout the brain. One way to utilize this their positive affect through music, so long as information might be to tailor the music to the music listening sessions are frequent and preferences of individual patients, for example consistent. Though a therapist is needed in the using the patient’s choice of musical instruments case of improvisational music therapy, this during improvisational music therapy sessions. provides an altogether different set of benefits. This may be an effective way to develop Improvisational music therapy possesses subjective, nonconscious connections between distinct characteristics that may ultimately reveal patient and therapist that often underlie it to be the most effective method of music successful relationships. Additionally, therapy – although much research is needed in promoting positive affect and reducing cognitive this area to confirm such a claim. As previously decline through music that creates constructive, discussed, this therapeutic program is unique in personal associations is currently being used as a that it incorporates physical movement. The complementary treatment for Alzheimer’s depression-reducing effects of physical activity patients (Fang, Ye, Huangfu, & Calimag, 2017). in combination with those produced by People with MDD also exhibit decreased musically-activating the reward system may lead cognitive abilities, which might be another to a more significant decrease in MDD connection between MDD and music therapy as symptoms than either one can achieve alone. an effective treatment. The main aim of Additionally, incorporating more traditional improvisational music therapy for MDD, and all psychotherapy measures into music therapy adds forms for that matter, is to produce the greatest another dimension of beneficial effects. decrease in depressive symptoms. Because this Psychotherapy has proven successful in is likely achieved mainly through activation of encouraging patients with MDD to verbally the brain’s reward system, approaching music communicate their thoughts and feelings so as to therapy from this standpoint will result in more adequately deal with them. Using improved methodology, organization, and improvisational music therapy integrates the outcomes for a field that has initially proven verbal conversation aspect of psychotherapy remarkably successful in alleviating symptoms with the nonverbal emotional expression through of MDD. music-making into a single therapeutic process (Maratos et al., 2011). In so doing, the power of Conclusion improvisational music therapy to alleviate In conclusion, this paper has symptoms of MDD becomes greater than either demonstrated that the concepts of music, reward, music therapy or psychotherapy individually and depression are highly integrated. Listening because the beneficial effects of each method to pleasant music has been shown to activate can add upon each other. Using these criteria, many of the same brain regions that are improvisational music therapy can be seen as the associated with other types of reward most successful treatment method for reducing processing, mainly the VTA, nucleus symptoms of MDD. accumbens, prefrontal cortex, and ACC (Blood While there are many forms of music & Zatorre, 2001; Menon & Levitin, 2005; therapy available today, all succeed in Salimpoor et al., 2011). Because MDD is a alleviating symptoms of MDD by activating the disorder associated with reward system neural reward circuit. However, most music dysfunction and abnormal dopamine activity, therapists and researchers who investigate the music has begun to be explored as a treatment field do not approach music therapy from a which specifically targets this circuit to reduce
8
Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology symptoms. The field of music therapy, and activity in brain regions implicated in reward and improvisational music therapy in particular, emotion. Proceedings in the National Academy of Sciences, 98(20), 11818-11823. initially seems to be effective in alleviating Bressan, R.A. & Crippa, J.A. (2005). The role of dopamine depressive symptoms. This is not to say that in reward and pleasure behaviour - music therapy can completely replace more review of data from preclinical research. Acta traditional forms of psychotherapy or Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 111, 12-21. medication, but it should perhaps be used as a Brown, S., Martinez, M.J., & Parsons, L.M. (2004). Passive music listening spontaneously complement to these other treatment methods in engages limbic and paralimbic systems. order to produce the greatest reduction in MDD NeuroReport, 15(13), 2033-2037. symptoms possible. While research has not yet Castillo-Perez, S., Gomez-Perez, V., Velasco, M.C., Perez- explored specifically whether music-making Campos, E. & Mayoral, M. (2010). Effects of music therapy on depression compared activates the neural reward system, if such an with psychotherapy. The Arts in fMRI study was conducted then it would likely Psychotherapy, 37, 387-390. find increased activation of the VTA, nucleus Chan, M.F., Wong, Z.Y., & Thayala, N.V. (2011). The accumbens, ACC, and medial prefrontal cortex. effectiveness of music listening in These regions are all considered to be major reducing depressive symptoms in adults: A systematic review. Complementary Therapies components of reward processing in the brain. in Medicine, 19, 332-348. Based on the fact that listening to pleasant music dela Pena, I., Gevorkiana, R., & Shi, W. (2015). activates these same areas and that Psychostimulants affect dopamine transmission improvisational music therapy reduces the through both dopamine transporter-dependent and independent mechanisms. European symptom of anhedonia that characterizes MDD, Journal of Pharmacology, 764, 562-570. the inference is that music-making also has the Donofry, S.D., Roecklein, K.A., Wildes, J.E., Miller, M.A., ability to act as a reward and may contribute to & Erickson, K.I. (2016). Alterations long-term changes if used in a therapeutic in emotion generation and regulation manner – although the parameters for such a neurocircuitry in depression and eating disorders: A comparative review of structural and functional successful treatment are currently entirely neuroimaging studies. Neuroscience and unexplored. If improvisational music therapy Biobehavioral Reviews, 68, 911-927. results in reward system activation, this largely Erkkila, J., Punkanen, M., Fachner, J., Ala-Ruona, E., explains why it is so successful in reducing Pontio, I., Tervaniemi, M., Vanhala, M., & Gold, C. (2011). Individual music therapy for symptoms of MDD and increasing positive depression: Randomized control trial. The affect. While music therapy certainly can be British Journal of Psychiatry, 199, 132-139. beneficial for people with MDD, it may also Fang, R., Ye, S., Huangfu, J., & Calimag, D.P. (2017). prove effective for other psychiatric disorders Music therapy is a potential intervention including bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, for cognition of Alzheimer’s disease: A mini- review. Translational Neurodegeneration, generalized anxiety disorder, and even 6(2), 1-8. Parkinson’s disease – all of which, for instance, Juslin, P.N., Barradas, G., & Erola, T. (2015). From sound involve periods of low mood and anhedonia in to significance: Exploring the addition to reward system malfunction and/or mechanisms underlying emotional reactions to music. The American Journal of abnormal dopamine activity. As music and Psychology, 128(3), 281-304. music-making begin to be viewed as effective Lepping, R.J., Atchley, R.A., Chrysikou, E., Martin, L.E., tools for alleviating symptoms directly as a Clair, A.A., Ingram, R.E., Simmons, result of their ability to activate the brain’s W.K., & Savage, C.R. (2016). Neural processing reward system, music therapy will have the of emotional musical and nonmusical stimuli in depression. Public Library of Science, potential to become a mainstream treatment 11(6), 1-23. method not only for MDD, but for other Maratos, A., Crawford, M.J., & Procter, S. 2011. Music psychiatric and neurological disorders as well. therapy for depression: It seems to work, but how? The British Journal of Psychiatry, 199, 92-93. REFERENCES Menon, V. & Levitin, D.J. (2005). The rewards of music Blood, A.J. & Zatorre, R.J. (2001). Intensely pleasurable listening: Response and physiological responses to music correlate with connectivity of the mesolimbic system. NeuroImage, 28, 175-184.
9
Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology
Salimpoor, V.N., Benovoy, M., Larcher, K., Dagher, A., & 1229-1236. Zatorre, R.J. (2011). Anatomically Valentin, V.V. & O’Doherty, J.P. (2009). Overlapping distinct dopamine release during anticipation and prediction errors in dorsal striatum during experience of peak emotion to music. instrumental learning with juice and money Nature Neuroscience, 14(2), 257-262. reward in the human brain. Journal of Stegemoller, E.L. (2014). Exploring a neuroplasticity Neurophysiology, 102, 3384-3391. model of music therapy. Journal Volman, S.F., Lammel, S., Margolis, E.B., Kim, Y., of Music Therapy, 51(3), 211-227. Richard, J.M., Roitman, M.F., & Lobo, M. Tremblay, L.K., Naranjo, C.A., Graham, S.J., Herrmann, (2013). New insights into the specificity and N., Mayberg, H.S., Hevenor, S., & plasticity of reward and aversion encoding Busto, U.E. (2005). Functional neuroanatomical in the mesolimbic system. The Journal of substrates of altered reward processing Neuroscience, 33(45), 17569-17576. in major depressive disorder revealed by a dopaminergic probe. General Psychiatry, 62,
10
Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology
Teachers’ Impact on the Wellbeing and Achievement of Students with Special Needs in the General Education Classroom Morgan E. Johnson University of Michigan
ABSTRACT: Although it is well established that students with disabilities underperform academically relative to their nondisabled peers, the mechanism by which this gap emerges is unclear. Using the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 1998-99 (ECLS-K), and a sample size of N = 6,170, the present study assessed how reading, math, and science scores along with reading competence, math competence, and internalizing problems were impacted by teacher experience, support, and efficacy. Analyses were completed using longitudinal multilevel modeling from 3rd to 8th grade. The results demonstrated that students with an Individualized Education Plan (IEP) typically perform closer to their general education peers in both 3rd grade science and math than 3rd grade reading, but the gap between general and special education students widens more over time for reading and science than for math. In addition, students with an IEP were found to be less confident in their reading abilities than in math. Overall, teachers, do not mitigate the achievement gap between students with and without disabilities. These results provide a unique contribution to the field of special education and demonstrate that more research needs to be conducted in order to pinpoint the mechanisms in which children with special needs are lagging behind their nondisabled peers. Keywords: Special Education; Secondary Data Analysis; Teacher Experience; Teacher Support; Teacher Efficacy. Introduction outcomes for students with special needs are Inclusive education is a model of impacted by teacher experience, support, classroom participation in which all and efficacy. children, regardless of disability status, participate and learn together while Academic Performance promoting academic and social-emotional It is well established that students growth. This model has been a goal of the with disabilities underperform academically U.S. educational system since the passing of relative to their nondisabled peers. For the Individuals with Disabilities Education instance, the Center on Education Policy Act in 1997, and its reauthorization in 2004. noted a large difference in test scores Theoretically, by using the inclusive model between students with and without of education, students with special needs disabilities (Chudowsky & Chudowsky, would perform as similarly as possible to 2009). Nationwide, the median percentage otherwise-comparable, nondisabled peers on of 4th-grade students with disabilities scoring academic tasks. Yet, this is not the case. at proficiency was 41% for reading and 49% Research has long demonstrated deficits in for mathematics. In contrast, 79% of this area for students with special needs, students without disabilities scored at even though it is unclear how or why these proficiency for both reading and deficits occur and persist. To further explore mathematics. This achievement gap also these deficits, I investigated how academic seems to widen through middle school and
1 Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology
high school. The National Center for correlation between students’ grades and Education Statistics (2010) reported that their sense of academic self-efficacy. Yet, only 10% of 12th-grade students with students in special education have a low disabilities scored at or above proficiency in sense of self-efficacy, often attributing their reading compared to 39% of students underperformance to a stable, without disabilities, and 6% of students with uncontrollable, and internal lack of ability disabilities scored at or above proficiency in that they are unable to improve no matter math compared to 26% of students without how hard they try (Linnenbrink & Pintrich, disabilities. Overall, the data clearly show 2010). Similarly, Morgan, Farkas, and Wu that special needs children increasingly lag (2012) found that poor readers are at greater behind their nondisabled peers in reading risk of socio-emotional maladjustment. and math achievement. Their inability to meet the demands of the Science achievement is a particularly classroom leads to feelings of frustration, important area of interest and has received withdrawal, and social isolation. This is nationwide attention with the growth of further emphasized in a study by Tur-Kaspa, Science, Technology, Engineering, and Weisel, & Segev (1998) who found that Mathematics (STEM) fields. With the students with disabilities experience nation’s commitment to improving science significantly higher levels of loneliness. education, it is particularly important to Because students receiving special education ensure that students with disabilities also services are also more likely to be poor make appropriate growth in this area. Yet, readers, they are at an increased risk of students with disabilities underperform on encountering socio-emotional difficulties. science assessments relative to nondisabled On a more positive note, research has peers. The National Center for Education revealed several ways in which teachers can Statistics (2011) conducted a science promote student efficacy and socio- assessment graded on a scale of 0-300, with emotional adjustment. For example, teachers a score of 150 demonstrating average can provide emotional support and ask performance. While nondisabled students in students about their lives to make children 4th and 8th grade scored right around 150, feel more comfortable and supported at students with disabilities in these grades had school (Pianta, Hamre, & Stuhlman, 2003). average scores of approximately 20-30 They can also have other students model points lower than their nondisabled peers. how to successfully complete a learning task Though there is a plethora of (Artino, 2012). In all, self-efficacy clearly research describing how students in the plays a vital role in academic success, and special education system have a long history there are multiple ways in which teachers of underperformance, it is equally important influence self-efficacy and socio-emotional to consider students’ own perceptions of adjustment. their academic performance. Self-efficacy is defined as people’s judgments about their Teacher Characteristics ability to succeed, which is a critical Although the inclusive movement component to academic success (Bandura, has made incredible gains over the past 1986). When a student has a high sense of decade, the persistent gap between disabled self-efficacy, they tend to be more confident and nondisabled students indicates that there in their abilities and are therefore more is still room for improvement. Many factors likely to have positive learning outcomes. contribute to a student's wellbeing and Jinks and Morgan (1996) found a positive achievement, but research suggests that
2 Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology
teachers have the most influence (RAND belief in his or her ability to effectively Corporation, 2012). Therefore, it is teach and promote student engagement and extremely important to examine teachers’ learning (Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2001). impact on students' academic outcomes. In Teacher efficacy is important because it can particular, three areas to target are 1) teacher affect the effort teachers put into teaching, experience, 2) teacher efficacy, and 3) their persistence in face of difficulties, and teacher support. First, a teacher’s previous their ability to adapt to each individual experience working with children with child’s needs. When a teacher has a high special needs can greatly impact learning. sense of efficacy, they tend to be more The National Council for Accreditation of confident in their abilities, which increases Teacher Education (NCATE) requires that student achievement, motivation, and all teachers meet standards for teaching student self-efficacy (Tschannen-Moran & children with special needs (Turner, 2003). Hoy, 2001). Yet, research suggests that The coursework requirements and standards many general educators do not feel vary by state, however, and often only confident in their abilities to teach students mandate that teachers take one introductory with disabilities, and thus have a low sense special education course. Although this one of efficacy in this domain. A qualitative course is better than nothing, it is simply not interview study by Lohrmann and Bambara enough. A study by deBettencourt (1999) (2006) outlined some of the major found that 39.6% of the teachers surveyed uncertainties teachers have regarding their had taken only one course outlining ability to educate and understand students instructional strategies for teaching students with special needs. The teachers described with special needs, and 41.5% had not taken feelings of fear, anxiety, and worry due to any courses. Due to the lack of special the fact that they did not feel confident in education courses, these teachers reported their abilities. More specifically, these that they were left with little to no teachers worried about whether or not information regarding methods to teach inclusion would be successful, whether they students with disabilities. Another study would be able to meet the child’s needs, if found that 78% of general education the child would disrupt the rest of the teachers reported needing but not receiving classroom, and how they would balance the any type of in-service training. Reports students’ needs while still paying attention concluded that teachers lacked confidence in to the class as a whole. A different study by adapting materials and curriculum, writing Leyser, Zeiger, and Romi (2011) found that behavioral objectives, managing behavioral teachers who received adequate training problems, using assistive technology, giving scored significantly higher in regards to self- individual assistance to students, and efficacy than those who had little to no developing Individualized Education Plans training. Training builds self-efficacy by (IEP's, or legal documents that outline a offering experiential situations where specialized education program to meet the teachers can master new techniques before unique needs of children with disabilities) implementing them in the classroom. (Buell, Hallam, Gamel-McCormick, & Teachers also reported higher self-efficacy Scheer, 1999). when they had prior experience working Second, teacher's perceptions of their with special needs children (Bray-Clark & ability to teach students with disabilities Bates, 2003). represent another important avenue to target. Third, the support that teachers have Teacher efficacy is defined as the teacher’s in meeting the needs of students with
3 Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology
disabilities might have important special needs are related to 1) teacher implications for student learning. Research experience, 2) teacher efficacy, and 3) has demonstrated that teachers report having teacher support. Given available research, it less support than they need to appropriately remains empirically unclear why children teach students with disabilities in the general with special needs are lagging behind their education classroom. In one study by non-disabled peers. This study should offer Wolery, Werts, Lisowski, Caldwell, and further insight into potential mechanisms Snyder (1995), support was defined as that may influence this divide. having aides in the classroom and the ability to meet regularly with specialists. This study Research Questions and Hypotheses found that over half of teachers reported In this study I addressed the needing part-or full-time aides, but less than following questions: a third received them. In addition, over two- 1) To what extent does the academic thirds of teachers reported needing regular achievement and self-efficacy of meetings with specialists, yet only about students with special needs differ half received them. Another study by Bunch, from that of their non-disabled Lupart, and Brown (1997) found that peers? teachers believed supports such as a lower 2) To what extent do teachers mitigate student-to-pupil ratio and higher availability this achievement gap? of educational assistants to be very pertinent In line with previous research, I to their teaching success. Teachers feared hypothesized that children with special that having a child with special needs in needs would exhibit poorer academic their classroom could endanger the outcomes, lower perceived academic self- education of their other students, and this efficacy, and higher internalizing problem could be resolved by instituting smaller class behaviors than their typical peers. I believed sizes. Teachers also reported that education that this would be compounded by teacher assistants were imperative and would help experience, support, and efficacy, such that children thrive. Ultimately, every student is special education students with less unique in his or her strengths and experienced, supported, and efficacious weaknesses, and could benefit from a teachers will display even poorer outcomes. teacher who is prepared to teach students Furthermore, based on the plethora of with special needs. Improving teacher research describing the persistent efficacy, support, and experience could achievement gap between student with and therefore benefit all students, not just those without disabilities, I hypothesized that in special education. general education peers would also be Thus, although research clearly influenced by teacher experience, support, shows that special needs students are and efficacy in the same manner, but would lagging behind their peers in several continue to outperform their special domains, the mechanism by which this gap education peers. emerges remains unclear. Teachers could be an important contributor to this academic Method gap due to the vast influence they have on their students. In the present study, I Participants examine whether the academic achievement, This study utilized the restricted-use academic competence, and the presence of file of the Early Childhood Longitudinal internalizing problems in children with Study, Kindergarten Class of 1998-99
4 Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology
(ECLS-K), sponsored by the National teacher experience, support, and efficacy. Center for Educational Statistics (NCES). For each academic subject, I analyzed a two- The ECLS-K is a nationally representative level model, where level one corresponded study that followed approximately 21,000 to grade level (third, fifth, and eighth) and students from kindergarten through eighth level two corresponded to student level grade to examine child development, school demographics, teacher experience, support, readiness, and early school experiences. and efficacy, and whether or not the child Data from the ECLS-K was collected using had an IEP. Model equations at each level direct child assessments, parent interviews, are as follows: teacher and school administrator questionnaires, student records, and school Level 1: !"# = %&# + facility checklists. The dataset provides a %(#(*+,-."#) + 0"# diverse sample of socioeconomic and racial/ethnic backgrounds, and allows access Where !"# = outcome variable of interest for to information on children’s home each level-1 unit i nested within level-2 unit environment, home educational activities, j; % = intercept for the jth level-2 unit; school environment, classroom &# GRADE corresponds to third, fifth, and environment, classroom curricula, and eighth grade timepoints nested within each teacher qualifications. Per stipulations jth level-2 unit; and 0 = random error required by the Institute of Education "# Sciences when using restricted-use data, all associated with the ith level-1 unit nested reported sample and group sizes were within the jth level-2 unit; rounded to the nearest 10. Level 2: %&# = 1&& + The analytical sample was restricted 1&((-.23#) + to both general and special education 1&4(5.6#) + students attending public schools and 1&8(9.,:;.+#) + primarily placed in general education 1&<(5.6 ∗ classrooms (N = 6,170). Of these students, 9.,:;.+#) + >&# 50.4% were female, 60.2% were White/Caucasian, 12.8% were %(# = 1(& + Black/African American, 20.7% were 1 (-.23 ) + Hispanic, and 6.22% were Asian, 18.5% (( # 1 (5.6 ) + from the Northeast, 25.2% from the (4 # Midwest, 35.3% from the South, and 21.1% 1(8(9.,:;.+#) + from the West. The median income level at 1(<(5.6 ∗ third grade ranged from $40,000-$50,000. 9.,:;.+#) + >(# Sample descriptive statistics are included in Table 1; all continuous variables were Where %&# = intercept for the jth level-2 standardized to have a mean of zero. unit; %(# = slope for the jth level-2 unit; 1&& = overall mean intercept adjusted for Research Design predictors; 1(& = overall mean intercept for I used longitudinal multilevel the slope adjusted for predictors; DEMO = a modeling to assess how reading, math, and vector capturing covariate adjustments made science scores, along with reading for sex, race/ethnicity, maternal education, competence, math competence, and family income, and school climate; IEP = an internalizing problems, were impacted by indicator of whether the student was in
5 Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology
