THE EVOLUATION OF THAI THEATRE IN BETWEEN 1 1782-1935 •

Surapone Virulrak2

Introduction

The study of Thai theatre has always been The Early Period separated into independent issues focus­ sing upon narrow and indepth areas. This The Sukhothai Period (1238-1350) saw the research intends to investigate the various appearance of rabam, ram, and ten. They elements that contributed to the develop­ are mentioned in the stone relics and ment of Thai theatre from a broad literature of the period. Today these words perspective. mean group dance, dance with hand movements and dance with steps Thai theatre is deeply rooted in song, dance respectively. They indicate that the Thai and music. It has both a ritualistic and people have developed dance as an art to entertainment function. These functions the point that it can be divided into three reflect the Thai way of life which is based special kinds. It is a traditional belief that primarily upon the agarian cycle where kan fen pleng or balad singing also most activities occur during the dry season. appeared during this period. Animist, Hindu and Buddhist rites require certain kinds of performing arts as a means of communication with man or with The Early Ayuddhya Period (1350-1456) gods.Social gatherings also needs the saw many kinds of dance and theatre. performing arts as a means of interaction They were chak nak dukdamban, kan la/en and enjoyment. Thus, song dance and kong luang, nang and rabam. Chak nak music have always been important parts of dukdamban was the enactment of a Hindu Thai culture since ancient times. mythical episode depicting the churning of the ocean by angels, demons and monkeys to produce immortal water. Kan la/en kong luang was a series of male group dances, rabeng, mong krum and kula ti mai. These performances probably depic­ ted the kings and princes of the neigh­ 1A research funded by the Crown Princess Maha boring states who had come to pay respect Chakri Sirindhom Foundation, Chulalongkom to the king of Ayuddhya. Nang was a large University. leather puppet theatre. The puppeteer 2As sociate Professor , Chulalongkom manipulated a puppet with both hands University while dancing in front of the screen. , a Hindu epic, was its main re-

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pertoire. Rabam was group dance per­ was changed. At first rabam was added. formed by court females. It was said to be Then, actors in lakon costume with masks performed in the royal palace annually to probably from chak nak duk-damban welcome the rainy season and was also performed in some nang episodes. Finally, performed exclusively for royal enter­ khon departed from nang although it tainment . Early Ayuddhya kings identi­ retained many similarities. Lakon nai fied themselves with Indra, the Hindu god developed from rabam, lakon nok, and of heaven who rode on white elephants khon. Later, Inao, a javanese historical with angels so the white elephant has legend became its favorite play. Eventually always been a symbol of glory of the Thai Ayuddhya City was destroyed by Burmese king who owned it. Consequently, female and the theatres that glorified Ayuddhya , court dance was required to celebrate its almost, if not completely, disappeared. captivity. It is important to note that dance was an indispensible aid to martial arts and The Thonburi Period ( 1767-17 82) was a arm practice. Apart from the main stream time of national revival characterized by of Thai performing arts, it is evident that , the desire to protect the country's indepen­ through trades and wars, artistic elements dence. King the Great, who ruled from India, Khmer, Mon etc., were during this time was the sole adopted and adapted into the performing architect of the reconstruction of the arts of early Ayuddhya. civilization of Ayuddhya. Fortunately, the female theatre of Nakon Sri Thammarat, artists in the Thonburi capital and some The Later Ayuddhya Period (1456-1767) artists who survived the war were great continued the performing arts tradition of sources from which to reconstruct the the earlier times. From the middle to the theatre. end of this period , lakon nok, lakon nai and khon appeared in Ayuddhya. Foreign Apart from Thai traditional theatre the theatrical displays such as Chinese opera, performing arts of other nationalities, puppet theatre of various nationalities, which were brought to Thonburi, were Javanese masked plays, etc, were also seen also recognized by the King. These were in Ayuddhya. Lakon was a male theatre Chinese opera, Cambodian theatre, Mon performing Bodisatya' s stories. It is dance and the traditional music of various believed to be similar to nora theatre which nationalities. Thai theatre and the foreign is found in southern Thailand today. performing arts of the Thonburi Period There are two theories concerning · the were a valuable legacy of theatre which origins of nora. The first is that it was to be developed further during the originated in Ayuddhya and spread to the Ratanakosin Period. south; the second is that it spread from the south to Ayuddhya. Lako"(l developed into The Ratanakosin Period a more sophisticated form called lakon nok King I (1782-1809) (theatre outside the palace) in order to distinguish it from female lakon nai King intended to establish Bang­ (theatre inside the palace). Khon was a kok as the equal of Ayuddhya, the old combination of performing arts of the Early capital, where he used to served the royal Ayuddhya Period. It is said that later nang court. Court and public traditions

