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Home , Agamudayar, Berava (caste), Karaiyar, Pallar, Radala, Salagama

“KALAM” International Journal of Faculty of Arts and Culture, South Eastern University of

A Historical Survey of Social Class and System in Sri Lanka

Riswan, M South Eastern University of Sri Lanka

Abstract This study analyzes the practices of social stratification along the lines of stratification theory and relevant published materials. This paper highlighted the social stratification, especially social class and caste systems exercising by Sinhalese, and Muslims communities in Sri Lanka. This study found that the social class has developed among Sinhalese, Tamils and Muslims historically, and Sinhalese and Tamils who make up majority of the population in the country have their own distinctive caste system consequently. Key words: Stratification, Social Class, and Caste

Background of the Study Lankan communities even though the other Social stratification is the hierarchal system social and economical distinctions are that society uses to rank and categorize accessible in the country. people. Sociologists claim that social Objective of the Study stratification is a natural consequence in every The main objective of this paper is to society (Ursula Sharma, 2002). There are scrutinize the development of social class various types of social stratification systems system among Sri Lankan communities through out the universe. In Sri Lanka, there historically and to understand the types of are four key elements that comprise social social stratification, especially caste system stratification: caste, class, gender, and among Sinhalese and Tamil communities ethnicity. Based on these elements of significantly. stratification, the social class and caste system developed in Sri Lanka historically. Methodology of the Study The class systems are based on individual This is basically a qualitative study which is achievement, and social mobility is the constructed based on the conceptual foundation of the class system. Caste system framework of stratification. Data for this is the system of division of labor and power in study have been gathered from various human society. The caste system is one form resources of the secondary information of a social stratification and it is based on schemes such as published journals, articles, ascription, meaning that there is no social books and electronic documents. The primary mobility within the society (Fuller, C.J., data also has been gathered from the 1996). Therefore, this paper tries to structured interview with key informants. The emphasize the social class and caste systems following groups of people were interviewed among Sri Lankan communities with the as key informants; Academics; Religious evaluation and the overview of the historical leader; Experienced people.This paper evidences and records. analyzes the data of social stratification along the lines of organizational theory and relevant Problem Statement published materials. Every society has maintained its stratification in various forms as the stratification is Conceptualizing Social Class identified as natural one in all societies. Social classes are economic or cultural Therefore, this study is significant as it arrangements of groups in society. Social explore how the social class and caste systems class is often discussed in terms of 'social are maintaining social strata among Sri stratification'. Stratification typically VOLUME VIII (1), JUNE 2014 ISSN: 1391-6815 P a g e | 40 “KALAM” International Journal of Faculty of Arts and Culture, South Eastern University of Sri Lanka

comprises of three layers: upper class, middle oversimplifies the analysis of student’s class, and lower class. behavior in school. The study found that Spectrum of Social Classes in Society integrating race and class, and race and gender, it argues that, attending only to race oversimplifies behavior analysis and may Upper contribute to perpetuation of gender and class Class biases.

An article written by Mondal “Essay on the Caste-Class Nexus in ”, which

Middle contains the structural historical perspective Class of caste and class system among Hindu society in India. And the author examined how Hindu society composed and practiced Lower their own caste and class system by using Class different approaches. The article analyzes that the class has been an in-build mechanism within caste, and therefore, caste cannot be seen simply as a ‘ritualistic’ system, and class Thus, it can be discussed in the above cannot be seen as an open system as it has mentioned social class structure and its trend often been influenced by the institution of in Sri Lankan society historically. caste.