general or special education; TEACHER = a difficult mathematical items such as spatial vector capturing teacher experience, support, sense, geometry, algebra, probability, and efficacy; IEP*TEACHER = the patterns, functions, data analysis, and interaction between each teacher variable statistics. In our sample, there were 123 and special education status; >&# = random questions in third grade with a possible effects of the jth level-2 unit adjusted for score range of 31.21-120.42, 153 questions predictors on the intercept; and >(# = in fifth grade with a possible score range of random effects of the jth level-2 unit 46.97-150.94, and 174 questions in eighth adjusted for predictors on the slope. grade with a possible score range of 67.42- 172.20. Dependent Variables The science assessment in third, Achievement. Reading, math, and fifth, and eighth grade tested two categories: science scores were measured in spring of 1) conceptual understanding of scientific third grade, spring of fifth grade, and spring facts, and 2) the ability to ask questions of eighth grade using the Item Response about the natural world, collect evidence, Theory (IRT). IRT estimates performance and explain the answers obtained. Children by using patterns of correct and incorrect needed to understand the physical world, answers to measure proficiencies relative to draw inferences, comprehend relationships, grade level and tailor the test to the child’s and engage with the scientific method. In ability. This evaluation technique allows for our sample, there were 62 questions in third the measurement of achievement over time, grade with a possible score range of 10.56- even though the assessments administered 58.46, 92 questions in fifth grade with a are not identical at each grade level. Each possible score range of 17.91-87.58, and 111 score is a non-integer probability of correct questions in eighth grade with a possible answers representing the number of items a score range of 30.02-107.90. child would have answered correctly if they Perceived academic competence. I completed all of the questions. examined students’ perceived competence in The third and fifth grade reading reading and math through questions used assessments measured phonemic awareness, with permission from the Self-Description single word decoding, vocabulary, and Questionnaire 1 (SDQ; Marsh, 1992), which passage comprehension. Additionally, the was administered in third, fifth, and eighth 5th grade assessment included the ability to grade. The SDQ assessed how children felt evaluate nonfiction texts. The 8th grade about their academic work, and included assessment tested advanced comprehension questions about grades, difficulty of work, skills, including the ability to make and their interest and enjoyment in the connections with the text and evaluate subject. Two SDQ variables (one for literary devices. There were 154 questions in reading, one for math) were graded on a 1 to third grade with a possible score range of 4 response scale (1= not at all true, 2 = a 42.42-148.95, 186 questions in fifth grade little bit true, 3 = mostly true, 4 = very true). with a possible score range of 62.25-180.86, Internalizing problems. Lastly, I and 212 questions in eighth grade with a utilized the SDQ Sad/Lonely/Anxious scale, possible score range of 85.62-208.90. found in third, fifth, and eighth grade. The The third and fifth grade scale included items about internalizing mathematics assessments measured number problem behaviors such as feeling sad, sense, operations, and measurement. The lonely, ashamed of mistakes, feeling eighth grade assessment included more frustrated, and being worried about school
6 Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology
and friendships. This variable was graded on disabilities who are in my class” was z- a Likert-type scale with 1 being “not at all scored and included to measure teacher true” and 4 being “very true.” efficacy, because it assesses an individual teacher’s internal beliefs about teaching Predictors of Interest students with special needs. The second First, school office staff were asked statement, “inclusion of children with to indicate whether each child had an IEP on disabilities in my class has worked well,” record at school. If the child did not have an was z-scored and included to measure IEP on file, I considered them to be in inclusion efficacy, which arguably general education. Next, using the Spring represents a broader belief about the overall 3rd-Grade Teacher Questionnaire, I efficacy of inclusion. examined general education teachers’ experience, perceptions of support, and self- Covariate Adjustment efficacy in teaching a student with special In order to obtain unbiased estimates, needs. First, I created a teacher experience it is important to statistically control for variable that included 1) highest level of factors that may influence our outcome education received (ranging from a high variables and/or predictors of interest. To school diploma/GED to a doctorate); 2) this end, several covariates were included in number of college special education courses the analytical model. First, data from the completed (ranging from zero to more than Special Education Teacher Questionnaire B six); 3) number of years teaching (ranging included time-varying information on from zero to 49); and 4) number of years whether primary placement was in a general taught at grade level (ranging from zero to education classroom in third, fifth, and 39). All variables were z-scored (which eighth grade. If students were not primarily constrains the variable to have a mean of placed in general education at each of these zero and standard deviation of one), timepoints, they were excluded from summed, and then z-scored again. analysis. Time-invariant variables (i.e. Second, I formulated the Teacher variables that remain the same over all time Support variable by z-scoring and summing points) were measured at kindergarten, and 1) number of paid aides in the classroom; 2) included sex and race (White, Black, how often teachers meet with the special Hispanic, and Asian). I also captured education teacher to discuss a plan for socioeconomic status with the use of two children with disabilities in the class time-invariant variables measured at third (ranging from 1=never to 6=daily); 3) grade. The first was maternal level of number of students in the class; and 4) education (ranging from less than high whether the school administration school to a doctoral or professional degree), encourages and supports their staff (ranging and the second was family income (ranging from 1= strongly disagree to 5=strongly from less than $25,000 to above $200,000). agree). After these four variables were Both of these variables were z-scored. summed, they were z-scored again. Lastly, to capture information about Third, I looked at two variables children's schools that could influence defining efficacy found in the Teacher teachers' reports of efficacy or support, I Questionnaire, which had Likert-type created a composite variable measuring responses ranging from strongly agree to school climate from 7 Likert-type questions strongly disagree. The first statement, "I am found in the spring third, fifth, and eighth adequately trained to teach the children with grade Teacher Questionnaire B. Questions
7 Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology
assessed to what extent 1) staff members nonresponse. There were no issues with demonstrate school spirit; 2) the level of normality per Flora and Curran’s (2004) child misbehavior interferes with teaching rules for significant departures from (reverse-coded); 3) students are not capable normality in large samples (e.g., skew > 3, of learning the material (reverse-coded); 4) kurtosis > 8). teachers feel accepted and respected by colleagues; 5) teachers are continually Results learning and seeking new ideas; 6) Data were analyzed using a paperwork interferes with teaching (reverse- multilevel mixed-effects linear regression in coded); and 7) parents of schoolchildren are Stata/SE 14.0. Analyses occurred in four supportive of school staff. All seven steps: 1) empty two-level model with variables were summed and then z-scored. random intercepts and fixed slopes; 2) two- level model with demographic predictors at Missing Data level 2; 3) two-level model with Proportions of missing data for each demographic predictors and IEP at level 2; variable are represented in Table 1. Most and 4) two-level model with demographic variables were found to be missing at predictors, IEP, and teacher characteristics random (MAR). Missing data were imputed at Level 2. The addition of teacher variables in Stata/SE 14.0 using multivariate chained- at Level 2 did not appear to significantly equations (MICE), which replaces missing explain variance from the prior models values with multiple sets of stimulated (Table 2 and 3). Much of the variability values in order to complete the data (Rubin, within children was described by the 1978; Schenker & Taylor, 1996; Van addition of covariates. Full results for the Buuren & Groothuis-Oudshoorn, 2011). final models (4) for each outcome variable Historically, imputations in the realm of are displayed in Tables 2 and 3. social sciences have been conducted with m Academic Achievement. In 3rd = 3 to 5 imputed datasets (Spratt et al., grade, students with an IEP scored 0.32 2010), but current research has shown that standard deviations (which translates to a decreasing m imputed datasets can reduce difference of about 5.60 points) lower on the power and increase errors (Graham, reading assessment than students without an Olchowski, & Gilreath, 2007). In addition, IEP (SE = 0.04), but there was no significant some researchers have suggested imputing difference in growth over time between at least as many datasets as the highest students with and without disabilities (Std. B fraction of missing information (FMI) = 0.01, SE = 0.01). Students with more (Allison, 2012; White, Royston, Wood, supported teachers had significantly lower 2011; Graham, Olchowski, & Gilreath, reading scores in 3rd grade than students 2007). Following these recommendations, I with less supported teachers, but this effect imputed m = 60 datasets. The dependent was small in magnitude (Std. B = 0.04, SE = variables reading, math, and science were 0.02). In addition, teacher support did not not imputed. impact reading performance over time (Std. B = -0.00, SE = 0.00), nor did it Normality and Weighting differentially impact students receiving The ECLS-K dataset is designed to special education compared to nondisabled be nationally representative with the peers. Furthermore, teacher experience and application of weights to adjust for efficacy had no impact on student reading disproportionate sampling and survey scores (regardless of special education
8 Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology
status), either initially or over time. Results either reading or math competence for controlling for teacher characteristics are students with or without an IEP, and did not graphically represented in Figure 1. affect their growth over time. Results are Regarding math achievement, in 3rd graphically displayed in Figures 4 and 5. grade students with an IEP scored 0.14 Internalizing Problems. Students standard deviations (which translates to a with an IEP reported more internalizing difference of about 1.51 points) lower than problems in 3rd grade (Std. B = 0.27, SE= students without an IEP (SE = 0.03). In 0.05), but these problems decreased more addition, students with an IEP had slower over time than they did for students in math growth (-1.16 points) between 3rd and general education (a finding that could 8th grade, but again, this had a very small potentially showcase a positive effect of effect size (Std. B = -0.02, SE = 0.01) special education services) (Figure 6). (Figure 2). Teacher experience, support, and Moreover, teacher experience, support, and efficacy had no impact on students' math efficacy did not impact internalizing scores initially or over time, regardless of problems for students with or without an special education status. IEP, and did not affect growth over time. Finally, in 3rd grade students with an IEP scored approximately 0.14 standard Discussion deviations (which translates to a difference The purpose of this study was to of about 0.27 points, SE = 0.03), less on the assess how reading, math, and science science assessment than students without an scores, along with reading competence, IEP, and had slower growth over time (Std. math competence, and internalizing B = -0.04, SE = 0.01) (Figure 3). Teacher problems, were impacted by teacher support and efficacy did not differentially experience, support, and efficacy. Overall, predict science achievement for students students with an IEP typically perform with or without an IEP, and did not affect closer to their general education peers in growth over time. However, students with both 3rd grade science and math than 3rd more experienced teachers had slightly grade reading, but the gap between general slower growth over time, though this effect and special education students widens more size was remarkably close to zero (Std. B = - over time for reading and science than for 0.01, SE = 0.00) relative to students with math. In addition, students with an IEP were less experienced teachers, but there was no found to be less confident in their reading differential effect of teacher experience on abilities than their math abilities, relative to students with an IEP. their general education peers. Academic Competency. Students I expected to find that children with with an IEP reported feeling less interested special needs would exhibit poorer academic and competent in reading at 3rd grade, outcomes than their typical peers, and that scoring 0.13 standard deviations less (which this gap would be at least partially explained translates to a difference of about 0.08 by teacher characteristics such as points, SE = 0.06), but their growth over perceptions of classroom support, efficacy, time was no different than those without an and experience working with special needs IEP. In contrast, students with an IEP were students. Consistent with prior research, the no more or less confident in their math results of this study demonstrated that abilities than general education students at students with an IEP initially scored lower any time point. Teacher experience, support, on academic assessments and grew less over and efficacy did not make a difference in time. Interestingly, however, it does not
9 Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology
appear that this gap is explained by teacher that teachers have on their students. Since experience, support, or efficacy. While the ECLS-K dataset was not collected students with more supported teachers had yearly, this approach was not utilized. In significantly lower reading scores in 3rd addition, data collection for the ECLS-K grade than students with less supported ended at 8th grade. It would be beneficial to teachers, the effect was small in magnitude. analyze whether differences in academic It is possible that students who are already achievement, academic competence, and reading lower at third grade are selected into presence of internalizing behaviors arise classes that offer more support. In addition, throughout high school when material gets self-reported reading and math competence increasingly difficult. Finally, it would have and internalizing behaviors were not been ideal to analyze a three-level model of impacted by these teacher variables. time nested within students, nested within teachers. Because students were randomly Limitations and Future Directions sampled from all kindergartners attending These findings should be robust due each ECLS-K school and then followed to the nature of the ECLS-K dataset, which longitudinally, the study design did not is a large and nationally representative sample classrooms. Therefore, there was no sample. Nevertheless, this study still has teacher weight, and students were not several limitations. First, the ECLS-K equally distributed among teachers by the dataset is over 19 years old and therefore third-grade year. Though I first attempted to could be considered outdated. Future analyze a three-level model, I encountered research should consider replicating these convergence problems due to these issues, analyses with the ECLS-K:2011 dataset, and so I reverted to a two-level model to which is currently undergoing data obtain the most robust estimates possible. collection. Second, researchers have a Other potential mechanisms for this plethora of variables at their disposal when achievement gap include the amount of time conducting secondary data analysis, but they a child physically spends in the general are unable to tailor data collection to suit education classroom, academic and/or their particular research questions and behavioral expectations for children with precisely capture certain constructs of special needs, inadequate funding for highly interest. It is quite possible that the teacher individualized special education resources variables used here are insufficient to and services, and/or overall school quality answer these specific research questions. and composition. Future research should Some variables were also unavailable in the assess these constructs in order to assess 8th grade wave, in part due to students their impact on student achievement and having more than one primary teacher in efficacy. middle school. Future research should carefully design and select measures that are Conclusion more appropriate to research questions such In this study, I hoped to offer fresh as these as well as consider using the value- insight into why children with special needs added model (e.g., see Hanushek & Rivkin, underperform relative to general education 2010). students, given that it remains empirically The value-added model could be used with unclear why this occurs and how it might be more success because measuring these remediated. The results of this study suggest teacher characteristics at one timepoint may that certain teacher characteristics, although not be sufficient to capture the true impact integral to the education system, do not
10 Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology
appear to mitigate the achievement gap Development_Disabilities/ETADD_48(1)_18- 30.pdf between students with and without Chudowsky, N., & Chudowsky, V. (2009). State test score disabilities when measured at the third-grade trends through 2007-08, part 4: Has progress year. These results provide a unique been made in raising achievement for students with disabilities?. Center on Education Policy. contribution to the field of special education doi:10.1080/10349120902868632 and demonstrate that more research needs to Cosier, M., Causton-Theoharis, J., & Theoharis, G. (2013). be conducted in order to pinpoint the Does access matter? Time in general education and achievement for students with disabilities. mechanisms causing children with special Remedial and Special Education, 34(6), 323-332. needs to lag behind their nondisabled peers. doi:10.1177/0741932513485448 deBettencourt, L. U. (1999). General educators’ attitudes REFERENCES toward students with mild disabilities and their use of instructional strategies: Implications for Allison, P. D. (2012). Missing data. Thousand Oaks, CA: training. Remedial and Special Education, 20(1), Sage. Retrieved from 27–35. doi:10.1177/074193259902000104 https://statisticalhorizons.com/wp- doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02289.x content/uploads/2012/01/Milsap-Allison.pdf Flora, D. B., & Curran, P. J. (2004). An empirical Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and evaluation of alternative methods of estimation action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood for confirmatory factor analysis with ordinal data. Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Retrieved from Psychological Methods, 9(4), 466-491. https://www.uky.edu/~eushe2/Bandura/Bandura1 doi:10.1037/1082-989X.9.4.466 999AJSP.pdf Graham, J. W., Olchowski, A. E., & Gilreath, T. D. (2007). Blackorby, J., Knokey, A. M., Wagner, M., Levine, P., How many imputations are really needed? Some Schiller, E., & Sumi, C. (2007). What makes a practical clarifications of multiple imputation difference? Influences on outcomes for students theory. Prevention science, 8(3), 206-213. with disabilities. Menlo Park, CA: SRI doi:10.1007/s11121-007-0070-9 International. Retrieved June, 12, 2007 Retrieved Greshman, F.M. and Elliot, S.N. (1990). Social Skills from Rating Scale: Elementary Scale A (“How http://www.seels.net/designdocs/SEELS_W1W3 Often?”). Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance _FINAL.pdf Services, Inc. doi:10.1177/073428299201000215 Bray-Clark, N., & Bates, R. (2003). Self-efficacy beliefs https://www.rand.org/pubs/corporate_pubs/CP69 and teacher effectiveness: Implications for 3z1-2012-09.html professional development. Professional Hanushek, E., & Rivkin, S. (2010). Using value-added Educator, 26(1), 13-22. Retrieved from measures of teacher quality (CALDER Brief# 9). http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ842387.pdf Washington, DC: Urban Institute. Retrieved from Buell, M. J., Hallam, R., Gamel-McCormick, M., & https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED509683.pdf Scheer, S. (1999). A survey of general and Huang, H. H., & Diamond, K. E. (2009). Early childhood special education teachers’ perceptions and teachers' ideas about including children with inservice needs concerning inclusion. disabilities in programs designed for typically International Journal of Disability, Development developing children. International Journal of and Education, 46(2), 143–156. Disability, Development and Education, 56(2), doi:10.1080/103491299100597 169-182. doi:10.1080/10349120902868632 Bunch, G., Lupart, J., & Brown, M. (1997). Resistance and Jinks, J.L. & Morgan, V.L. (1996). Students’ sense of acceptance: Educator attitudes to inclusion of academic efficacy and achievement in science: a students with disabilities. Ottawa, ON: Social useful new direction for research regarding Sciences and Humanities Research Council of scientific literacy? The Electronic Journal of Canada. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service Science Education [On-line], 1(2). Retrieved No. ED410713). Retrieved from from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED410713.pdf http://ejse.southwestern.edu/article/view/7558 Buuren, S., & Groothuis-Oudshoorn, K. (2011). mice: Johnson, L. A. (2015). Expectations, socialization and safe Multivariate imputation by chained equations in spaces: An exploration of the experiences of R. Journal of statistical software, 45(3). middle school students with disabilities. doi:10.18637/jss.v045.i03 Dissertation Abstracts International Section A, Cameron, D. L., & Cook, B. G. (2013). General education 75, Retrieved from teachers' goals and expectations for their included http://gradworks.umi.com/36/30/3630241.html students with mild and severe disabilities. Leyser, Y., Zeiger, T., & Romi, S. (2011). Changes in self- Education And Training In Autism And efficacy of prospective special and general Developmental Disabilities, 48(1), 18-30 education teachers: Implication for inclusive Retrieved from education. International Journal of Disability, http://daddcec.org/Portals/0/CEC/Autism_Disabil Development and Education, 58(3), 241-255. ities/Research/Publications/Education_Training_
11 Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology
doi:10.1080/1034912X.2011.598397 /papers/1978_004.pdf Linnenbrink, E. A., & Pintrich, P. R. (2003). The Role of Schenker, N., & Taylor, J. M. (1996). Partially parametric Self-Efficacy Beliefs Instudent Engagement and techniques for multiple Learning Intheclassroom. Reading &Writing imputation. Computational statistics & data Quarterly, 19(2), 119-137. analysis, 22(4), 425-446. doi:10.1016/0167- doi:10.1080/10573560308223 9473(95)00057-7 Locke, J., Ishijima, E. H., Kasari, C., & London, N. (2010). Shifrer, D. (2013). Stigma of a label educational Loneliness, friendship quality and the social expectations for high school students labeled with networks of adolescents with high-functioning learning disabilities. Journal of Health and Social autism in an inclusive school setting. Journal Of Behavior, 54(4), 462-480. Research In Special Educational Needs, 10(2), doi:10.1177/0022146513503346 74-81. doi:10.1111/j.1471-3802.2010.01148.x Skiba, R. J. (2002). Special education and school Lohrmann, S., & Bambara, L. M. (2006). Elementary discipline: A precarious balance. Behavioral education teachers' beliefs about essential Disorders, 81-97. Retrieved from supports needed to successfully include students http://www.indiana.edu/~equity/docs/discipline_a with developmental disabilities who engage in _precarious_balance.pdf challenging behaviors. Research and Practice for Spratt, M., Carpenter, J., Sterne, J. A., Carlin, J. B., Heron, Persons with Severe Disabilities, 31(2), 157-173. J., Henderson, J., & Tilling, K. (2010). Strategies doi:10.1177/154079690603100208 for multiple imputation in longitudinal Marsh, H. W. (1992). Self-Description Questionnaire – I. studies. American journal of Campbelltown, N.S.W. Austrialia: University of epidemiology, 172(4), 478-487. Western Sydney, Macarthur. doi:10.1037/t01843- doi:10.1093/aje/kwq137 000 Sullivan, A. L., Klingbeil, D. A., & Van Norman, E. R. Morgan, P. L., Farkas, G., & Wu, Q. (2012). Do Poor (2013). Beyond behavior: Multilevel analysis of Readers Feel Angry, Sad, and Unpopular? the influence of sociodemographics and school Scientific Studies of Reading : The Official characteristics on students' risk of suspension. Journal of the Society for the Scientific Study of School Psychology Review, 42(1), 99. Retrieved Reading, 16(4), 360–381. from doi:10.1080/10888438.2011.570397 https://www.scopus.com/record/display.uri?eid=2 National Center for Education Statistics (2010). The -s2.0- Nation’s Report Card: Grade 12 Reading and 84876578734&origin=inward&txGid=C71BB24 Mathematics 2009 National and Pilot State 4A772EDC8133753B828F3640C.wsnAw8kcdt7I Results (NCES 2011–455). Institute of PYLO0V48gA%3a11 Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Tschannen-Moran, M., & Hoy, A. W. (2001). Teacher Education, Washington, D.C. Retrieved from efficacy: Capturing an elusive construct. https://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/pdf/main20 Teaching and teacher education, 17(7), 783-805. 09/2011455.pdf Retrieved from National Center for Education Statistics. (2011). The http://mxtsch.people.wm.edu/Scholarship/TATE_ Nation's Report Card: Science 2009 (NCES TSECapturingAnElusiveConstruct.pdf 2011–451). Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Tur-Kaspa, H., Weisel, A., & Segev, L. (1998). Department of Education, Washington, DC. Attributions for feelings of loneliness of students Retrieved from with learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities http://nces.ed.gov.proxy.lib.umich.edu/nationsrep Research & Practice, 13(2), 89-94. Retrieved ortcard/pdf/main2009/2011451.pdf from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ567458 RAND Corporation. (2012). Teachers matter: Turner, N. D. (2003). Preparing preservice teachers for Understanding teachers’ impact on student inclusion in secondary classrooms. Education, achievement. Retrieved from 123(3), 491. Retrieved from https://www.rand.org/pubs/corporate_pubs/CP69 http://www.internationaljournalofspecialed.com/d 3z1-2012-09.html ocs/PREPARING_PRESERVICE_TEACHERS_ Rotheram-Fuller, E., Kasari, C., Chamberlain, B., & Locke, FOR_INCLUSION.doc J. (2010). Social involvement of children with White, I. R., Royston, P., & Wood, A. M. (2011). Multiple autism spectrum disorders in elementary school imputation using chained equations: issues and classrooms. Journal of Child Psychology And guidance for practice. Statistics in Psychiatry, 51(11), 1227-1234. medicine, 30(4), 377-399. doi:10.1002/sim.4067 doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02289.x Wolery, M., Werts, M., Lisowski, L., Caldwell, N., & Rubin, D. B. (1978). Multiple imputations in sample Snyder, E. (1995). Experienced Teachers' surveys-a phenomenological Bayesian approach Perceptions of Resources and Supports for to nonresponse. In Proceedings of the survey Inclusion. Education and Training in Mental research methods section of the American Retardation and Developmental Disabilities, Statistical Association (Vol. 1, pp. 20-34). 30(1), 15-26. Retrieved from American Statistical Association. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/23879136 https://ww2.amstat.org/sections/srms/Proceedings
12 Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology
Table 1
Descriptive Information for Variables of Interest
