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RAMAKIAN IN MODERN Introduction : A WAY Since the very beginning ofthe TO COPE WITH A period, whenever the ruling elite was CULTURAL CRISIS* acutely aware of a cultural crisis inside its community, the so-called 'national Kittisak Kerdarunsuksri** cultural heritage' (mo 'radok thang watthanatham kho 'ng chat), i.e, and tradition, was usually exploited to Abstract carry out the task of tackling this diffi• cult situation. Such cultural patrimony In the Bangkok period, the literary was normally picked up from the court classic Ramakian has been reproduced resource, e.g, , performance, again and again, either in literary forms ceremony, and so forth. Inevitably, the or performing . This literary piece saga of '' or Ramakian, which has been reinvented many times, was inseparably associated with the particularly in the course of cultural ruling class and the polity, has usually crisis so as to demonstrate the glory of been reproduced for the purpose of Thai . Although Ramakian is still exhibiting national cultural heritage. As able to be seen in the form of traditional the repertoire of traditional kinds of , i.e., (a masked • performance, such as khon and nang ) in particular, it was also yai (a large shadow ), the rein• re-created in modern theatrical form vention of Ramakian then was an during the mid-1990s, during which a imposing means for the Thai ruling group cultural campaign was promoted by the to proclaim the greatness of national government. This paper focuses on three culture through literature and perfor• modern theatrical productions of mance. Ramakian: Rama - Sida ( 1996), Nonthuk (1997), and Sahatsadecha During the influx of , and ( 1997), The paper addresses the up to the present day, Ramakian has questions: why was this classic continued to be reworked in the re-created in modern performance and . Interestingly, not only how was the story revised to make it fit has this classical literary piece been found into today's society. in traditional theatre, but it has also been reinvented in modem performance form during the Years of Thai Cultural Preservation or pi ronnarong watthanatham thai (1994-97). It is therefore the purpose of this paper to • This is a revised and expanded version of study the reinvention of this classic in a paper entitled Ramakian in Modem Perfor• modern performance to illustrate the mance: The Reflection of an Identity Crisis crisis of cultural identity in today's presented in the 7th International Confer• ence on Thai Studies, 4-8 July 1999, society: why was Ramakian re-created Amsterdam, The . in modern theatrical form during the official campaign of cultural promotion •• Lecturer at the Department of Thai Lan• guage for Communication, The University and to what extent was the meaning of of the Thai Chamber of Commerce. this saga adapted to be suitable for

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modem society. The paper focuses on felt the need to make sense of three modern theatrical productions, the kingdom's calamity. He was expected namely, Mattani Rutnin 's Rama - Sida to be, to some extent, a 'better' king than (1996), Pornrat Darnrhung's Nonthuk his predecessors, at least in normal (1997), and Phatravadi Mejudhon's terms. In other words, he needed to con• Sahatsadecha (1997). To demonstrate duct effective administration, social the significance of Ramakian as an welfare, or else, ofthe secular world and instrument for dealing with cultural establish moral order. The return to crisis in Thai society, the paper first Ayutthaya therefore was not a simple describes the historical background task for him. In turn, he established an regarding the purpose of re-creating this absolutely new relationship between literary work in the Bangkok period. It monarchy and society founded upon then discusses the current cultural crisis rational communication (Wyatt 1996: and the reproduction of Ramakian in the 162-172). As stated in the epilogue of 1990s. The materials used in the study his royal Ramakian, this work was of Rama - Sida and Sahatsadecha are merely nonsense of which the based on its unpublished script and readers should not be obsessed. (King videotape. As for Nonthuk, only the Rama I, vol. 11, 1964: 307) videotape is analyzed because the production, as a movement performance, Nevertheless, it is evident that the king has no written script. aimed at employing the story as a tool to legitimize his power, since he named his Background of the Reinvention 'Chakri'. Undoubtedly, this ofRamakian name is the equivalent of God Vishnu and his weapon. The king's status was In the reign of King Rama I, the king thus comparable to a god; he was a commissioned the court to com• divine-king who was reincarnated to pose the whole story of Ramakian, alleviate the people's suffering. The which is the only complete version in setting in his Ramakian, which was . His effort in completing the full elaborately described, was the newly story of Ramakian was not only to re• constructed capital, Bangkok. The construct the text, which was believed description of glittery decoration ofnew to have disappeared during the sacking buildings showed his determination that of Ayutthaya, but also to set a new stan• the glory ofBangkok should measure up dard for his own reign and the new dy• to that of Ayutthaya. nasty. The king attempted to establish Under the threat of Western imperial• new ideas and ideologies under the old tradition. By then, it can be said that the ism in the nineteenth century, the Thai Thai ruling group, whose who had been ruling elite faced a crisis of cultural involved with power in the royal court identity again. To maintain Siamese of Ayutthaya, encountered a cultural sovereignty was to modernize and westernize the country. The Thai elite crisis as a result of the defeat in the war needed to adjust themselves to Western agai~st the Burmese. They realized not culture, i.e., in education, dress, etiquette, merely the material loss but also the and lifestyles, yet realize their identity ineffectiveness of their socio-political and their cultural roots. Their ultimate system and traditional values (Nithi 1995: goal was to maintain their power and 4). On his accession to the throne, King

25 Downloaded from Brill.com10/06/2021 10:06:08PM via free access MANUSYA: Journal of (Special Issue. No.5 2003) sovereignty. Accordingly, the Thai tiona! performing arts to attract his ruling class continued to maintained the , foreigners who were not traditions they deemed necessary in familiar with a long, slow- perfor• exhibiting the prestige and dignity ofSiam mance of traditional kind in particular. and practical in paving the way for the The story of this episode, which is the country's modernization. The process of origin of the Thai saga of Rama, by modernization can be seen from King implication, also mirrored the fact that it 's reign onwards. was he who was reincarnated to fight evil, i.e., the threat of the West, and to One of King Mongkut's policies to bring peace to his citizenry. promote the notion ofa glorious country was to revive the court performance of According to Nithi (1995: 16-21), it is Ramakian, which had been banned likely that the crux of the crisis of cul• during the previous reign.' In doing this, tural identity among the Thai elite he deliberately selected certain episodes during the colonialism period took place for recomposition for the repertoires of in King 's reign. It seems that his royal troupe. The episodes chosen a sense of cultural inferiority was reflected his subtle intention to commu• apparent in his court since the elite, from nicate with his audience, not only his the king down to high-ranking officials, people but also his foreign royal guests. adhered to Western culture as a model. He, for example, rewrote the episode of This resulted from the fact that they Phra Ram Doen Dong (Rama Wan• were educated abroad. Yet under his dering in the Forest). This episode nationalist ideology, King Vajiravudh also noticeably echoed his own renunciation sought to preserve Thai culture. Even of his right to the throne and his retire• though the standards of the modern ment from worldly pleasure to enter an world were based on Western values, ecclesiastical life in order to make way Siam needed to be proud of her own for the crowning ofhis halfbrother, King culture as well. For him, the reempha• Rama III. He also recomposed the sizing and reinforcing ofthe significance episode of Prap Nonthuk (God of the past seemed essential to promote Vishnu Defeating Nonthuk the Demon) his nationalist programme (Vella 1978: as a separate prelude performance or 202-242). bot boek rong. It is plausible that his intention in producing this episode as a King Vajiravudh made use of traditional short prelude was to modernize tradi- elements through religion, history, litera• ture, and theatre. Again, Ramakian was 1 As a pious king, King Rama III considered chosen to present a cultural identity . dance-drama wasteful luxury. His displeasure despite the fact that his works on with dance-drama may have resulted from the irregular behaviour and way of life of Ramakian were based on the English some dance-drama people, probably those of the version. (See outside his court. For example, the scandal the preface in King Vajiravudh, 1959) of Prince Rakronnaret involving his affairs To demonstrate civilized nationhood, he with his dancers was said to cause mistakes further investigated the origins of in his official responsibilities. Furthermore, Ramakian by composing the valuable the prince plotted to usurp the throne. King source, Bo 'Koet haeng Ramakian (The Rarna III then took away his royal title, and Origins ofRamakian), for literary study. eventually executed him. See Mattani Rutnin (See also the preface ofthis in King 1993:60-61.