Literature Review Brian K. Smith has written a book titled Literatures related to this study are also “Classifying the Universe: The Ancient Indian amalgamated in this paper. Allison Davis et Varna System and the Origins of Caste”, al. (1941) done a research on “Deep South: A which comprehensively examines the ‘Varna’ Social Anthropological Study of Caste and (Chathurvarna) system and its origination laid Class”. In this study, the American cast and out in the classical Hindu Vedic literature and class were analyzed especially lower Negro thought to underline the concept of caste, caste systems. Meantime, the white caste which continue to exert a powerful and (whit upper, white middle, white lower) and pervasive influence over Indian life. social mobility within the white caste is also investigated by the authors. Further, the study Many studies carried out and provided reveals the division of labor (based on caste different finding and conclusion on the basis and class structure) and its exercises in the of the study area and the research content. So, plantation sector economy and it identifies this study basically focuses the social how caste and class control the land in old stratification; class and caste systems period. Also this study elaborates the followed by the Sri Lankan communities relationship between caste and race based on within the multi cultural sphere. anthropological perspective. The research paper titled “Race, Class, and Social Class in Sri Lanka Society: Gender in Education Research: An Argument Historical View for Integrative Analysis” authored by Carl A. By the late 19th century, the upper class Grant and Christine E. Sleeter, explores that natives of Ceylon (called as Ceylonese by the the race, social class, and gender tend to be British) formed a second class group in their treated as separate issues in education own land, serving to their colonial masters. literatures. And this study illustrates how This upper class of Ceylonese derived their attention to only one status group wealth from land holdings that were passed

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down the generations and derived their power Following the failure of the socialist from severing in posts in the British colonial economic drive of the 1970s the new administration (Ceylon Gazetteer, 1855). government of J. R. Jayawardena opens up the At first, these were limited to post special countries economy to free market reforms. As posts reserved for natives such as Rate well as the free education introduced by Mahattaya in the central highland and the C.W.W. Kanangara also derived many Mudaliyars in the coastal areas, latter as new changes in the social class structure of Sri generation of this native chieftains grew up Lanka historically (De Silva, K. M., 2005). educated in the Christian missionary schools, st public schools modeled after their English Social Class in 21 Century counter parts and at British Universities. They The direct result of the changes of the 1970s th were taken into the prestigious Ceylon civil and 1980s was witnessed only at the late 20 st services; others took up places in the century and start of the 21 century. Today, legislative and later the state council. Entering Sri Lanka’s social structure is based purely on into this upper class were successful money and power consequently. There are merchants who gained wealth in the lucrative four main class component comprised the st mining industry of the time. A middle class hierarchy in Sri Lanka in the 21 century. emerged at this period of a bourgeois people who gained their status by professions or by Upper class business. The upper class in Sri Lanka is statistically very small and consists of industrialists, th The 20 century brought several changes to businessmen, senior executives and serving the social structure of Sri Lanka. By the 1940s government ministers. These people are the when Ceylon gained independence from the wealthiest in the land, some having inherited British in 1948, there were four social groups. money and position, and otherhaving earned it Upper class made up primary of landowners, themselves. Their educational background the upper middle class of educated may vary, but they typically send their professionals holding traditional jobs such as children to national, private or international Lawyers, Doctor, Army Officers, Academics, schools to be educated in English and Senior Civil Servant and Police officers and thereafter send them to overseas Universities. merchants. The political leader of new came from these two Upper middle class classes (Ceylon Gazetteer, 1855). The upper middle class in Sri Lanka consists of bourgeois and educated professionals who Lower middle class made up persons who generally come from educated background, were educated but held less prestigious, but having been educated at public or private respected jobs such as lower level public schools and local or foreign universities. servants, policemen and teachers. This order Traditional jobs include Lawyers, Doctors, changed dramatically in the 1970s due to the Military Officers, Academics, Senior Civil land reformation brought on by the Servants and Managers. They typically send government of who their children (depending on family income, limited private ownership of land to 50 acres traditions, residence) to national, private or and excess land was nationalized along with international schools to be educated in many industries. This rendered the wealthiest English or in their local languages. For that made up the upper class and upper middle university education, they may be sent to class who greatly dependent on a secondary overseas universities or local private higher income void of their income and with it their education institutions depending on family power. income.