% Mean (SD) % Skewness Kurtosis Missing Dependent Variables Reading Third 1.26 108.59 (19.55) -0.50 2.82 Fifth 0.61 139.74 (22.20) -0.50 2.77 Eighth 1.85 168.72 (27.45) -0.85 3.00 Math Third 1.12 85.98 (17.20) -0.45 2.42 Fifth 0.64 115.00 (20.62) -0.72 3.01 Eighth 1.38 141.20 (21.52) -0.79 3.08 Science Third 1.18 34.70 (9.91) -0.14 2.35 Fifth 0.66 58.42 (14.22) -0.51 2.60 Eighth 1.18 84.15 (15.87) -0.90 3.39 Perceived Reading Competence Third 1.01 3.29 (0.63) -1.00 3.47 Fifth 0.61 3.01 (0.72) -0.44 2.32 Eighth 1.79 2.51 (0.75) 0.09 2.30 Perceived Math Competence Third 1.01 3.18 (0.75) -0.88 2.95 Fifth 0.61 2.95 (0.76) -0.47 2.35 Eighth 1.76 2.62 (0.89) -0.09 1.96 Internalizing Problem Behaviors Third 1.01 2.18 (0.73) 0.38 2.37 Fifth 0.61 2.03 (0.63) 0.61 2.87 Eighth 1.76 2.03 (0.55) 0.53 3.17 Covariates Gender 0.00 0.02 1.00 Female 50.04 Race 0.09 1.39 4.14 White 62.70 Black 13.33 Hispanic 21.31 Asian 2.67 IEP on File 17.16 9.87 2.80 8.85 Maternal Education 9.65 0.23 2.70 High School Diploma or Less 40.41 Vocational/Tech or Some 35.95
13 Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology
College Bachelors Degree 15.14 Some Graduate Degree 8.50 Family Income 7.56 -0.54 2.22 Under $25,000 23.60 $25,000-$40,000 20.70 Above $75,000 25.70 School Climate 18.76 -0.10 (0.97) -0.36 3.17 Teacher Level Characteristics Teacher Experience 26.21 0.08 (1.00) 0.33 2.49 Teacher Efficacy 18.03 0.03 (1.02) -0.22 2.29 Inclusion Efficacy 18.92 0.00 (1.04) -0.22 2.89 Teacher Support 42.65 0.00 (0.93) 0.13 4.40
14 Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology
Table 2 Influence of Teacher Characteristics on Academic Achievement
Reading Math Science Model 1 Model 2 Model 1 Model 2 Model 1 Model 2 (n = 6,263) (n = 6,173) (n = 6,263) (n = 6,171) (n = 6,266) (n = 6,173) B (SE) p B (SE) p B (SE) p B (SE) p B (SE) p B (SE) p Fixed Effects Effects on Intercept Constant 0.35 0.0 0.35 0.0 0.17 0.0 0.17 0.0 0.22 0.0 0.22 0.0 (0.2) 00 (0.02) 00 (0.02) 00 (0.02) 00 (0.02) 00 (0.02) 00 Grade - 0.03 0.0 - 0.0 - 0.0 -0.02 0.0 - 0.0 - 0.0 (0.0) 00 0.03(0. 00 0.17(0. 00 (0.03) 00 0.02(0. 00 0.02(0. 00 00) 0) 00) 00) Gender - 0.0 - 0.0 0.23 0.0 0.23 0.0 0.27(0. 0.0 0.27 0.0 0.14(0. 00 0.14(0. 00 (0.03) 00 (0.03) 00 03) 00 (0.03) 00 03) 03)
Race/Ethnicit y Black (2) - 0.0 - 0.0 - 0.0 - 0.0 - 0.0 - 0.0 0.51(0. 00 0.50(0. 00 0.68(0. 00 0.68(0.05 00 0.81(0. 00 0.80(0. 00 05) 05) 05) ) 04) 04) Hispanic - 0.0 - 0.0 - 0.0 -0.30 0.0 - 0.0 - 0.0 (3) 0.39(0. 00 0.38(0. 00 0.30(0. 00 (0.04) 00 0.57(0. 00 0.56(0. 00 04) 04) 04) 04) 04) Asian (5) - 0.1 - 0.0 0.06 0.2 0.05 0.3 - 0.0 - 0.0 0.10(0. 04 0.09(0. 91 (0.05) 38 (0.05) 30 0.28(0. 00 0.28(0. 00 05) 05) 01) 06) Maternal 0.27 0.0 0.27 0.0 0.29 0.0 0.29 0.0 0.28 0.0 0.28 0.0 Education (0.02) 00 (0.0) 00 (0.02) 00 (0.02) 00 (0.01) 00 (0.02) 00 Income 0.09 0.0 0.08 0.0 0.05 0.0 0.05 0.0 0.10 0.0 0.09 0.0 (0.01) 00 (0.01) 00 (0.01) 00 (0.05) 00 (0.01) 00 (0.01) 00 School 0.01 0.2 0.01 0.4 - 0.4 -0.07 0.4 0.00 0.9 - 0.8 Climate (0.01) 01 (0.01) 11 0.07(0. 57 (0.01) 46 (0.01) 92 0.00(0. 73 01) 01) IEP - 0.0 - 0.0 - 0.0 -0.14 0.0 - 0.0 - 0.0 0.33(0. 00 0.32(0. 00 0.15(0. 00 (0.03) 00 0.15(0. 00 0.14(0. 00 04) 04) 03) 03) 03) Teacher 0.03 0.0 -0.01 0.5 0.02 0.1 Experience (0.02) 86 (0.02) 66 (0.02) 38 Teacher 0.04 0.0 0.03 0.1 0.0 0.1 Support (0.02) 38 (0.02) 14 (0.0) 32 Teacher - 0.9 0.00 0.9 0.00 0.9 Efficacy 0.00(0. 23 (0.02) 87 (0.02) 99 02) Inclusion 0.00 0.9 -0.02 0.3 0.01 0.6 Efficacy (0.02) 36 (0.02) 73 (0.02) 34 0.04 0.2 -0.01 0.8 - 0.8 IEP*Experien (0.04) 82 (0.03) 27 0.01(0. 15 ce 04) - 0.7 -0.03 0.3 - 0.4 IEP*Support 0.02(0. 37 (0.03) 44 0.03(0. 03 05) 04)
15 Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology
IEP*Tch. - 0.7 0.01 0.7 0.01 0.7 Efficacy 0.01(0. 61 (0.04) 48 (0.04) 82 05) IEP*Inc. - 0.6 0.01 0.8 - 0.6 Efficacy 0.02(0. 81 (0.03) 15 0.02(0. 64 04) 04) Effects on Slope - 0.3 - 0.3 - 0.0 -0.02 0.0 - 0.0 - 0.0 Grade*Gende 0.00(0. 85 0.00(0. 42 0.19(0. 00 (0.04) 00 0.01(0. 05 0.01(0. 04 r 00) 00) 00) 00) 00)
Grade*Race/E thnic. Black (2) - 0.0 - 0.0 - 0.3 -0.01 0.3 - 0.0 - 0.0 0.02(0. 08 0.02(0. 06 0.06(0. 68 (0.01) 80 0.02(0. 69 0.02(0. 48 01) 01) 01) 01) 01) Hispanic 0.02 0.0 0.01 0.0 0.02 0.0 0.02 0.0 0.04 0.0 0.04 0.0 (3) (0.01) 23 (0.01) 33 (0.01) 03 (0.01) 04 (0.01) 00 (0.01) 00 Asian (5) 0.03 0.0 0.03 0.0 0.03 0.0 0.03 0.0 0.05 0.0 0.05 0.0 (0.01) 02 (0.01) 04 (0.01) 00 (0.01) 00 (0.01) 00 (0.01) 00 0.00 0.1 0.01 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 - 0.5 - 0.6 Grade*Matern (0.00) 21 (0.00) 85 (0.00) 92 (0.00) 89 0.00(0. 73 0.00(0. 00 alEd. 00) 00) 0.00 0.6 0.00 0.6 - 0.9 -0.01 0.8 - 0.7 - 0.7 Grade*Incom (0.00) 90 (0.00) 30 0.00(0. 41 (0.00) 27 0.00(0. 74 0.00(0. 67 e 00) 00) 00) 0.00 0.5 0.00 0.3 0.01 0.0 0.01 0.0 0.01 0.0 0.01 0.0 Grade*School (0.00) 49 (0.00) 87 (0.00) 05 0(0.0) 06 (0.00) 24 (0.00) 23 Clim. Grade*IEP 0.01 0.2 0.01 0.2 - 0.0 -0.02 0.0 - 0.0 - 0.0 (0.01) 88 (0.01) 86 0.02(0. 30 (0.01) 29 0.04(0. 01 0.04(0. 00 01) 01) 01) - 0.3 -0.00 0.5 - 0.0 Grade*Experi 0.00(0. 28 (0.00) 11 0.01(0. 18 ence 00) 00) - 0.6 -0.00 0.4 - 0.7 Grade*Suppor 0.00(0. 24 (0.00) 65 0.00(0. 68 t 00) 00) - 0.6 0.00 0.8 0.00 0.3 Grade*Tch.Ef 0.00(0. 35 (0.00) 02 (0.00) 99 fic. 00) Grade*Inc. - 0.8 0.00 0.6 - 0.3 Effic. 0.00(0. 22 (0.00) 35 0.00(0. 86 00) 00) - 0.2 0.01 0.5 0.01 0.5 IEP*Grade*E 0.01(0. 72 (0.01) 24 (0.01) 49 xp. 01) - 0.3 0.01 0.4 0.01 0.1 IEP*Grade*S 0.01(0. 30 (0.01) 32 (0.01) 54 upp. 01) 0.00 0.9 -0.02 0.1 - 0.7 IEP*Grade*T. (0.02) 76 (0.01) 12 0.00(0. 43 Eff 01) 0.01 0.5 -0.00 0.6 - 0.9 IEP*Grade*I. (0.02) 55 (0.01) 99 0.00(0. 88
16 Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology
Eff 01) Random Effects 0.48 0.48 0.55 0.55 0.45 0.45 Var(Constant) (0.00) (0.00) (0.00) (0.00) (0.00) (0.00) 0.21 0.21 0.15 0.15 0.20 0.20 Var(Residual) (0.00) (0.00) (0.00) (0.00) (0.00) (0.00) Model Fit AIC 75060. 74382. 71053. 70344.77 64966. 64341. 61 11 02 58 35 BIC 75214. 74659. 71207. 70621.82 65120. 64618. 71 15 14 71 42
Table 3 Influence of Teacher Characteristics on Competencies and Internalizing Behaviors
Reading Competence Math Competence Internalizing Problems
Model 1 Model 2 Model 1 Model 2 Model 1 Model 2 (n = 6,263) (n = 6,173) (n = 6,264) (n = 6,17 ) (n = 6, 263) (n = 6,173) B (SE) p B (SE) p B (SE) p B (SE) p B (SE) p B (SE) p Fixed Effects Effects on Intercept Constant 0.13 0.0 0.13 0.0 - 0.0 - 0.0 - 0.0 - 0.0 (0.03) 00 (0.03) 00 0.13(0. 00 0.13(0. 00 0.20(0. 00 0.20(0. 0 02) 03) 02) 02) Grade 0.01 0.0 0.01 0.0 0.02(0. 0.0 0.02 0.0 0.05 0.0 0.05 0.0 (0.01) 57 (0.01) 44 01) 05 (0.01) 07 (0.01) 00 (0.01) 0 Gender - 0.0 - 0.0 0.21(0. 0.0 0.21 0.0 0.02 0.4 0.01 0.5 0.25(0. 00 0.25(0. 00 03) 00 (0.03) 00 (0.03) 38 (0.03) 01 03) 03)
Race/Ethnicity Black (2) 0.13 0.0 0.14 0.0 0.20 0.0 0.19 0.0 0.42 0.0 0.41 0.0 (0.05) 15 (0.05) 09 (0.05) 00 (0.05) 00 (0.05) 00 (0.05) 00 Hispanic 0.12 0.0 0.12 0.0 0.15 0.0 0.15 0.0 0.31 0.0 0.30 0.0 (3) (0.04) 11 (0.05) 07 (0.04) 00 (0.04) 01 (0.04) 00 (0.04) 00 Asian (5) 0.09 0.1 0.09 0.1 0.19 0.0 0.19 0.0 0.02 0.6 0.03 0.6 (0.07) 89 (0.07) 57 (0.08) 12 (0.08) 14 (0.05) 46 (0.05) 21 Maternal 0.04 0.0 0.04 0.0 0.02 0.3 0.17 0.3 - 0.0 - 0.0 Education (0.02) 56 (0.02) 48 (0.02) 72 (0.19) 60 0.14(0. 00 0.14(0. 00 17) 02) Income 0.01 0.5 0.01 0.6 - 0.7 - 0.7 - 0.0 - 0.0 (0.02) 96 (0.02) 32 0.01(0. 38 0.01(0. 78 0.14(0. 00 0.14(0. 00 02) 02) 02) 02) School 0.00 0.9 0.00 0.9 - 0.9 0.00 0.9 - 0.0 - 0.0 Climate (0.02) 83 (0.02) 98 0.00(0. 22 (0.02) 32 0.03(0. 18 0.03(0. 25 05) 01) 01) IEP -0.12 0.0 -0.13 0.0 0.01 0.7 0.02 0.6 0.27 0.0 0.27 0.0 (0.05) 15 (0.6) 22 (0.05) 79 (0.05) 45 (0.05) 00 (0.05) 00 Teacher 0.02 0.4 - 0.6 - 0.8 Experience (0.02) 27 0.01(0. 39 0.00(0. 07 02) 02)
17 Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology
Teacher 0.01 0.8 - 0.5 - 0.3 Support (0.02) 10 0.01(0. 94 0.02(0. 83 02) 02) Teacher - 0.5 - 0.7 0.02 0.2 Efficacy 0.01(0. 11 0.01(0. 41 (0.02) 73 02) 02) Inclusion 0.01 0.6 0.01 0.7 - 0.7 Efficacy (0.02) 40 (0.02) 69 0.01(0. 08 02) 0.03 0.5 - 0.7 0.02 0.7 IEP*Experienc (0.06) 77 0.02(0. 63 (0.05) 13 e 06) IEP*Support - 0.2 - 0.4 0.02 0.7 0.08(0. 05 0.04(0. 94 (0.05) 14 07) 06) IEP*Tch. - 0.8 0.01 0.8 - 0.4 Efficacy 0.01(0. 82 (0.07) 43 0.04(0. 95 06) 06) IEP*Inc. 0.01 0.8 - 0.5 - 0.6 Efficacy (0.07) 45 0.04(0. 91 0.03(0. 36 07) 06) Effects on Slope -0.03 0.0 - 0.0 - 0.0 - 0.0 - 0.0 Grade*Gender (0.01) 00 0.03(0. 00 0.02(0. 07 0.02(0. 08 0.05(0. 00 01) 01) 01) 01)
Grade*Race/E thnic. Black (2) 0.01 0.3 0.01 0.3 - 0.0 - 0.0 - 0.0 - 0.0 (0.01) 53 (0.01) 86 0.02(0. 91 0.02(0. 96 0.09(0. 00 0.09(0. 00 01) 01) 01) 01) Hispanic -0.04 0.0 - 0.0 - 0.0 - 0.0 - 0.0 - 0.0 (3) (0.01) 04 0.03(0. 05 0.05(0. 00 0.05(0. 00 0.03(0. 13 0.03(0. 13 01) 01) 01) 01) 01) Asian (5) 0.03 0.0 0.03 0.0 0.00 0.8 0.00 0.8 0.01 0.4 0.01 0.4 (0.02) 58 (0.02) 56 (0.02) 47 (0.02) 48 (0.02) 24 (0.02) 86 0.02 0.0 0.02 0.0 0.01 0.0 0.01 0.0 0.02 0.0 0.02 0.0 Grade*Matern (0.01) 00 (0.01) 00 (0.00) 60 (0.00) 58 (0.00) 01 (0.00) 01 alEd. 0.01 0.1 0.01 0.0 0.01 0.0 0.01 0.0 0.02 0.0 0.02 0.0 Grade*Income (0.01) 07 (0.01) 92 (0.01) 29 (0.01) 43 (0.01) 01 (0.01) 02 0.01 0.2 0.01 0.2 0.01 0.2 0.00 0.3 0.00 0.2 0.00 0.2 Grade*School (0.01) 54 (0.01) 49 (0.01) 88 (0.01) 65 (0.00) 81 (0.00) 89 Clim. Grade*IEP -0.01 0.5 - 0.4 - 0.1 - 0.1 - 0.0 - 0.0 (0.02) 08 0.01(0. 98 0.02(0. 65 0.02(0. 19 0.04(0. 11 0.04(0. 14 02) 02) 02) 02) 02) - 0.4 0.00 0.5 - 0.9 Grade*Experie 0.00(0. 22 (0.00) 93 0.00(0. 78 nce 01) 00) 0.00 0.6 0.00 0.6 0.00 0.8 Grade*Suppor (0.01) 32 (0.01) 64 (0.01) 20 t 0.00 0.9 - 0.3 - 0.5 Grade*Tch.Eff (0.01) 90 0.01(0. 57 0.00(0. 45
18 Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology
ic. 01) 00) Grade*Inc. - 0.7 0.00 0.6 - 0.8 Effic. 0.00(0. 87 (0.01) 02 0.00(0. 82 01) 00) 0.01 0.5 - 0.6 - 0.1 IEP*Grade*Ex (0.02) 00 0.01(0. 45 0.03(0. 02 p. 02) 02) 0.02 0.3 0.02 0.3 - 0.6 IEP*Grade*Su (0.02) 84 (0.02) 64 0.01(0. 70 pport 02) - 0.8 - 0.9 0.02 0.2 IEP*Grade*T. 0.00(0. 69 0.00(0. 55 (0.02) 06 Eff 02) 02) - 0.6 - 0.9 0.00 0.9 IEP*Grade*I. 0.01(0. 23 0.00(0. 58 (0.02) 63 Eff 02) 02) Random Effects 0.33 0.33 0.37 0.37 0.30 0.29 Var(Constant) (0.00) (0.00) (0.00) (0.00) (0.00) (0.00) 0.62 0.62 0.63 0.63 0.61 0.66 Var(Residual) (0.00) (0.00) (0.00) (0.00) (0.00) (0.00) Model Fit AIC 17679.9 17515. 20467. 20288. 15566. 15458. 8 49 29 37 02 47 BIC 17834.0 17792. 20621. 20565. 15720. 15735. 8 54 39 42 13 53
19 Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology
Figure 1: Reading Growth by Special Education Status
Figure 2: Math Growth by Special Education Status
20 Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology
Figure 3: Science Growth by Special Education Status
Figure 4: Reading Competence by Special Education Status
21 Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology
Figure 5: Math Competence by Special Education Status
Figure 6: Internalizing Problems by Special Education Status
22 Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology
The Influence of Moral Values and Victim Typicality on Victim Blame in Intimate Partner Violence Cases Rebecca Del Toro University of Queensland
ABSTRACT. The aim of this study was to investigate how both, victim typicality and binding moral values, impact an observer’s attributions of blame for a victim in cases of intimate partner violence. A total of 112 participants were included in the final sample; with 33 men and 79 women who had been recruited either online through social media, or through the University of Queensland’s first year psychology student participation scheme. Participants read a vignette depicting a hypothetical case of intimate partner violence between a husband (perpetrator) and wife (victim), which involved incidences of psychological and physical abuse. Participants were then asked to respond to a series of questions, which measured their attribution of blame to the victim, levels of binding moral values (Moral Foundations Questionnaire), acceptance of domestic violence myths (Domestic Violence Myth Acceptance Scale), and demographic information. The results of the study showed no significant effect for victim typicality or binding moral values. There was no significant interaction between victim typicality and binding moral values. Domestic violence myth acceptance was positively correlated with binding moral values, and found to be a significant predictor of victim blame. These findings suggest that the concept of victim typicality may be changing with societal attitudes, and the sample was too homogenous to find significant variance in moral values. These findings also reinforce the considerable influence of domestic violence myth acceptance on attributions of victim blame.
Many researchers have proposed the concept values, may play a key role in determining if, that victim blaming occurs due to a just world and when, an observer will blame a victim belief; the idea that everything happens for a (Alicke, 1992, 2000, Brewer, 2007; Niemi and reason and people get what they deserve Young, 2016). There is no research to date that (Bègue, Charmoillaux, Cochet, Cory, & De investigates how these two factors combine to Suremain, 2008; Dalbert, 1999; Lerner, 1980). affect victim blame. With compelling evidence However, current scientific literature tells a for both victim typicality and moral values more complex story. Recent research shows being important contributors to judgements of that factors pertaining to both victims and victim blame, it can be suggested that this observers influence the level of blame that decision-making process may be a observers attribute to victims in cases of combination of the two. It is important to intimate partner violence. Some researchers consider these influences in conjunction so the argue that the victim must fit into a stereotype scientific community may begin to resolve the (an ideal or typical victim) to warrant current conflict in the literature and develop a sympathy, and if they do not, they will be held better understanding of the multiple factors responsible for some or all the abuse that contributing to instances of victim blame. The occurs (Blackman, 1990; Capezza and current study will investigate how both victim Arriaga, 2008; Christie, 1986). Other research, typicality and moral values impact an however, has focused on the observers observer’s attribution of blame for a victim of attributing the blame. In fact, studies have intimate partner violence. shown individual differences such as moral
1 Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology
Intimate Partner Violence and Victim following statement; “She was an alcoholic Blaming and a bad student” (Rannard, 2017). Just one A victim is most commonly defined month earlier, in April 2017, New Jersey as a person who is physically, mentally or police commissioner, William Regan, had all financially harmed by the actions of another domestic violence charges against him person (World Health Organisation, 2012). dropped. Family Court Judge, Roy McCready, Victim blaming happens when people hold the determined that Regan’s wife could not have victim responsible for their own suffering been too distressed by his actions as she (Lerner & Goldberg, 1999; Ryan, 2010). continued to live with Regan after the assaults Victim blaming is a common, often automatic, (Attrino, 2017). In Australia, during May process that occurs in court trials, the media 2017, a court heard audio recording of the and even casual discussions. The outcome of violent assault against Kelly Landry by her this process ultimately shapes society’s husband, Anthony Bell. Even after this perception of what constitutes satisfactory recording, which Magistrate Robert Williams repercussions for criminal offences. This can described as ‘chilling’, the family’s nanny, result in victims of crime abstaining from Gordana Karoglan, claimed in her witness reporting incidences due to a fear of backlash testimony that Landry “was complaining every against their character, or lack of trust in the day…, if she really didn’t want to be with him, criminal justice system to provide assistance. she shouldn’t be with him.” (Crawford, 2017). This reluctance to report incidents is The victims in these situations were judged on particularly common amongst victims of the choices they made leading up to, and after, intimate partner violence (NSW Bureau of the assaults rather than the crime itself. Crime Statistics and Research, 2013). Defined These case studies lead to the by the World Health Organisation (2012) as question: Why do so many cases of violence “any behaviour within an intimate relationship result in blame being primarily attributed to that causes psychological, physical or sexual the victim? One popular theory for this harm to those in the relationship”, intimate phenomenon is the just world hypothesis partner violence is often not disclosed to (Lerner & Simmons, 1966); the belief that family, friends or police by the victim, for fear everything happens for a reason and people get of being blamed for the abuse (Patterson, what they deserve. If everything falls into the Greeson, and Campbell 2009). This is with same pattern of cause and effect, then people good reason, as social attitudes often direct should take the necessary steps to prevent blame toward the victim by implying they adverse consequences, and enhance good incited the abuse, or suggesting they should outcomes. This hypothesis has been cited as an have left the abuser sooner (Kristiansen & explanation for victim blaming in many Guilietti, 1990; Pierce & Harris, 1993). The contexts, as the concept of a just world attribution of blame to the victim is commonly protects people from feeling out of control due reinforced within the relationship too. to random life events (Kaplan, 2012; Perpetrators often attribute their violence to Stromwall, Alfredsson, & Landstrom, 2012, external causes, such as the victim provoking 2013; Van Den Bos & Maas, 2009). Similarly, them (Vecina, 2014), and the victim attributes people also tend to blame victims in an effort the abuse to dispositional factors within to reduce their sense of accountability to themselves (Overholser & Moll, 1990). provide victim services, and eliminate adverse Around the world there have been social conditions (Mancini & Pickett, 2015). many instances of intimate partner violence Consequently, people tend to avoid accepting where members of the public have attributed acts of violence as random and begin looking blame to the victim of that violence. This was for reasons as to what the victim may have seen in May 2017, when 22-year-old Lesvy done to warrant the violence. While the belief Berlin Osorio was strangled with a telephone in a just world has been shown to predict cord at a university campus in Mexico City, victim blame in some instances, it does not after a night of drinking with her boyfriend. In explain the phenomenon completely, as other response to this incident, the Mexico City factors relating to both the victim and the Prosecutor’s office released a post on the observer have also been shown to change this social media platform, Twitter. They attributed effect. blame to Ms Osorio when releasing the Factors Relating to the Victim
2 Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology
Recent studies have found that a that an observer will discount causality submissive or vulnerable victim warrants less attributed to a single cause, if multiple blame than a victim who defends themselves plausible causes are present. It may be from their abuser. (Capezza & Arriaga, 2008; suggested that an aggressive response to Witte, Schroeder, & Lohr, 2006; Yamawaki, violence implies something about the victim’s Ochoa-Shipp, Pulsipher, Harlos, & Swindler, character, and an observer could conclude that 2012). Christie (1986) defined this submissive the victim provoked the incident by being an character as an ideal victim; someone who aggressive person. “generates the most sympathy from society” It is also important to note that the (p. 19). In his original work, Christie (1986) characteristics of a “typical victim” could be described three factors as being necessary for interpreted by some as a gender stereotype. someone to be considered the ideal, or typical More specifically, as a stereotypically victim. They are firstly, someone who is weak, feminine individual. Women are often secondly, someone who is in a place where considered physically weaker and less they cannot be blamed for being at the time of assertive than men, and are therefore the crime, and lastly, someone who is attacked considered less able to protect themselves by an unknown and evil individual. While (Buzawa & Buzawa, 1993; Peters, 2008). victims of intimate partner violence often fall When women respond to abuse in a more into the categories of being weaker than their aggressive or masculine manner, they are abuser (Devries et al., 2013) and being in the perceived as not behaving in a way that home, which is considered a reasonable society deems appropriate for their gender, and environment (Mouzos and Makkai, 2004), they are then more likely to be blamed for unlike random attacks, these victims know the their actions. offender. This leaves room for observers to A study by Capezza and Arriaga pass judgement since these victims often (2008) investigated the effect of passive or continue to remain in an environment where aggressive responses in a case of intimate revictimization is likely to occur (Meyer, partner abuse, with 118 university students 2015). Although victims of intimate partner from the Midwestern United States. violence may not have the benefit of being Participants were randomly assigned to read a considered perfectly ideal, the victim’s scenario depicting a case of marital conflict, in response to abuse may influence how ideal an which the wife was shown as either traditional observer perceives them to be. The intimate (homemaker), non-traditional (lawyer) or a partner violence version of the ideal, or typical control (no occupation). When the wife was victim, is the battered woman. The term, depicted as traditional, she managed the battered woman syndrome refers to a household chores alone and her husband was psychological paralysis, or learned entirely responsible for the finances. When the helplessness, in which victims of long term wife was depicted as non-traditional, she abuse become so defeated and depressed that worked in a career that led her to earn more they believe they are incapable of leaving the money than her husband, and the household abusive relationship. When victims respond to chores were shared equally amongst them. In abuse in a way that is incompatible with the the control condition, participants read how weak and passive construct of the battered both the husband and wife keep busy at home woman (i.e. fighting back by pushing, yelling, doing various household chores and tasks, insulting) they are less likely to be perceived with no mention of any occupation. In all as defenceless, and as such, ascribed more cases, the husband engaged in repeated acts of responsibility for the abuse. This can be seen psychological abuse. This was demonstrated in legal cases of intimate partner violence, verbally with yelling and name calling. What where victims of abuse have reacted to the the researchers were primarily interested in abuse with anger or aggression. Their claims was how participants perceived the victim of battered woman syndrome are often after she responded to the abuse, and whether challenged, and awarded much less stereotypes of certain females would influence consideration (Blackman, 1988; Schneider, attributions of victim blame. In the traditional 1992). This effect of victim blame may be condition, the wife responded passively and interpreted in terms of Kelley’s (1987) calmly, while in the non-traditional condition, principle of discounting. The principle claims the wife yelled back and became mildly
3 Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology
aggressive. In line with their hypothesised minimising the seriousness of the abuse effect, participants rated the traditional wife’s (Peters, 2008; Policastro & Payne, 2013; passive response as less blameworthy and less Yamawaki et al., 2012) negative than the control and the non- More recently, researchers have traditional wife’s aggressive response. Given explored how other individual differences, that the manipulation check for gender role such as moral values, affect victim blame. perceptions was significant as well (traditional Moral values may be defined in simple terms women were perceived as warmer, more as the standards of good and bad that direct the positive, less competent and less blameworthy behaviours and choices of a person. Research than non-traditional women), the authors has identified the key role these underlying concluded that a victim who responds to beliefs play in our evaluations of everyday violence in a manner which is not aligned with life, in contexts from work or study to their stereotypical gender roles would be friendships and intimate relationships. Some blamed more and liked less. While past research has even identified the role our moral research has focused on the victim provoking values play in seemingly non-moral features of the abuser, this study has instead investigated people and circumstances, such as causal the effects of victim response to abuse, with responsibility (Alicke, 1992, 2000). For noteworthy results. This is important as it example, individuals who violate moral norms provides evidence that even when the victim are considered more causally responsible for does not show any indication of inciting abuse, negative outcomes than those who adhere to how they respond also plays a vital role in norms for identical acts (Alicke, 1992). In attributions of victim blame. cases of intimate partner violence, observers Factors Relating to the Observer may consider a female victim retaliating to Individual differences of the observer, violence with aggression, as a norm violation such as gender, sexism, endorsement of of their gender stereotype. She is therefore domestic violence myths and moral values, considered more blameworthy than a male have also been shown to mitigate the strength acting in a dominant or controlling manner, of blame attribution. Studies have shown that who may be perceived as more in line with his men are more likely to blame victims than gender norms. women (Bryant & Spencer, 2003; Flood & However, how morally wrong people Pease, 2009), and stronger benevolent sexist perceive an act to be depends greatly on how beliefs also predict more victim blame, even they believe individuals in that context should when the effects of a just world belief are behave. Moral violations in intimate controlled (Pedersen & Stromwall, 2013). relationships vary widely between cultures Several studies have also identified that around the world, therefore research on what participants’ attributions of blame are defines a relationship norm is limited. This influenced by domestic violence myths. Peters, variation makes it difficult to come to a (2008) who developed the now widely used consensus on unethical relationship Domestic Violence Myths Acceptance Scale behaviours. Some research has begun to (DVMAS) defined domestic violence myths generalise the relational behaviours which are as: “stereotypical beliefs about domestic considered taboo; with the act of adultery violence that are generally false but are widely being generally considered unethical in many and persistently held, and which serve to western societies. However, even adultery is minimize, deny, or justify physical aggression difficult to define as taboo, because what against intimate partner” (p. 17). The content constitutes betrayal differs greatly amongst of the DVMAS incorporates questions individuals (Tsapelas, Fisher, & Aron, 2011). pertaining to myths about the perpetrator, the Other relational behaviours are even less victim, and society, along with concepts from clearly defined as morally right or wrong. published literature, including the belief that In the aim to explain and categorise women have an unconscious desire to be the wide variety of moral beliefs people hold, abused (Saul, 1972) and have a desire to be Haidt and Joseph (2007) developed Moral beaten (Walker, 1979). In research Foundations Theory, which is now a widely- investigating victim blame, strong beliefs in used framework for evaluating moral values. domestic violence myths predict more victim According to Moral Foundations Theory, there blame, excusing the perpetrator and are five primary foundations for which people
