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Chapter 5 the Administration of George HW Bush United States Use of Force against Terrorism and the Threat of Terrorism: An Analysis of the Past Four U.S. Presidents¿ Use of Force to Combat International Terrorism. Item Type Thesis Authors Starr-Deelen, Donna G. Rights <a rel="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by-nc-nd/3.0/"><img alt="Creative Commons License" style="border-width:0" src="http://i.creativecommons.org/l/by- nc-nd/3.0/88x31.png" /></a><br />The University of Bradford theses are licenced under a <a rel="license" href="http:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/">Creative Commons Licence</a>. Download date 02/10/2021 18:07:36 Link to Item http://hdl.handle.net/10454/6309 University of Bradford eThesis This thesis is hosted in Bradford Scholars – The University of Bradford Open Access repository. Visit the repository for full metadata or to contact the repository team © University of Bradford. This work is licenced for reuse under a Creative Commons Licence. UNITED STATES USE OF FORCE AGAINST TERRORISM AND THE THREAT OF TERRORISM: AN ANALYSIS OF THE PAST FOUR U.S. PRESIDENTS’ USE OF FORCE TO COMBAT INTERNATIONAL TERRORISM Donna G. STARR-DEELEN PhD DEPARTMENT OF PEACE STUDIES UNIVERSITY OF BRADFORD 2012 Donna G. STARR-DEELEN United States Use of Force against Terrorism and the Threat of Terrorism: An Analysis of the Past Four U.S. Presidents’ Use of Force to Combat International Terrorism The thesis analyzes how the administrations of Ronald Reagan, George H.W. Bush, Bill Clinton, and George W. Bush used force in response to incidents of international terrorism. Key players in each administration and whether they advocated a law enforcement approach or a war paradigm approach to counterterrorism are examined. In addition, Koh’s pattern of executive initiative, congressional acquiescence, and judicial tolerance forms a theoretical lens through which to compare and contrast administrations. An assessment of the role of Congress in making the administrations’ counterterrorism policies confirms the vitality of this pattern, and suggests future administrations will adhere to it. During the George W. Bush administration, Koh’s pattern of executive initiative (led by personalities like Vice President Cheney), congressional acquiescence, and judicial tolerance combined with the 9/11 tragedy and pervasive fears of another attack to create a “perfect storm” known as the “war on terror”. The research also analyzes to what extent the four administrations were constrained by international legal norms on the use of force, i.e. articles 2(4) and 51 of the UN Charter. On the domestic side, the thesis analyzes the extent to which American legal norms on the use of force constrained the administrations. Although the lack of compelling constraints on the use of force is present in all four administrations, the thesis indicates that the George W. Bush administration embodied an extreme example of this trend. i With Sincere Gratitude for the assistance I received from Professor Paul Rogers, my husband Bart, and my daughters Elayne and Olivia. I could not have finished without their exceptional support. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter One: Introduction ...................................................................... 1 Research Questions...................................................................................... 4 Aims of the Research .................................................................................... 5 Methodology.................................................................................................. 8 Terrorism Defined.........................................................................................15 Methods of Preventing International Terrorism .............................................16 International Legal Norms and the Use of Force...........................................18 Chapter Two: Literature Review ........................................................... 27 Terrorism.............................................................................................. 28 The Crime versus War Dichotomy................................................................... 36 Literature on al Qaeda..................................................................................... 44 The Use of Force: International and Domestic Legality.............................. 52 Chapter Three: Principles Allocating Foreign Affairs Powers........... 68 Koh’s National Security Constitution........................................................ 70 The Pattern of Foreign Policy Making: Executive Initiative ......................... 73 The War Powers Resolution............................................................................ 75 The National Security Act ................................................................................ 80 Congressional Acquiescence.................................................................. 83 Judicial Tolerance ................................................................................. 93 Conclusion............................................................................................ 99 Chapter Four: The Administration of Ronald Reagan ...................... 102 Historical Context ................................................................................ 103 Counterterrorism Policy Under Ronald Reagan ...................................... 109 Marine Barracks Bombing ................................................................................... 112 Hijacking of TWA Flight 847 ................................................................................ 118 Achille Lauro Affair................................................................................................ 120 Terrorist Attacks at the Rome and Vienna Airports ......................................... 123 Bombing of the La Belle Disco in Berlin ................................................. 125 Bombing of Libya: Swift and Effective Retribution?......................................... 126 The Iran-Contra Affair........................................................................................... 131 Lockerbie Bombing ............................................................................................... 135 Conclusion.............................................................................................................. 136 Chapter Five: The Administration of George H.W. Bush.................. 139 Foreign Policy ..................................................................................... 141 Counterterrorism Policy in the Bush I Administration...................................... 143 Lockerbie Bombing ............................................................................................... 147 The Aftermath of Lockerbie ................................................................................. 149 UTA Flight 772....................................................................................................... 154 Conclusion.............................................................................................................. 156 iii Chapter Six: The Administration of Bill Clinton................................ 160 Clinton’s Foreign Policy..............................................................................162 Counterterrorism Policy during the Clinton Administration............................. 164 First World Trade Center Bombing..................................................................... 169 Attempted Assassination of George H.W. Bush .............................................. 171 Embassy Bombings in 1998................................................................................ 175 Rendition ................................................................................................................ 181 Bombing of the USS Cole.................................................................................... 182 Conclusion.............................................................................................................. 183 Chapter Seven: The Administration of George W. Bush.................. 186 I. Intellectual Architecture....................................................................... 187 The Influence of Dick Cheney.....................................................................191 Foreign Policy ........................................................................................................ 197 Military: Growth from Cold War to War on Terror........................................204 The New Paradigm for the War on Terror......................................................... 207 Signing Statements.......................................................................................... 211 Rendition.......................................................................................................... 213 Ghost Detainees .............................................................................................. 217 Detainees and their Rights .............................................................................. 220 Afghanistan ............................................................................................................ 225 Application of Force .............................................................................................. 234 Build-up to the War in Iraq................................................................................... 245 2002 Speeches advocating the Use of Force.................................................
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