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including dance and drama were based various kinds of theatre troupes which were upon Ayuddhya culture. Dramatic literature hired for public functions. A lot of these was revived. Plays were newly composed theatre troupes probably competed with under the king's supervision. Tamra Ram , each other in costumes imitating the royal a Thai choreographic book depicting basic ones . So, the king had to prohibit them dance positions was produced and remains from copying the royal costumes. the oldest book available today from which we can learn about Thai dance positions in The population of Bangkok during King the past. Rama I consisted mainly of Chinese, Mon, Laos, Vietnamese and Cambodian people. The tradition of /akon puying kong luang They brought with them their music, dance (female court theatre) was continued in the and theatre to perform for their enter­ royal palace and in the deputy king's tainment and at their religious func-tions. palace. The king also ordered a large khon Occasionally, these performances were theatre to be built in the royal palace. It demanded as part of grand court cere­ was equipped with a rigging system for the monies. They were ngiew chin (Chinese flying scenes in khon performance. Having opera), ngiew yuan (Vietnamese opera), a theatre in residence was a tradition of mon ram (Mon dance), yuan ram kratang royalty and nobility. (Vietnamese flower pot dance), hun /ao (Laos doll puppet),and /akon kamen During the first reign, was under (Cambodian theatre), and the folk songs going a reformation. The King ordered his and folk music of different nationalities. people not to believe in any thing other These performances were the sources of than Buddhism. However, he allowed Thai theatre in the later periods. worship in the sacred shrines to continue in an appropriate form including worship King Rama I contributed greatly to the through dance. Hence, temple dance has establishment of Thai theatre arts at the continued to be performed until today. He beginn.ing of the Ratanakosin Period . He also prohibited monks from chanting in was interested in the forms , content and comic style at funeral ceremonies so standard of the arts for the sake of the pride chanting was later performed by and prestige of the country. The theatre of commoners and became a very popular the noblemen, the commoners and the secular entertainment in the funeral minorities followed his objectives, thus, ceremony called suad karuhat (chanting of establishing a firm ground for further the commoners). It was one of the main development. sources for likay in the reign of King Rama V. Since King Rama I was very interested It is important to note here that /akon nai, in theatre arts, his subjects followed suit. according to historical accounts, could be They built pavilion in their residences to performed by males and females alike. s~rve as theatres and trained their prai (servants) to perform khon and lakon at their private functions. And while the country was still at war the king encouraged khon training since it is good for martial arts. Commoners also had

