Opportunities of seaweeds in animal
Marinusproduction van Krimpen/Paul Bikker Wageningen University & Research Main challenges for the feed industry
1) Resource efficiency 2) Healthy animals and people
3) Responsible farming systems Seaweeds as a protein source
1) Resource efficiency Major developments affecting animal production
Increase in world population
Increase in income levels
Limited increase in arable land
Competition between feed and food
• Less arable land available for feed production How can the sea contribute?
• Shift from high-energy, high-digestible feed ingredients fibrous, low-digestible co-products gut health might be compromised
4 FAO report (2009)
Increase in world population (9.1 billion people in 2050)
Increase in income levels (higher level of prosperity)
Need to increase food production by 70% • Meat production: from 229 to 465 Mton (x 2.0) • Milk production: from 580 to 1043 Mton (x 1.8)
Only 5% increase in arable land
Conclusion: Feed production needs to grow drastically in the coming decades, whereas amount of fallow hectares is limited
5 European and global feed production (million tonnes)
1200 1000 800 600 Europe 400 Global ed(ilo tonnes) Feed (million 200 0
EU feed production (2005 – 2016) 43% Global feed production (2005 – 2016) 60% Prospect 2050: 1,500 MTon Feed protein balance in EU-27 (2015-2016)
Category EU-production EU-consumption Rate of self (mln. ton (mln. ton sufficiency crude protein) crude protein) (%) Soybeanmeal 0.7 14.4 5% Rapeseedmeal 3.9 4.5 86% Sunflowermeal 1.0 2.1 47% Legumes 0.8 0.8 100% Oil seeds (no crushing) 0.3 0.3 100% Others (e.g. palm, DDGS, 4.2 4.8 86% wheat bran) Total plant protein 10.9 26.9 41% Animal proteins 0.8 0.9 90% Total all proteins 11.7 27.8 42%
7 Ingredients that meet the criteria to be considered as EU protein source
Category Protein source Oil seeds Proteins of soybeans, rapeseed and sunflower seed, after oil removal
Grain legumes Peas, field beans, lupine, chickpeas, and their concentrates
Forage legumes Lucerne (alfalfa)
Leaf proteins Grass, sugar beet leaves Aquatic proteins Seaweeds, microalgae, duckweed
Cereals and pseudo cereals Protein concentrates from oat and quinoa
Insects E.g. mealworm, housefly
Van Krimpen et al. (2013)
8 Protein yield of different sources (kg/hectare)
Yield in EU Protein Protein yield conditions content (ton/ha/y) (DM/ha/y) Wheat (reference) 11% 10 tons 1.1 tons Oil seeds – soybean 40% 1.5-3 tons 0.6-1.2 tons Oil seeds – rapeseed 25% 3 tons 0.75 ton Oil seeds – sunflower 23% 3 tons 0.7 ton Legumes (pulses) – peas/beans/ lupine 17-35% 4-6 tons 1-2 tons Legumes (forage) – lucerne 19% 13 tons 2.5 tons Leaves – grass 12% 10-15 tons 1.2-2 tons Leaves – (e.g. sugar beet leaves) 12% 4.5 tons 0.5 ton Cereals – oat 12-15% 3-5 tons 0.4-0.75 ton Pseudo cereals – quinoa 12-18% 3 tons 0.4-0.5 ton Macro algae - seaweed 10-30% 25 tons 2.5-7.5 tons Micro algae 25-50% 15-30 tons 4-15 tons Duckweed 35-45% 15-30 tons 5-14 tons