4 Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology
are guided. An individual will, to some extent, study by Vecina (2014) found that surveyed hold values of: (a) care/harm, (b) men who had committed and been charged fairness/cheating, (c) loyalty/betrayal, (d) with acts of violence towards their intimate authority/disrespect, and (e) purity/ partners, often viewed values of authority and degradation. Strongly held care values purity as more sacred than others, and viewed enhance concerns about minimising pain and their victims as having violated those values. suffering in others, and valuing fairness The author concluded that strong values of suggests an individual promotes justice and authority predict violence in men, while strong equality. A strong belief in loyalty often values of purity predict pro-violent beliefs and results in devotion to social groups, and a high probability of future fighting. Another authority values predict an agreement with study, conducted by Selterman and Koleva respecting authority figures and fulfilling (2015), identified that when participants were duties. Lastly, valuing purity often suggests a presented with a series of hypothetical cases of strong endorsement of sanctity, and a potential norm violations in relationships (e.g., sensitivity towards degradation and disgusting keeping romantic memorabilia from past acts. When someone opposes a strongly held relationships, or looking through a partner’s moral value, it may be seen as an attack on belongings), strong values of purity predicted something an individual deems sacred, and harsher moral judgements for most types of this can quickly lead to defensiveness and perceived violations. conflict (Vecina, Marzana & Czachura, 2015). Niemi and Young (2016), aimed to Research using Moral Foundations investigate how individual moral values Theory (Haidt & Joseph, 2007) as a affected attributions of victim blame using the framework has been able to demonstrate moral foundations. Their research was patterns in moral values, with the factors often completed through four studies. In all studies, falling into two groups of values: binding and participants were recruited online for payment. individualising. Binding values include The first study investigated whether binding loyalty, authority and purity, while moral values were linked with victim individualising values are care and fairness. stigmatisation. Participants read a vignette Studies suggest that people who strongly about a victim of sexual (molestation, rape) or adhere to binding values are often politically nonsexual (strangling, stabbing) violence. To conservative, patriotic, and have a strong sense measure the participants’ moral values, they of family and community (Franks & Scherr, were presented with the Moral Foundations 2015; Graham & Haidt, 2010; Graham, Haidt Questionnaire (Graham et al, 2008), and to & Nosek, 2009). These beliefs have also been measure stigmatisation the participants rated portrayed negatively however, with research the victim as ‘contaminated’ or ‘wounded’. linking binding values to prejudice, out group Results of this study supported the authors’ derogation and even genocide (Brewer, 2007; hypothesis that binding values would Dovidio & Gaertner, 2010; Smith, Aquino, significantly predict victim stigmatisation, Koleva, & Graham, 2014). with high scores on measures of binding In relation to intimate partner values predicting more victim stigmatisation violence, research using Graham, Haidt and rather than sympathy, regardless of the nature Nosek (2008) Moral Foundations of the crime. To investigate whether Questionnaire shows that the binding moral participants scoring high on binding moral values can be strong predictors of blame. A values would not only stigmatize victims, but also assign more significant predictor of victim stigmatisation. blame, the researchers conducted study two. Study two also identified that when Participants in this study completed the Moral participants scored high on binding moral Foundations Questionnaire along with the values, they were more likely to judge the same measures for stigmatisation used in study victims as more responsible for the outcome, one, however study two included an item rather than perpetrators. Study three built upon pertaining to responsibility for the incident these findings to confirm how focus is the along with an opportunity to suggest how the causal factor which leads participants who outcome of the situation could have been score high on binding moral values to blame different. The results showed a replication of the victim more than the perpetrator. study one, in that, binding moral values were a Participants in this study again completed the
5 Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology
Moral Foundations Questionnaire and the However, no research has investigated how measure for stigmatisation, however to factors relating to the victim’s stereotype and manipulate focus, the researchers reworded the factors relating to the observer’s moral values vignette so that either the victim or the together, influence victim blame. Given the perpetrator would be the subject of the research to date, it is possible that when majority of sentences. Results of this study observers of intimate partner violence cases replicated the findings of both study one and have stronger, compared to weaker, binding study two, however the manipulation of values, they may be more influenced by the vignette language only had a small effect. typicality of the victim. It is important to When the language was focused on the scientifically test this theoretical connection perpetrator, less blame was attributed to between victim typicality and moral values victims, however, to a lesser extent for before conclusions can be drawn. The practical participants who scored high on binding implications for such a conclusion may help values. The fourth and final study replicated alleviate current conflict in the scientific the methodology of study one, however also literature on causes of victim blame, while aimed to identify whether a Just World Belief simultaneously supporting further (JWB) and Right-Wing Authoritarianism development of resources for domestic (RWA) were moderating factors between violence victims. binding moral values and victim blame. After The present study running a regression analysis, JWB and RWA This study examined the effect of were no longer significant predictors once victim typicality and the observers’ moral moral values were included. Due to their values on victim blame in a case of intimate findings, the authors concluded that partner violence. Participants read a vignette participants who scored high on binding depicting a case of intimate partner violence, values were more inclined to focus on the between a husband (perpetrator) and wife actions of the victim, and therefore assigned (victim), in which the wife responded to her them more responsibility and blame for the husband’s abuse in a way that was either outcomes of violent incidents. The results of typical (submissive) or atypical (aggressive). this four-part investigation are robust due to The participants then answered a series of repeated testing and add significant insight to questions designed to assess the level of blame the literature. they attributed to the victim, whether they Is victim blaming a result of both victim personally held strong or weak binding moral and observer? values, and their acceptance of domestic The existing literature shows that violence myths. Based on the research of numerous factors, relating to both the victim Capezza and Arriaga (2008), it was predicted and observer, affect victim blame in the that participants would blame the victim more context of intimate partner violence. Studies when they read about a victim who responded have identified that the typicality of the victim to the abuse in an atypical, compared to typical plays a significant role in the level of blame way, after controlling for domestic violence attributed to them for incidences of abuse. myths (Hypothesis 1). In addition to this, and Victims who are atypical (aggressive, consistent with the work of Niemi and Young retaliative or non-conforming to stereotypes) (2016), it was predicted that participants are blamed to a greater extent than victims would blame the victim more when they who are typical (submissive or conforming) scored higher, compared to lower, on (Capezza and Arriaga, 2008). In addition, the measures of binding moral values, after results of research on binding moral values controlling for participants’ endorsement of suggest that people who strongly adhere to this domestic violence myths (Hypothesis 2). value set perceive betrayal, rebellion and/or However, it was predicted that the relationship self-indulgence as threats to their innate between victim typicality and victim blame beliefs (Vecina, Marzana & Czachura, 2015). would be moderated by participants’ binding They are likely to blame victims more than moral values. Specifically, participants would perpetrators, as they attend more to the blame victims more when they read about a potential morally violating actions of the victim who responded to the abuse in an victim that caused the perpetrator to respond atypical, compared to typical way; however, with violence (Niemi and Young, 2016). this would occur to a greater extent at higher,
6 Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology
compared to lower, levels of binding moral the abuse began three months into their values after controlling for participants’ marriage. Neil was described as displaying endorsement of domestic violence myths controlling behaviours (e.g., he monitored (Hypothesis 3). Rebecca’s text messages and phone Method conversations, told her who she could or could Participants not see and did not allow her to commute Participants included 66 acquaintances anywhere unless he drove). Neil’s behaviour of the experimenter and 105 first-year then started to become verbally abusive (e.g., psychology students (N = 171). The he yelled at Rebecca, or told her she was experimenter’s acquaintances were offered the useless or had no respect for him). Eventually, opportunity to enter the draw to win a $20 the abuse escalated to physical violence (e.g., voucher for participating, while the first-year Neil hit Rebecca when she moved his car psychology students took part in the study for keys). This physical abuse, along with the course credit. Participants were excluded from controlling behaviour and verbal abuse, the study for either not answering the continued over a period of six months (where manipulation checks (N =30), failing Neil hit Rebecca on three more occasions). manipulation checks if answered (N =17), or Then, one day the physical abuse escalated; not answering at least 50% of key measures (N Neil pushed Rebecca into the wall with such =1). In addition to this, participants were also force that it punctured the wall, causing her excluded if they took 12 seconds or less to head to bleed and her to fall on the floor. read the vignette (N = 11). The final sample When she tried to stand up, he strangled her consisted of 112 participants, 33 men and 79 until she temporarily lost consciousness. women, aged between 18 and 85 years of age Manipulation of victim typicality. (M = 22.98, SD = 11.00). An a priori power Victim typicality was manipulated by altering analysis was conducted with the program Rebecca’s responses to Neil’s behaviours in G*Power (Erdfelder, Faul, & Buchner, 1996). the vignette (Appendix A, B). When Rebecca The analysis showed that a minimum of 77 responded typically, she was portrayed as people would be needed to detect a medium acting submissively. For instance, she never effect (f2 = .15) with 80% power, using a f test questioned Neil’s decisions when he displayed multiple regression with alpha at .05. controlling behaviours, and she never yelled Design back at him when he became verbally abusive. This study forms part of a larger When Neil hit Rebecca, she never fought back. research project, with six experimental When Rebecca responded atypically, she was conditions (N = 494), which was conducted portrayed as acting dominantly. She always with five other honours students. In this study, protested against Neil’s decisions when he participants were randomly assigned to one of displayed controlling behaviours (e.g., she two victim typicality conditions in a 2-level stated that she would do whatever she between-subjects design: typical (N =66) and wanted). When Neil became verbally abusive atypical (N = 46). The design included a toward Rebecca, she always yelled back and measured moderator, moral values: high retorted with an identical put-down (e.g. binding values or low binding values. telling him he is a worthless husband). After Endorsement of domestic violence myths was each instance of physical abuse, Rebecca included as a control variable, and the fought back (e.g., she pushed Neil). dependant variable was victim blame. Procedure Materials Participants were recruited by the Hypothetical vignette. A short experimenter for a study on public perceptions hypothetical vignette as written for this study, about intimate partner violence. Community depicting a case of ongoing intimate partner members were recruited through social media, violence. The vignette described a number of and first year psychology students were instances of psychological and physical abuse recruited through the University of escalating in severity, which occurred within Queensland’s SONA participation scheme. an Australian married couple’s relationship. Participants were provided with a link to the All instances of abuse were directed at the study, in order to access the study online using wife (Rebecca) by her husband (Neil). The their own computers. Once participants couple had been married for three years, and opened the link online, read the information
7 Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology
briefing and agreed to participate, they were consistency (.855). For the purpose of this asked for demographic information. This study, participants’ average scores were taken included their enrolment status in first year for each loyalty, authority and sanctity. These psychology courses at the University of averages were then condensed into a single Queensland, their gender, and their age. composite variable for binding moral values, Following this, they were randomly assigned with high scores on these factors representing to one of the two victim typicality conditions strong binding values, and low scores (typical or atypical). At the end of the vignette, representing weak binding values. participants were asked to answer one question Domestic Violence Myths Acceptance Scale. to measure their level of victim blame. The Domestic Violence Myths Acceptance Responses were rated on a 7-point Likert scale Scale (DVMAS) (Peters, 2008) was included ranging from 1 (not at all) to 7 (completely). in this study to control for participant’s The question asked: “To what extent do you endorsement of domestic violence myths when think the wife should be blamed for the assessing victim blame given the research situation?” After responding to this item, showing that domestic violence myths strongly participants were asked to complete single predict victim blame (Peters 2008; Yamawaki item manipulation checks for victim typicality et al, 2012; Policastro & Payne, 2013). The and gender typicality. Finally, participants scale asked participants to rate their complete two pre-existing measures. The first agreeability with 18 statements about domestic was the full 30 item Moral Foundations violence, with responses ranging from 1 Questionnaire, which aimed to assess their (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree) in a level of adherence to binding moral values. Likert style. Items on the scale asked questions The second was the full 18 item Domestic such as, “if a woman doesn’t like it, she can Violence Myth Acceptance Scale, which leave” and “women can avoid physical abuse aimed to measure participant’s acceptance of if they give it occasionally”. The scale was domestic violence myths. At the very end of tested for internal consistency using a the questionnaire, participants were presented Cronbach’s Alpha test, and the result was high with debrief information. (.910). Scores were then averaged to create Moral Foundations Questionnaire. one variable for endorsement of domestic To measure participants’ binding moral violence myths, with high scores representing values, the Moral Foundations Questionnaire strong acceptance of domestic violence myths, (MFQ) developed by Graham, Haidt and and low scores representing weak acceptance Nosek (2008) was used. The complete 30-item of domestic violence myths. questionnaire was included, and was divided Manipulation Checks. Participants into two parts (15 items in each) as per the answered one attention question to check the original format. Part one asked participants, manipulation of victim typicality in the “When you decide whether something is right vignette. Participants were asked to answer, or wrong, to what extent are the following “Which of the following statements is correct considerations relevant to your thinking?” For about the wife?” The three possible responses instance, some of these considerations related included, “she did not verbally or physically to love for country (loyalty), conformity to resist the abuse”, “she did verbally and societal traditions (authority) and standards of physically resist the abuse” and “do not decency (sanctity). Part two stated, “Please know”. Participants were also asked to answer read the following sentences and indicate your two perception questions related to the agreement or disagreement”. For instance, vignette. The two items included, “How some statements related to being a team player similar is the wife to a typical woman?” and, (loyalty), adherence to gender roles (authority) “How similar is the wife to a typical victim of and importance of chastity (sanctity). All intimate partner abuse?” These were rated on a participants’ responses to both parts were 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (not at all) provided on 6-point Likert scales. In part one, to 7 (completely). These items were analysed the scales ranged from 1 (not at all relevant) to separately, and gender typicality was only 6 (extremely relevant). In part two, the scales included as it has been found to covary with ranged from 1 (strongly disagree) to 6 the independent variable of victim typicality. (strongly agree). A Cronbach’s Alpha test was Contributions conducted, and the result showed high internal
8 Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology
The concept of my study was initially not be influencing the data. The residuals broadly proposed by my supervisor, but was scatterplot was then inspected to check for designed jointly by my supervisor and myself, violations of the assumptions of linearity as as a part of a larger research project with five well as homoscedasticity. A visual inspection other psychology honours students. My of the plot found no violation to linearity or supervisor provided direction about theories homoscedasticity. To check for violations of that may be relevant, the full hypothetical the assumption of multicollinearity between vignettes, guidance in statistical analysis and victim typicality and binding moral values, the verbal feedback on the discussion section. The variance inflation factor was inspected. It was information sheet, SONA study description identified that victim typicality and binding and social media advertisement were written moral values were not correlated highly, which by fellow researchers in my group. I means that the assumption of multicollinearity researched the literature for further theories was not violated (VIF = 1.02 for typicality, and empirical studies, wrote the debrief sheet 1.05 for binding moral values). Lastly, to for participants, contributed to recruiting check for independence of errors, the Durbin participants, developing and editing the online Watson statistic was noted. A score of 2.10 survey in Qualtrics and conducted the was obtained, which suggested that the errors statistical analyses for this study. were suitably independent, and no alterations Results to the data were necessary. Overview of Analyses Manipulation Checks The data was first analysed to check Attention manipulation. To check for violations of the assumptions of multiple that participants attended to the manipulation regression. The manipulation checks were then of victim typicality, and whether this attention analysed using a cross-tabulation to ensure differed as a function of typicality condition, a that participants attended to the manipulation chi-squared analysis was conducted. Overall, a of victim typicality, and perceived the high proportion of participants attended to the manipulation of victim typicality in the manipulation. A total of 83% of participants intended manner. After this, preliminary who answered the attention manipulation analyses, including independent groups t tests question correctly identified that the victim did and a Pearson’s product-moment correlation, or did not verbally and physically abuse the were conducted on the independent variable perpetrator. There was, however, a significant (victim typicality), the moderator (binding association between the content of the victim moral values) and the dependant variable typicality manipulation and typicality (victim blame). Lastly, the main analysis was a condition, �2 (2, N = 138) = 78.44, p = <.001, hierarchical multiple regression, in which an Φ .75. Even though in both the typical and alpha level of .05 was used. atypical conditions a greater proportion of Data Checking participants correctly identified, than The data was analysed using SPSS to incorrectly identified, that the victim did or did ensure that the multiple regression not verbally and physically abuse the assumptions were met. Firstly, a normal P-Plot perpetrator, the differences in these was visually inspected for normality. This plot proportions was greater in the typical did not appear normally distributed, and to condition. For participants in the typical reduce the severity of the skew, bootstrapping condition, 88% correctly identified, and 12% with 1000 samples was used during of participants incorrectly identified, that the preliminary and main data analysis. Victim victim did not verbally or physically resist the blame was then inspected for multivariate abuse. For participants in the atypical outliers using Mahalanobis distance and Cooks condition, 76% of participants correctly distance. Then Mahalanobis distance score identified, and 24% of participants incorrectly (7.49) was checked for significance using a identified, that the victim did verbally and Chi-Squared table with an alpha of .05, which physically resist the abuse. In the final identified that multivariate outliers were analyses, only those participants who present. The Cooks distance score (0.21) was answered and passed the attention then inspected to reveal that the outliers manipulation were included. present were not problematic. The outliers Perceptual manipulation. To check were kept in analyses as they were deemed to that the manipulation of typicality affected
9 Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology
participants’ perceptions in the intended violence myth acceptance and victim blame. manner, two between subjects t-tests were First, the bivariate relationship between the performed. The first t-test checked the variables was analysed. As can be seen in table perception of victim typicality (e.g. the extent 1, binding moral values and domestic violence to which the participant believed the victim myths were weakly positively correlated. The was typical). There was no significant main table also shows that domestic violence myths effect of victim typicality, t(110) = .72, p was moderately positively correlated with =.472, 95% CI [-.26, .56], �2 .14. Participants victim blame. Next, an independent groups t- in the typical condition (M = 6.11, SD =0.96) test with bootstrapping was conducted with did not perceive the victim as more typical victim typicality and victim blame. It was than participants in the atypical condition (M identified that there was no significant = 5.96 SD =1.23). The second t-test checked difference in the extent to which participants whether participants in the typical condition in the typical condition (M =1.30 SD = .84) perceived the victim to be a more typical blamed the victim than the participants in the woman than participants in the atypical atypical condition (M = 1.50, SD =1.03), condition, because it has been found to covary t(110) = 1.07, p = .288, CI [-0.17, 0.56], �2 = with the independent variable of victim .21. After this, an independent groups t-test typicality. There was also no significant main was conducted with victim typicality and effect of gender typicality, t(110) = -1.69, p = binding moral values. The results of this test .095, 95% CI [-1.01, 0.82], �2 = .32. showed no significant difference in Participants in the typical condition (M = 4.17, participants’ levels of binding values for SD =1.47) did not perceive the victim as participants in the typical condition (M =3.79 behaving typically for their gender more so SD = 0.69) and participants in the atypical than participants in the atypical condition (M condition (M = 3.74, SD= 0.78), t(110) = 0.34, = 4.63, SD = 1.37). Overall, this pattern of p = .736, CI [-0.23, 0.33], �2 = .06. Lastly, a means suggests that the manipulations were Pearson’s product-moment correlation was not successful in affecting participants’ used to examine the relationships between perceptions in the intended manner. binding moral values and victim blame. There Preliminary Analyses was no significant correlation between levels Preliminary analyses were conducted of binding moral values and levels of victim to examine the relationship between victim blame typicality, binding moral values, domestic Main Analysis unique variance to the model, with higher A hierarchical multiple regression scores on the Domestic Violence Myths with bootstrapping was conducted, in order to Acceptance Scale associated with higher levels assess whether binding moral values of victim blame. Binding moral values and moderated the relationship between victim victim typical did not significantly explain any typicality and victim blame, while controlling unique variance. for the effects of domestic violence myths. At step 2, the interaction between Victim typicality, binding moral values and typicality and binding moral values did not domestic violence myths were added into step significantly increase the amount of variance 2 1 of the model. In step 2, the interaction term explained in victim blame, R change = .00, Fchange between victim typicality and binding values (1, 107) = 0.03, p = .863. This result does not was also added into the model. Binding moral show statistical support for binding moral values was mean centred to eliminate values moderating the relationship between multicollinearity issues created with the use of victim typicality and victim blame. The the interaction term. inclusion of the interaction term in the model At step 1, the model showed that resulted in the total model still significantly victim typicality, binding moral values and explaining 15% of the variance in victim domestic violence myths explained 15% of the blame, F (4, 107) = 4.72. As can be seen in variance in victim blame (R2 = .15, Adj. R2 = table 2, domestic violence myths still .13). This represents a significant proportion significantly contributed 13% of unique of variance explained, F (3, 108) = 6.39, p = variance to the model, however typicality and <.001. As can be seen in table 2, domestic binding moral values did not explain any more violence myths significantly contributed 13% significant variance.