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Vajiravudh, 1960) talist culture - without careful and shrewd selection. It can be said that the Today's Cultural Crisis and its cultural crisis has been recognized by the Resolution disruption of the traditional moral code and the disregard for folk wisdom. It has been said that today's cultural crisis results from the social changes to Successive Thai governments realized which most Thais are not able to adapt the effect of social changes on cultural themselves and with which they are identity. In 1993, the government thus unable to cope. (See Ekkawit, 1989) designated the year 1994 as the official Amidst the overwhelming inflow of year to promote a cultural campaign 2 under the name "Year of Thai Cultural external culture, especially Western , and due to economic development over the Preservation" and later extended the 3 past four decades, Thai society has rap• campaign to 1997. Indeed, the issue of idly and dramatically changed in every national and cultural identities was raised aspect, including the Thai lifestyles. The on the World during the last two advent of a new economic system and decades, particularly when discussing new technologies disrupts the traditional the social changes as well as the values and lifestyles. Even though they economic development of Third world have characterized the and countries. The recommendation to variety in Thai society on the one hand, 'foster cultural identity', i.e., the preser• at the same time society has encoun• vation, strengthening and development tered conflict and problems on the other. of cultural identity, has become impor• While the development of the country tant objectives of UNESCO statements towards a newly industrialized country on cultural programmes (Bechstedt (NICS) once became a new image of 1993: 293). The designation of the the country that successive governments cultural promotion years of the Thai sought to promote through the mass government was then a response to an media, affluence and social welfare have agreement ofthe world organization, the not been distributed thoroughly and United Nations and its suborganizations, equally. Moreover, the demands for in promoting the use of the cultural modern conveniences for better and dimension for development. more comfortable living have tempted both rural and urban people go to any As stated in the booklet entitled Kan lengths, even getting into debt or wrong• Ronnarong Watthanatham Thai pho' doing, such as robbery and drug trade, so' 2537-2540 (The Campaign for Thai in order to acquire what they need. The crisis ofcultural identity confronting Thai society today is therefore a consequence 3 The extension ofthis cultural campaign was ofadopting an external culture- capi- under the project of 'Carrying on Thai Cul• tural Works' (Khrongkan Su'psan Ngan Watthanatham Thai). Over a period of four 2 The term 'Western culture' may now in• years ( 1994-97) each emphasized the use of clude Japanese and advanced technologies. Thai culture in different ways: culture and See 's speech on the iden• education (1994), culture and development tity crisis in Thailand in Reynolds 1993: 41 - ( 1995), culture and (1996) and cul• 57. ture and mass media ( 199 7).

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Culture 1994-97) published by the between the reproduction of literary Office of the National Culture Commis• , including the Ramakian, and sion, the main objective in the designa• the reflection ofthe crisis ofcultural iden• tion of this official period was to encour• tity in a modem Thai social context. age all Thais to learn, appreciate, and maintain so-called 'good Thai culture' The Reproduction of Classical (watthanatham an di ngam kho 'ng Literature in Modern Theatre in thai). In addition, the government Thailand in the 1990s needed to idealistically make use of this campaign to solve social and cultural Under the campaign to promote language problems. The framework of this and literature, the Office of National cultural campaign includes: the institu• Culture Commission organized the tions of nation, religion, and monarch; 'Khrongkan Sis an Wannakam ' family and community; convention and (Colour of Literature Project) to present tradition; language; order and discipline; through various sorts of value, virtue, and morals; way oflife and performance in the hope that Thai youth folk wisdom; ; arts; culture and would realize the value ofThai language tourism; and culture and development. and literature. The performing arts were It is obvious that the cultural campaign used as a tool to teach literature more was not only to promote traditional enjoyably. Interestingly, modem theatre, ' things' so as to show the national and which is a directly imported , was cultural identity, but also to use cultural chosen to be the means of conveying 'things' for the benefit of economic culture at university level, whereas development. traditional forms were used at lower educational levels. This means that a It is apparent that, during the years modem genre is allegedly more suitable officially promoting Thai culture a for imparting new ideas or reinterpret• number of classical literary works were ing 'old' literary works within a new performed on stage. It is no exaggera• social context. tion to say that the adaptation of classi• calliterature became a popular trend in One may question why traditional Thai theatrical circles over this period. theatre is deemed unsuitable for present• (See Kittisak 2001: 7) It would not be ing new viewpoints. This is likely due to surprising if these classics had been the perception of traditional theatrical reworked in the form of traditional aesthetics, in which the audience delights theatre since several pieces have formed in the 'beauty' of the dance movement, the repertoires of traditional theatrical costume, , and so on, rather than . . However, these literary pieces paying attention to the presentation of turned out to be re-created in modem ideas. Apart from this, the presentation theatrical form, specifically during the of classical literature in traditional forms course ofthe government's campaign of seems to carry the advantage of Thai culture. Did the government transmitting cultural 'things', whether encourage the trend of such adaptation? literary or theatrical. Traditional forms To what extent and how did the Years are thus suitable for junior youth in order ofThai Cultural Preservation a role to instil in them a feeling of love for in generating this trend? These questions national art and culture. likely lead to considering the relation

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In fact the transformation of classical ' Ramakian in Modern Thai works into modern theatre in the 1990s Theatre had existed prior to the Colour of 4 Literature Project. Shortly before this 6 When Mattani , Pornraf and Phatravadi project, for instance, Phatravadi put Ramakian on stage in the 1990s, the Mejudhon, a legendary actress in the 'old' content was adjusted to fit into a Western style, had turned her interest to new social context. While the Ramakian her Thai roots after having staged or preserved the status of a divine king adapted many Western plays for under the ancien regime, these two production. In this regard, she claims that theatre practitioners reinterpreted the she has never appreciatively understood story by expressing new viewpoints. Western philosophy in the plays, despite Even though the original of the having graduated from abroad and story, i.e., good defeats evil, was main• having remained a long time there tained in Rama - Sida, Nonthuk, and (Personal interview, 3 June 1998). When Sahatsadecha, Mattani, Pornrat, and she founded her own open-air theatre in Phatravadi sought to draw the story 1992, she then made use of traditional close to the modern audience. Portray• stories, both folk and classical, as a source ing characters as seems for her productions to communicate with necessary since the image of divinity no 5 the Thai audience. Staging original Thai longer sounds sensible in terms of stories is perhaps more understandable belief.8 The following section will to and appreciated by the audience. discuss each modern theatrical produc• Moreover, the demand for original tion of Ramakian. modern Thai scripts of as high a stan• dard as that of the West has been rekindled and has become a discourse 6 Professor of drama at Thammasat Univer• in Thai theatrical circles from time to sity. time. (See Kittisak 2002: 51) This, 7 Associate professor of drama at coupled with the official current of Chulalongkom University. preserving Thai culture, likely entailed a 8 After the 1932 revolution, there were boom age for the adaptation of classical viewpoints against Ramakian. Luang Vichit, literature into modern theatre. The Years for example, condemned this court literature of Thai Cultural Preservation thus can for providing the people with misguided be said to have been a channel for such values, erroneous beliefs and wrong role a trend in Thai theatre during the 1990s. models. In his view, the hero, Phra Ram or Rarna, became a weak and cowardly leader who defeated his enemy without doing much. The story ofRama then portrayed an 4 ·Before the 1990s, a few attempts to adapt appropriate concept of leadership (see traditional literary works into modern Chapter 1 in Luang Vichitr Vadakam, 1970). theatre can also be found, such as the Besides, other movements on the Thai liter• productions ofNai Aphaimani (1971), Rak ary scene also generated criticism of this thi To'ng Montra (1977), Lo'dilokrat(l986), literary work, particularly by the movement and Phra Sang- lphigenia ( 1985). See more ofliterature for life (wannakamphu'a chi ). details in Kittisak 2001 :80-121. According to Inthrayut (1975: 59), Rarnakian 5 Nithan Khang adapted from Suntho'n was composed to exalt the virtue of king• Phu's Singhakraiphop was the first produc• ship; it, in turn, degraded the people as tion at the Phatravadi theatre. inferiors. It, as he argues, infused the people's with the feeling of slavery.