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King Rama Il (1809-1824) King Rama II is recognized as the great contributor to the refinement of falcon nai King Rama II was a great artist in dramatic and the innovator of falcon nok baeb luang literature, music and visual arts. He had theatre arts. However, his artistic works been interested in lakon since he was did not flourish outside the palace until the young and paid much attention to the next reign though, the plays of the earlier theatre during his reign. The king himself, period were widely performed outside the his first cousin, and two male dance court. teachers were the key people who contributed to the refinement of lakon nai. King Rama III (1824-1852) He also created lakon nok baeb luang (the royal style lakon nok) so that his court Before his accession King Rama ID was ladies would be able to perform lakon nok the owner of a theatre troupe and wrote theatre with court refinement. This new plays for King Rama II. He abolished genre was the combination of lakon nai and female court theatre in the palace for the lakon nok styles. The duputy king of this duration of his reign, but female court reign refused the privilege of having female theatre was practiced at the duputy king's court theatre and decided instead to have a palace. The noblemen, although aware of female Chinese opera. the king's attitude towards the theatre, secretly performed Rama Il's theatre styles Whereas King Rama I built a large khan and compositions in order to preserve his theatre, King Rama II had a Chinese pavi- aesthetic tradition. 1ion built in his palace garden to serve as a /akon theatre. This theatre was the center Bangkok people during this period expe­ for his theatrical activities. He also built a rienced new types of entertainment, small theatre in the palace to be used as a lakon klai, aew Lao, suad khaek and nora. theatre school where male teachers trained Lakon klai was a concert where the lyrics the court ladies. Many court ladies from were drawn from dramatic compositions; this theatre school became famous teach­ a theatre of singing, not acting. Aew Lao ers in the following reigns. was Laotian singing that came to Bangkok with the Laos immigrants after the fall of During the reign of King Rama II, wars Vientiane, the capital of Laos. Suad khaek with neighboring countries subsided so the was Malay chanting with rammana drums, people had more time for entertainment. which came with the Malay prisoners of The noble theatre expanded and the public war from Saiburi or . Nora theatre, theatre also flourished.The Prai's working from Pattalung province in the south was time was reduced from two thirds to one brought in by the southern people who had third a year so they had more time to fled from drought. They followed the Thai improve their lives and had the money to soldiers -yvho accompanied the Malay entertain themselves. Performing arts of prisoners of war back to Bangkok. These other oationalities gradually became more four kinds of perfom1ing arts ·were the Thai as new generations assimilated into sources of new theatre forms in Bangkok in Thai culture. later periods.

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Two important events related to theatre theatre. Bangkok gradually became wes­ development occurred in this reign. The tem ized. first was the beginning of printing, and the second was casino thea­ The King revived lakon puying kong luang tre. Thai printing was the innovation of and realizing that his princes and noblemen American missionaries who intended to were enjoying their own female theatre he publish the Bible. Later dramatic litera­ liberally issued a royal decree allowing ture was published and became popular females on the public stage. Females among theatre producers and theatre goers. rapidly replaced males in lakon and many Casino theatre was established in Chinese other kinds of performing arts. Nang yai communities for the purpose of inducing and khon were still exclusively but female customers to gamble, by providing Chinese theatre was extremely popular especially at opera to entertain the guests who would casino theatres. The King started to collect join the gambling afterwards. Casino entertainment tax for the first time. theatre became the first free entrance public theatre in Thailand. The number of The popularity of theatre brought about theatres expanded and many kinds of many performance styles and plays. Five performances were engaged and as new types of theatre appeared in this reign. similated. They were lakon sepa, lakon chatri, lakon chatri kong luang, lakon na jo and lakon King Rama III was not interested in the pan tang. theatre. He abandoned lakon puying kong luang and demolished the splendid palace Lakon sepa~ performed at casino theatres, garden including its theatre. He donated all was developed from sepa (story telling) the artefacts in the garden to Buddhist and sought to be more popular by adding monasteries. The King devoted himself to actors-dancers in order to become a play the building and renovation of Buddhist instead of just story telling. Later it was monasteries and his noblemen followed called sepa ram. Lakon chatri was a suit. Space About 70 large scale development of nora which adopted the monasteries were either built or renovated /akon nok form and maintained only some in this reign, consequently, many temple of its original music and dance to indicate ceremonies, festivals , and fairs took place its nora origin. Lakon chatri kong /uc;ng throughout this reign. was similar to /akon chatri, but was performed only by court ladies, another King Rama IV (1852-1868) area where court females performed styles other than lakon nai and /akon nok baeb King Rama IV allowed free trade. The luang. Lakon na jo is mentioned in the tax country raised more tax money for much law but no description can be found. It can canal and· road construction. Bangkok city be assured that /akon na jo was a kind of expanded rapidly eastwards and· its popu­ dance drama performed Ramakienin front lation grew in number. Many younger of the nang screen. Lakon pantang was a people in the ruling class began to learn type of theatre that broke with early Thai English. They were the social leaders later theatre tradition. It allowed freedom to on and their taste was reflected in the incorperate elements other than Thai