10 Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology
Discussion behaviours of the victim being inconsistent This study examined the effect of with Christie’s (1986) definition of an ideal victim typicality and the observers’ moral victim, as a defensive victim portrays a sense values on victim blame in a case of intimate of competence, suggesting they deserve equal partner violence. Participants read a vignette responsibility for the outcome (Meyer, 2016). depicting a case of intimate partner violence, This has also been interpreted in terms of between a husband (perpetrator) and wife gender stereotypes, as women who exhibit (victim), in which the wife responded to her aggressive behaviours do not tend to align husband’s abuse in a way that was either with society’s concept of a typical female typical (submissive) or atypical (aggressive). (Buzawa & Buzawa, 1993; Peters, 2008). Due The participants then answered a series of to the prior research, the first hypothesis from questions designed to assess the level of blame the current study suggested that participants they attributed to the victim, whether they held would blame the victim more when they strong or weak binding moral values, and their exhibited atypical, versus typical, behaviours acceptance of domestic violence myths. Based for a victim. on the research of Capezza and Arriaga After conducting the analyses, it was (2008), it was firstly predicted that participants found that the results did not support would blame the victim more when they read hypothesis 1. The results showed that about a victim who responded to the abuse in participants in the atypical and typical an atypical, compared to typical way, after conditions did not differ significantly on their controlling for domestic violence myths attributions of blame to the hypothetical (Hypothesis 1). In addition to this, it was victim, with both attributing overall low levels predicted that participants would blame the of blame. Interestingly, the perceptual victim more when they scored higher, manipulation check for typicality revealed that compared to lower, on measures of binding participants did not even perceive the victim moral values, after controlling for participants’ differently in the typical and atypical endorsement of domestic violence myths conditions. This result could provide (Hypothesis 2), consistent with the work of explanations for why participants responded in Niemi and Young (2016). However, it was the way they did. Firstly, this could be predicted that the relationship between victim attributed to the language used in the typicality and victim blame would be hypothetical vignette. The vignettes written moderated by participants’ binding moral specifically for this study may have portrayed values. Specifically, participants would blame the victim as too much of a victim in both victims more when they read about a victim conditions. As can be seen in previous studies who responded to the abuse in an atypical, measuring the influence of language emphasis, compared to typical way; however, this would when the focus of the text is primarily directed occur to a greater extent at higher, compared towards the perpetrator’s actions, observers to lower, levels of binding moral values after are less likely to attribute blame to the victim controlling for participants’ endorsement of (Niemi and Young, 2016, Young and Phillips, domestic violence myths (Hypothesis 3). The 2011). The hypothetical vignette used in this results of the current study will be interpreted study was consistent in describing the and discussed according to these hypotheses. perpetrator’s violent behaviours towards the The implications of the findings, strengths, victim, while mention of the victim focused limitations of the study will then be explored. primarily on their response, which was Lastly, recommendations for future research manipulated based on the condition. This will be discussed. focus on the perpetrator could have been Interpretation enough to alter participants’ attributions of Victim Typicality. The published blame, and the victim response may not have literature on victim behaviour shows that a been extreme enough to match the submissive, or vulnerable victim of intimate perpetrator’s in severity. partner violence, often garners less blame than Another explanation for this result a victim that actively defends themselves from could be due to a change in societal attitudes their abuser. (Capezza & Arriaga, 2008; Witte, towards victimisation since most of the Schroeder, & Lohr, 2006; Yamawaki et al., research on victim typicality was conducted. 2012). This effect has been attributed to While some depictions of victim (Christie,
11 Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology
1986) and even gender (Buzawa and Buzawa, may be primarily due to a lack of 1993) typicality were originally published heterogeneity in the sample. The sample of more than twenty years ago, others were more participants recruited for the study heavily recent (Capezza and Arriaga, 2008; Witte et consisted of young first year psychology al., 2006). However, in recent years, domestic students, along with friends and family of the violence campaigns such as White Ribbon researchers. It is possible that due to similar Australia, and the Australian Government’s fields of study, education level, age and ‘Violence Against Women’ have grown in geographical location, the moral values of awareness. More people may be changing their participants were also alike. In some of the attitudes towards victim blame. Participants in previous studies on moral values, participants this study could have been more inclined to were primarily recruited from the community, believe the victim was less blameworthy in and paid to engage in the study (Niemi and both conditions as education on domestic Young, 2016; Selterman and Koleva, 2015). violence myths becomes more prevalent, and a This may have provided the researchers with a wider range of victim responses are considered sample consisting of a wider variation in moral acceptable. It is important to note that this values. could also be linked to changing attitudes in While binding moral values were gender stereotypes. As the perceptual unable to predict victim blame in the current manipulation also found that participants did study, it is interesting to note that binding not consider the victims in both conditions moral values and domestic violence myth significantly different in gender typicality, this scores were significantly positively correlated. may suggest that the stereotype of a typical It is not difficult to recognize how the two woman’s behaviour is still changing, and more variables may be positively correlated. Prior participants believe the victim’s response to research has determined that individually, high abuse was considered typical of a woman, scores on both of these variables can predict regardless of how traditionally feminine her more victim blame, excusing the perpetrator behaviour was. and minimising the seriousness of the abuse Binding Moral Values. The existing (Peters, 2008; Policastro & Payne, 2013; literature on moral values has shown that Yamawaki et al., 2012). Although this individuals who identify more with binding correlation was weak, the significance may values (loyalty, authority, sanctity) tend to point to a potentially valuable relationship that blame victims of violence more than those would warrant further research. who do not hold these values as strongly Strengths and Limitations (Brewer, 2007; Capezza and Arriaga, 2008; Strengths. This study has some Selterman and Koleva, 2015). It has been important strengths to note. Firstly, the use of suggested that this effect could be due to domestic violence myths acceptance as a focus. Individuals who value binding morals control variable was valuable. Domestic highly, are more accepting of retributive acts violence myth acceptance was the only towards others who have violated these values significant predictor of victim blame in this (Brewer, 2007; Dovidio & Gaertner, 2010; study, and this reinforces the strong role these Smith, Aquino, Koleva, & Graham, 2014), and myths play when observers attribute blame in focus on the behaviours of the victim that cases of intimate partner violence. Even could have merited retaliation. In line with the though the sample of participants in this study prior research, the second hypothesis for the was not very heterogeneous, domestic current study suggested that participants would violence myths still proved to be a better blame the victim more when they scored high predictor of blame than both victim typicality on measures of binding moral values, and binding moral values. This suggests that compared to when they scored low. domestic violence myth acceptance is a crucial Analysis of the data revealed that the influence to consider when measuring levels results did not support hypothesis 2. The of blame and may be a confounding variable if standard deviation of responses revealed very not controlled for. little variation in scores beyond the mean, Secondly, this study examined the which around the midpoint of the scale, effect of both victim and observer factors, showed no trend of high or low binding moral which are important to investigate, particularly values. This indicates that the obtained result as societal attitudes change. Research over the
12 Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology
last thirty years has shown that both, factors that could be found due to other reasons, as relating to the victim and factors relating to the well as gender determinants. Due to observer, are key influences in the formulation recognised influences of language use in the of a blame attribution. However, the results of text (Niemi and Young, 2016, Young and this study suggest that what we thought, Phillips, 2011), the format of the vignette may particularly about the ideal victim, may be have put too much emphasis on the actions of shifting as our society evolves. Since the the perpetrator and directed the focus away perceptual manipulation check from the from the victim. This may have impacted the current study found that participants viewed possible effects of manipulating victim the victim in both conditions as typical, it response. The responses may not have been could be suggested that society’s view of what significant enough to draw attention back to constitutes an ideal victim may be broadening. the victim’s behaviour, and depict the atypical It is important to continue studying victim as relatively equal to the perpetrator in characteristics of a victim that are more or less terms of competence and assertiveness. If this likely to attract attributions of blame, so that study were to be replicated the vignette would we may further unravel the causal factors need to be restructured to increase the severity involved in intimate partner violence blame. of the victim’s response in the atypical Lastly, this study used pre-existing condition to match that of the perpetrator’s. measures, which have been found to be both Lastly, it is important to note that this highly reliable and valid. Pre-existing scales study may have needed more power to detect were used to measure both binding moral an effect. The recruited sample was only large values, and domestic violence myth enough to detect a medium effect of victim acceptance, which made up a sizeable blame, and any effect that this study may have proportion of items in the questionnaire. This found could have been small. It may be useful prevented many possible errors in designing to reconduct the experiment with a larger the items specifically for the study, which sample in an attempt to identify any smaller could have negatively impacted on the results. effects that may have gone unnoticed. Limitations. While the study design Implications did show some strength, there were also some If this research were to be redone with important limitations. Firstly, the existing the methodology improved to minimise the literature on victim typicality was heavily limiting effects, and the hypothesised effects based in theory and there were only a limited were found, there would be multiple important number of experimental designs aimed to test implications for society. Firstly, finding an the effects of victim typicality on attributions interaction between victim typicality and of blame. Many of the studies on factors moral values would further advance the pertaining to the victim were also closely scientific literature on intimate partner linked with gender stereotypes. Although violence so that we may have a better gender stereotypes can be closely linked to the understanding of the influential factors concept of an ideal victim, it is difficult to contributing to victim blame in these pinpoint the exact cause of the results on circumstances. While a lot of the research on victim blame when the two concepts are victim blame is focused around random sexual studied in conjunction. To overcome this assaults, there is less published work on how limitation, more research needs to focus on blame is attributed in physical and experimentally manipulating the typicality of psychological assault cases of intimate partner the victim, as opposed to their gender violence. Physical and psychological assaults, stereotypes. This would involve creating particularly in the home environment, may be manipulations, which have no gender less clearly defined in terms of victim and determining language. Instead of terms such as perpetrator. When instances of abuse occur in husband or wife, the hypothetical individuals the privacy of a home, judgements of causality may be described with other words, such as a may be left up to an observer’s personal bias defendant and plaintiff if the study were court or belief in domestic violence myths. By focused, or by using gender neutral names experimentally evaluating the factors involved such as Sam or Alex. in attributions of blame, we may begin to Secondly, the wording of the vignette identify the significant role that personal used in this study may have limited the results beliefs play. This may become particularly
13 Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology
influential for court cases of intimate partner research has shown that binding moral values violence, as legal professionals may begin to can predict higher levels of blame, there has identify traits of a victim in these cases that not been sufficient investigation into the effect may lead to juror bias. of individualising values on blame. If binding Another important implication for values are significant predictors of blame, then significant findings would be more focus on it would be expected that individualising providing access to domestic violence values would also be significant predictors, but resources. By furthering the literature on predicting less, rather than more, blame. If attributions of blame in these cases, public significant evidence were to be found for both knowledge of blame biases may increase, with value sets as predictors of blame, then it would changes to be seen at both the corporate and reinforce the existing literature on the effects individual levels. Domestic violence of moral values on blame attributions. While foundations and the Australian government focusing on the influence of moral values, it may use this extended knowledge to promote would also be valuable to further investigate awareness of blame bias, and begin to make the positive correlation found between binding changes towards the discussion of domestic moral values and domestic violence myth abuse. This would in turn, influence the acceptance in the current study. If this positive perceptions of the general population who correlation can be replicated in future research, have the ability to make changes by it may provide further insight into the themselves. People may begin to question mechanisms behind binding moral value other’s judgements on victims, and perhaps adherence and victim blame. Lastly, when even be motivated to extend a helping hand to investigating the influences of victim friends or acquaintances who are involved in typicality and moral values it may also be abusive relationships. interesting to examine the effects among Future Research different cultures around the world. While the While the concept of victim typicality sample in this current study were primarily and moral values in combination is a new and young psychology students residing in interesting way to research attributions of Australia, it may be interesting to replicate the victim blame, there are diverse ways for future design with a different sample from a more research to investigate it, which may provide liberal or alternatively, a more conservative some clearer answers. One important direction culture. Investigating the effects of victim for future research is to disentangle gender typicality and moral values in various cultures from victim typicality. The perceptual may produce significantly different results manipulation results of the current study depending on their level of education on, and reinforced how these variables may be acceptance of, intimate partner violence in interpreted in similar ways. This makes it their societies. Regardless of the study design, important to design research which may it is important to continue studying the factors investigate victim typicality while controlling that influence attributions of victim blame in for the effect of gender stereotypes if we are to cases of intimate partner violence. By doing truly understand the key characteristics that so, the scientific community may begin to our society considers a victim to hold, if they resolve the current conflict in the literature, are to be given the label of a victim. Another and as a society, we may begin to increase the avenue for future research would be to awareness of bias and myths, along with investigate the flip side of binding values; providing more support and resources for individualising moral values. While prior victims to escape abusive environments.
References [New Jersey Local News]. Retrieved from Alicke, M. D. (1992). Culpable Causation. Journal of http://www.nj.com/bergen/index.ssf/2017/04/ Personality and Social Psychology, 63(3), official_has_new_reason_to_smile_after_dom 368-378. doi:10.1037//0022-3514.63.3.368 estic_violence_charge_dropped.html Alicke, M. D. (2000). Culpable control and the Blackman, J. (1990). Emerging images of severely psychology of blame. Psychological battered women and the criminal justice Bulletin, 126(4), 556-574. doi:10.1037/0033- system. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 8(2), 2909.126.4.556 121-130. doi:10.1002/bsl.2370080204 Attrino, A. (2017, April 28). Official has new reason to Blackman, J. (1990). Emerging images of severely smile after domestic violence charge dropped battered women and the criminal justice
14 Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology
system. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 8(2), Retrieved from Moral Foundations website: 121-130. doi:10.1002/bsl.2370080204 http://www.moralfoundations.org/questionnai Brewer, M. (2007). The social psychology of intergroup res relations: Social categorization, ingroup bias, Graham, J., Haidt, J., & Nosek, B. A. (2009). Liberals and outgroup prejudice. In Social psychology: and conservatives rely on different sets of Handbook of basic principles (2nd ed., moral foundations. Journal of Personality and p. 695– 715). New York, NY: Guilford Press. Social Psychology, 96(5), 1029-1046. Bryant, S., & Spencer, G. (2003). University Students' doi:10.1037/a0015141 Attitudes About Attributing Blame in Domestic Violence. Journal of Family Graham, J., & Haidt, J. (2010). Beyond Beliefs: Violence, 18(6), 369-376. Religions Bind Individuals Into Moral Buzawa, E., & Buzawa, C. (1993). Opening the doors: Communities. Personality and Social The changing police response to domestic Psychology Review, 14(1), 140-150. violence. Critical issues in policing: doi:10.1177/1088868309353415 Contemporary readings, 551-567. Haidt, J., & Joseph, C. (2007). The moral mind: How 5 Bègue, L., Charmoillaux, M., Cochet, J., Cury, C., & De sets of innate intuitions guide the Suremain, F. (2008). Altruistic Behavior and development of many culture-specific virtues, the Bidimensional Just World Belief. The and perhaps even modules. In The Innate American Journal of Psychology, 121(1), 47. Mind (3rd ed., p. 367–391). New York, NY: doi:10.2307/20445443 NY: Oxford University Press. Capezza, N. M., & Arriaga, X. B. (2008). Why do Kaplan, H. (2012). Belief in a Just World, Religiosity People Blame Victims of Abuse? The Role of Stereotypes of Women on Perceptions of and Victim Blaming. Archive for the Blame. Sex Roles, 59(11-12), 839-850. Psychology of Religion, 34(3), 397-409. doi:10.1007/s11199-008-9488-1 doi:10.1163/15736121-12341246 Christie, N. (1986). The Ideal Victim. From Crime Kelley, H. (1987). Attribution in social interaction. Policy to Victim Policy, 17-30. In Attribution: Perceiving the causes of doi:10.1007/978-1-349-08305-3_2 behavior (pp. 1-26). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Crawford, S. (2017, May 19). Anthony Bell and Kelly Erlbaum Associates. Landry: AVO Dismissed by Magistrate [Daily Kristiansen, C. M., & Giulietti, R. (1990). Perceptions Telegraph]. Retrieved from of Wife Abuse: Effects of Gender, Attitudes http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/news/nsw/ toward Women, and Just-World Beliefs belllandry-avo-dismissed-by-magistrate/news- among College Students. Psychology of story/0e7158dccffe01b27c094ad5b2e6edfd Women Quarterly, 14(2), 177-189. Dalbert, C. (1999). The world is more just for me than doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1990.tb00013.x generally: About the Personal Belief in a Just World Scale’s validity. Social Justice Lerner, M., & Goldberg, J. (1999). When do decent Research, 12(2), 79-98. people blame victims? The differing effects of Devries, K. M., Mak, J. Y., Bacchus, L. J., Child, J. C., the explicit/rational and implicit/experiential Falder, G., Petzold, M., … Watts, C. H. cognitive systems. In Dual-process theories in (2013). Intimate Partner Violence and social psychology (pp. 627-640). New York, Incident Depressive Symptoms and Suicide NY: Guilford Press. Attempts: A Systematic Review of Lerner, M. J. (1980). The belief in a just world: A Longitudinal Studies. PLoS Medicine, 10(5), fundamental delusion (Perspectives in Social e1001439. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1001439 Psychology). New York, NY: Plenum Press. Dovidio, J., & Gaertner, S. (2010). Intergroup bias. Lerner, M. J., & Simmons, C. H. (1966). Observer's In Handbook of social psychology (5th ed., reaction to the "innocent victim": Compassion p. 1084–1121). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & or rejection? Journal of Personality and Sons. Social Psychology, 4(2), 203-210. Erdfelder, E., Faul, F., & Buchner, A. (1996). GPOWER: A general power analysis doi:10.1037/h0023562 Mancini, C., & Pickett, J. T. (2015). Reaping What program. Behavior Research Methods, They Sow? Victim-Offender Overlap Instruments, & Computers, 28(1), 1-11. Perceptions and Victim Blaming doi:10.3758/bf03203630 Attitudes. Victims & Offenders, 12(3), 434- Flood, M., & Pease, B. (2009). Factors Influencing 466. doi:10.1080/15564886.2015.1093051 Attitudes to Violence Against Meyer, S. (2015). Still blaming the victim of intimate Women. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 10(2), partner violence? Women’s narratives of 125-142. doi:10.1177/1524838009334131 victim desistance and redemption when Franks, A. S., & Scherr, K. C. (2015). Using Moral seeking support. Theoretical Foundations to Predict Voting Behavior: Criminology, 20(1), 75-90. Regression Models from the 2012 U.S. Presidential Election. Analyses of Social doi:10.1177/1362480615585399 Mouzos, J., & Shackelford, T. K. (2004). A Issues and Public Policy, 15(1), 213-232. doi:10.1111/asap.12074 comparative, cross-national analysis of partner-killing by women in cohabiting and Graham, J., Haidt, J., & Nosek, B. (2008). Moral marital relationships in Australia and the Foundations Questionnaire MFQ30.
15 Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology
United States. Aggressive Behavior, 30(3), Saul, L. J. (1972). Personal and Social Psychopathology 206-216. doi:10.1002/ab.20018 and the Primary Prevention of Niemi, L., & Young, L. (2016). When and Why We See Violence. American Journal of Victims as Responsible. Personality and Psychiatry, 128(12), 1578-1581. Social Psychology Bulletin, 42(9), 1227-1242. doi:10.1176/ajp.128.12.1578 NSW Bureau of Crime Statistics and Research. Schneider, E. (1992). Describing and changing: (2013). Reporting Violence to Police: A Women's self-defense work and the problem survey of victims attending domestic violence of expert testimony on battering. Women's services (91). Retrieved from Rights Law Reporter, 14(2), 213. https://www.women.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets Selterman, D., & Koleva, S. (2015). Moral judgment of /pdf_file/0004/280912/Reporting_Violence_t close relationship behaviors. Journal of Social o_the_Police_-_BOCSAR_survey.pdf and Personal Relationships, 32(7), 922-945. Overholser, J. C., & Moll, S. H. (1990). Who's to doi:10.1177/0265407514554513 blame: Attributions regarding causality in Smith, I. H., Aquino, K., Koleva, S., & Graham, J. spouse abuse. Behavioral Sciences & the (2014). The Moral Ties That Bind . . . Even to Law, 8(2), 107-120. Out-Groups. Psychological Science, 25(8), doi:10.1002/bsl.2370080203 1554-1562. doi:10.1177/0956797614534450 Patterson, D., Greeson, M., & Campbell, R. (2009). Strömwall, L. A., Alfredsson, H., & Landström, S. Understanding Rape Survivors' Decisions Not (2012). Blame attributions and rape: Effects to Seek Help from Formal Social of belief in a just world and relationship Systems. Health & Social Work, 34(2), 127- level. Legal and Criminological 136. doi:10.1093/hsw/34.2.127 Psychology, 18(2), 254-261. Pedersen, S. H., & Strömwall, L. A. (2013). Victim doi:10.1111/j.2044-8333.2012.02044.x Blame, Sexism and Just-World Beliefs: A Strömwall, L. A., Alfredsson, H., & Landström, S. Cross-Cultural Comparison. Psychiatry, (2013). Rape victim and perpetrator blame Psychology and Law, 20(6), 932-941. and the Just World hypothesis: The influence doi:10.1080/13218719.2013.770715 of victim gender and age. Journal of Sexual Peters, J. (2008). Measuring Myths about Domestic Aggression, 19(2), 207-217. Violence: Development and Initial Validation doi:10.1080/13552600.2012.683455 of the Domestic Violence Myth Acceptance Tsapelas, I., Fisher, H., & Aron, A. (2011). Infidelity: Scale. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & when, where, why. In The Dark Side of Close Trauma, 16(1), 1-21. Relationships II (pp. 175-196). New York, doi:10.1080/10926770801917780 NY: Routledge. Pierce, M. C., & Harris, R. J. (1993). The Effect of Van den Bos, K., & Maas, M. (2009). On the Provocation, Race, and Injury Description on Psychology of the Belief in a Just World: Men's and Women's Perceptions of a Wife- Exploring Experiential and Rationalistic Paths Battering Incident. Journal of Applied Social to Victim Blaming. Personality and Social Psychology, 23(10), 767-790. Psychology Bulletin, 35(12), 1567-1578. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.1993.tb01006.x doi:10.1177/0146167209344628 Policastro, C., & Payne, B. K. (2013). The Vecina, M. L. (2014). The Five Moral Foundations Blameworthy Victim: Domestic Violence Sacredness Scale in men in court-mandated Myths and the Criminalization of treatment for violently abusing their Victimhood. Journal of Aggression, partners. Personality and Individual Maltreatment & Trauma, 22(4), 329-347. Differences, 64, 46-51. doi:10.1080/10926771.2013.775985 doi:10.1016/j.paid.2014.02.021 Rannard, G. (2017, May 5). Outrage after prosecutor Vecina, M. L., Marzana, D., & Paruzel-Czachura, M. blames a woman for her death [BBC News]. (2015). Connections between moral Retrieved from psychology and intimate partner violence: http://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-trending- Can IPV be read through moral 39817650 psychology? Aggression and Violent Ryan, W. (2010). Blaming the Victim [Knopf Behavior, 22, 120-127. Doubleday Publishing Group] (2nd ed.). doi:10.1016/j.avb.2015.04.013 Walker, L. (1979). The battered victim. New York, NY: World Health Organisation. (2012). Intimate partner Harper & Row. violence (12.36). Retrieved from Witte, T. H., Schroeder, D. A., & Lohr, J. M. (2006). http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/77432 Blame for Intimate Partner Violence: An /1/WHO_RHR_12.36_eng.pdf Attributional Analysis. Journal of Social and Yamawaki, N., Ochoa-Shipp, M., Pulsipher, C., Clinical Psychology, 25(6), 647-667. Harlos, A., & Swindler, S. (2012). doi:10.1521/jscp.2006.25.6.647 Perceptions of Domestic Violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 27(16), 3195-3212. Young, L., & Phillips, J. (2011). The paradox of moral doi:10.1177/0886260512441253 focus. Cognition, 119(2), 166-178. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2011.01.004
16 Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology
Appendix A. tried to stand up, he put his hands around her Vignette for Typical Condition. throat and tried to strangle her. She eventually Rebecca and Neil are an Australian woman lost consciousness. When she regained and man who are currently living in Australia. consciousness, she walked downstairs to clean They chose to get married, and they got the wound on her head. married on 20th January, 2013. Appendix B. Three months into their marriage, Neil started Vignette for Atypical Condition to display controlling behaviours. He would Rebecca and Neil are an Australian woman read Rebecca’s text messages from her friends, and man who are currently living in Australia. and always ask her who she was talking to on They chose to get married, and they got the phone. He would often listen to her married on 20th January, 2013. telephone conversations. He then told her that Three months into their marriage, Neil started he didn’t want her to spend time with her to display controlling behaviours. He would friends, because he didn’t like them. read Rebecca’s text messages from her friends, Eventually, he told her she wasn’t allowed to and always ask her who she was talking to on talk on the phone with anyone or visit anyone, the phone. He would often listen to her unless they were family. A year into their telephone conversations. He then told her that marriage, Neil told Rebecca she was no longer he didn’t want her to spend time with her allowed to take the bus for transport and that friends, because he didn’t like them. she was only allowed to leave the house if he Eventually, he told her she wasn’t allowed to drove her. Rebecca never questioned Neil’s talk on the phone with anyone or visit anyone, decisions. unless they were family. A year into their From that point on, Neil would get angry with marriage, Neil told Rebecca she was no longer her most days for something she did or didn’t allowed to take the bus for transport and that do. It was always over small things. If she she was only allowed to leave the house if he served his dinner a few minutes late, he would drove her. Rebecca always protested against yell at her, telling her how useless she was as a Neil’s decisions, telling him that she would do wife. If she entered the room when he had whatever she wanted. friends over, he would yell at her for her lack From that point on, Neil would get angry with of manners, telling her she had no respect for her most days for something she did or didn’t him or his friends. Rebecca never yelled back do. It was always over small things. If she at Neil. served his dinner a few minutes late, he would Then one day, Rebecca moved Neil’s car keys, yell at her, telling her how useless she was as a from the table in the lounge room, to hang wife. If she entered the room when he had them on the wall with the house keys. When friends over, he would yell at her for her lack Neil couldn’t find his keys, he got so angry of manners, telling her she had no respect for that he hit Rebecca across the face. Rebecca him or his friends. Rebecca always yelled back did not fight back. at Neil, telling him that he’s a worthless Over the next six months, Neil’s controlling husband. behaviour and verbal abuse continued, and he Then one day, Rebecca moved Neil’s car keys, hit Rebecca another three times. Rebecca from the table in the lounge room, to hang never protested against Neil’s decisions, yelled them on the wall with the house keys. When at him, or fought back. Even though Neil’s Neil couldn’t find his keys, he got so angry abuse continued during this time, it did not that he hit Rebecca across the face. Rebecca escalate. fought back by pushing Neil against a wall. But then one day, at the end of this six-month Over the next six months, Neil’s controlling period, Neil’s abuse intensified. Rebecca was behaviour and verbal abuse continued, and he tidying Neil’s clothes and belongings in the hit Rebecca another three times. Rebecca bedroom. Neil came into the bedroom and saw continued to protest against Neil’s decisions, her touching his belongings. He got so angry yell at him and fight back. Even though Neil’s that he pushed her into the wall so hard that abuse continued during this time, it did not her head punctured the wall. She fell to the escalate. floor and her head was bleeding. When she
17 Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology
But then one day, at the end of this six-month consciousness, she walked downstairs to clean period, Neil’s abuse intensified. Rebecca was the wound on her head. tidying Neil’s clothes and belongings in the bedroom. Neil came into the bedroom and saw her touching his belongings. He got so angry that he pushed her into the wall so hard that her head punctured the wall. She fell to the floor and her head was bleeding. When she tried to stand up, he put his hands around her throat and tried to strangle her. She eventually lost consciousness. When she regained
Table 1. Means, Standard Deviations and Bivariate Correlations between the independent variable, moderator, control and dependant measure.
Variables Mean (SD) 1 2 3 4
1. Typicality 5.41 (.49) -
2. BMV 3.77 (.73) -.02 -
3. DVM 2.63 (.89) -.14 .22* -
4. Blame 1.42 (.96) -.12 .02 .38** -
Note: DVM = Domestic Violence Myths. BMV = Binding Moral Values. DMV was measured on the Domestic Violence Myths Acceptance Scale with higher scores representing more domestic violence myth acceptance. BMV was measured on the Moral Values
Questionnaire with higher scores on binding measures representing higher binding moral values. Victim typicality was coded as 0 = typical, 1 = atypical. *p <.05, **p <.001.
Table 2
Coefficients for B and β, SE and t, p and sr2, values for victim typicality, domestic violence myths and binding moral values when predicting victim blame.
b SE β t p 95% CI Sr2
Step 1
DVM .46* .10 .39* 4.20 .000 [.22, .61] .13
Typicality .10 .17 .05 .56 .577 [-.25, .44] .00
18 Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology
BMV .09 .12 .07 .71 .477 [-.15, .32] .00
Step 2
DVM .41* .10 .39* 4.17 .000 [.22, .61] .13
Typicality .10 .17 .05 .56 .577 [-.25, .44] .00
BMV .08 .12 .06 .68 .495 [-.16, .32] .00
Interaction -.04 .23 -.02 -.17 .863 [-.51, .42] -.00
Note. DVM = Domestic Violence Myths. BMV = Binding Moral Values. DMV was measured on the Domestic Violence Myths Acceptance Scale with higher scores representing more domestic violence myth acceptance. BMV was measured on the Moral Values
Questionnaire with higher scores on binding measures representing higher binding moral values. Victim typicality was coded as 0 = typical, 1 = atypical. *p <.001.