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Rama -Sida crowned king. Maya manages to tempt Kaiyakesi, one ofThotsarot's consorts, The production of Rama - Sida was to claim the right to succeed the throne organized by Tharnmasat University in for her son, Phrot, as she once saved collaboration with the Office of the Thotsarot's life. Due to the promise that National Culture Commission in order to Thotsarot gave to Kaiyakesi to ask for celebrate the king's golden jubilee ofhis anything she wants, Thotsarot has to ascension to the throne. It was staged give the throne to Phrot instead, while at the Thailand Cultural Centre in Rama, Sida and Lakshman will live as November 1996. Mattani adapted the recluses in the forest for fourteen years. script by adapting from King Rama I's This makes Thotsarot die of grief. Phrot Ramakian and directed the production does not consent to what Kaiyakesi has herself. As for its synopsis, it is helpful done. He decides to return the throne to to relate it in sequence. his halfbrother. Yet Rama needs to keep his word by spending his life in an eccle• Sequence 1 siastical way; he thus gives his shoes to Music, and the dance movement Phrot as his representative. of devils introduce the atmosphere of Sequence 6 evil. Shiva commands Vishnu and Sammanakkha, Thotsakan 's widowed Lakshrni to be reincarnated as Rama and sister wanders in the forest to search Sida in the world. Meanwhile, for her partner. As she sees Rama's Uma orders Maya (lit. illusion) to follow beauty, she desires to marry him. How• Rama and Sida so as to prove whether ever, when she realizes that Rama has good will overcome evil in the global• Sida as his wife, she tries to attack Sida. ized age. She is finally repelled by Lakshman, who Sequence 2 cuts off her nose, ears, hands, and feet. Montho gives birth to Sida. As the baby Sequence 7 cries out a word of bad omen, her With her vengeance, Sarnmanakkha tells father, Thotsakan (Ravana), asks his his brother about Sida 's beauty, which astrologers to predict the baby's fate. makes Thotsakan have a strong desire Eventually, the baby is marooned in the for Sida. Though Montho reminds him nver. that Rama is Vishnu's reincarnation, Sequence 3 Thotsakan does not seem to pay atten• Chanok, the hermit, saves the baby and tion to this. asks the Goddess of Earth to look after Sequence 8 . her. After sixteen years pass, Chanok Thotsakan orders Mari t to transform into takes Sida back and brings her to his city a golden deer so as to entice Rama and where he becomes king. Lakshman out of their shelter, while Sequence 4 Thotsakan disguises himself as a hermit Chanok organizes the rite of finding a and kidnaps Sida to his city. mate for Sida. When Rama meets Sida, Sequence 9 they both fall in love at first sight. At the While taking Sida away, Thotsakan is rite, Rama can raise the sacred bow, hampered by Sadayu, the great bird, yet which allows him to marry Sida. he manages to harm the bird. Sadayu, Sequence 5 before dying, tells Rama about Sida 's Rama 's father, Thotsarot, decides to abduction. As Rama follows after Sida retire from his throne; Rama is then in the forest, and other mon-

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keys offer to serve Rama as his soldiers. Sequence 17 Sequence 10 Maya, in the disguised form of Nang In Lo'nkka, Hanuman saves Sida who Adun the devil, tempts Sida to draw seeks to hang herself. Hanuman offers Thotsakan's portrait, which causes to bring her back to Rama, but she Rama to get angry. He believes that Sida refuses since she wants Rama to take was unfaithful to him. Despite her preg• her back himself. nancy, Rama orders her execution. How• Sequence 11 ever, Lakshman, who trusts Sida's Hanuman fights with Kumphakan, one purity, sets her free in the forest. After of Thotsakan 's brothers, in battle. Sida is taken away, Rama repents of his Kumphakan eventually dies by Rama's wrong decision. weapon. Sequence 18 Sequence 12 In the forest, Rama meets a boy called Intho'rachit, Thotsakan's son, volunteers Mongkut who has mighty power. While to fight in the war with Rama's army. Rama is beating Mongkut, Sida comes He transforms himself to take on the out. Rama then realizes that Mongkut is appearance of God Indra. However, he his son. No matter how Rama begs for is killed by Lakshman. her forgiveness, Sida insists that she will Sequence 13 stay in the forest. However, she allows Thotsakan fights in the war himself. Rama to take Mongkut back to Although his head, arms and legs are cut . by Rama, it turns out that his body is Sequence 19 joined again since he detaches his heart Hanuman informs Sida about Rama's and lets a hermit keep it for him. death, so that she returns to Ayodhya. Sequence 14 After realizing the trick, Sida prays to Hanuman plots to steal Thotsakan 's the Goddess of Earth to receive her into heart from the hermit. He and Onkkhot the earth. Rama is thus in anguish; he then pretend that they have been promises to rule his kingdom with expelled from Rama 's troop and request morality. the hermit to take them to Thotsakan as Sequence 20 they offer to become the demon's By request ofLakshrni, Sida forgives her soldiers. Finally, they succeed in getting husband and returns to Ayodhya. At the Thotsakan's heart. end, Uma commands Maya to return to Sequence 15 her so that Rama and Sida can prove Hanuman and Thotsakan lead the troop their true and faithful love to her. to the battlefield. Hanuman shows the heart to the demon who tries to appeal In rewriting Ramakian, Mattani to Hanuman to return it to him. Yet his explained the story from her viewpoint. request is in vain; he is eventually killed She directly pointed out that the conflicts by Rama. in the story result from human's intrin• Sequence 16 sic nature, that is, lust and passion. In so Rama. returns to his throne in Ayodhya. doing, she created a new , In the palace, Maya manages to stir up Maya, to symbolize wickedness or the distrust of Sida's purity among atten• evil instinct of human nature. It can be dants. For this reason, Sida proves said that this character enables the theme herselfby walking through fire. about good and evil to be comprehended more concretely. Almost every single