9 To conclude: a need for new protein sources How to fulfil this demand?
Increase crop yield Improve animals’ protein efficiency Close nutrient cycles to prevent waste (e.g. use of slaughter by- products)
Focus on new proteins with high yields/ha and no competition with arable land • Seaweeds, micro algae, duckweed • Insects • Leaf proteins
10 Seaweed as a protein source in feed: Past experience, literature 1940-1980
Seaweed used in animal diets in coastal regions (Norway, Ireland, UK, France
Up to 10% in diets for cattle, horses, poultry
Mainly Ascophyllum nodosum, wild populations
Low CP digestibility (fibre and phenolic compounds)
No sound information on feeding value
Studies with seaweed supplements difficult to interpret
11 Classification of seaweeds
12 Simplified classification of seaweeds
Phylum Common # of species Examples name Ascophyllum Nodosum Fucus: kelp Laminaria digitata: Finger kelp Phaeophyta Brown algae 1500 – 2000 Saccharina latisima: Sugar kelp Sargassum: hijiki a.o. Undularia Chondrus Crispus Gelidium: agar Gracilaria: agar Rhodophyta Red algae 4000 – 10000 Palmaria palmata: dulse Polysiphonia Porphyra: laver, nori Caulerpa: sea grape Chlorophyta Green algae 7000 Cladophora Ulva lactuca: sea lettuce
Bold species: Promising for cultivation in the North Sea
13 Composition of selected seaweeds, g/kg DM
Group: Brown algae Red algae Green algae
Genera: Laminaria/Saccharina Palmaria Ulva
HK LC HK LC HK LC
DM, % 6-27 – 16 – 20-22 –
Ash 150–450 270–363 120–270 190 110–550 194
Crude protein 30–210 108–124 80–350 178 40–440 235
Crude fat 3–21 47–96 2–38 83 3–16 28
Carbohydrates 380–610 – 380–660 – 150–650 –
HK = Holdt and Kraan (2011) LC = Lopez-Contreras et al. (2012)
14 Composition of seaweeds: Example ash content
Colour: brown, red, green species SC = Scotland, IE = Ireland, FR = France, NS = North Sea, IEX = extracted product Ireland
Bikker et al. (2017) 15 Composition of seaweeds: Proximate components (g/kg DM)
• Large variation: species and location; • High ash; moderate crude protein; low fat and starch; high NSP
Bikker et al. (2017) 16 Composition of seaweeds: Protein and amino acids (g/kg DM)
• Large variation in CP; green > red > brown; • Reasonable AA-pattern, limited species difference in essential amino acids • High variation in non-essential amino acids (ALA en GLU)
Bikker et al. (2017) 17 In vitro digestibility (~boisen, after filtration) Organic matter (OM) and nitrogen (N)
• 6h simulates ileal digestibility, 24h simulates total tract digestibility
• Large variation in nutrient digestibility between species and locations • Moderate “ileal” N and “total-tract” OM digestibility (soybean meal ≥95%)
Bikker et al. (2017)
18 Conservation of seaweed (Saccharina Latissima); storage as silage
19 Saccharina Latissima, fresh and silage; Nutrients and in vitro digestibility OM and N
Nutrients in DM, g/kg OM Crude protein
Saccharina fresh 535 67
Saccharina washed 575 85
Saccharina silage 626 128
Saccharina silage washed 710 135
20 Conclusions on effects of seaweed silage
In silage: Saccharina structure relatively intact
In silage: higher OM and CP content, presumably due to loss of sugars (and lactic acid?) and minerals in liquor during ensiling
Washing to a lesser extent has a similar effect, presumably due to osmotic shock and cell disruption.
Loss of soluble material lower digestibility of remaining OM.
Relatively small effect of N digestibility
Bikker et al. (2017)
21 Seaweed protein digestibility in animal studies
Very limited quantitative data from studies with substantial intact seaweed inclusion levels
Study of El-Deek (2009) in broilers: • 25% inclusion of red seaweeds (Polysiphonis SPP) • Oven dried for 72h at 600C • Total Protein Efficiency (body weight gain / protein consumption): Control diet: 2.63 Seaweed diet: 1.26
22 Saccharina silage and silage residue in broilers
Washed silage and silage residue (oven dried, 35°C) 10% included in a basal diet via dilution (except vit./min.) 5 pens with 10 birds/treatment Treatments from day 14-22
Items Basal B + B + SED P diet silage residue BW day 14 504 507 511 5.2 0.435
FI, d 14-22 (g) 890b 954a 974a 14.6 <0.001
BWG, d 14-22 (g) 540ab 513b 550a 13.5 0.052
FCR, d 14-22 1.65c 1.86a 1.77b 0.024 <0.001
DC OM of diet, % 82.1a 72.6c 75.1b 0.89 <0.001 DC CP seaweed, % --- 65.9 69.4 6.24 0.587
Bikker et al. (2017)