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The lower middle class Lanka by -language-speakers from The lower middle class in Sri Lanka consists North India. Whether the similar Jāti like of people in white-collar jobs living in less separation of society existed prior to this prosperous suburbs. This class constitutes the invasion is unknown (Mahawamsa, 2007). Sri largest of Sri Lanka’s social groups. Typically Lanka’s caste system is divided in to five they have not have had a university education, major types. and send their children to national or 1. Caste among Sinhalese: Kandiyan (Up- provincial schools to be educated in their local Country) languages (depending on family residence or 2. Caste among Sinhalese: Southern (Low- scholarship). For university education, if Country) selected they may be sent to local state 3. Caste among : universities, if not private higher education Northern Caste institutions. 4. Caste among Sri Lankan Tamils: Eastern The poor Caste These people would typically be on low 5. Caste among Tamils: Hill Country incomes and dependent on state benefits (food Tamils (Indian Origin) and other economic subsidies provided by the government). Many reside in the slums or Caste among Sinhalese shanty towns of cities or underdeveloped rural The majority caste among the Sinhalese areas. They send their children to provincial population now is the Goyigama. It appears schools to be educated in their local that the Goyigama comprise at least half of languages: Sinhala or Tamil. This class the Sinhalese population. The traditional category is normally considered in the bottom occupation of this caste is cultivation, and level of class spectrum in Sri Lanka. most members are still farmers in villages Conceptualizing ‘Caste’ almost many places in Sri Lanka. In Caste system is the system of division of labor traditional Sinhalese society, they were the and power in human society. Majumthar and landed proprietors. The Sinhalese system is C.N. Madan stated that ‘the caste as a closed divided between the Kandiyan (up) and Low group’ (Rao Sankar, 2008). So, as a South country. Asian country, Sri Lanka has a complex caste system and as a result extensive caste Kandyan (Up-Country) Caste System discrimination, even though its constitution In the central highland, some traditions of the states that all men and women are equal Kingdom of survived after its collapse before law. The Caste system in Sri Lanka is a in 1818, preserved in unique forms of the division of society into strata, differing caste system until the post independence somewhat from the classic Varnas of North period. The most important feature of the old India but is similar in nature to the Jāti system system was Rajakariya, or the ‘King’s work’ found in . So, it can be examined which linked each caste to a specific the caste systems and its distribution among occupation and demanded services for the Sinhala and Tamil communities. court and religious institutions (e-sources: ref. 12, 13). System in Sri Lanka It is one of many systems in the world. As The connection of caste and job is still everywhere, a Sri Lankan caste can be stronger in the central highland, and at events functional, religious, ethnic, tribal or even such as the Kandy Perahara, an annual festival composite in origin. Caste as we know it honoring Hindu Gods and the Load Buddha, today appears to have been introduced to Sri the various castes still perform traditional VOLUME VIII (1), JUNE 2014 ISSN: 1391-6815 P a g e | 43 “KALAM” International Journal of Faculty of Arts and Culture, South Eastern University of Sri Lanka

functions. The Goyigama in the highland Porowakkara Wood cutters differ from those of the low country because Bathgama Traditionally cultivators they preserve occupational divisions within Aristocracy of the the caste such as Patti (Herdsmen), Kandyan Kingdom Porowakara (wood-cutters) etc. Wahumpura Merchants, (Dewa) Confectioners and In the highlands of live the Military personals Bathgama or Padu, another caste of Hannali Tailors agricultural laborers who have escaped the Panna Grass cutters British period consolidation of the cultivator Rodiya Outcastes caste. Also untouchable Rodiya and the Rajaka Dhobis, Washermen Kinnaraya, who display the vestiges of a Berava Tom-tom beaters hunter-gather tribe, were traditionally (traditional drummers) segregated from other groups because of their Navandanna Artisans basic status. Living in all areas are service (E-sources: ref. 11) groups, such as the Hena or Rada, traditional washer-men who still dominate the laundry Low Country (Southern) Caste trade; the Bereva, traditional temple There are still major differences between the drummers who work as cultivators in many caste structure of the highland and those of the villages; and the Navandanna or Achari types low country, although some service groups are traditional artisan. The highland interior is are common to both. The South-west coast is home to the Wahumpura or traditional makers home to three major castes other than the of (sugar made from palm sap), who majority Goyigama common to both low- have spread throughout the country in a wide country and up-country, whose ancestors are variety of occupations, especially believed have migrated from South-west India (e-sources: ref. 12, 13). The following table but who have become important actors in the details the Kandyan (up-country) caste Sinhalese social system: the , the systems followed by Sinhalese. Durawa and the Karawa (Bryce Ryan, 1953). Table: 1 List of Kandyan (Up-Country) These groups have exploited their traditional Castes occupation and their coastal positions to accumulate wealth and influence during the Name of Caste Occupation(s) of Caste colonial period. By the late twentieth century, Group Group members of Southern castes, especially by the Goyigama Traditional cultivators, Salagamas, had moved to all parts of the farmers and herdsmen country, occupied high business and academic Ahinkuntaya Gypsies positions. Formerly untouchable Rodiya and Pamunu Tenant farmers Kinnaraya are also found in the low country. The following table shows the caste systems Pannikki Barbers of low-country (Southern) Sinhalese. Table: 2List of Low-Country (Southern) Caste