19
Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology
The Relationship Between Attention and the Negativity Bias in Memory Carolyn Doty Union College
ABSTRACT. Humans are more likely to attend to and recall emotionally salient events. Among emotional events, people are more likely to remember negative over positive or neutral events. They are also more likely to attend to a stimulus with a negative or threatening valence. This tendency is advantageous as it can alter the way in which people recognize and avoid threatening situations. Individuals are better at attending to and recalling negative feedback; this is reflective of their desire to be accepted socially. Negative stimuli are less common in everyday; the negativity bias in attention and memory is partially explained by the distinctiveness of negative events. In this review, I propose that negativity biases in memory are the result of negativity biases in attention. Key Words: Attention, Memory, Negativity Bias
In addition to emotionality itself, the When we remember events from our past, each valence of an emotional memory has an impact memory is remembered with varying amounts of on the likelihood that the memory will be detail. For some memories, we can recall vivid encoded and recalled. Researchers have noted a details about where we were, who we were with, negativity bias in people’s recollection of events. what was said, how we felt, or even what color When it comes to specific circumstances and shirt a person might have been wearing. For details, studies have shown that people are better other memories, our recollection is hazy, we at recalling negative events rather than positive may remember that we attended an event but not ones (Boals et al., 2014). For example, we may be able to recall who was there or what was be better at remembering the details surrounding discussed. You may not remember what you had an occasion when we were insulted than when for breakfast today but you may be able to recall we were complimented. The process of both what you ate at a dinner party one month ago. encoding and retrieval of memories of negative Emotionally based events are recalled events involves more activity in sensory areas of easier and with more detail than events without the brain than positive events (Mickley & any emotional significance. The same is true for Kensinger, 2008). It is more likely that an emotional stimuli, as emotional words are individual will remember negative feedback as recalled more accurately than neutral ones opposed to positive feedback. This negativity (Mickley & Kensinger, 2008). Emotional bias can be beneficial. People are more likely to information and memories are processed in a recognize and remember threatening stimuli than way that is distinct from how neutral neutral stimuli in addition to being more likely information is processed. This is exemplified by to remember the negative behaviors of others. an increased activation of the amygdala, an area Being able to quickly recognize threatening of the brain associated with the processing of situations allows an individual to promptly avoid threatening and emotional stimuli and fear as the situation; therefore, increasing their chance well as in the encoding of survival. The ability to expedite our and retrieval of memories of emotional stimuli acknowledgement of a threatening situation is (Phelps & LeDoux, 2005). Furthermore, reinforced by our memories of similar individuals with damage to the amygdala are threatening events in our past. Understanding likely to forget emotional and neutral stimuli this negativity bias is particularly important as equally. people are being more frequently exposed to negative events and images through television
1
Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology and social media. When a negative event such as they are more likely to pay attention to a terrorist attack or major scandal occurs, details threatening situations (Huang et al., 2017). and images of the event are presented Individuals prioritize emotional stimuli, with a repetitively throughout media. It is necessary particular focus on negative stimuli, yet that we are able to understand the mechanisms researchers have yet to come to a consensus on behind the negativity bias, in order to mitigate whether attention is required for emotional any detrimental effects of the increase in processing (Pessoa et al., 2002b). Some argue exposure to negative events. that certain emotional stimuli can be processed The negativity bias in emotion has been automatically while others argue that attentional speculated to be the result of a tendency to resources are required to process emotional attend to negative/threatening emotional stimuli. stimuli (Vuilleumier et al., 2001; Pessoa et al., Attention is a cognitive resource which involves 2002a). In this paper, I will argue that prioritizing the processing of certain stimuli individuals are better at remembering the details while ignoring other information in a person’s of negative events over positive events as a environment (Anderson, 1990). Attention has a result of a negativity bias in attention. limited capacity, meaning that we are unable to Emotion and Attentional Resources perceive every stimulus in our environment Emotional stimuli are processed faster simultaneously. For example, if we are than neutral stimuli and among emotional performing two demanding tasks concurrently, it stimuli, negative emotional stimuli are processed is more difficult to perform as well on both tasks fastest. Emotional processing refers to a person’s than if we were to perform each task ability to recognize and comprehend the individually. The reason it becomes difficult to magnitude of the valence of an emotionally attend to multiple tasks is that each task requires salient stimulus. Vuilleumier et al. (2001), found the use of additional attentional resources which that the sight of emotional faces activates the reflect the amount of our limited attentional amygdala regardless of whether participants capacity used in the completion of a task and the intended to focus on them or was consciously perception of an environmental stimulus. When aware of their presence. Because emotional we become more accustomed to performing a stimuli are processed before non-emotional task or recognizing a stimulus through practice, stimuli, an argument can be made that emotional it can become automatic. When a task becomes stimuli are processed preattentively (Vuilleumier automatic, it can be performed without the use et al., 2001). This concept of a preattentive of attentional resources; tasks that require the priority in the processing of emotional stimuli active use of attentional resources are considered has led to much debate over the relationship to be controlled, requiring conscious awareness between attentional mechanisms and the (Shiffrin & Schneider, 1977). Encoding is the processing of emotional stimuli. process by which we learn information A consensus has yet to emerge among perceived through attention so that it can be researchers regarding whether or not emotional stored in our long-term memories. Retrieval is processing even requires attentional resources. the process in which we access these memories. In one camp, researchers argue that the In short, attention plays a significant role in the processing of emotional stimuli is independent memory processes. of attentional awareness. In the other camp, People have an innate desire for social researchers argue that the processing of inclusion and wish to gain acceptance within emotional stimuli is dependent on the their community. Despite their relative availability of attentional resources. Past infrequency, negative interactions shape the way research has not been able to clarify whether or in which people behave as they are an indicator not attentional resources are required for that something they had done did not result in emotional processing as research on emotion the desired outcome. For this reason, people and attention can be interpreted as providing spend more time looking at negative feedback evidence for both arguments. over positive feedback, they are more likely to In the process of attention, stimuli attend to faces expressing negative emotion, and compete for use of attentional resources; a
2
Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology person is unable to pay attention to every the information is needed. The processes stimulus in their environment as once all involved in the formation of episodic memories attentional resources are being used, additional are impacted by the emotionality of an event stimuli cannot be processed. Thus, a person’s (Phelps, 2006). Emotional memories are recalled ability to focus on an object is dependent on more readily and with more accuracy than their perceptual load, which refers to the amount events with no emotional significance. Phelps of attentional resources currently being used by and LeDoux (2005) found that emotional an individual (Lavie, 1995). Since emotional processing is characterized by an increase in stimuli are preferentially processed, the amygdalar activity, providing evidence that relationship between attentional mechanisms emotional memories are encoded and recalled and emotional processing is difficult to differently than neutral memories. determine. Pessoa et al. (2002) attempted to Among emotional memories, events elucidate the connection between attentional surrounding negative emotions and moods are resources and emotional processing. They processed differently from positive or neutral presented the image of faces either expressing events. The affect of an individual during an happy, fearful or neutral emotions with bars of event can be induced by the valence of the varying orientations at the top corners of the stimuli around them and their emotion can shape screen. Participants were separated into either an what information they process from their attentive condition where they were asked to environment. People are more likely to recall look at the facial expression and identify if the emotional words than neutral ones; this effect is face was male or female, or the inattentive even more significant for negative emotional condition where they were asked to look at and words than positive ones (Dewhurst & Parry, describe the orientation of the bars. They 2000). measured participants neural functioning using Visual stimuli can be processed both fMRI while they observed the visual stimuli. locally, based on their specific details, and What they found was that emotional faces were globally, based on their holistic structure. only attended to when enough attentional Gasper and Clore (2002) proposed that resources were available as areas involved with individuals in sad moods were more likely to emotional processing were significantly more process information locally and individuals in active for participants in the attentive condition. positive moods were more likely to process This corresponded to a decrease in the amygdala information globally. In order to test this, activity associated with emotional stimuli, participants were assigned to one of three groups particularly the difference in activity where they were asked to write about an corresponding to the valence of the emotional experience that was either negative, positive, or face. Thus the valence and impact of emotional neutral. Participants in the negative condition stimuli is not processed when there is not a reported that they experienced greater levels of sufficient amount of attentional I resources sadness after completing the writing task and available. The processing of emotional stimuli at participants in the positive condition reported a least to some degree depends on the availability happy mood after completing the writing task. of attentional resources. Following the writing task, participants were Processing Negative Emotional Events asked to rate whether a target object was more The process of memory formation and like an object that had the same global features recall is dependent on attention. When humans but different local features or one that has the are less focused on a stimulus during encoding, same local features but different global features. they are less likely to be able to recall it later on, Participants in the negative condition were more than if they were fully focused on the stimulus likely to match the objects based on local during encoding (Craik et al., 1996). The initial features than participants in the positive stage of forming an episodic memory is condition. Their results indicated that when encoding, where information is initially learned. processing stimuli, individuals in a negative Following encoding, information will be stored emotional state are more attentive to specific so that it can be accessed during retrieval when details while individuals in positive emotional
3
Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology state focus on more general details which can one a threatening stimulus has been detected, it impact the information they are able to can be avoided. Therefore, it is important that remember. humans are able to prioritize threatening stimuli. The impact of valence on the type of People are faster and more efficient at detecting information that is attended to and processed can angry faces in a crowd over faces with neutral explain why there is a difference between how expressions or other emotions (Hansen & well people can recall positive and negative Hansen, 2012). Thus our brains naturally events. This difference in processing is not only prioritize the processing of angry faces, and this behaviorally apparent as negative emotional is beneficial because irate individuals are more events are processed differently in the brain. In likely to behave in a threatening way toward some areas of the brain, neural activity is others. correlated to the processing of various emotions, Since we prioritize the processing of the processing of positive, negative and neutral angry faces, we are more likely to encode the stimuli are also correlated to activity in differing specific attributes indicative of the threatening regions of the brain. Mickley and Kensinger emotion. When people are more attentive to (2008) explored the neural correlates of negative events, they are more likely to be able encoding and remembering negative vs. positive to recall them at a later time. The ability to emotional stimuli. They showed participants remember a threatening event allows people to images and words that were associated with utilize that memory in order to recognize the either a negative, positive, or neutral emotional warning signs, when a future event has the valence. Then participants were scanned using potential to become dangerous. functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) Age contributes to the way in which as they were shown these images and words. negative memories are attended to, reflected on Lastly, 30-minutes after being exposed to the and recalled. Older adults are better at regulating stimuli, participants completed a surprise their emotions (St. Jacques, 2009. When recognition task and were asked whether they examining the difference between how younger remember the stimuli vividly or familiarly. adults view their negative memories in Negative stimuli were remembered more vividly comparison with older adults, Boals et al. (2014) than positive or neutral stimuli. Furthermore, found a discrepancy between the two age they found that increased activity in certain categories. They asked participants to recollect temporo-occipital sensory processing regions negative memories and to subsequently occurred when negative stimuli were complete a questionnaire. When comparing the remembered, suggesting that negative responses of the two groups, they found that, experiences are remembered differently. Thus, when reflecting on negative autobiographical negative information is remembered more events, older adults experienced less of an vividly because sensory information is processed emotional response, and significantly less and attended to, to a greater extent during negative emotions associated with the event. negative events. Their results support the idea that older adults Survival and Recognition of Threat develop more emotionally adaptive ways of Though the experience of focusing on handling negative emotions. Results from and remembering negative emotional stimuli is functional neuroimaging studies suggest that unpleasant, a negativity bias in attention and older adults process and remember negative memory is advantageous in certain situations. emotional events differently from younger This is because having a negativity bias in individuals. Older adults are less likely to attention and memory may be evolutionarily remember negative stimuli. St. Jacques et al. beneficial. The increased likelihood of (2009) found that when viewing and recalling remembering negative events is useful as it can negative pictures, older adults showed more encourage the recognition of threats in order to activity in the right amygdala and young adults avoid them and therefore improve survivability. showed more activity in the left amygdala. Attending to and recognizing a potentially When compared with young adults, older adults threatening stimulus is necessary for survival as showed differing activity in areas of the brain
4
Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology associated with memory. The age difference in the increased priority of attentional resources on neural activity can explain why older adults are threatening stimuli is evolutionarily beneficial. better at regulating emotions and worse at Social Belongingness remembering negative stimuli. A desire to be socially accepted can be The diminished effect of the negativity evolutionarily beneficial. If a person is able to bias seen in older adults may be emotionally form more lasting emotional bonds with others, adaptive, just as a negativity bias in younger they are more likely to secure a mate, obtain individuals may also be adaptive as they are communal resources, and receive assistance developing the knowledge required for survival when threats are present (Baumeister and Leary, and threat avoidance. The ability to attend to and 1995). An individual’s responses to another respond to threat may become more automatic person’s affective state can impact how they are with practice and therefore there is less of a need viewed by others. For example, if you were to for the negativity bias. Balthazar et al. (2012) insult someone who was already distressed, that explored whether children have a better memory person and the people around you will not want for threatening social interactions. They showed to accept you into their social group. In contrast, young children pictures of people described as if you were to comfort that person, others would mean or nice; nice individuals were described as be more likely to include you and offer doing something helpful while mean individuals resources to you (Rofe, 1985). were described as behaving in a threatening Not only can a negativity bias in manner. Their results indicated that children are attention and memory improve a person’s more likely to remember the faces of threatening physical survivability, it can also improve their individuals and the specific details of their likelihood of achieving social acceptance. threatening actions. Children may have a more Having a better memory for negative events can significant tendency toward the negativity bias influence an individual’s relationship to others as they are still acquiring knowledge that will be and their perception of their social environment. useful for detecting threats. This could explain Attending to the negative expressions and why the negativity bias in attention is more actions of others can alter how they act in prominent in children than older adults as this response to negative facial expressions in order bias can be important in shaping their capacity to improve the situation. By responding to the to detect and respond to unexpected threatening negative emotions of others, individuals are able stimuli. This ability becomes more automatic, to develop more positive relationships and requiring less attentional resources and increase their sense of belongingness within awareness as people age. their social environment (Baumeister & Leary, The way in which one processes and 1995). remembers past events can shape how Social belongingness refers to the extent they respond to events in the future. With regard to which a person feels that they are to negative emotional events, this means that accepted by other individuals and the quality and they have a memory of how a potentially depth of their interpersonal relationships. dangerous negative event was dealt with and Proponents of the belongingness hypothesis what actions either helped or not. Being able to argue that in social situations, human beings act recall beneficial actions or avoid other actions in response to a fundamental need for will shape how an individual respond to similar belongingness (Baumeister & Leary, 1995). In events in the future. Therefore, it is the absence of social acceptance, an individual advantageous to have a better memory for how may face many emotional consequences. When negative events are handled, as a memory for a person experiences a perceived sense of social how neutral or positive emotional events were exclusion corresponds to increased feelings of dealt with is less likely to have the same impact jealousy, depression, social anxiety and on survivability. Additionally, the amount of loneliness (Leary, 1990). Thus it is important for attention paid to a threatening stimulus improves an individual to obtain a sense of belongingness the likelihood that it will be remembered. Thus, in order to thrive socially.
5
Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology
An individual’s response to someone’s participants recall the feedback they received. negative emotions can have an impact on the Their results showed that participants spent way others view them. Responding in an more time focusing on negative feedback and appropriate and supportive way to an less time focusing on positive feedback. They individual’s negative emotions can deepen the also found that participants were able to recall quality of their interpersonal relationships. If more specific details about negative feedback someone were sad, then we could strengthen our than specific details about positive feedback. relationship with them by comforting them and Participants were likely able to remember more if someone’s negative emotion was rage, we details about negative feedback because they could recognize this and know to avoid them so spent more time attending to negative feedback. that we do not damage the relationship with It makes sense that we would attend to them. Thus, people may be more likely to and remember negative feedback more than recognize the emotions of others in order to positive feedback as negative feedback is more respond to them when the emotion is negative as constructive on shaping how we opposed to when it is positive or neutral. go about tasks or activities in the future. For The negativity bias for emotional stimuli example, if I was walking down the street and is particularly salient with facial stimuli. one person compliments my shirt and another Lagattuta and Hansen (2017), explored whether person insults my shirt because they feel that the children and/or adults prioritize attending to style is not flattering, I would be more inclined negative faces. In their experiment, participants to view the shirt as unflattering and might chose were asked in the first task to look at the faces not to wear it in the future. When something on a screen; on the screen were multiple faces about a person or something they do is not well- expressing either positive, negative, or neutral received, they are more inclined to change their emotions. In the second task, participants were behavior as people tend to prefer to be viewed instructed to focus on the happy face. During positively by others in order to obtain a sense of each of the tasks, they used eye-tracking to belongingness in within their community. monitor which faces participants were attending Therefore, the memory of that negative feedback to. They found that both adults and children are is more detailed than memories of positive most likely to attend to faces expressing feedback as it can negative emotion first. Both adults and children impact how people view themselves in relation are more likely to first attend to emotional faces to their social environment along with their before neutral faces. These results suggest that sense of social inclusion. people are more attentive to the negative The desire for social inclusion can emotions of others. This additional focus and explain why we are more likely to attend to and prioritization of negative facial stimuli increases therefore remember negative events. We are the likelihood that people will have a better more likely to attend to the faces of others if memory for the negative emotions of others. they are expressing negative emotions. If we see Much of the tendency to focus on the someone in distress we can improve our negative emotions of others may be attributed to interpersonal relationship with them by an innate desire to please others. People are comforting them and if they are angry we can motivated by the experience of being liked and avoid damaging our interpersonal relationship they find it rewarding to be socially included with them by avoiding them. Much of our (Davey et al., 2010). The idea of disappointing attention is driven towards emotional stimuli as or being viewed negatively by someone else is our response to these stimuli can shape our notably unpleasant. For this reason, Huang et al., feelings of belongingness in a social (2017) investigated the relationship between environment. This is why people are more attention, memory, and negative vs. positive attentive to negative feedback in comparison feedback. They used eye-tracking technology to with positive feedback, as we strive to be liked measure how long people looked at positive and by others. negative feedback, when feedback was provided Positive is Common for task performance. Additionally, they had
6
Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology
An individual’s increased ability to memory of an experience is strengthened by the recall specific details of negative social events distinctiveness of the event in relation to may be associated with the theory that positive everyday experiences. As negative experiences social interactions may tend to be much more are distinct from everyday events, they capture commonplace than negative social interactions our attention and are more likely to be (Graf et al., 2014). Negative social interactions remembered. and negative stimuli are infrequent in the lives Conclusion of most people, because of this, they are able to Human beings are more likely to attract our attention and stand out when people remember the specific details of negative events experience them. An example of this is Graf et from their past and hold less detailed memories al.’s (2014) study of the relationship between for positive and neutral events. This negativity intergroup contact and outgroup attitudes in bias in memory can be attributed to an relation to the frequency of positive and negative attentional preference for negative stimuli. interactions. They administered a questionnaire When stimuli are attended to, they are more to individuals of various nationalities in Central likely to be encoded and stored in long-term Europe asking about their interactions with memory. The emotional processing mechanism people from other countries. They found that of an event differs depending on the valence of participants reported positive intergroup environmental stimuli. When we have interactions as occurring three times more than experienced negative events, we are more likely negative intergroup interactions. Additionally, to remember specific, local details of the event. they found that the less frequent negative Additionally, the activity levels in various brain interactions were more instrumental in shaping regions vary based on the valence of an outgroup attitudes. These results indicate that observed stimulus. Negative stimuli are attended although positive interactions are more to a greater extent than positive or neutral commonplace, it is negative interactions that are stimuli during encoding, thus our memory for more likely to alter how an individual may them can be more detailed. This is evolutionarily perceive their environment and act based on that beneficial as being able to retrieve and attend to perception. specific details of a threatening situation can Individuals are better at remembering allow us to better respond to and avoid them in stimuli that are distinct. Over time we are more the future. likely to remember events that are unusual rather How we respond to negative emotional than events that occur frequently in our daily situations can determine the level of social lives. Schacter et al. (1998) explored whether acceptance a person receives. An appropriate memory accuracy was improved or hindered by response to the negative emotions of others can the similarity of stimuli and if the effect could be facilitate a deeper connection in social altered by encoding similar stimuli through relationships. Furthermore, negative emotional distinct features. They instructed participants to stimuli tend to be less commonplace, making familiarize themselves with a set of either word their presence distinct, allowing them to stand or picture stimuli. After a delay, they asked out amongst other memories. Future research participants to state whether they were exposed should address the connection between the to a word or picture using a list of stimuli that negativity bias in attention and memory and an combined those which they were originally individual's perceptions of life events, in shown along with a set of lure stimuli that were addition to ways to overcome this negativity bias either related or unrelated to the original set. when it may not be beneficial. They found that participants were more likely to The negativity biases in attention and falsely recognize a lure stimulus if it was memory are particularly important to understand semantically related to stimuli they had as people are being more frequently exposed to previously been exposed to than lure stimulus negative events through television and social that was distinct from the original stimuli. media. When major negative events, such as Therefore, the distinctiveness of a stimuli can terrorist attacks, occur, images of the event and improve the accuracy of recall and therefore the aftermath are scattered throughout media. Many
7
Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology people find themselves repetitively exposed to Craik, F. I. M., Govoni, R., Naveh-Benjamin, M., & negative events, such as the videos of planes Anderson, N. D. (1996). The effects of divided attention on encoding and retrieval crashing into the world trade center during the processes in human memory. 9/11 attacks or the audio recordings of the 911 Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, emergency calls from the Columbine High 125, 159 –180 School Massacre, increasing the salience of their Davey, C. G., Allen, N. B., Harrison, B. J., Dwyer, D. B., memory for the event. The repeated exposure to & Yücel, M. (2010). Being liked activates primary reward and midline self-related these images can create a sense of an impending brain regions. Human Brain threat, resulting in behavioral changes, as seen in Mapping, 31(4), 660-668. the integration of lockdown drills in schools Graf, S., Paolini, S., & Rubin, M. (2014). Negative following the Newtown Shooting (Trevelyan, intergroup contact is more influential, but positive intergroup contact is more common: 2014). Assessing contact prominence Many people actively choose to expose and contact prevalence in five Central European themselves to negative images, they share posts countries. European Journal Of about negative events with their social media Social Psychology, 44(6), 536-547. followers or choose to watch documentaries Hansen, C. H., & Hansen, R. D. (1988). Finding the face in the crowd: An anger about serial killers or natural disasters. The superiority effect. Journal of Personality and negativity bias in attention can explain why Social Psychology, 54, 917–924. people struggle to avoid looking at negative Huang, P., Liu, C., & Chen, H. (2017). The influence of stimuli such as car accidents despite the Outcome Status on the attending and memory of positive and negative unpleasant emotions they elicit. Future research feedback. Bulletin Of should address the effect of the increase in Educational Psychology, 48, 469-486. exposure to negative events, how knowledge of Lagattuta, K. H., & Kramer, H. J. (2017). Try to look on the mechanisms behind the negativity bias in the bright side: Children and attention and memory can be used to counter the adults can (sometimes) override their tendency to prioritize negative faces. effects of repeated exposure to negative stimuli, Journal Of Experimental Psychology, 146, 89- and whether there is a difference in this 101. negativity bias in individuals who choose to Lavie, N. (1995) Perceptual Load as a Necessary Condition experience negate events. for Selective Attention. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 21, References 451–468. Anderson, J. R. (1990). Cognitive psychology and its Leary, M. R. (1990). Responses to social exclusion: Social implications (3rd ed.). New York: anxiety, jealousy, loneliness, W.H. Freeman. depression, and low self-esteem. Journal Of Arndt, J., & Hirshman, E. (1998). True and false Social And Clinical Psychology, recognition in MINERVA2: 9(2), 221-229. Explanations from a global matching Mickley, K. R., & Kensinger, E. A. (2008). Emotional perspective.Journal of Memory & valence influences the neural Language,39, 371–391. correlates associated with remembering and Baltazar, N. C., Shutts, K., & Kinzler, K. D. (2012). knowing. Cognitive, Affective & Children show heightened memory Behavioral Neuroscience, 8(2), 143-152. for threatening social actions. Journal Of Pessoa, L., Kastner, S., & Underleider, L. G. (2002). Experimental Child Psychology, 112, Attentional control of the 102-110. processing of neutral and emotional stimuli. Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to Cognitive Brain Research, 15, belong: Desire for interpersonal 31-45. attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Pessoa, L., McKenna, M., Gutierrez, E., & Ungerleider, L. Psychological Bulletin, 117(3), G. (2002). Neural processing 497-529. of emotional faces requires attention. Boals, A., Hayslip, B. J., & Banks, J. B. (2014). Age Proceedings of the National Academy of differences in autobiographical Sciences of the United States of America, 99(17), memories of negative events. The International 11458–11463. Journal Of Aging & Human Phelps, E. A. (2006). Emotion and cognition: Insights from Development, 78, 47-65. studies of the human
8
Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology
amygdala. Annual Review of Psychology, 57, 27- 53. Phelps, E. A., & LeDoux, J. E. (2005). Contributions of the amygdala to emotion processing: From animal models to human behavior. Neuron, 48, 175-187. Ritchie, T. D., Sedikides, C., & Skowronski, J. J. (2017). Does a person selectively recall the good or the bad from their personal past? It depends on the recall target and the person’s favourability of self- views. Memory, 25(8), 934-944. Rofe, Y. (1984). Stress and affiliation: A utility theory. Psychological Review, 91, 235-250. Schacter, D. L., Israel, L., & Racine, C. A. (1999). Suppressing false recognition in younger and older adults: The distinctiveness heuristic. Journal of Memory & Language,40, 1–24. Shiffrin, R. M., & Schneider, W. (1977). Controlled and automatic human information processing: II. Perceptual learning, automatic attending, and a general theory. Psychological Review, 84, 127-190. St. Jacques, P. L., Dolcos, F., & Cabeza, R. (2009). Effects of aging on functional connectivity of the amygdala for subsequent memory of negative pictures: A network analysis of functional magnetic resonance imaging data. Psychological Science, 20(1), 74-84. Trevelyan, Laura. “US Children Learn 'Lockdown Drill'.” BBC News, BBC, 9 Feb. 2014, Retrieved from www.bbc.com/news/magazine- 26085368. Vuilleumier, P., Armony, J., Driver, J., & Dolan, R. (2001). Effects of attention and emotion on face processing in the human brain: An event-related fMRI study. Neuron, 30(3), 829-841.