31 Downloaded from Brill.com10/06/2021 10:06:08PM via free access MANUSYA: Journal of Humanities (Special Issue. No.5 2003) event in the story of Rama - Sida Also, the characters' desire was driven appears to be a consequence of the per• by Maya's action, for example, in suasion of Maya whom Uma, God Thotsakan's desire for Sida and Sida's Shiva's consort, sent to bring about fascination of golden deer. In the per• destruction in the human world and to formance, Maya, the golden deer and prove whether good would be able to Nang Adun the devil were portrayed by defeat evil in today's world. Kaiyakesi the same actress. This obviously under• in his desire to seize the right for the lines the theme in such a way that the throne, for example, is tempted by Maya: writer-director's retelling the main theme in the original text is straightfor• Thotsarot: wardly found. Moreover, this theme can I will pronounce that from now be related to the cultural crisis in real on Rama will reign instead of society, as seen from Uma's dialogue: me. It is time for me to retire from the world and search for Uma: tranquillity in the forest. Long In the globalized age, evil will live King Rama, the virtuous win. Although Rama is king who assures peace in the Thotsarot's son, he will be sent kingdom of Ayodhya. into exile for fourteen years to -Rama enters; Thotsarot prove his virtue. Sida must suf• crowns him. The cheers of the fer terribly because of her love officials become loud. for Rama. -Maya enters and then (Rama - Sida: p. 3) whispers to Kaiyakesi. Maya: The dialogue above reflects Mattani 's Will you allow Rama to become attempt to raise a question on the issue king? Actually, it is your son, of morality in today's society, since Phrot, who deserves the throne people are easily tempted by lust and because you once saved passion, which appear in various forms. Thotsarot's life. She, however, points out at the end of Kaiyakesi: the story that love and virtue will help to (thinking) You remind me of suppress wickedness as Rama and Sida that incident in which the wheel manage to prove to Uma: of Thotsarot's chariot broke in the battlefield. I used my arms Uma: to brake the wheel, which en• I hereby command Maya to abled him to win the fight over return to my heart and go out the enemy. He then promised to due to the great love of Rama give me whatever I would re• and Sida, which will protect the quest. world and save people from evil Maya: and sins. And now, here is the time to ask (Rama - Sida: p. 70) him to honor his promise. Send Rama to wander in the forest The reincarnation ofboth Rama and Sida for fourteen years and cede the is therefore to show that the dhamma throne to Phrot. will triumph over evil, and that their love (Rama- Sida: p. 19) is idealistically greater than anything else

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and will support the existence of the Singer: world. When reaching, he [Lakshman] grasps Shiva's bow. As it is Unlike the god-king in Ramakian, Rama moving, he realizes that he can in Mattani's Rama- Sida is portrayed raise it. as a human whose nature and behaviour Lakshman puts the bow are also tempted by Maya. Even though down. Rama is looking at Rama tries to practise being a virtuous Lakshman and he under• king, a flaw in his behaviour is also stands that his brother tries found. By Maya's incitement, it turns out not to raise the bow. that Rama seems not to trust his Maya: consort's purity after getting her back Lakshman, you are as power• from Thotsakan. Finally, he realizes his ful as your brother, Rama. So mistakes and he laments: you should raise the bow with your mighty power in order to Rama: get Sida. You wish to marry her, Alas! Our love and promise are don't you? gone by Maya. Oh! Shiva and Lakshman remains still Uma, please forgive what I for a moment and then shouts did to Sida. I swear to the earth to Maya. and sky that I will eternally rule Lakshman: my kingdom and people with the Maya, the devil! Do not tempt ten virtues of a king. me. I promised to Rama that I (Rama- Sida: p. 65) will offer him my loyalty and gratitude. Get out! In addition to the main theme, Mattani (Rama- Sida: p. 18) also kept the concept of loyalty, which in Ramakian was usually used to Also, in the war between Rama and support the status of divine-kingship. Thotsakan, Hanuman proves that he re• Since the performance of Rama - Sida mains on Rama's side, even if he be• was produced on the occasion of the comes Thotsakan's adopted son: celebration ofKing Bhumibhol 's golden jubilee, maintaining the notion ofloyalty Thotsakan: in this production, by implication, was the (surprised) Oh! That is the writer-director's intention to honour the box which contains my heart. king. In Rama- Sida, the loyalties of Please give it to me, my son. Sida, Lakshman, Phrot and Rama 's mon• Hanuman hesitates. Rama key soldiers, particularly Hanuman, to is not certain whether Rama were clearly demonstrated. In the Hanuman remains on his side scene of finding a bridegroom for Sida, or not, and thus prays. for example, Rama allows Lakshman to Rama: Let the virtue of raise the bow first; however, Lakshman the god make Hanuman remain realizes that his brother is falling in love loyal tome. with Sida, he then pretends that he There is a halo around cannot raise it: Rama. Hanuman prostrates himself before Rama, then points towards Thotsakan.

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Hanuman: given a reason, as Lakshmi says, that Alas! Thotsakan, you fool! You she was born to fulfil the great work of think that you can "buy" [sic] a god, that is, salvation. She then needs my heart, don't you? You are to be patient, as do all women in the so that you and all your world. This clearly reflects Mattani 's family deserve death. attitude towards the female gender. (Rama - Sida: p. 44) Even though she tries to present her feminist ideas through the characteriza• Due to her interest in feminist issues, tion of Sida, she also draws the impor• furthermore, Mattani also sought to tant role of the male in pointing out that promote feminist ideas in this produc• both male and female are mutually tion through Sida 's dialogues and actions.9 dependent components of nature, as in At the rite ofwalking through frre in honour the line ofUma: ofher husband's dignity, she laments: Uma: Sida: Now I realize the faithfulness Throughout the anguished four• and loyalty of him [Rama] who teen years, it is regrettable that is the god of the family and my husband does not trust me. woman. Please return to the Why do I have to live in shame? arms ofRama who is your hus• Born as a woman, I have to band and the father of all suffer from such a man. human beings. (Rama - Sida: p. 45) (Rama - Sida: p. 68)

Sida, moreover, laments her gender, as It is clear that Mattani 's notion about the her husband demands her execution feminist issue is not as forceful as that when he finds her drawn ofThotsakan. of the West. Rather, her feminist idea With her resentment, she expresses deals with making a compromise herself to Lakshman: between the status of men and women as a result of an awareness of the social Sida: inequity Sida experiences. I was born as a woman, I have no rights in my life. I am very As for the theatrical form of this pro• sad at my fate, that I have to duction, Mattani made use of both Thai die because of a sin I have and Western theatrical styles. Traditional never committed. For my next Thai dance form, Hon in particular, is life, I pray that I would not be discernible. The traditional dance born as a woman anymore. posture of khu 'n loy, a characteristic (Rama - Sida: p. 53) of fighting scenes in which a dancer stands upon another dancer in khon per- However, Sida's suffering in her fate is 147-150). Additionally, in her production of 9 It is evident that Mattani is interested in Butsaba-Unakan she also adapted the liter• feminist issues, as seen from her scholarly ary classic, Inao, to address the heroine's and theatrical works. For example, she wrote fate by raising the question whether women about the role of women in the moderniza• in ancient society have any right and are at tion of traditional dance-drama in the reign liberty to carry out their own free will (see ofKing (see Mattani 1996a: Kittisak2001: 180-189).