23 Seaweeds as a protein source ?
Potentially, seaweeds can contribute to the increasing protein demand
Variation in crude protein content selection for protein-rich species
In vitro protein digestibility moderate in intact seaweeds
In vivo protein digestibility limited data, moderate in intact seaweeds
Extraction of protein from seaweeds might be promising
Wageningen – Olmix started a 4-year project to work on this topic Bioactive components in seaweeds
2) Healthy animals and people Intestinal epithelium: function of cells
Epithelial layer • Intestinal epithelial cells (IESC): nutrient absorption • Paneth cells: production of antimicrobial peptides (AMP) • Goblet cells: mucus production • Stromal cells: connective tissue cells
Lamina propia / Peyer's patch • Dendritic cells: recognition virus /bacteria/toxins • Macrophages: innate immune response / phagocytosis • Neutrophil: innate immune response / phagocytosis
Peyer's patch • B cell : IgA production • M cell : recognition antigens
Intestine • 75% of immune system • 1014 microbiota (800-1200 species) Gut barrier function
Balanced gut Imbalanced gut Intact epithelial barrier Epithelial barrier defect Clearance of pathogens Pathogens invade periphery Repair damage Fluid loss (diarrhea) Immune–memory Chronic inflammation
Inflammation Bioactive components in seaweeds Bioactive compounds in seaweeds
Demonstrated effects
• Antibacterial activity
• Antioxidant potential
• Anti-inflammatory properties
• Anti-coagulant activity
• Anti-viral activity
• Apoptotic activity O’Sullivan et al. (2010)
29 Bioactive compounds in seaweeds
Polysaccharides in Brown seaweeds • Alginates • Laminarin • Fucoidan • Cellulose
Polysaccharides in Green seaweeds • Ulvan
Polysaccharides in Red seaweeds • Agars • Carrageenans
O’Sullivan et al. (2010)
30 Response IPEC-J2 cells to seaweed extracts with and without an challenge with E.coli
IPEC-J2 cells were grown for 6 -7 days; layer of cells resembles an artificial epithelial layer Seaweed extracts: Fucoidan and Laminarin from brown seaweed Ulvans from green seaweed
2 hr + Seaweed extracts Plus ETEC mRNA Microarray 6 hr (Gene expression)
IPEC-J2 cells Microarray (Gene expression) + Seaweed extracts 2 hr NO ETEC mRNA 6 hr
Budan et al. (2017)
31 Response IPEC-J2 cells to seaweed extracts with and without an challenge with E.coli
Fucoidan and Laminarin from brown Ulvans from green seaweed seaweed
Functions of differential expressed Functions of differential expressed genes genes related to: related to:
• Cell proliferation • Cell differentiation/proliferation • Protein degradation (with/without ETEC) • Energy metabolism • Oxidative stress • Immune responses • Gut integrity (inflammation) in ETEC • Antigen recognition challenged cells • Vitamin C anti-oxidation pathway • increased aspartate/ glutamate intestinal transporter
Budan et al. (2017)
32 Marine-sulphated polysaccharides (MSPs)
Extract from green seaweed (Ulva armoricana)
In vitro anti-bacterial activity against e.g.: • Pasteurella multocida • Mannheimia haemolytica • Staphylococcus aureus • Streptococcus suis
In vitro immune response mediators were stimulated • Higher expression of cytokines (IL1α, IL1β, L6, IL8, TNFα, TGFβ) • Higher expression of chemokines (CCL20) • Higher expression PPARγ
Berri et al. (2016)
33 Seaweeds in Atlantic Salmon
Study with Atlantic Salmon (378 g for 42 d), challenged with LPS at the end of the experiment and sampled after 68-70h
Treatments: 1) Fishmeal based basal diet, 2) diet with 10% Laminaria digitata, 3) diet with 10% seaweed (commercial blend)
No effect on growth levels, worse FCR in the seaweed-based diets
RNA sequencing data showed improved immunomodulatory effects in the seaweed-fed Salmon
(Palstra et al., 2015)
34 Brown seaweed (A. nodosum) in weaned piglets
Study with weaned piglets (5 wk, 9 kg BW, supplementation for 11 d)
Treatments: Basal diet (BD), BD + 1% SW, BD + 2% SW
No effect on levels of streptococci and total anaerobes in gastric and proximal gut microbiota
Reduced abundance of E. coli (stomach, proximal gut) and increased abundance of lactobacilli (proximal gut) in BD + 1% SW