9 Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology
The Relationship between Biculturalism and Mental Health Outcomes among College-bound Latino Adolescents Janice Dilgert Arizona State University
ABSTRACT. Cultural beliefs and behaviors can serve as both risk and protective processes for Latino adolescents, with some recent empirical work suggesting the important protective role of bicultural values (e.g., endorsing high levels of both mainstream culture and culture of origin). We expanded on past research to explore whether bicultural values were associated with internalizing (depressive, anxiety, stress) symptoms and externalizing (alcohol use) symptoms among a sample of Latino adolescents preparing to begin college. We hypothesized biculturalism to protect against all negative outcomes. Our sample consisted of 209 college- bound Latino adolescents (65% female; 85.1% Mexican descent; 10.6% 1st generation, 62% 2nd generation) who were enrolled in university for the coming fall. All multivariate models included sex, ethnicity, parent education, and immigrant generation status as covariates. Correlations and multivariate analyses revealed that higher bicultural values were associated with lower depressive symptoms, lower anxiety symptoms, lower stress, and greater alcohol use. Gender was shown to moderate the relationship between biculturalism and alcohol use. Overall, findings suggested that greater bicultural values were associated with lower endorsement of internalizing symptoms for all participants, but higher endorsement of alcohol use over the last year for the highly bicultural females. Biculturalism may be particularly protective for Latino adolescents who are preparing to attend college given the need for them to transition into an environment with high acculturative demands. However, our results also highlight that these bicultural females may be at greater risk for alcohol use and related problems.
1 Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology
According to the Pew Research Center, the processes and outcomes for Latino youth, and Latino population constitutes about 18% of the ethnic minority youth more broadly (Garcia total United States population and is the second Coll, Akerman, & Cicchetti, 2000). fastest growing ethnic group (Flores, 2017). This Much past research has focused on the has led to a dramatic increase in research on role of acculturation and enculturation in the cultural factors affecting the mental health of development and well-being of Latino youth. this population. Psychological research is Acculturation includes the learning of U.S. shifting to explore links between cultural values, norms, and culture, while enculturation adaptation and mental health outcomes involves the retention of traits from the original (Gonzales, Jenson, Montano, & Wynne, 2015). culture (Berry, 2003). Some studies have linked Latino adolescents are of particular interest, processes of acculturation with poor mental because adolescence is already a developmental health outcomes in Latino populations, and period characterized by drastic changes, particularly for Latino adolescents. newfound independence, and consequential Acculturation has been linked to depressive and mental health impacts. During adolescence, and anxiety symptoms, specifically within Latino especially during the transition to college, college students (French & Chavez, 2010; individuals are exploring their identity Huynh, Devos, & Dunbar, 2012; Hwang & development and are beginning to make their Goto, 2008; Lorenzo-Blanco, Unger, own decisions about health behaviors (World Baezconde-Garbanati, Ritt-Olson, & Soto, Health Organization, 2005). 2012). Studies have also linked higher rates of Some studies have shown that Latino acculturation to higher rates of substance use adolescents are at increased risk for negative (Brook, Whiteman, Balka, Win, & Gursen, mental health outcomes. Latino adolescents, 1998; Felix-Ortiz & Newcomb, 1995; Gil, 2000; compared to their non-Latino peers, were at Perez & Padilla, 1980; Vega, Gil, & higher risk for developing a mood disorder Zimmerman, 1993). This link between (including depression and anxiety; Anderson & acculturation and substance use was Mayes, 2010; Glover, Pumariega, Holzer, Wise, demonstrated with Puerto Rican, Cuban & Rodriguez, 1999; Siegel, Aneshensel, Taub, American, and Mexican American adolescents Cantwell, & Driscoll, 1998). Some studies have (Brook et al., 1998; Perez & Padilla, 1980; Vega also shown that Latino youth were also more et al., 1993). The two factors were positively likely to report higher rates of alcohol and drug related from early through late adolescence use than their White peers (Cheref, Lane, (Brook et al., 1998; Vega et al., 1993). The Polanco-Roman, Gadol, & Miranda, 2014; correlation between acculturation and substance Johnston, O'Malley, Bachman, & Schulenberg, use included more frequent alcohol and drug 2010; Swendsen et al., 2012; Venegas, Cooper, use, use of greater quantities, higher rates of Naylor, Hanson, & Blow, 2012). However, other lifetime use, and use of more serious substances studies have found Latino adolescents to (Felix-Ortiz & Newcomb, 1995; Vega et al., demonstrate lower rates of negative mental 1993). health outcomes compared with other racial However, research findings have not groups (Alegria, Vallas, & Pumariega, 2010; always been consistent. For example, low levels Blum, Beuhring, Shew, Bearinger, Sieving, & of integration with mainstream culture have also Resnick, 2000). been associated with poor mental health. Vega et Understanding the sociocultural context al. (1995) found lower levels of acculturation in and cultural values may be particularly U.S. born Latino adolescents was associated important when examining Latino adolescent with the highest levels of substance use. This development. In order to understand Latino could be due to additional stress caused by lack adolescents’ sociocultural context, we need to of integration with U.S. culture. Other understand whether there are components of researchers have found no association between their environment that serve as protective factors acculturation and well-being in adolescents. As or risk factors for mental health outcomes. These for internalizing symptoms, Masten and cultural factors may help explain developmental colleagues (2004) found no relationship between
2 Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology acculturation and depressive symptoms in Kiang, & Supple, 2015; Zamboanga, Schwartz, samples of Mexican American women and Jarvis, & Van Tyne, 2009). European American women, similar to the A new idea emerging in the research results found by other researchers in samples of combines acculturation and enculturation into Mexican American adolescents (Konerua, biculturalism (Gonzales, Knight, Morgan-López, Weisman de Mamania, Flynn, & Betancourt, Saenz, & Sirolli, 2002). Biculturalism, as 2007; Lopez, 2011). The inconsistencies in defined by this study, involves scoring high on acculturation research could reflect the complex both acculturative and enculturative measures. processes that encapsulate acculturation, Biculturalism has been shown to have many suggesting that different aspects of acculturation benefits, as the individuals have the skills from could have differing effects on mental health two cultures from which to benefit. With Latino outcomes. youth in particular, the skillset and resources A different body of research has focused from both cultures can help the adolescents to on enculturation, the process of retaining one's navigate life’s challenges more easily (Buriel, original culture, and has documented positive 2012; Padilla, 2006; Zeiders, Updegraff, Kuo, associations with mental health. Enculturative Umaña-Taylor, & McHale, 2016). Latino values such as family, respect, and religiosity adolescents scoring high on bicultural scales have been linked with fewer negative have shown higher rates of prosocial behaviors, internalizing symptoms in Latina adolescent more positive self-evaluations, better academic females (McDonald, McCabe, Yeh, Lau, outcomes, greater cognitive flexibility, and Garland, & Hough, 2005). Family was higher resilience (Buriel et al., 1998; Carlo, associated with lower rates of depressive Basilio, & Knight, 2016; Gonzales, Germán, & symptoms and suicide among a Latino Fabrett, 2012; LaFromboise et al. 1993; population (Valdivieso-Mora, Peet, Garnier- Landsman, Padilla, Leiderman, Clark, Ritter, & Villarreal, Salazar-Villanea, & Johnson, 2016). Dornbusch, 1992). Familismo and respeto have further been found Biculturalism has also been shown to to correlate with lower rates of substance use relate to better mental health, specifically among (Lin, 2007). Latino adolescents. Related to substance abuse, Historically, enculturation and Goldberg and colleagues (1993) found a link acculturation were often explored as opposites between biculturalism and reduced risk for on a spectrum. An individual was either substance abuse among a sample of Latino enculturated to their host culture, or acculturated adolescents. Losoya and colleagues (2008) to the new culture. LaFramboise and colleagues found a similar negative relationship between (1993) suggested that both constructs could be bicultural values and rates of alcohol drinking evaluated as coexisting simultaneously. and drug use among Mexican American juvenile Researchers began investigating enculturation as offenders. Similarly, in a diverse sample of protective against the negative outcomes that adolescents, Wei and colleagues (2010) found have often been associated with acculturation. It that those scoring higher on bicultural was seen as a moderator of acculturation competence also scored lower on depressive (Corona, Rodríguez, McDonald, Velazquez, symptom inventories. Finally, Bauman and Rodríguez, & Fuentes, 2017; German et al., Summers (2009) found that biculturalism 2009; Gil et al., 1994; Neblett, Rivas-Drake, & moderated associations between bullying and depressive symptoms in a sample of middle- Umaña-Taylor, 2012; Umaña-Taylor, school aged Mexican American youth. Studies Updegraff, & Gonzales-Backen, 2011). have yet to investigate the link between However, this theory has not been fully biculturalism and anxiety symptoms. substantiated in the research; some studies do The evidence linking biculturalism with not support the idea that enculturation protects improved mental health in Latino youth has not against the risks posed by acculturative always been consistent though (Cano et al., processes (Berkel et al., 2010; Marsiglia, Kulis, 2015; Lorenzo-Blano et al., 2012). For example, Hecht, & Sills, 2004; Stein, Gonzalez, Cupito, Cano and colleagues (2015) found no direct link
3 Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology between biculturalism and alcohol use or being of Mexican descent (n=178). 10.6% were depressive symptoms among a sample of late first generation immigrants, and 62% second adolescent Latinos. However, indirect links were generation immigrants. established when moderators of ethnic Procedure discrimination and intragroup marginalization The Institutional Review Board from the were taken into account. Lorenzo-Blanco and university approved all measures and colleagues (2012) found no direct link between procedures. Participants completed an online biculturalism and substance use, but did find an questionnaire that took approximately 60- 80 indirect link through perceived discrimination. minutes to complete. The questionnaire assessed The inconsistency of past results and a wide range of behaviors and attitudes. lack of research examining anxiety symptoms in Included in this questionnaire were the past studies led to the development of the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale, Alcohol current study. Generally, I hypothesized that use and Binge Drinking Scale, and the Mexican biculturalism would promote better well-being American Biculturalism Scale, which were used within our sample of college-bound Latino for this study. Signed consent forms were youth. I predicted that those who scored higher obtained from the participants, and also obtained on biculturalism would also report lower levels from the parents if the participant was under the of depressive symptoms, anxiety symptoms, age of 18. Participants were paid $25 for stress symptoms, and alcohol use. completing the questionnaire. I have several exploratory sub aims. Measures First, given identified gender differences in Internalizing. One of the scales internalizing and externalizing symptoms, I completed by participants during the predicted that the association between questionnaire was the Depression, Anxiety, and biculturalism and both internalizing and Stress Scale (DASS; Lovibond and Lovibond, externalizing outcomes would differ for males 1995). This scale was used to assess and females (Lorenzo-Blanco et al., 2012; internalizing symptoms, as it contains items Rosenfield, Phillips, & White, 2006). related to depression (14 items), anxiety (14 Specifically, it was hypothesized that items), and psychological stress (14 items). biculturalism would be protective for females in Sample items include "I couldn't seem to the prediction of depressive symptoms, anxiety experience any positive feelings at all" and "I symptoms, and stress symptoms, and for males felt I was close to panic." Participants indicated in the prediction of alcohol use. Additionally, how strongly the statements applied to their past this research study also aimed to explore week, with scores ranging from 0 "Did not apply whether the dimensions of biculturalism to me at all" to 3 "Applied to me very much, or (bicultural comfort and bicultural facility) differ most of the time." A sum score for each scale in the prediction of mental health outcomes. was calculated. The DASS has shown good Method reliability and validity in a variety of settings Participants and with samples of Latino adolescents and Data were collected as part of a young adults (Corona et al., 2017; Antony et al., longitudinal study being conducted at a large 1998; Brown et al., 1997). Internal consistency southwestern university in the United States. A in this sample was good, with Cronbachs alpha sample of 209 Latino/a late adolescents was of .95 for depressive symptoms, .89 for anxiety, recruited during the spring semester of their high and .93 for stress. school senior year through phone calls, email Alcohol Use. Alcohol use was assessed correspondence, and orientation sessions. using the "Alcohol use and Binge Drinking" Participants all lived within 35 miles of the scale from Monitoring the Future (Johnston et university and planned to attend in the fall. The al., 2015). The question for this study asked “On sample consisted of 136 females and 73 males how many occasions (if any) have you used between the ages of 16-19 (35% male, Mage= alcohol... during the past 30 days?” Respondents 17.59, SD= .531). All participants identified as could choose a category from 0, 1–2, 3–5, 6–9, Latino/a, and furthermore, 85.1% identified as
4 Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology
10–19, 20–39, to 40 or more occasions of Results alcohol use. Descriptive Statistics and Correlations Biculturalism. Biculturalism was Sum scores on the depressive symptoms assessed using the Mexican American scale were 7.32 (SD= 8.63), on the anxiety Biculturalism Scale (MABS; Basilio et al., symptoms scale 7.93 (SD= 7.29), and on the 2014). For the current study, the wording was stress symptoms scale 9.88 (SD= 8.90). These adjusted from "Mexican American" to include average scores fall within the mild severity all Latinos. The scale contains three subscales: categories for the symptoms, indicating bicultural comfort, bicultural facility, and relatively mild rates of internalizing symptoms bicultural advantages. The first two subscales in our sample. Although the overall mean scores were used for this study. For bicultural comfort, for internalizing symptoms were low, there was the responses ranged from 1 (e.g., "I am only high variability in responses. The mean alcohol comfortable when [I need to speak in use in our sample was about 1-2 occasions of English/Spanish]") to 5 (e.g., "I am always drinking within the past 12 months, indicating comfortable in both of these situations"). Higher that our sample did not highly endorse drinking scores indicated high bicultural comfort. behaviors. Bicultural comfort and bicultural Bicultural facility was assessed through facility were correlated at r = .87, so they were agreement statements such as "Needing to speak combined for an overall biculturalism score. The Spanish sometimes, and English other times is mean overall biculturalism score among the ____," and responses ranged from 1 (very easy) sample was 3.59, indicating a moderately to to 5 (very difficult). Responses were reverse highly bicultural sample. scored, and higher scores indicated higher levels Descriptive statistics and correlations of bicultural facility. Items were summed to are presented in Table 1. Correlations revealed create subscale scores. In this sample the that higher bicultural values were associated subscales were highly correlated (r = .87), and with lower depressive symptoms (r = -.33, therefore the mean of the two scales was used in p<.001), lower anxiety symptoms (r = -.23, all analyses. p<.01), lower stress (r = -.33, p<.001), and Data Analysis Plan greater alcohol use (r = .16, p<.05; see Table 1). Frequencies, means, and standard Main effects deviations were calculated for all study In multivariate analyses and after variables. To examine correlational associations adjusting for covariates, similar patterns between study variables, zero order correlations emerged (Table 2). Covariates include parental were run. Correlations between biculturalism, education, gender, immigration generation, and mental health outcomes, and potential covariates ethnicity (Latino only or bi/multi ethnic). were examined. Secondly, multivariate linear Greater endorsement of bicultural values was regressions were performed, one for each associated with lower depressive symptoms (β = outcome (depressive symptoms, anxiety -.28, p < .001), anxiety symptoms (β = -.18, symptoms, stress symptoms, alcohol use) to p<.05) and stress (β= -.27, p<.001). identify the relative influence of biculturalism Interestingly, higher endorsement of bicultural on the mental health outcomes. Socio- values was associated with increased levels of demographic variables of interest were included alcohol use (β = .21, p<.01). as covariates (gender, ethnicity [Latino only or Moderating effects bi-ethnic/multiethnic], parent education, Gender was next examined as a immigration generation). Next, moderating moderator. No significant moderating effects pathways were tested. An interaction term were found for biculturalism and depressive between gender and biculturalism was generated symptoms, anxiety symptoms, or stress and entered into the multiple regression models. symptoms. Gender did, however, significantly Simple slopes were examined to decompose moderate the relationship between biculturalism significant interactions. Statistical analyses were and alcohol use (β= -0.24, p<.001; Table 3). run using SPSS. A significance level of p<.05 After running a simple slopes analysis, results was used for all analyses. suggested that this relationship was significant
5 Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology for females (β= .34, p< .001), but not for males adolescents navigate between both cultures (β= -.13, p= .30). Females with higher during times of transition or change (e.g., the biculturalism scores were shown to report the transition to college). Because the transition to highest occurrences of drinking (Figure 1). college involves many highly acculturative Discussion demands, high acculturation levels could benefit The current study found that high Latino adolescents during this life stage. By bicultural values were associated with lower adapting or endorsing more American cultural depressive symptoms, lower anxiety symptoms, values, adolescents can take advantage of and lower stress symptoms. Surprisingly, I also opportunities in the higher education found a positive correlation between bicultural environment which values independent ideals values and reports of alcohol use, especially and success. In addition, enculturation could among the highly bicultural females in our also promote success for Latino adolescents study. This may suggest that biculturalism is through emphasis on familismo, respeto, and protective in the prediction of internalizing other Latino cultural values. By also remaining symptoms for all Latino adolescents, and a oriented to one’s own Latino culture, the potential risk factor for alcohol use among individuals might be provided with resources Latina adolescents. that help them adapt to new situations and Past research has suggested contexts (Gonzales et al., 2012). Studies have biculturalism to be protective against depressive shown that bicultural youth who can interact symptoms (Bauman & Summers, 2009; Wei, well within both contexts have the highest 2010). Consistent with past research, our study resiliency, which might explain the decreased further corroborated the connection between risk for internalizing symptoms (Gunnestad, higher biculturalism and lower levels of 2006; Sirikantraporn, 2017). depressive symptoms. Past research had not Interestingly, we identified a pattern of addressed the link between biculturalism and associations between biculturalism and alcohol anxiety or stress, but the current study expanded use that differed by gender, and was inconsistent upon foundations by investigating these with past research and our hypothesis. Gender relationships. The current study showed differences were predicted based on known biculturalism was correlated with lower anxiety female prevalence of internalizing disorders and and stress symptoms, suggesting that male prevalence of externalizing disorders biculturalism may be an important protective (Lorenzo-Blanco et al., 2012; Rosenfield et al., factor against the development of internalizing 2006). Past research had not studied the symptoms more generally. Past research has interaction between biculturalism and gender shown biculturalism to be associated with lower and its effect on alcohol use. In this study, levels of substance use in Latino youth (e.g., biculturalism was associated with greater Goldberg, 1993; Losoya et al., 2008). However, alcohol use among females, but not males in our the current study found biculturalism was related sample. It is possible that Latina adolescents to greater alcohol use, particularly among may face increased acculturative peer pressure. females in the sample. The inconsistency Perhaps higher rates of alcohol use are the between past and current findings could be due method by which these bicultural individuals to the population differences. Past research have adapted to the American contexts. As they studied multiple ethnic groups (Wei, 2010) or are trying to navigate through this life transition Mexican-American juvenile offenders (Losoya to college, the bicultural females may be et al., 2008). The cultural and adjustment susceptible to peer group influences. Alcohol processes for these populations might highly use among females who reported low levels of vary from the experiences of the current biculturalism was approximately 1-2 occasions population (college-bound Latino adolescents). of drinking over the last year and was 3-5 While biculturalism has been found to occasions of drinking in the last year for females be beneficial across a range of populations, who were high on bicultural values. While the bicultural values may be particularly beneficial bicultural females are still not endorsing high to the sample studied because it may help levels of alcohol use overall, the increase
6 Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology between 1-2 occasions and 3-5 occasions is mental health outcomes and interventions significant. The effect of biculturalism on involving biculturalism in order to promote drinking behaviors was not significant for males. wellbeing and adjustment among Latino Whether highly or lowly bicultural, males adolescents. endorsed a fairly low level of drinking behaviors (average 1-2 occasions of drinking in the past 12 months). Perhaps the males are not as References. susceptible to peer group influences, or by being Alegria, M., Vallas, M., & Pumariega, A. (2010). Racial influenced through different pathways. and Ethnic Disparities in Pediatric The current study had multiple strengths Mental Health. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric and limitations. A strength of this study was its Clinics of North America, 19(4), 759–774. large, diverse sample. The 209 participants http://doi.org/10.1016/j.chc.2010.07.001 Anderson, E. R., & Mayes, L. C. (2010). Race/ethnicity consisted of Latinos endorsing different and internalizing disorders in youth: A countries of origin, generational status, and review. Clinical psychology review, 30(3), 338- socioeconomic level. Another strength is that the 348. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.cpr.2009.12.008 data were collected from 16-19 year old students Basilio, C. D., Knight, G. P., O’Donnell, M., Roosa, M. who were transitioning to college. Data from W., Gonzales, N. A., Umaña-Taylor, A. J., & Torres, M. (2014). The Mexican American this key life stage could be used towards Biculturalism Scale: Bicultural comfort, developing prevention strategies against facility, and advantages for adolescents and internalizing and externalizing symptoms in adults. Psychological Assessment, 26(2), 539 college. One limitation of the study was its use –554. https://doi.org/10 .1037/a0035951 Bauman, S., & Summers, J. J. (2009). Peer victimization of self- report measures for all bicultural values and depressive symptoms in Mexican and mental health symptoms. Participants could American middle school students: Including have forgotten, exaggerated, lied, or estimated acculturation as a variable of interest. on the measures used for this study. The study is Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 31(4), also cross- sectional, so it could not delineate the 515-535. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 0739986309346694 trajectory of how reports of biculturalism and Berkel, C., Knight, G. P., Zeiders, K. H., Tein, J. Y., adjustment outcomes will change once the Roosa, M. W., Gonzales, N. A., & Saenz, participants begin college. Another limitation of D. (2010). Discrimination and adjustment for the current study was that the population utilized Mexican American adolescents: A prospective examination of the benefits of was relatively low risk. On average, participants culturally related values. Journal of Research did not endorse high levels of any outcome. In on Adolescence, 20(4), 893-915. particular, alcohol use was very lowly endorsed. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2010.00668.x Future studies should continue to Berry, J. W. (2003). Origins of cross-cultural similarities investigate the link between biculturalism and and differences in human behavior: An ecocultural perspective. In Toomela, A. (Ed.), internalizing and externalizing symptoms among Cultural guidance in the development of the students once they enter college. Longitudinal human mind. Advances in child development data could show the changes in biculturalism within culturally structured environments. and adjustment outcomes upon beginning Westport: Ablex. Birman, D. (1998). Biculturalism and perceived college. The data from this study could also be competence of Latino immigrant adolescents. used to guide targeted interventions for the American Journal of Community Psychology, 26, promotion of Latino success in college. This 335-354. https://doi.org/ could implicate that preventing internalizing /10.1023/A:1022101219563 symptoms in Latinos involves strategies focused Blum, R. W., Beuhring, T., Shew, M. L., Bearinger, L. H., Sieving, R. E., & Resnick, M. D. on increasing biculturalism. However, highly (2000). The effects of race/ethnicity, income, and bicultural Latino females might need additional family structure on adolescent risk behaviors. interventions targeting substance use. Programs American Journal of Public Health, 90(12), should specifically target bicultural females as at 1879–1884. Brook, J. S., Whiteman, M., Balka, E. B., Win, P. T., & risk for developing externalizing symptoms. Gursen, M. D. (1998). Drug use among Ultimately, further research needs to be Puerto Ricans: Ethnic identity as a protective conducted on the effects of biculturalism on factor. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral
