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Carpet A carpet is a textile floor covering consisting of an upper layer of "pile" attached to a backing. The pile is generally either made from wool or a man made fibre such aspolypropylene, nylon or polyester and usually consists of twisted tufts which are often heat- treated to maintain their structure. Etymology and usage The widespread popularity of carpets has inspired stories of the magic carpet, a legendary carpet that can be used to transport people who are on it instantaneously or quickly to their destination. The term carpet comes from Old French carpite, from Ol d Italian carpita, "carpire" meaning to pluck.[1][2] The term "carpet" is often used interchangeably with the term "rug".

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Some define a carpet as stretching from wall to wall.[3] Another definition treats rugs as of lower quality or of smaller size, with carpets quite often having finished ends. A third common definition is that a carpet is permanently fixed in place while a rug is simply laid out on the floor. Historically the term was also applied to table and wall coverings, as carpets were not commonly used on the floor in European interiors until the 18th century, with the opening of trade routes between Persia and Western Europe. Carpet types

Swatches of carpet of tufted construction

Drying carpets in a village factory (Ourika Valley, Morocco) Woven The carpet is produced on a loom quite similar to woven fabric. The pile can be plush or Berber. Plush carpet is a cut pile and Berber carpet is a loop pile. There are new styles of carpet combining the two styles called cut and loop carpeting. Normally many colored yarns are used and this process is capable of producing intricate patterns from predetermined designs (although some limitations apply to certain weaving methods with regard to accuracy of pattern within the carpet). These carpets are usually the most expensive due to the relatively slow speed of the manufacturing process. These are very famous in India, Pakistan and Arabia. Needle felt These carpets are more technologically advanced. Needle felts are produced by intermingling and felting individual synthetic fibers using barbed and forked needles forming an extremely durable carpet. These carpets are normally found in commercial settings such as hotels and restaurants where there is frequent traffic. Knotted On a knotted pile carpet (formally, a supplementary weft cut-loop pile carpet), the structural weft threads alternate with a supplementary weft that rises at right angles to the surface of the weave. This supplementary weft is attached to the warp by one of three knot types (see below), such as shag carpet which was popular in the 1970s, to form the pile or nap of the carpet. Knotting by hand is most prevalent in oriental rugs and carpets. Kashmir carpets are also hand-knotted. Tufted These are carpets that have their pile injected into a backing material, which is itself then bonded to a secondary backing made of a woven hessian weave or a man made alternative to provide stability. The pile is often sheared in order to achieve different textures. This is the most common method of manufacturing of domestic carpets for floor covering purposes in the world. Others A flatweave carpet is created by interlocking warp (vertical) and weft (horizontal) threads. Types of oriental flatwoven carpet include kilim, soumak, p lain weave, and tapestry weave. Types of European flatwoven carpets include Venetian, Dutch, damask, list, haircloth, and ingrain (aka double cloth, two-ply, triple cloth, or three-ply). A hooked rug is a simple type of rug handmade by pulling strips of cloth such as wool or cotton through the meshes of a sturdy fabric such as burlap. This type of rug is now generally made as a handicraft. Embroidery Unlike woven carpets, embroidery carp ets are not formed on a loom. Their pattern is established by the application of stitches to a cloth (often linen) base. The tent stitch and the cross stitch are two of the most common. Embroidered carpets were traditionally made by royal and aristocratic women in the home, but there has been some commercial manufacture since steel needles were introduced (earlier needles were made of bone) and linen weaving improved in the 16th century. Mary, Queen of Scots, is known to have been an avid embroiderer. 16th century designs usually involve scrolling vines and regional flowers (for example, the Bradford carpet). They often incorporate animal heraldry and the coat of arms of the maker. Production continued through the 19th century. Victorian embro idered carpet compositions include highly illusionistic, 3- dimensional flowers. Patterns for tiled carpets made of a number of squares, called Berlin wool work, were introduced in Germany in 1804, and became extremely popular in England in the 1830s. Embroidered carpets can also include other features such as a pattern of shapes, or they can even tell a story. Production of knotted pile carpet

A traditional carpet/rug design in preparation on a carpet loom.

A carpet seller in Jaipur, India Both flat and pile carpets are woven on a loom. Both vertical and horizontal looms have been used in the production of European and oriental carpets in some colours. The warp threads are set up on the frame of the loom before weaving begins. A number of weavers may work together on the same carpet. A row of knots is completed and cut. The knots are secured with (usually one to four) rows of weft. The warp in woven carpet is usually cotton and the weft is jute.[citation needed] There are several styles of knotting, but the two main types of knot are the symmetrical (also called Turkish or Ghiordes) and asymmetrical (also called Persian or Senna).