Growth performance parameters not determined
(Dierick et al., 2009)
35 Sow supplementation of fucoidan, laminarin or both: effects on the offspring
Study with sows (day 107 of gestation until weaning (day 24). Piglets followed from weaning until slaughter (day 117)
Treatments: • Basal diet (BD) • BD + 1.0 g Laminarin/d • BD + 0.8 g Fucoidan/d • BD + 1.0 g Laminarin +0.8 g Fucoidan/d
Effects on: • Growth performance • Faecal excretion of Enterobacteriaceae • Gut integrity • Genes expression (Heim et al., 2015)
36 Sow supplementation of fucoidan, laminarin or both: effects on BW of the offspring
Body weight (kg) development over time 120
100
80
60
Bodyweight (kg) 40
20
0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 Week after weaning
Control FUC LAM LAM+FUC
(Heim et al., 2015)
37 Sow supplementation of fucoidan, laminarin or both: effects on FCR of the offspring
Development of FCR over time 3,0
2,5
2,0
1,5
1,0 FeedConversion Ratio
0,5
0,0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 Week after weaning
Control FUC LAM LAM+FUC
(Heim et al., 2015)
38 Sow supplementation of fucoidan, laminarin or both: explanatory factors
Sow faecal Enterobacteriaceae: higher values in Fucoidan-sows; no effect in Fuc-Lam sows
At weaning shorter villi in ileum of piglets from Fuc-sows
Longer villi in the ileum at day 8 post-weaning in piglets from Lam-sows
Downregulation of IL-6 mRNA in colon at weaning and IL-8 in ileum on d8 post-weaning in pigs from the Lam-sows
Conclusion: Maternal laminarin supplementation: positive effects on intestinal health post- weaning and pig growth performance during the grower-finisher period.
(Heim et al., 2015)
39 Brown seaweed (A. nodosum) in Campylobacter jejuni challenged young broilers
Ross broilers challenged at d3 with Campylobacter jejuni Diets (d0-10) with 0, 500 and 1000 ppm Ascophyllum nodosum extract (MSP’s mannitol, laminarin and fucoidan)
Results (d0 –d10) 0 ppm 500 pm 1000 ppm ADG (g/d) 17.0a 15.5b 15.1c ADFI (g/d) 26.0a 24.8b 24.6c FCR (g/g) 1.55a 1.62ab 1.66b a b b C. Jejuni counts (Log10 CFU/g f.) 7.8 7.1 7.1 Villus height (µm) 288a 321ab 351a
Higher expression of tight-junction genes No data after d10 need for an experiment including the whole cycle
(Sweeney et al., 2016)
40 Prebiotic effects of red seaweeds in laying hens
Study with Lohmann Brown Classic laying hens (67 wk, 4-wk exp.)
Chondrus crispus and Sarcodiotheca gaudichaudii (0.5%, 1% or 2%)
No negative effects on hen performance, blood serum profile; improved FCR with 2% seaweeds
Improved villus height and villus surface with 2% red seaweeds
Higher abundance of beneficial bacteria (e.g. bifido)
Lower abundance of unfavourable bacteria (Clostridium perfringens)
Higher concentrations of short-chain fatty acids
(Kulshreshta et al., 2014)
41 Conclusions on seaweeds and healthy animals
Seaweeds are sources of bioactive components
These components demonstrated a lot of health improving properties via in vitro studies as well as via in vivo studies in fish, pigs, broilers and laying hens.
Some studies show long-term effects of seaweed components
Not all components respond in similar ways (laminarin vs. fucoidan)
There is a need to find the balance between gut health and performance
42 Responsible farming systems Responsible farming systems
Arts impression seaweed farm (http://www.noordzeeboerderij.nl) Sustainability aspects of seaweeds
No competition with arable crops (no land use)
No need to use fertilizers for seaweed cultivation (low CO2-footprint); reabsorption of C, N, and P from soil waters/sea (nutrient cycles)
Demonstrated methane emission reducing effects in ruminants by feeding red seaweeds (Asparogopsis taxiformis)
Reduction of emissions from agriculture because of soil improvement
Energy used for processing and drying will increase CO2-footprint
(Duarte et al., 2017)
45 Take-home message
Seaweeds might be considered as a (future) resource of valuable nutrients (protein, ...)
Seaweeds might improve the (gut) health status of farm animals
Seaweeds might positively contribute to responsible farming systems
46 Thank you for your attention! [email protected]