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into its performance. These elements were court and at public ceremonies, lakon adopted and adapted from various puying kong luang was seldom performed. communities in Bangkok such as Mon and The noble theatre declined since it had lost Chinese. The name lakon pantang was its prai and tat who used to be the free given to this genre much later. laborers of the theatre. King Rama V and his noblemen searched for new types of King Rama N gave freedom to the theatre theatre that would suit the new mood of in many respects. He also composed some their new society. dramatic literature and paid much attention to modify several ancient rabam~ The Six types of theare genres were established country and its people enjoyed economic in this reign. They were lakon talok, lakon prosperity and this gave the rise to pud, lakon pud salab lam, lakon popularity and diversity of Thai theatre in dukdamban, likay, and lakon rong. the years to come.

King Rama V ( 1868-1911) Lakon talok (spoken comedy) was probably developed from comic sketches and clown King Rama V ruled the country for 42 scenes which were common in /akon nok . years. During this time, there were many King Rama V witnessed lakon talok on changes in the social structure, the several occasions. Lakon pud (spoken economy, culture and the arts. drama) was an invention of King Rama V Westernization became more and more for his younger brothers to perform at Thai evident as his reign progressed. new year parties during the early years of his reign. His inspiration might have come The abolition of prai and tat gradually from English lessons during his childhood turned the controlled laborers and slaves and also from an English play performed into freemen. The new types of to welcome him during his visit to government, business, and industry . Lakon pud of the King lasted tramsformed these men into a new labour for only a few years. About a decade later, force with an economic power that they the king's son, Crown Prince , never enjoyed before. Education became, who had finished studying in England, the priority of the king's policy. Modern returned to Bangkok and started to produce communication and transportation lakon pud based on his western theatre supported social interaction and economic background. Lakon pud salab lam (spoken growth. Bangkok city was expanded drama interspersed with songs) was the northward where a new large palace was King's initiative. He intended to write built. Roads gradually replaced canals. plays for spoken drama, but later felt that Business centers and entertainment areas songs should be sung to highlight the text · were increased in number. This new as was the custom in Thai theatre. environment created a new life style that required new types of performing arts. Lakon dukdamban was named after the theatre building where it was performed While the traditional performances of the regularly. This type of theatre was early period were still functioning in the developed mainly from /akon nai and lakon

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nok baeb luang of King Rama II. It is important to note here that many Descriptive scenery was replaced by elements of Chinese opera were brought realistic sets. Narration of action and into Thai theatre during this reign. Due to emotional expression was deleted since it the competition between public theatres, a was already performed by actors on stage. large number of new plays were written While lakon dukdamban catered to a higher and published, many of them just for class of people, likay entertained the lower reading. While many new forms enjoyed class. Likay was a kind of theatre where popularity, some early forms declined due actors improvised their songs, dances and to social changes, the closing of casinos dialogue. Likay was the result of a long and their theatres and the emergence of process of development. It was a movies. combination of suad karuhat, suad khaek, pleng, lakon nok and lakon pan tang. Its King Rama V himself, his brothers, his main attractions were comic devices, sons and his noblemen played an important beautiful costumes and a fast moving story. role in creating new theatre forms for Lakon rong (singing drama) was a private as well as public entertainment. development of · lakon pan tang with The trend towards westernization in the inspiration from singing without dancing of Thai way of life was a significant influence bangsawan (Malay opera) that was in the new forms of theatre. performed in Bangkok prior to the birth of Commercialization also set new criteria for lakon rong. The first lakon rong company public theatre styles to serve the masses. was given the status of lakon luang (royal Eventually, dance became the least theatre) and lakon rong became extremely important element in most of these new popular thereafter. theatre forms though it is interesting to note that Crown Prince Maha Vaj iravudh Besides these new types of theatres, other took the initiative to revive the khon new performances namely hun krabok, tradition for his royal pages. This classical nang talung, and lam tat appeared in theatre tradition had to wait for its full Bangkok and became popular. Several blooming until the next reign. types of hun (doll puppet) prevailed in Ayddhya and Bangkok periods but were King Rama VI (1911-1925) not as popular as hun krabok. Lakon lek (small theatre) was another kind of doll King Rama VI continued to enjoy the puppet adapted from puppets of the early prosperity of the previous reign. People in period. Hunkrabok was an adaptation of the upper class became more westernized the Hainanese doll puppet which originated in their life styles. Education was still a in Pitsanulok province. Nang talung prime objective of the King. He (leather puppet) was an adaptation of the established University as Javanese leather puppet (wayang kulit) and the first higher learning institution in the it originated in Pattalung province where country. Newspapers, began to enjoy the name talung became the name of the press freedom and social economic and theatre. Lamtat was an adaptation of suad political issues were discussed openly. The khaek (religious Malay chanting) which King also joined in many debates. An became secular chanting in the Thai attempt to change the ruling system, the language with Malay tunes. Chinese uprisings, and World War I made