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formance, remains in the fighting scenes Nonthuk to dance in imitation of her of this production to reveal the original dancing. In one dance movement, roots of Ramakian in Thai theatre. At Nonthuk happens to points his diamond the same time, Western dance styles are finger towards his leg. He is eventually used for the movements of Maya and killed by the god and reborn as a demon her subordinates. Both traditional Thai with ten faces and twenty arms, called and Western music and singing are Thotsakan, whilst Vishnu swears that he employed. The set and lighting are will be reborn as a human called Rama designed in expressionist style to create who will again defeat the demon. frightful and. woeful atmospheres particularly. Stylized costume is fash• In experimenting with the production of ioned to suit the characters' roles; Nonthuk, Pornrat presented the perfor• nevertheless, the colours ofthe mance in the form of movement theatre, of certain characters are used in accor• that is to say, only dance movements dance with convention, such as green were used. The performance was for Rama and golden-yellow for played by only two - one ( Lakshman. 1) as Nonthuk, and another (actor 2) as a god, Shiva, a lady and Vishnu. In fact, Nonthuk the names of the characters are never addressed, for there was no dialogue in Nonthuk was Pornrat Damrhung's short the performance.The audience, however, experimental piece of performance in can recognize the story and characters collaboration with two actors, Phichet from the title. The performance will be Klunchuen and Dangkamol Na divided into sequences, as follows: Pombej ara. The performance was first staged at in Sequence 1 Bangkok and at the Inroads/Asia Con• The performance starts with the fight• ference at the University of California ing between actor 1 and actor 2, who is in August 1997, and again in January portraying a god. Actor 1 seems to lose 1998 at Chulalongkorn University. In this in the fight. production, Pornrat adapted the episode Sequence 2 of Nonthuk, which was well-known in Actor 2, who is playing Shiva, empow• King Rama I's Ramakian as the origin ers actor 1. of the story of Rama and Thotsakan. Sequence 3 Actor 1 can beat actor 2 (probably the According to the story, Shiva blesses his same god as in sequence 1). demon attendant, Nonthuk (Nandaka), Sequence 4 a boon that enables him to transform his Actor 2 gradually changes his dance index finger into a diamond and destroy style to female gestures, then seduces anyone at whom he points his finger. actor 1 with sexual movements. Since he is always mistreated by gods Sequence 5 and goddesses, he takes this opportunity Actor 2 abruptly turns to male gestures, to take revenge and begins to misuse his which represents Vishnu. He and actor power. Vishnu then assumes the respon• 1 fight; actor 1 is killed. sibility for overpowering Nonthuk. Accordingly, the god transforms himself Pornrat looked into the original text and into a charming lady and seduces retold the story with a new viewpoint.

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Instead of the original theme about forms. dhamma and adhamma (good and evil), she focused on the relation of the Sahatsadecha imbalance of power between social classes as well as power abuse. For her, Sahatsadecha is an experimental work the story was about the conflict and by Phatravadi. She called the form of misuse of power. In this regard, she the production "imaginative Ramakian" managed to reinterpret the original 10 (cintakam Ramakian) • This produc• theme in relation to current events in tion was first given in 1997 at her the• society. As often seen in newspaper and atre and has been re-staged several news, the issue of power times both inside and outside the coun• abuse, she discovered , remains in try. It indicates Phatravadi 's efforts to everyday life and in every society. More• tum to traditional Thai performance in over, sex and women are usually that she made use of khan (masked exploited to undermine an opponent. In dance-drama) in conjunction with nang producing Nonthuk, Pomrat and her talung (Southern shadow puppet) to collaborators, therefore, sought to make the performance spectacular. 11 In demonstrate the extent to which woman this experimental production, Phatravadi seduces man in such a way that sex can attempted to modernize traditional destroy man. (Personal interview with performance so as to attract a modem Pomrat Damrhung, 24 March 1998.) audience, particularly the younger generation. Pomrat, in directing this production, sought to experiment with the perform• Phatravadi, in selecting this production, ers' interaction with the theme. This was inspired by the khon performance allowed the performers to express their of Sahatsadecha given by the Fine Arts feelings and movements freely in accor• Department (FAD) from which she dance with the theme. She also mini• drew worthy ideas for human life, as mized all elaborations of theatrical forms stated in the production's programme: found in traditional and modem perfor• mance. (See also Pomrat 1999: 43-52) This episode of Ramakian contains a For example, there was neither set nor moral precept for human life. Lust and property. Only a black backdrop is used. passion are allures which lead to disas• Both performers were vests and loose ter. The eyes, a window for a beautiful trousers. world, are an auspicious thing oflife. But if one's mind has no morals, the eyes In Nonthuk, Pomrat combined the use can tum inauspicious since they see only · of Western movement and traditional evil things. No matter how many eyes, Thai dance. As her experimental ears, or hands one has, the important research, she directed her two actors, thing is whether happiness is in one's each of whom practised in different the• mind. If the mind is unhappy, it can bring atrical schools-modem and traditional - to present the conflict of power by 10 Sahatsadecha (Programme), 1997. 11 using different styles of movements. In fact, it is believed that khon has its ori• While actor 1 or the demon used mod• gin in nang yai (large shadow puppet). Its evolution shows that khon was also per• em movement, actor 2 danced in tradi• formed together with nang yai; such combi• tional style. This implied a confrontation nation of nang and khon is called nang tit between Western and Thai theatrical tua khon (see Dhanit 1991: 28-35).

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disaster to relatives, friends, and even the war, but he refused. Intho 'rachit then oneself. 12 was sent into battle again, despite realizing that this battle would be the end Phatravadi then began to study King ofhis life. Rama IT's Ramakian and experimented Scene 3 with the presentation of the story in the Intho'rachit was killed by Phra Lak. form of khon. In this production, she Thotsakan therefore sent his other ten mainly employed the dancers from FAD, sons to fight, and they all died in the battle together with some members of the as well. Munphalam, Thotsakan 's friend, Phatravadi theatre. She also had some and his brother, Sahatsadecha, who has leading master-dancers and experts of one-thousand faces and two-thousand FAD and the Dramatic Arts College as arms, moved the army to help Thotsakan consultants in traditional performance. fight Phra Ram's troop. The production was directed by Scene 4 Junlachat Aranyanak, a leading dancer Sahatsadecha was annoyed with of FAD, and Manop Micarnrat, a promi• Montho who was crying due to her son's nent dancer of the Phatravadi theatre death and did not salute him. As he was who had previously been trained in West• displeased, he commanded his army to em dance. Both ofthem also played roles retreat. Montho was eventually forced in the performance. Phatravadi herself to pay respect to Sahatsadecha -which rewrote the script. satisfied him and thus made him return to assist in the fighting. The script is based on King Rama II's Scene 5 Ramakian 13 and the script of the FAD's At the reception, Sahatsadecha and his production. The episode of army were drunk. After that, he moved Sahatsadecha deals with the war his army to the battlefield. between Sahatsadecha, a friend of Scene 6 Thotsakan, and Phra Ram's army. In Thotsakan's chariot was struck by a writing the script, Phatravadi divided the thunderbolt. Sahatsadecha then told him story into ten scenes, as follows: to return to Lo'nkka, Thotsakan's city. At the battlefield, Phra Lak's soldiers ran Scene 1 away as they were frightened by Phra Lak, Phra Ram's younger brother, Sahatsadecha 's enormous figure. disrupted a supernatural of Seeing this, Sahatsadecha then left the In tho 'rachit, a son of Thotsakan. As a battlefield and let Munphalam fight Phra result, Intho'rachit was wounded by an Lak. arrow. Scene 7 Scene 2 Phra Lak was wounded by Munphalam's Montho, Intho'rachit's mother whose spear. However, Hanuman managed to milk could cure the wound, save Phra Lak. In return, Phra Lak killed allowed her son to milk from her Munphalam with the spear. breast. Though feeling embarrassed, Intho'rachit had to follow her sugges• 13 King Rama II rewrote the story ofRamakian tion. Montho suggested that Thotsakan from the episode ofHanuman presenting the should return Sida to Phra Ram to end ring to Sida to that of Thotsakan's death and from the episode of killing Sida to that 11 Sahatsadecha (Programme), 1997. of the remarriage ofRama and Sida (see King Ramall, 1956).