Name of Caste Group Occupation(s) of Caste Group Salagama tapers, Soldiers & Weavers. Karawa Traditional fishermen, naval warriors, seafaring traders, boat builders, carpenters & pioneering planters.

Durawa Traditional Soldiers and toddy tappers. Navandanna Artisans (Many subcategories) VOLUME VIII (1), JUNE 2014 ISSN: 1391-6815 P a g e | 44 “KALAM” International Journal of Faculty of Arts and Culture, South Eastern University of Sri Lanka

Goyigama Traditional cultivators, land workers and herdsmen Wahumpura (Dewa) Merchants, Confectioners, Military personals. Berava Tom-tom beaters (traditional drummers) Badahala (Kumbal) Potters Hannali Tailors Pamunu Tenant farmers Porowakkara Wood cutters Rodiya Outcastes Gattara Cultivators Hinna Washers Pannikki Barbers Rajaka (Hena) Washer-men Ahinkuntaya Gypsies (E-sources: ref. 11)

Castes amongst Sri Lankan Tamils In the east coast, the fisher castes are Just like amongst the Sinhalese, the caste dominant numerically that they have used to structure of the Northern Tamils is create ritual superiority over other castes somewhat different compared to the Eastern except the who seem to be newer Tamils. Northern Tamil caste system is arrivals from the North. Paradoxically, the mostly dominated by the Vellalar except in Mukkuvars who are at the bottom of the some coastal region where the Karayar have caste hierarchy in the North numerical and ritual superiority over others. are almost at the top in the East. The following table specifies the castes followed by Northern Tamils.

Table: 3List of Northern Tamil Castes

Name of Caste Group Occupation(s) of Caste Group Vellalar Farmers Farm hands Nalavar Toddy tapper Thimilar Fishers Primanar (Iyar) Brahmin priests Fishers, soldiers & landholders Landholders Thurumber Washers for toddy tappers and other low-caste families Koviar Temple workers Fishers Paraiyar Tom-tom beaters (traditional drummers) (E-sources: ref. 11)

The above table shows the details of Northern Tamil castes, and the following table demonstrates the main caste systems and their occupation among Tamil community in the Eastern province of Sri Lanka.

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“KALAM” International Journal of Faculty of Arts and Culture, South Eastern University of Sri Lanka

Table: 4List of Eastern Tamil Castes

Name of Caste Group Occupation(s) of Caste Group Mukkuvar Land holders, fishers and farm hands Tattar Gold smiths Thacher Carpenters Thimilar Land holders, fishers and farm hands Vettar Hunters Karaiyar Land holders and fishers Vellelar Farmers Landholders

(E-sources: ref. 11)