7 Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology
Sciences, 20(2), 241-254. Development and Psychopathology, 12(3), 333- https://doi.org/10.1177/07399863980202007 356. Buriel, R. (2012). Historical origins of the immigrant https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579400003059 paradox for Mexican American students: Conger, R. D., & Conger, K. J. (2002). Resilience in The cultural integration hypothesis. In C. G. Midwestern families: Selected findings Coll, A. K. Marks (Eds.), The immigrant paradox from the first decade of a prospective, in children and adolescents: Is becoming longitudinal study. Journal of Marriage and American a developmental risk? (pp. 37-60). Family, 64, 361–373. Washington, DC: American Psychological https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741- Association. 3737.2002.00361.x Buriel, R., Perez, W., DeMent, T., Chavez, D. V., & Corona, R., Rodríguez, V. M., McDonald, S. E., Moran, V. R. (1998). The relationship of Velazquez, E., Rodríguez, A., & Fuentes, V. E. language brokering to academic performance, (2017). Associations between cultural stressors, biculturalism and self-efficacy among cultural values, and Latina/o college students’ Latino adolescents. Hispanic Journal of mental health. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, Behavioral Sciences, 20, 283–297. 46(1), 63-77. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-016- https://doi.org/10.1177/07399863980203001 0600-5 Caetano, R., Ramisetty-Mikler, S., Wallisch, L. S., Costello, E. J., & Angold, A. (1995). Developmental McGrath C., & Spence, R. T. (2008). epidemiology. In D. Cicchetti & D. Cohen Acculturation, drinking, and alcohol abuse and (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology, Vol 1: dependence among Hispanics in the Theory and methods (pp. 23–56). New York: Texas–Mexico border. Alcoholism: Clinical and Wiley. Experimental Research, 32(2), 314-321. Cuellar, I., Arnold, B., & Maldonado, R. (1995). https://doi.org//10.1111/j.1530- Acculturation rating scale for Mexican 0277.2007.00576.x Americans-II: A revision of the original ARSMA Cano, M. A., de Dios, M. A., Castro, Y., Vaughan, E. L, scale. Hispanic journal of behavioral sciences, Castillo, L. G….Cruz, R. A. (2015). 17(3), 275-304. Alcohol use severity and depressive symptoms https://doi.org/10.1177/07399863950173001 among late adolescent Hispanics. Testing Delgado, M. Y., Updegraff, K. A., Roosa, M. W., & associations of acculturation and enculturation in Umaña-Taylor, A. J. (2011). Discrimination a bicultural transaction model. Addictive and Mexican-origin adolescents’ adjustment: The Behaviors, 49, 78-82. moderating roles of adolescents’, mothers’, and https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2015.06.002 fathers’ cultural orientations and values. Journal Carlo, G., Basilio, C. D., & Knight, G. P., (2016). The of youth and adolescence, 40(2), 125-139. associations of biculturalism to prosocial https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-009-9467-z tendencies and positive self evaluations. Journal Duncan, G. J., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (1997). Consequences of of Latina/o Psychology, 4(4), 189-201. growing up poor. New York: Russell https://doi.org/10.1037/lat0000058 Sage Foundation. Carrera, S. G., & Wei, M. (2014). Bicultural competence, Felix-Ortiz, M., & Newcomb, M. D. (1995). Cultural acculturative family distancing, and identity and drug use among Latino and future depression in Latino/a college students: A Latina adolescents. In G. J. Botvin (Ed.), Drug moderated mediation model. Journal of abuse prevention with multiethnic youth, (pp. Counseling Psychology, 61(3), 427-436. 147-165). Newbury Park, CA: Sage. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000023 Flores, A. (2017). How the U.S. Hispanic population is Cheref, S., Lane, R., Polanco-Roman, L., Gadol, E., & changing. Retrieved October 20, 2017, Miranda, R. (2014). Suicidal ideation from http://www.pewresearch.org/fact- among racial/ethnic minorities: Moderating tank/2017/09/18/how-the-u-s-hispanic- effects of rumination and depressive population-is-changing/ symptoms. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic French, S. E., & Chavez, N. R. (2010). The relationship of Minority Psychology, 21, 31–40. ethnicity-related stressors and Latino https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037139. ethnic identity to well-being. Hispanic Journal of Coatsworth, J. D., Maldonado-Molina, M., Pantin, H., & Behavioral Sciences, 32, 410–428. Szapocznik, J. (2005). A person- https://doi.org/10.1177/0739986310374716 centered and ecological investigation of Gassman-Pines, A., & Skinner, A. T. (2017). Psychological acculturation strategies in 79 Hispanic immigrant acculturation and parenting youth. Journal of Community Psychology, 33(2), behaviors in Mexican-Immigrant families. 157-174. https://doi.org/ 10.1002/jcop.20046 Journal of Family Issues, Coll, C., Akerman, A., & Cicchetti, D. (2000). Cultural https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X16687001 influences on developmental processes Germán, M., Gonzales, N. A., & Dumka, L. (2009). and outcomes: Implications for the study of Familism values as a protective factor for development and psychopathology. Mexican-origin adolescents exposed to deviant peers. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 29(1),
8 Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology
16-42. Hovey, J. D., & King, C. A. (1996). Acculturative stress, https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431608324475 depression, and suicidal ideation Gil, A. G., Vega, W. A., & Dimas, J. M. (1994). among immigrant and second-generation Latino Acculturative stress and personal adjustment adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of among Hispanic adolescent boys. Journal of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 35(9), 1183- Community Psychology, 22, 43–54. 1192. https://doi.org /10.1097/00004583- https://doi.org/10.1002/1520- 199609000-00016 6629(199401)22:1<43::AID- Huynh, Q. L., Devos, T., & Dunbar, C. M. (2012). The JCOP2290220106>3.0.CO;2-T psychological costs of painless but Gil, A. G., Wagner, E. F., & Vega W. A. (2000). recurring experiences of racial discrimination. Acculturation, familism, and alcohol use Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority among Latino adolescent males: Longitudinal Psychology, 18, 26–34. relations. Journal of Community Psychology, https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026601 28(4), 443-458. https://doi.org/10.1002/1520- Hwang, W. C., & Goto, S. (2008). The impact of perceived 6629(200007)28:4 racial discrimination on the mental Glover, S. H., Pumariega, A. J., Holzer, C. E., Wise, B. K., health of Asian American and Latino college & Rodriguez, M. (1999). Anxiety students. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority symptomatology in Mexican-American Psychology, 14, 326–335. adolescents. Journal of Child and Family Studies, https://doi.org/10.1037/1099-9809.14.4.326. 8(1), 47-57. Johnston, L. D., O'Malley, P. M., Bachman, J. G., & https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022994510944 Schulenberg, J. E. (2010). Demographic Goldberg, C. J. & Botvin, G. J. (1993). Assertiveness in Subgroup Trends for Various Licit and Illicit Hispanic adolescents: Relationship to Drugs, 1975-2009. Monitoring the Future alcohol use and abuse. Psychological Reports, Occasional Paper Series. Paper 73. Institute for 73(1), 227-238. https://doi.org/ Social Research. 10.2466/pr0.1993.73.1.227 Johnston, L. D., O'Malley, P. M., Miech, R. A., Bachman, Gonzales, N. A., Knight, G. P., Morgan-López, A., Saenz, J. G., & Schulenberg, J. E. (2015). D., & Sirolli, A. (2002). Acculturation Monitoring the Future national survey results on and the mental health of Latino youth: An drug use, 1975-2014: Overview, key integration and critique of the literature. In J. M. findings on adolescent drug use. Ann Arbor: Contreras, K. A. Kerns, & A. M. Neal-Barnett Institute for Social Research, The University of (Eds.), Latino children and families in the United Michigan, 90pp. States (pp. 45-74). Greenwood, Westport. Jones, M. A., & Krisberg, B. (1994). Images and reality: Gonzales, N. A., Germán, M., & Fabrett, F. C. (2012). US Juvenile crime, youth violence and Latino youth. In E. Chang & C. A. public policy. San Francisco: National Council on Downey (Eds.), Handbook of race and Crime and Delinquency. development in mental health (pp. 259-278). New Katragadda, C. P., & Tidwell, R. (1998). Rural Hispanic York, NY: Springer. adolescents at risk for depressive Gonzales, N.A., Jenson, M., Montano, Z., Wynne, H. symptoms. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, (2015). The cultural adaptation and mental 28(20), 1916-1930. https://doi.org/ health of Mexican American adolescents. In Y. 10.1097/00004583-199609000-00016 M. Caldera, E. W. Lindsey (Eds). Mexican Kessler, R. C., Mickelson, K. D., & Williams, D. R. (1999). American children and families: The prevalence, distribution, and Multidisciplinary perspectives. (pp. 182-196). mental health correlates of perceived Routledge: Taylor & Francis. discrimination in the United States. Journal of Greene, M. L., Way, N., & Pahl, K. (2006). Trajectories of Health and Social Behavior, 40(3), 208-230. perceived adult and peer Retrieved from discrimination among Black, Latino, and Asian http://www.jstor.org/stable/2676349 American adolescents: patterns and psychological Konerua, Weisman de Mamania, Flynn, Betancourt. correlates. Developmental psychology, 42(2), (2007). Acculturation and mental health: 218. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.42.2.218 Current findings and recommendations for future Gunnestad, A. (2006) Resilience in a cross-cultural research. Applied and Preventive Psychology perspective. How resilience is 12(2), generated in different cultures. Journal of https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appsy.2007.07.016 Intercultural Communication Issue, 11. LaFramboise, T., Coleman, H.L.K. and Gerton, J. (1993). http://www.immi.se/intercultural/nr11/gunnestad. Psychological impact of htm biculturalism: Evidence and theory. High school dropout rates. (2015, November). Retrieved Psychological Bulletin, 114(3), 395-412. October 20, 2017, from https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.114.3.395 https://www.childtrends.org/indicators/high- Landsman, M. A., Padilla, A. M., Leiderman, P. H., Clark, school-dropout-rates/ C., Ritter, P., & Dornbusch, S.
9 Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology
(1992). Biculturalism and academic achievement Hernandez, G., Chapman, R., Kirilla, C., & among Asian and Hispanic adolescents. Ervin, S. (2004). Depression and acculturation in Unpublished manuscript, School of Education, Mexican American and European American Stanford University, Stanford, CA. women, Anales de Psicologia, 20(1), 15-21. Lin, C. V. (2007). Latino adolescent substance use: Retrieved from http://revistas.um.es/analesps/ Importance of cultural values and peer article/view/27531 influence (Doctoral dissertation, Arizona State McDonald, E. J., McCabe, K., Yeh, M., Lau, A., Garland, University). A., & Hough, R. L. (2005). Cultural Lopez, M. (2011). The associations between individualism, affiliation and self-esteem as predictors of collectivism, acculturation, and internalizing symptoms among Mexican depressive symptoms. Available from ProQuest American adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child Dissertations & Theses Global: Health & and Adolescent Psychology, 34, 163-171. Medicine; ProQuest Dissertations & Theses https://doi.org/10.1207/s15374424jccp3401_15 Global: Social Sciences. Retrieved from McLoyd, V. C. (1998). Socioeconomic disadvantage and http://login.ezproxy1.lib.asu.edu/login?url=https:/ child development. The American /search-proquest- Psychologist, 52(2), 185–204. com.ezproxy1.lib.asu.edu/docview/922267653?a https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.53.2.185 ccountid=4485 Mossakowski, K. N. (2003). Coping with perceived Lorenzo-Blanco, E. I., Unger, J. B., Baezconde-Garbanati, discrimination: Does ethnic identity protect L., Ritt-Olson, A., & Soto, D. (2012). mental health? Journal of Health and Social Acculturation, enculturation, and symptoms of Behavior, 44(3), 318–331. Retrieved from depression in Hispanic youth: The roles of http://www.jstor.org/stable/1519782 gender, Hispanic cultural values, and family National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA). (1998). Drug functioning. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, use among racial/ethnic minorities. 41, 1350– 1365. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964- U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 012- 9774-7 Bethesda: National Institute of Health. Losoya, S. H., Knight, G. P., Chassin, L., Little, M., Neblett, E. W., Rivas-Drake, D., & Umaña-Taylor, A. J. Vargas-Chanes, D., Mauricio, A., & (2012). The promise of racial and Piquero, A. (2008). Trajectories of acculturation ethnic protective factors in promoting ethnic and enculturation in relation to heavy episodic minority youth development. Child development drinking and marijuana use in a sample of perspectives, 6(3), 295-303. https://doi.org/ Mexican American serious juvenile offenders. 10.1111/j.1750-8606.2012.00239.x Journal of Drug Issues, 38(1), 171-198. Nguyen, A. D., & Benet-Martínez, V. (2007). Biculturalism https://doi.org/10.1177/ 002204260803800108 unpacked: Components, Love, J. A., & Buriel, R., (2007). Language brokering, measurement, individual differences, and autonomy, parent-child bonding, outcomes. Social and Personality Psychology biculturalism, and depression: A study of Compass, 1, 101–114. Mexican American adolescents from immigrant https://doi.org/10.1111/j.17519004.2007.00029.x families. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Noh, S., Beiser, M., Kaspar, V., Hou, F., & Rummens, J. Sciences, 29, 472-491. https://doi.org (1999). Perceived racial discrimination, /10.1177/0739986307307229. depression, and coping: A study of Southeast Lovibond, P. F., & Lovibond, S. H. (1995). The structure of Asian refugees in Canada. Journal of negative emotional states: Health and Social Behavior, 40, 193–207. Comparison of the depression anxiety stress Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org scales (DASS) with the Beck Depression and /stable/2676348 Anxiety Inventories. Behavior Research and Padilla, A. M. (2006). Bicultural social development. Therapy, 33, 335–343. https:/doi.org/ Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 10.1016/0005-7967(94)00075-U 28(4), 467-497. Luthar, S. S., Burack, J. A., Cicchetti, D., & Weisz, J. R. https://doi.org.ezproxy1.lib.asu.edu/10.1177/073998630629 (1997). Developmental 4255 psychopathology: Perspectives on adjustment, Perez, R., Padilla, A. M., Ramirez, A., Ramirez, R., & risk and disorder. New York: Cambridge Rodriguez, M. (1980). Correlates and University Press. changes over time in drug and alcohol use within Marsiglia, F. F., Kulis, S., Hecht, M. L., & Sills, S. (2004). a barrio population. American Journal of Ethnicity and ethnic identity as Community Psychology, 8(6), 621-636. predictors of drug norms and drug use among https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00918276 preadolescents in the US Southwest. Substance Proctor, B., Semega, J., & Kollar M. (2016). Income and Use & Misuse, 39(7). 1061-1094. Poverty in the United States: 2015. https://doi.org/10.1081/JA-120038030 United States Census Bureau. Masten, W. G., Asidao, C. S., Jerome, W. W., Mosby, L., Rivera-Sinclair, E. A. (1997). Acculturation/Biculturalism Colbert, A. T., Medina, M. Y., and its relationship to adjustment in
10 Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology
Cuban Americans. International Journal of role of familism in the lives of Latino Intercultural Relations, 21(3), 379-391. adolescents. Journal of Family Issues, 36(10), https://doi.org /10.1016/S0147-1767(96)00040-5 1255-1273. Roberts, R. E., & Chen, Y. W. (1995). Depressive https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X13502480 symptoms and suicidal ideation among Swendsen, J., Burstein, M., Case, B., Conway, K. P., Mexican-origin and Anglo adolescents. Journal Dierker, L., He, J., & Merikangas, K. R. of the American Academy of Child and (2012). Use and abuse of alcohol and illicit drugs Adolescent Psychiatry, 34, 81–90. in US adolescents: Results of the National https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-199501000- Comorbidity Survey–Adolescent Supplement. 00018 Archives of general psychiatry, 69(4), 390-398. Rogler, L. H., Cortes, D. E., & Malgady, R. G. (1991). https://doi.org/10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.1 Acculturation and mental health status 503 among Hispanics. Convergence and new Szalacha, L. A., Erkut, S., Garcia Coll, C., Fields, J. P., directions for research. American Psychologist, Alarcon, O., & Ceder, I. (2003). 46(6), 585-597. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003- Perceived discrimination and resilience. In S. 066X.46.6.585 Lutha (Ed.), Resilience and vulnerability: Romero, A. J., Carvajal, S. C., Valle, F., & Orduña, M. Adaptation in the context of childhood adversities (2007). Adolescent bicultural stress and (pp. 414–435). Cambridge, MA: Cambridge its impact on mental well-being among Latinos, University Press. Asian Americans, and European Americans. Szapocznik, J., Kurtines, W. M., & Fernandez, T. (1980). Journal of Community Psychology, 35(4), 519- Bicultural involvement and adjustment 534. https://doi.org/ 10.1002/jcop.20162 in Hispanic- American youths. International Romero, A. J., & Roberts, R. E. (2003). Stress within a Journal of Intercultural Relations, 4, 353- bicultural context for adolescents of 365. https://doi.org/10.1016/0147- Mexican descent. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic 1767(80)90010-3 Minority Psychology, 9(2), 171–184. Umaña-Taylor, A. J., Updegraff, K. A., & Gonzales- https://doi.org/10.1037/1099-9809.9.2.171 Backen, M. A. (2011). Mexican-origin Rosenfield, S., Phillips, J., & White, H. R. (2006). Gender, adolescent mothers’ stressors and psychosocial race, and the self in mental health and functioning: Examining ethnic identity crime. Social Problems, 53(2), 161-185. affirmation and familism as moderators. Journal https://doi.org/10.1525/sp.2006.53.2.161 of Youth and Adolescence, 40(2), 140-157. Rovner, J. (2016, April 1). Racial disparities in youth https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-010-9511-z commitments and arrests. Retrieved U.S. Census Bureau. (2003). Facts for features: Hispanic October 20, 2017, from heritage month 2003: Sept15-Oct15 http://www.sentencingproject.org/publications/ra [Online]. Available at cial-disparities-in-youth-commitments-and- http://www.census.gov/Press-release/www/2003/cb03- arrests/ ff14.pdf Sellers, R. M., & Shelton, J. N. (2003). The role of racial Valdivieso-Mora, E., Peet, C. L., Garnier-Villarreal, M., identity in perceived racial Salazar-Villanea, M., & Johnson, D. K. discrimination. Journal of Personality and Social (2016). A systematic review of the relationship Psychology, 84(5), 1079–1092. between familism and mental health outcomes in Sellers, R. M., Caldwell, C. H., Schmeelk-Cone, K. H., & Latino population. Frontiers in psychology, 7. Zimmerman, M. A. (2003). Racial https://doi.org/10.3389/ identity, racial discrimination, perceived stress, fpsyg.2016.01632 and psychological distress among African Vega, W. A. (1995). The study of Latino families: A point American young adults. Journal of Health and of departure. In R. E. Zambrana (Ed.), Social Behavior, 44(3), 302–317. Retrieved from Understanding Latino families: Scholarship, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1519781 policy and practice (pp. 3-17). Thousand Oaks: Siegel, J. M., Aneshensel, C. S., Taub, B., Cantwell, D. P., Sage. & Driscoll, A. K. (1998). Adolescent Vega, W. A., Gil, A. G., & Zimmerman, R. S. (1993). depressed mood in a multiethnic sample. Journal Patterns of drug use among Cuban- of Youth and Adolescence, 27(4), 413-427. American, African-American, and white non- https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022873601030 Hispanic boys. American Journal of Public Sirikantraporn S. (2017) Biculturalism as a protective Health, 83(2), 257-259. factor among Southeast Asian American https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.83.2.257 youth who have witnessed domestic violence. In: Venegas, J., Cooper, T.V., Naylor, N., Hanson, B.S., & Quek KT., Fang SR. (eds) Transition and Change Blow, J.A. (2012). Potential cultural in Collectivist Family Life. AFTA Springer Briefs predictors of heavy episodic drinking in Hispanic in Family Therapy. Springer, Cham. college students. American Journal on Stein, G. L., Gonzalez, L. M., Cupito, A. M., Kiang, L., & Addictions, 21, 145- 149. Supple, A. J. (2015). The protective https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1521- 0391.2011.00206.x.
11 Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology
Wei, M., Liao, K. Y., Chao, R. C., Mallinckrodt, B., Tsai, P., & Botello-Zamarron, R. (2010). Minority stress, perceived bicultural competence, and depressive symptoms among ethnic minority college students. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 57(4), 411-422. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020790 Wong, C. A., Eccles, J. S., & Sameroff, A. (2003). The influence of ethnic discrimination and ethnic identification on African American adolescents' school and socioemotional adjustment. Journal of Personality, 71(6), 1197- 1232. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467- 6494.7106012 Woodward, L. J., & Fergusson, D. M. (2001). Life course outcomes of young people with anxiety disorders in adolescence. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 1086–1093. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-200109000- 00018 World Health Organization. (2005). Child and adolescent mental health policies and plans: Mental health policy and service guidance package. World Health Organization. Yoon, E., Chang, C., Kim, S., Clawson, A., Cleary, S., Hansen, M., . . . Gomes, A. M. (2013). A Meta-analysis of acculturation/enculturation and mental health. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 60(1), 15-30. https://doi.org/10.1037/e653152012-001 Zamboanga, B. L., Schwartz, S. J., Jarvis, L. H., & Van Tyne, K. (2009). Acculturation and substance use among Hispanic early adolescents: Investigating the mediating roles of acculturative stress and self-esteem. The Journal of Primary Prevention, 30(3-4), 315-333. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10935-009-0182-z Zeiders, K. H., Updegraff, K. A., Kuo, S. I., Umaña-Taylor, A. J., & McHale, S. M. (2016). Perceived discrimination and Mexican-origin young adults’ sleep duration and variability: The moderating role of cultural orientations. Journal of Youth and Adolescence. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-016-0544-9
12 Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology
13 Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology
Table 1 Descriptive Statistics and Zero-Order Correlations
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 1. DASS Depression Scale - 2. DASS Anxiety Scale .61*** - 3. DASS Stress Scale .68*** .72*** - 4. Occasions of Alcohol Use - .01 .0 -.04 - 5. Biculturalism Overall -.33*** -.23** -.33*** .16* - 6. Bicultural Comfort -.27*** -.18* -.29*** .16* .92*** - 7. Bicultural Facility -.31*** -.25*** -.30*** .12 .85*** .58*** - 8. Parent Education -.02 -.02 .03 .11 -.11 -.10 -.10 - 9. Immigration Generation .05 -.07 .03 .11 -.15* -.13† -.14* .44*** - 10. Sex -.08 -.12† -.19** -.02 .28*** .28*** .22** .09 .06 - 11. Ethnicity .12† .15* .05 -.04 .05 .07 .01 -.34*** -.45*** -.11
Mean 7.32 7.93 9.88 1.85 3.59 3.41 3.77 3.70 2.63 .34 .83 Standard Deviation 8.63 7.23 8.90 1.26 .70 .89 .68 2.36 2.33 .48 .38 Minimum .00 .00 .00 1.00 1.94 1.22 1.44 1.00 .00 .00 .00 Maximum 42.0 39.0 40.0 7.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 10.0 7.00 1.00 1.00 Skewness 1.58 1.45 1.24 1.74 .00 -1.00 -.45 .79 .77 .66 -1.75 Kurtosis 2.16 2.28 1.24 2.84 -.61 -.77 .29 -.42 -.88 -1.58 1.06
Note. Sex: Male= 1, Female= 0; Ethnicity: Latino=1, Multi-ethnic=0; Parent education: measure of socioeconomic status (mean composite of father and mother’s highest level of education). † p<0.10; *p< .05; **p< .01; ***p<.001
Table 2 Multiple Regression Analyses estimating Mental Health Outcomes to Biculturalism
DASS Depression DASS Anxiety DASS Stress Alcohol Use Est. SE β t Est. SE β t Est. SE β t Est. SE β t
Constant/ Intercept 7.20 0.57 12.73*** 7.76 0.48 16.02* ** 9.90 0.59 16.75*** 1.82 0.09 20.36***
Biculturalism Overall -3.36 0.87 -0.28 -3.85*** -1.84 0.75 -0.18 -2.46* -3.36 0.91 - 0.27 -3.68*** 0.38 0.14 0.21 2.72**
Parent Education -0.18 0.27 -0.05 -0.67 0.09 0.23 0.03 0.37 0.06 0.29 0.02 0.19 0.06 0.04 0.12 1.47
Immigration Generation 0.47 0.29 0.13 1.61 -0.10 0.25 -0.04 -0.41 0.14 0.31 0.04 0.46 0.04 0.05 0.07 0.76
Sex 0.57 1.26 0.03 -0.48 -0.75 1.08 - 0.05 -0.70 -1.88 1.31 - 0.10 -1.43 -0.26 0.20 - 0.10 -1.31
Ethnicity 3.78 1.72 0.17 2.20* 2.81 1.47 0.15 1.91† 1.67 1.79 0.07 0.94 0.01 0.27 0.00 0.02
14 Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology
R2 .11 .07 .11 .05
Note. N = 209 Sex: Male= 1, Female= 0; Ethnicity: Latino=1, Multi-ethnic=0; Parent education: measure of socioeconomic status (mean composite of father and mother’s highest level of education). † p<0.10; *p< .05; **p< .01; ***p<.001
Table 3 Multiple Regression Analyses estimating Mental Health Outcomes to Biculturalism with Gender as a Moderator
DASS Depression DASS Anxiety DASS Stress Alcohol Use Est. SE β t Est. SE β t Est. SE β t Est. SE β t
Constant/ Intercept 7.21 0.59 12.16*** 7.65 0.51 15.10*** 9.99 0.62 16.16*** 1.90 0.09 20.97***
Biculturalism Overall -3.37 0.88 -0.28 -3.84*** -1.81 0.75 -0.18 -2.41* -3.38 0.92 -0.27 -3.69*** 0.36 0.14 0.20 2.69**
Parent Education -0.18 0.27 -0.05 -0.67 0.09 0.23 0.03 0.40 0.05 0.29 0.01 0.17 0.06 0.04 0.11 1.37
Immigration Generation 0.47 0.29 0.13 1.61 -0.10 0.25 -0.03 -0.39 0.14 0.31 0.04 0.44 0.03 0.05 0.06 0.73
Sex 0.57 1.29 0.03 0.44 -0.94 1.11 - 0.06 -0.85 -1.72 1.35 -0.09 -1.28 -0.11 0.20 -0.04 -0.58
Ethnicity 3.78 1.72 0.17 2.20* 2.80 1.47 0.15 1.90† 1.69 1.80 0.07 0.94 0.01 0.27 0.01 0.09
Gender X Biculturalism -0.04 1.83 0.00 -0.02 1.18 1.57 0.05 0.75 -0.99 1.91 -0.04 -0.52 -0.92 0.28 -0.24 -3.29*** R2 .11 .07 .11 .11
Note. N = 209 Sex: Male= 1, Female= 0; Ethnicity: Latino=1, Multi-ethnic=0; Parent education: measure of socioeconomic status (mean composite of father and mother’s highest level of education). † p<0.10; *p< .05; **p< .01; ***p<.001
15 Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology
Figure 1 Moderating Effect of Gender on Biculturalism and Alcohol Use
*
Figure 1. Figure 1 shows the interaction between biculturalism and gender and the effect on alcohol use. Covariates were ethnicity, parent education, gender, and immigration generation. * indicates the significant line (p< .001).
16