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the King decide to use all means including nok, pleng etc., seriously declined due to theatre to propagate nationalism, patriotism two factors. The first was the complete and kingship. He developed a large scale closure of all casinos and their theatres. royal scout division to carry out his The second was the introduction of western m1ss1on. They learned the King's movies that attracted most of the audience ideologies through his plays. In addition, from the theatres as well as from the the King established a new royal temple fairs. The beginning of Thai entertainment department to be respon­ movies near the end of this reign seems to sible for all traditional performance mark the change from stage performance to activities and to be under his close movies as the main source of entertainment supervision. To guarantee the preservation in Bangkok. of traditional theatre, the King also established a special school where some of King Rama VI was the center of theatre his scouts could learn music or drama or activities during his reign. He wrote and crafts along with general subjects. He built sometimes directed, designed, narrated and many palaces in the province to be used performed his plays. His works also as camps for his scouts. Each of these contributed a great deal to the development palaces had a theatre for his plays. King of Thai theatre. His reign was an era of RamaVI was a prolific playwright who new plays which were much demanded by wrote more than 150 plays in many styles. the public theatres. It was a golden age of Although the king put much effort into the the theatre, old and new, both in the court theatre, his activities seem to have been and in public. Significantly, it was a time confined to the realm of his court and did when theatre functioned as a means of not filter through to the public at large. propagating ideologies and did not aim merely to entertain its audience. The King in his private life preferred monogamy with a small number of court King Rama VII (1925-1935) ladies but he still maintained the tradition of female court theatre. He adopted the King Rama VII became king unexpectedly female troupe of his Chief royal page as and in the middle of the severe economic lakon puying kong luang to perform in crisis caused by the worldwide economic many important functions. Meanwhile, depression. He balanced the national some noble theatres were still operated in budget by reducing all less necessary this reign. These theatres continued to expenses and as a result, the schools of produce traditional performances such as Rama VI' s scouts and royal pages were lakon nai, lakon nok baeb luang, lakon pan closed down. Division of entertainment tang and lakon dukdamban. Concurrently, was dissolved. All the musicians of both the public theatres all over Bangkok earned Thai and Western ensembles were . their living with lakon rong and likay. It transferred to the central division of the was a period when lik{ry sought to expand Ministry of Royal Household. Khon The and · seek popularity in the provinces Division with about 30 artists was situated along the railroads. eliminated. However, five months later, a new and smaller division of entertainment Unfortunately, many traditional theatre was revived to conduct performances companies such as khon, nangyai, lakon necessary for royal ceremonies. Many