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Scene 8 In King Rama II's text, there existed no Phra Ram consulted Phiphek, a brother incident ofSahatsadecha 's irritation at ofThotsakan who became Phra Ram's Montho. Scene 4, which Phatravadi took 1 assistant, about Sahatsadecha. After from the FAD's script \ was inserted Phra Ram learned about Sahatsadecha's to depict Sahatsadecha 's temperamen• magic club, whose ends were able to kill tal, arrogant, demanding and irrational or restore anyone to life when pointed nature, as seen from the narrating dia• at them, he commanded Hanuman to logues (bot ceraca) between find a way to defeat Sahatsadecha. Sahatsadecha (S) and Munphalam (M): Scene 9 Hanuman transformed himself into a Narrator for S: small monkey. He tricked Sahatsadecha As Sahatsadecha sees into giving him the magic weapon by Thotsakan salute him, he is very pretending to be Sahatsadecha 's subor• pleased. But when his two• dinate. thousand ears hear a sob, he Scene 10 finds a crying lady not saluting Hanuman destroyed the magic club. him. He is utterly furious, and Sahatsadecha was finally captured by thus stamps his foot as well as Hanuman and was ridiculed by Phra asking his brother who the lady Ram's monkey soldiers. behind Thotsakan is and what her name is. The performance ended with the tab• Narrator forM: leau of Hanuman killing Sahatsadecha Your majesty, that lady is called with his trident, and all main characters Montho, who is a dignified came out for a finale dance in which the heavenly lady (saw sawan). lyric concluded the theme of the story, Narrator for S: that is, intelligence is more important than Oh! I see. The pretty Montho, power: the jet-set lady (saw hai-so)! She is the high-class angel. She The story gives the idea did not salute (wai) me because That wisdom is very impor she was afraid that her hands tant. would be worn out. Seeing her Although having supreme husband bowing to me, she power, thought that it was disgraceful. It could turn helpless if This makes her burst into tears. one's mind is wicked. And she does not care that I also Let's see Sahatsadecha, lose my dignity. I was kind Who has the greatest magic enough to carry my faces and weapon, grey (baek na pha hua Yet he was defeated by the ngo 'k) here. Never mind! I little monkey think I must go back because Just because of foolishness. she does not respect me. (Sahatsadecha: scene 10) Ramakian. The insertion of Sahatsadecha 's displeasure at Montho is found only in the 14 Telephone interview with Phatravadi FAD's script written by Seri Wangnaitham, Mejudhon, 20 March 2001. In fact, this se• a former Director of the Music and Drama quence does not appear in any versions of Division. See Sujit Wongthet 1998: 89-98.

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Sahatsadecha is getting angry, feeling, and sometimes for describing the so he commands his army to beauty of nature or vehicles such as a return to Pangtan City. chariot, elephant, or horse.15 The bot (Sahatsadecha: scene 4) ceraca functions not only as the dialogue,but also as the narration of a The insertion of this scene highlights the character's action and feeling. In this negative portrayal of this character. In sense, the first-person pronoun together addition, the last two scenes demonstrate with a character's name (in the third that Sahatsadecha is unintelligent as he person) are sometimes contained in one is easily deceived, even if he has dialogue. (See the dialogues between one-thousand faces, two-thousand arms Sahatsadecha and Munphalam above.) and a magic weapon. His The kham phak and bot ceraca are resulted from his evil mind in that he sung and spoken by singer-narrators, offered his hand in a wrong way by usually two separate persons. However, helping Thotsakan, who abducted Phra after khon was influenced by the Ram's wife. Phatravadi's reworking of lakho 'n convention, singing has been this episode indicates her effort to also used in the khon performance to convey the message of the traditional such an extent that the kham phak is literary work to a modem audience. Such now rareiJ found. effort help to relate the value of the past to a modem audience. In other words, it Like other kinds of traditional dance• proves the value of the work in a drama, there are two types of in modem social context. the khon performance: ph/eng na phat and ph/eng ro 'ng. The ph/eng na phat To clarify Phatravadi 's innovation of is a category of music without khon in this production, it is helpful to used when a character expresses describe some characteristics of certain actions and feelings, such as traditional khon performance. making a journey, making love, moving troops, showing magic power, crying, and Traditionally, the main elements ofkhon so on. The selection of ph/eng na phat performance, which differentiate khon is considered from the particular from other types of traditional dance• function of music together with a drama, are kham phak (a narration character's role and status. For example, recited or sung in poetic ) and bot kraw no 'k is used when the monkey's ceraca (poetic dialogue). While the troop is moving, whereas kraw nai is kham phak is composed in the form of used for the moving of a demon's troop; kap, a sort of ancient verse form, the bat sakuni is used with a particular ceraca is written in rai, another pattern character such as Phra Ram and Phra of ancient verse. The kham phak is Lak when they make a journey, chup is used for telling the story as well as used for the journey of maids. The showing a character's action and ph/eng ro 'ng is a range of music used for telling the storyas well as a 15.The kham phak can be can be categorized character's action and feeling. into six types: phak mu'ang (used when a character stays in palace or pavilion), for describing the beauty of nature), phak phakrot (used for describing the beauty of banyai (used for telling the background of vehicles), phak oh (used when a character something) and phak bettalet (used for de• scribing miscellaneous things or events). expresses sadness), phak chom dong (used SeeDhanitYupho 1991: 104-107.

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The melody is taken from the traditional scene from stage right, which is on the repertoire. According to Montri Tramot, left hand side of audience, and exit at a leading traditional musician, the selec• the other side, with the exception of tion of melody used in traditional dance• fighting scenes in which the characters drama is subject to the emotion of the can enter from both sides. With regard lyrics or story, the theatrical genre, and to emotional expressions, dancers do not the character's status. (Montri 1993: show any facial expression because they 54-59) In traditional dance-drama, it is wear ; the audience can realize unconventional to use repeated melody, the characters' feelings from lyrics, except for a few melodies used for dialogue, ph/eng na phat, and dance moving the pace of performance, e.g. gestures. Even when certain characters ph/eng rai. in some roles no longer wear masks, such convention is still practised. In some ln khon performance, costume and senses, this is also due to the custom of are an element that enables the court dance-drama, where the dancers audience to identify a character's role. should not express their emotions as 16 According to convention , each char• much as in folk dance-drama. acter uses a specific colour of costume and mask. For example, Phra Ram's In adopting the theatrical form of khon, costume is green, while Phra Lak wears Phatravadi (videotape, 1998) pointed out a golden costume. In the convention of that contemporary performance should dressing in traditional dance-drama, the not reject the traditional form, yet such colours of upper and lower garment traditional wisdom (phum panya should be in a contrasting shade such as banphaburut, lit. ancestors' wisdom) Phra Ram wearing green embroidered should be used in combination with tight-fitting top and close-fitting, knee• modern elements or technologies. In this length trunks with red brocade worn over production, she adjusted some charac• the trunks. Traditionally, almost every teristics of khon performance to character wears a mask; yet from the quicken the pace of performance, and reign of King Vajiravudh onwards, only employed modern theatrical elements to characters in monkey and demon roles make the performance more attractive wear masks. (Kukrit 1983: 15 and 20) and spectacular. However, dance move• The feature of each mask is different: ment, which was an essential part of the crowned or uncrowned, finial of crown, performance, was maintained in accor• colour, eyes, mouth, fangs, etc. dance with the convention ofThai dance.

According to the convention, the khon At the beginning of the performance, the performance begins with the non-lyric traditional music of phleng wa was music called ph/eng wa which functions discarded. Instead, the main characters, as a sign that the performance is about namely, Montho, Intho'rachit, to start and is a music used to enable Thotsakan, Phra Lak, Hanuman, and the dancers to come into the scene. Sahatsadecha respectively, were intro• (Dhanit 1991: 140) Major characters in duced by performers dancing the ram dance-drama customarily enter the na phat, a type of traditional dance accompanied by the phleng na phat, in 16 See the colour and the characteristics of association with the manipulation ofeach mask of the characters in Ramakian in character's shadow puppet on the Praphan, 1971.