Castes amongst Hill Country Tamils framework of religious believes and thoughts. The Tamils of Indian origin or Hill Country Among Sri Lankan Muslims, some descent Tamils who were brought over by the British groups were maintained their class system as indentured laborers were mainly from the during the colonial and post-colonial period in lower Indian castes. Their caste structure various levels. And now, they performed their resembles that of villages. social events on the basis of social class in According to Professor Bertram Bastianpillai, terms of education, business, property and they were brought from Tamil Nadu cities of power. But, Muslims in Sri Lanka have not Thirunelvely, Tiruchi, and Tanjore associated with any kinds of caste formations were recruited from 1827. Those who are like Sinhalese and Tamil communities in the considered to be of higher castes such as country. Maravar, Kallar, Agamudayar and Vellalar occupied the first row of line rooms. They Conclusion performed respectable jobs such as factory This paper mainly focused the social work and grinding of tea. They worked as stratification, especially social class and caste minor employees too. Even though they systems operating by Sinhalese, Tamils and belong to the labor category they were Muslims communities in Sri Lanka. In this influential among conductors, tea makers, backdrop, it can be understood the fact that Knanganies or supervisors and other officials. the class system have developed among The workers considered low castes lived in Sinhalese, Tamils and Muslims on the basis of the dwellings that are away from the center various socio-economical and political aspects and these dwelling are called distant or lower historically from the period of colonial era to lines. This group consists of Pallar, Paraiyar, post-colonial structure. And this study Sakkiliar, Washers and Barbers. The yard highlighted that the caste system is followed sweepers and changes of clothes are in the by the Sinhalese and Tamils widely in the lowest rank (Bryce Ryan, 1953). country on the basis of various socio- economical, cultural, religious and ritual Does Caste is following by Muslims in Sri aspects. So, the Sinhalese and Tamils who Lanka? make up majority of the population in the Caste is not an issue among Muslims country have their own distinctive caste everywhere in the universe. This caste system system consequently. is not considered as an important stratification instrument in Sri Lanka society. But, many sects are practicing by Muslims within the VOLUME VIII (1), JUNE 2014 ISSN: 1391-6815 P a g e | 46

“KALAM” International Journal of Faculty of Arts and Culture, South Eastern University of Sri Lanka

References 1. Allison Davis, Burleigh Bradford 8. Ursula Sharma, 2002, Caste, Vinod Gardner and Mary R. Gardner., (1941), Vasishtha for Viva Books Private Ltd., “Deep South: A Social Anthropological New Delhi. Study of Caste and Class”, University 9. Mahawamsa,2007.Edited by Sri of South Carolina Press. Sumangala Theoro, : Buddhist 2. Brian K. Smith., “Classifying the cultural Center Universe: The Ancient Indian Varna 10. 1855 Ceylon Gazetteer Page 55. System and the Origins of Caste”, 11. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caste_syst available at Ameson.com. em_in_Sri_Lanka 3. Bryce Ryan, Caste in Modern Ceylon, 12. http://www.cal.org/co/pdffiles/backgrou Rutgers University Press, 1953. nderbhutanese.pdf.updated oct.4.2007 4. Carl A. Grant and Christine E. Sleeter., 13. http://www.beyondbooks.com/wcuqi/3g (1986), “Race, Class, and Gender in .aspaccessed-mondayjuly30,2007. Education Research: An Argument for 14. http://www.google.com/xhtml.q=caste/ Integrative Analysis”, University of 20system%20in%20south%20asiaØclie Wisconsin. nt=ms-updatedaug-29-2001 5. De Silva, K. M. (2005). A History of Sri 15. http://drdivas.word Lanka. Colombo: Vijitha Yapa. press.com/2001/3/4know-nepal-caste- 6. Fuller, C.J., 1996, Caste Today, Manzar ethnicity-andlanguages% Khan, Oxford University Press, YMCA 16. http://www.desiwist.com/freedom- Library Building, Jal Sing Road, New castle/castes -pakistan-135.html. Delhi. 17. http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/socie 7. Rao Shankar, C.N., 2008, Sociology ty/essay-on-the-caste-class-nexus-in- Primary Principles of Sociology with india/4086/. an Introduction to Social Thought, S. Chand & Company, New Delhi.

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