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former khon artists were reappointed. A 1. Thai kings as the supreme rulers of the small and unofficial school for traditional country had to be well equipped with all theatre was also revived in the royal palace. the necessary arts and sciences required for the kingship. They had to express their Eventhough this reign lasted only seven ability and their knowledge through proper years and was marked by economic means. Thus, dramatic literature, depression and political instability, a new productions and other innovations were styles of theatre , Lakon pleng a second necessary. The kings' policies and tastes, generation of lakon rong emerged. A therefore, had a great impact upon theatre major development was the change from development. the Thai pipat ensemble to the western band, and males played male characters 2. Monarchy is an institution that requires instead of the lakon rong 's male rituals and ceremonies to display the impersonators. It is likely that this mighty power of devine spirits endowed important change came from the upon the king. These spirits are Hindu Hollywood musical movies prevailing in gods. Dance and drama are indispensible Bangkok during that time. ingredients in many of ceremonies and so Thai theatre tradition has always been The King did not pay much attention to the nurtured and maintained. stage, but he wrote and directed three movies. He also ordered a large and 3. The system of prai and tat allowed the modem movie theatre built to king, the royal families and the noblemen commemorate Bangkok's 150th to own and produce various kinds of Anniversary. theatre for their own enjoyment, for royal functions, and for public entertainment. Then came the system of constitutional The servants were the real doers of the monarchy in 1932. The democratic theatre development and received neither government under the supervision of the fair payment nor recognition. King reorganized the former Department of Fine Arts and transferred court artists to 4. Commercialization in a free society work at the School of Performing Arts where new freemen had buying power led under the Department. Artists from other to competition in public theatre noble theatres were also appointed to teach productions where new elements for the traditional arts at this school. This school theatre were sought after. Newness in the became known as the present College of theatre attracted more audiences which Dramatic Arts. Eventually, King Rama VII guaranteed the survival of business. announced his abdication in 193 7 and went with his queen into exile. 5. The large number of casino theatres in Bangkok that supported all kinds of theatre Conclusion was unique. Besides hiring • the The evolution of Thai theatre in Bangkok entertainment to draw customers into the between 1782- 1935 was based upon the casino, casino theatres were places where following: various theatrical cultures interacted and developed.

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6. The Bangkok population was a mixture funeral ceremonies resembling royal of many nationalities who moved into the cremation was also common. These two city en masse. They bought with them traditional practices supported various their traditional culture including music kinds of theatre that made them flourish and dance and theatre. Their performance and develop. elements were a valuable resource for the creation of new theatre forms especially The evolution of Thai theatre in Bangkok falcon pan tang which liberated itself from 1782-1935 was a long and complex process of a development involving many aspects early theatre tradition. of social, economic and cultural dimension. All classes of Thai society supported and 7. Westernization that came with the nurtured the development of their theatre in missionaries, printing technology, the search for newness in forms and education, communication, transportation, content. All Thai theatre forms grew from public facilities, education abroad, travel to the same roots, thus, their core elements of Europe and the U.S.A, etc., affected the performance were similar. When society way of life in Bangkok. Westernization changed, the theatre also changed. The was also seen in many new theatre forms. earlier forms became the center for However, Thais did not slavishly copy adaptation. New and popular elements western theatre but rather adopted some of were added while some outdated objects the ideas and adapted them to suit their were dropped. These new elements were objectives. not directly imported from abroad though they once belonged to certain nationalities 8. The liberation of females on the public residing in Bangkok, and later were stage affected many theatre traditions.Male modified through Thai cultural assimilation performers gave way to females. Female before being incorporated into the Thai impersonators changed to male theatre. Therefore, these elements blended impersonator. Female performers made well into the theatre. Throughout this public theatre more popular. Theatre historical period, some forms remained troupes had to find new ways to attract intact and some forms were developed. The most important development in Thai more audience. These, in tum, contributed theatre can clearly be seen in lakon. The to the theatre development. evolution of Thai theatre described above was a great intellectual innovation. 9. Music was a main theatrical element. Theatre reflected Thai aesthetical, Theatre development in many cases started intellectual and phlosophical culture and from innovations in music. From close from this we can conclude that theatre as a observation, one may conclude that each part of Thai cultural identity will continue theatre form usually had a master tune or a its development along with the ever special song appearing throughout the changing Thai society. performance. This tune was· important to the identity of that particular theatre form.