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screen. For example, Montho' danced monkey soldiers mock Sahatsadecha in phleng cha whose melody is soft and when he is caught, the interjection hui graceful, In tho 'rachit in ph/eng rua ha (a word giving a meaning of laugh• which is usually used when a character ing) was inserted at the end of each line shows magical power, Hanuman in kraw to emphasize a sense of ridiculing. Such no 'k which is the music for the movment an insertion of a refrain was borrowed of a troop of monkeys. Although the from the tradition of folk singing, often employment of ram na phat here found in lakho 'n no 'k. In contrast to conformed to the convention of using the the convention of using traditional melo• phleng na phat to fit into the charac• dies in phleng ro 'ng, the Thale Ba (lit. ters' role and status, it was unlikely to mad sea) melody was found twice in the be able to introduce the characters' where Sahatsadecha is angry names to an audience unfamiliar with the after learning about Thotsakan losing the story and khon performance. Rather, the battle and where Sahatsadecha is introduction scene merely enabled the mocked by monkeys. This illustrates that audience to recognize the characters and the selection of traditional melodies in their . Such introduction was not this production was mainly based on the necessary for an audience in the old days emotion of song rather than on the since they would recognize characters convention. from the masks, costumes, and lyrics. In this introduction scene, Phatravadi The use of shadow puppets was influ• made use of lighting and the side legs, enced by nangyai (an ancient-style large which basically hide the wings of the shadow puppet) in terms of the stage from the audience's view, to manipulator's movement and nang create the shadow of characters before talung in terms of the manipulation and they entered the scene. The introduc• the puppet's size. Unlike traditional nang tion scene, thus, was inserted to make talung and nang yai, the shadow pup• the performance spectacular. pet was made from carved paper instead of leather. The patterns and Singing, dialogue narrating (ceraca), and designs of the puppets were taken from dancing were employed to convey the traditional painting: Although the puppets story; yet ceraca was used to a larger in this production were devised to show degree than music in order to quicken the movements ofhead, arm, and mouth the pace of the performance. The close to that of nang talung, the tech• ceraca in this production was found in nique was borrowed from Japanese rai and klo 'n verse forms; these klo 'n , by using elastic bands to con• poems were quoted from King Rama trol movements such as nodding. 17 In the IT's version. It is interesting to note that scene in which Intho'rachit is killed, the kham phak was completely moreover, the puppet oflntho'rachit was discarded to avoid prolonging the devised so as to enable separation of its performance. head from its body to depict Intho'rachit's

Generally, the phleng na phat and 17 Having seen a Japanese puppet show for phleng ro 'ng were employed to children, Phatravadi then had the idea to describe the characters' actions and make use of the movement of puppets• emotions; a few ph/eng ro 'ng also func• which she found interesting for younger generations. (Telephone interview with tioned as dialogue. In the song where Phatravadi Mejudhon, 20 March 2001 ).

41 Downloaded from Brill.com10/06/2021 10:06:08PM via free access MANUSYA: Journal of Humanities (Special Issue. No.5 2003) decapitation. This technique was also enhance the traditional performance, to taken from Japanese puppetry. The make it more spectacular. employment of shadow puppets in this scene indicates a subtle technique in To achieve artistic quality, Phatravadi avoiding showing the death scene by a employed foreign theatre practitioners, dancer on stage-which was forbidden such as Katsura Kan as lighting de• in traditional theatrical convention. As signer, Noriko Tomatani as sound the performance made use of shadow designer, Zen-San as a trainer for puppetry in alternation with dancers, the creating the puppets, and Anthony story could develop rapidly. The use of Hodgson as designer. Like shadow puppetry also made the perfor• her previous productions, her collabora• mance more attractive due to the vari• tion with foreign theatre practitioners ety of theatrical forms. showed the adoption of foreign tech• niques, either Oriental or Western, in Thai Phatravadi contrived to have the char• theatrical production so as to gain an acters enter the scene from both sides, audience's attention. Such direct involve• mostly from stage left (on the right-hand ment of foreign theatre practitioners in side of audience) - which did not con• this production further reflected form to convention. , which is Phatravadi 's attempts to employ foreign the way to move actors on the stage techniques to modernize traditional Thai area, was executed in modem style to theatre. enhance dramatic effect. The non• masked characters, Montho in particu• After thirty-five shows at the Phatravadi lar, revealed their facial and emotional Theatre, in 1998, the production of expression to some extent. Such char• Sahatsadecha was selected to join the acters' expression made the perfor• Project "Ruam Phalang Han So 'ng" mance more realistic and attractive. (Join Forces to Reduce the Use of En• ergy by Half), the campaign to promote Special effects, such as slides, sounds energy saving, organized by the National and lights, were used to make the per• Energy Policy Office. The project was formance impressive. Slides were used to make people conscious about using to clarify the visual aspects of perfor• energy effectively and to promote mance, such as showing Sahatsadecha's energy conservation through perfor• innumerable eyes - impossible to find mance in order to demonstrate that in a traditional mask. In some cases, every activity can reduce the use of they were also used to suggest the scen• resources and energy without deterio• ery, e.g., the throne hall. Sound effects rating the artistic quality of the work. The were employed to create the atmosphere production, re-staged across the coun• of the performance, e.g., rain falling and try in forty shows, was then known as the sound of burning. The techniques Khan Han So 'ng. (The phrase han used in this performance were rather so 'ng literally means "divided by two".) simple, such as pouring rice into a bottle to produce a rain-fall sound and using a When staged at the Phatravadi Theatre, intereaction between mirror, water, and the production used the traditional yu 'n lighting to create flame. Modem lighting khru 'ang outfits, i.e., elaborately technique was specially designed for the embroidered tight-fitting clothes with shadow puppetry and was used to headdress or mask, according to con-

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vention. The costumes in the perfor• project in saving energy, Phatravadi mances for this project were adjusted deliberately reduced the expense and the to serve the project's objective. Even use of labour and electricity. Under though it was based on the yu 'n this project, labour and electricity were khru 'ang costume, the materials used decreased to show worthwhile and were adapted to reduce expense and to effective ways in using energy. The make the costumes light and washable. performance used fewer dancers and In so doing, satin was replaced by local singers; each performer needed to be hand-made fabric, and the costume was involved in many parts of the produc• embroidered with glittering beads instead tion, such as playing a character's role of sequin and tinsel in order to lighten and manipulating a shadow puppet. The the weight. The patterns of the costumes singer also functioned as the singer• were taken from those of traditional narrator-which was different from the costumes in the reigns of King Rama II traditional khon performance, where and King Chulalongkom. Phatravadi singer and singer-narrator are different (videotape, 1998) believed that when the people. The singers and the musicians costume became lighter, the performers also produced sound effects. The could dance more easily and powerfully lighting, which had required more than - which would attract a younger two hundred spotlights in the 1997 audience. Certain characters, such as production, was cut down to twenty five Munphalam, and monkey and ogre spotlights by illuminating only the area soldiers, wore only a lower garment in where the characters were positioned. traditional style with bare chests, yet In addition, newly created costumes their bodies were painted in accordance helped to further reduce the costs. 18 The with the traditional colour of the reduction of expense, labour, and elec• characters. However, the use of colour, tricity reflects not only the effective use which was able to identify a character, of energy to retain the artistic quality, did not follow the convention of khon but also the use of theatre to serve offi• performance, particularly the colour of cial policy. Apart from this project, Montho 's costume. According to Sahatsadecha was also re-stage, by convention, Montho should wear a white invitation, at the Biennale de la Danse shawl, and the colour of her lower Festival in Lyon in 2000. garment should be in a contrasting shade. In this production, both the upper Conclusion and lower garments of her costume were The circumstance of a cultural crisis in shades of blue. Regardless of the seemingly provokes the imaginary sense convention, the use of colour for this ofThai-ness, which has been deeply in• character was motivated by artistic stilled in people's consciousness. How• principles, and the costume became ever, Thai-ness today is not able to re• more colourful than that dictated by sist 'otherness' 19 under the conditions of tradition. 19 According to Thongchai (1994: 3-6), the In order to serve the objective of the existence of otherness, un-Thai-ness, is as necessary as the positive definition of Thai• ness in which Thai-ness is clearly defined 18 Phatravadi claimed that the costumes for Yet in reality, it is difficult to define clearly; this project were four times cheaper than tra• the domain of what is not Thai or un-Thai is ditional costumes. (Telephone interview with therefore identified from time to time, which Phatravadi Mejudhon, 20 March 2001 ). Thongchai called 'negative identification'.

43 Downloaded from Brill.com10/06/2021 10:06:08PM via free access MANUSYA: Journal of Humanities (Special Issue. No.5 2003) cultural globalization; on the contrary, it J. Reynolds, pp. 293-321. Chiang is necessary to select whatever 'for• Mai: Silkwom . eign' or 'un-Thai' element of external Dhanit Yupho. 1991. Khon. Published culture is deemed compatible and work• on the occasion ofH.R.H. Princess able for the society. Such selection is Maha Chakri Sirindhom's 36th birth• discernible from the reproductions of day anniversary and seminar on Ramakian in the 1990s. Thai dance and drama, Bangkok: Thai Khadi Research Institute, As a national literary heritage, Thammasat University. Ramakian is inevitably utilized to deal Ekkawit Na Thalang. 1989. "Su'p Tho't with the problem of cultural crisis, as it lae Prap Pron Watthanatham hai was in the past. However, its presenta• Som Samai'' (The Continuation and tion, either of content or form, must be Adjustment of Culture to Fit into the adjusted to fit contemporary society. Time), Sinlapa Watthanatham (Art Obviously, these theatre practitioners and Culture) 10:7: 106-114. seek to retell the story of Ramakian in Inthrayut (Atsani Phonlacan). 1975. a way that comes closer to the audience. Kho' Khit Cak Wannakhadi (In• The combination of Thai and Western sight into Literature).Bangkok: elements in modem theatre also reflects Sunklang Nakrian haeng Prathet the modification ofThai culture to fit into Thai cultural globalization. In the 'National Kittisak Kerdarunsuksri. 2001. The Cultural Policy and the Guidelines for Transposition of Traditional Thai the Preservation, Promotion, and Literature into Modern Stage Development of Culture' (1986), Drama: The Current Development culture is a changeable 'thing'. The ' old' of Thai Theatre. Unpublished culture might be replaced by new Ph.D. Thesis, University ofLondon. culture if innovations can solve social _ _ . 2002. "Malai Mongkhon: A problems and respond to social demands Case ofPostrnodem Thai Theatre". more effectively. Thereby, the traditional Manusya: Journal of Humanities theatrical form, which is no longer 5: 1: 50-66. relevant to the everyday life of people , Mo' m Ratchawong. today, is merely an 'old' sign preserved 1983. Nattasin Thai (Thai Dance as the cultural heritage of the nation, and Drama), Bangkok: Thai while making use of modem form, jux• Watthanaphanit. taposing traditional and modem elements, Mattani Mojdara Rutnin. 1996a. Dance, and adapting minor elements in tradi• Drama, and Theatre in Thailand: tional theatre are acceptably employed The Process of Development and in the hope ofbringing the modem audi• Modernization. : Silk• ence back to their cultural roots. worm Books. __. 1996b. Rama - Sida. (Unpub• References lished script and videotape.) Montri Tramot. 1993. "Lak nai Kan Bechstedt, Hans-Dieter. 1993. "Identity Bancu Phleng Prako'p Kan and Authority in Thailand". In Na• Sadaeng Nattasin" (Rules of Mak• tional Identity and its Deender: ing Use of Melody in Dance and Thailand, 1939-1989, ed. by Craig Drama). In Nattasin Thai (Thai Dance and Drama), ed. by Mo'm

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Luang Wanwipha Burutrattana• Theatre Culture: A New View on phan. Published on the celebration Traditional Theatre in Thailand". ofH.R.H. Maha Chakri 's Manusya: Journal of Humanities. 36'h birthday anniversary and pro• 2: 2:27-60. ceeding of seminar on Thai dance Praphan Sukhonthachat. 1971. Hua and drama, 14-15 March 1991, Khon (Masks of Khon ), Bangkok: Bangkok: Thai Khadi Research In• Siwapo'n. stitute, Tharnmasat University, 1993, Rama I, King (Phrabat Somdet Phra pp. 54-59. Phutthayodfa Chulalok). 1964. National Culture Commission, Office of Ramakian. 11 vols. Bangkok: the, Ministry of Education. 1986. Khurusapha. Nayobai Watthanatham haeng Rama II, King (Phrabat Somdet Phra Chat lae Naewthang nai Kan Phutthaloetlanaphalai). 1956. Bot Raksa Songsoem lae Phatthana Lakho 'n Ru 'ang Ramakian (The Watthanatham Phutthasakkarat Play of Ramakian). Bangkok: 2529 (The National Cultural Policy Sinlapa Bannakhan. and the Guidelines for the Preser• Reynolds, Craig J. (ed). National Iden• vation, Promotion, and Development tity and its Defenders: Thailand, of Culture 1986). Bangkok: 1939-1989. Chiang Mai: Silkworm Khurusapha. Books, 1993. n.d. Kan Ronnarong Sujit Wongthet, ed. 1998. Khot Wong Watthanatham Thai pho' so' Thotsakan (Thotsakan's Ancestry). 253 7-2540 (The Campaign for Thai Bangkok: Matichon. Culture 1994-1997). Bangkok: n.p. Sulak Sivaraksa. 1993. The Crisis of NithiAiewsiwong. 1995. "So'ngRoiPi Siamese Identity. In National Iden• kho 'ng Kan Su 'ksa Prawattisat Thai tity and its Defender: Thailand, lae Thang Khang Na" (Two Hun• 1939-1989. ed. by Craig J. dred Years of Thai Historical Stud• Reynolds, pp. 41-58. Chiang Mai: ies and its ). In Krung Taek, Silkworm Books. Phra Cao Tak lae Prawattisat Thongchai Winichakul. 1994. Siam Thai (Broken City, King and Mapped: A History of the Geo• Thai History). Bangkok: Matichon. body ofa Nation. Chiang Mai: Silk• Phatravadi Mejudhon. 1998. Personal in• worm books. terview. 3 June. Vajiravudh, King (Phrabat Somdet Phra __. 1997. Sahatsadecha (Unpub• Mongkutklao Cao Yu Hua). 1959. lished script and programme). Ramakian Bot Ro 'ng lae Bot __ 1998. Sahatsadecha (Videotape Phak. Bangkok: Chulalongkorn recorded at the performance for the University. Ruam Phalang Han So 'ng 1960. Bo' Koet haeng Project). Ramakian. Bangkok: Kurusapha. __. 2001. Telephone interview. 20 Vella, Walter F. Chaiyo! King March. Vajiravudh and the Development Pornrat Damrhung. 1997. Nonthuk of Thai . USA.: The (Videotape). University Press of Hawaii. __. 1998. Personal interview. 24 Vichitr Vadakam, Luang. 1970. Maha March. Burut (The Great Men). 7'h ed. __. 1999. "Cultivating the Garden of Bangkok: Soemwit Bannakhan.

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Wanwipha Burutrattanaphan, Mo'm Wyatt, David K. 1996. "The 'Subtle Luang, ed. 1993. Nattasin Thai Revolution' of King Rama I of (Thai Dance and Drama), Published Siam". In Studies in Thai History. on the celebration of H.R.H. Maha Chiang Mai: Silkworm Chakri Sirindhom 's 36th birthday anniversary and proceeding of seminar on Thai dance and drama, 14-15 March 1991, Bangkok: Thai Khadi Research Institute, Thammasat University.

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