10. Praying for merit from deities and thanking gods with theatre after the prayer was answered was widely practised by Thais and the employment of theatre in

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References Arda Sumitr, 1974, Lakon Nai Kong Chulachornkao Chaoyuhua, Prabat Somdej Luang Nai Ratchakan Ti 2, Master Pra, 1970, Chotmai Het _Pra of Arts Thesis, Department of Thai Ratchakit Rai Wan Nai Prabat Language, Graduate School, Somdej Pra Chulachomklao Chulalongkom University. Chaoyuhua, Bangkok, Prachan.

Brandon, James R., 1974, Theatre in Chulalongkom Mahawithayalai, 1982, , 2nd ed., Cambridge, Ong Prakob Thang Kayapap Harvard University. Krung Ratnakosin, Bangkok, Chulalongkom Mahawithayalai. Chomklao Chaoyuhua, Prabat Somdej Pra, 1930, Choom Noom Pra Borom Damrong Rachanubhap, 1965, Somdej Racha Thibai, Bangkok, Prachao Boromwongtoe Krom Soponpipatanakon. Praya, Tamnan Lakon Jnao, 4th ed., Bangkok, Klang Witaya.

____ 1991, Prachoom Pongsawadan Montri Tramoj, 1976, Kan La/en Kong Krung Ratana kosin, Nai Thai, 2 nd ed., Bangkok, Krom Ratchasamai Prabat Somdej Pra Silpakon. Puttaloetha Napalai Ratchakan Ti 2, 8 th ed., Bangkok, Moonithi Pra Narisaranuwattiwongse, 1962, Somdej Borom Racha Nuson. Prachao Boromwongtoc Chao fa Krom Praya, San Somdej Volume ____ 1922, Prachoom Pongsawadan 1-32, Bangkok, Kuru Sapa. Pak Ti 17. Ruang Tamnan Kan Loek Bon Bia Lae Loek Hwai, Bangkok, Thipakornwongs, 1969, Chaopraya, Pra Soponpipatnakon. Ratcha Pongsawadan Ratchakan Ti 4, Bangkok, Kuru Sapa. Dhanit yupho, Tamnan Khon Luang Lae Nam Bandasak Khon Luang Nai Suchit Wongtet, 1990, Rong Rum Ratchakan Tl 6, Bangkok, Prachan. Tampleng, Bangkok, Pikanet.

Kanchanakbhand, 1981 , 80 Pi Nai Chiwit Vella, Walter Francis, 1988, Paendin Pra Kapachao, Bandit Danpim. Nang Klao, 2nd ed., Bangkok, Krom Silpakon. Mattani Mojdara Rutnin, 1993, Dance, Drama and Theatre in Thailand, Tokyo, Toyo Bunko.

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A photograph of six princes and a nobleman playing Nitra Chakrit, a lakon pud salaeb lam written by King Rama V to celebrate Thai New Year in April 1879. (Photocopied from Pra prawat Krom Muen Dhivakorana Wongse Prawati, published as a commemoration of the 72 nd Birthday Anniversary of Prince Watyakarana Kasemsri. Bangkok : Mitr Sayam, 1967. Page 85

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A miniature painting of a master dance posture Pala Pienglai in Tamra Ram (Dance Book) produced during the reign of King Rama I (Photocopied from Tamra Ram, Bangkok: Department of Fine Arts, 1997. Page 16)

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A photograph of an early Bangkok royal cremation ground surrounded by rong ram (dance pavillion) to serve as stages for various performances. Rong ram is the name derived from the Early Ayuddhya Period. (Photocopied from Ngan Pra Meru Mas Samai Krung Rattanakosin, published as a commemoration of The Royal Cremation of Her Majesty Queen R.ambhai Bhanni of King Rama VII, Bangkok : Department of Fine Arts, 1985. Page 132)

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