Flag of Turkmenistan Contemporary centres of carpet production are: Lahore and Peshawa r (Pakistan), Kashmir (In dia / Pakistan), Bhadohi, [4] Tabriz (Iran), Afghani stan, Armenia, Azerbaija n, Turkey, Northern Africa, Nepal,Spain, Tur kmenistan, and Tibet. The importance of carpets in the culture of Turkmenistan is such that the national flag features a vertical red stripe near the hoist side, containing five carpet guls (designs used in producing rugs). Kashmir (India) is known for handknotted carpets. These are usually of silk and some woolen carpets are also woven. Child labour has often been used in Asia. The GoodWeave labellin g scheme used throughout Europe and North America assures that child labour has not been used: importers pay for the labels, and the revenue collected is used to monitor centres of production and educate previously exploited children.[5]

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Fibres and yarns used in carpet Pitcher and mug on the background of a carpet Carpet can be made from many single or blended natural and synt hetic fibres. Fibres are chosen for durability, appearance, ease of manufacture, and cost. In terms of scale of production, the dominant yarn constructions are polyamides (nylons) and polypropylene with an estimated 90% of the commercial market.[6]

Nylon Nylon is the most common material for construction of carpets. Both nylon 6 and nylon 6-6 are used. Nylon can be dyed topically or dyed in a molten state (solution dying). Nylon can be printed easily and has excellent wear characteristics. In carpets nylon tends to stain easily because it possesses dye sites on the fibre. These dye sites need to be filled in order to give nylon any type of stain resistance. As nylon is petroleum- based it varies in price with the price of oil.

Polypropylene Polypropylene is used to produce carpet yarns because it is inexpensive. It is difficult to dye and does not wear as well as wool or nylon. Polypropylene is commonly used to construct berber carpets. In this case, polypropylene is commonly referred to as olefin. Large looped olefin berber carpets are usually only suited for light domestic use and tend to mat down quickly. Berber carpets with smaller loops tend to be more resilient and retain their new appearance longer than large looped berber styles. Commercial grade level-loop carpets have very small loops, and commercial grade cut-pile styles are well constructed. When made with polypropylene these styles wear very well, making them very suitable for areas with heavy foot traffic such as offices. Polypropylene carpets are known to have good stain resistance but not against oil based agents. If a stain does set, it can be difficult to clean. Commercial grade carpets can be glued directly to the floor or installed over a 1/4" thick, 8-pound density padding. Outdoor grass carpets are usually made from polypropylene.[7]

Wool and wool-blends Sausage carpet (wool) Wool has excellent durability, can be dyed easily and is fairly abundant. When blended with synthetic fibres such as nylon the durability of wool is increased.

Blended wool yarns are extensively used in production of modern carpet, with the most common blend being 80% wool to 20% synthetic fibre, giving rise to the term "80/20". Wool is relatively expensive and consequently a small portion of the market.

Polyester The polyester known as "PET" (polyethylene terephthalate) is used in carpet manufacturing in both spun and filament constructions. After the price of raw materials for many types of carpet rose in the early 2000s, polyester became more competitive. Polyester has good physical properties and is inherently stain-resistant because it is hydrophobic, and, unlike nylon, does not have dye sites. Colour is infused in a molten state (solution dyeing). Polyester has the disadvantage that it tends to crush or mat down easily. It is typically used in mid- to low-priced carpeting. Another polyester, "PTT" (Polytrimethylene terephthalate), also called Sorona or 3GT (Dupont) or Corterra (Shell), is a variant of PET. Lurgi Zimmer PTT was first patented in 1941, but it was not produced until the 1990s, when Shell Chemicals developed the low-cost method of producing high-quality 1,3 propanediol (PDO), the starting raw material for PTT Corterra Polymers.

Acrylic Acrylic is a synthetic material first created by the Dupont Corporation in 1941 but has gone through various changes since it was first introduced. In the past acrylic used to fuzz or pill easily. This happened when the fibres degraded over time and short strands broke away with contact or friction. Over the years acrylics have been developed to alleviate some of these problems although the issues have not been completely removed. Acrylic is fairly difficult to dye but is colourfast, washable, and has the feel and appearance of wool, making it an ideal rug fabric. Carpet binding Carpet binding is a term used for any material being applied to the edge of a carpet to make a rug. Carpet binding is usually cotton or nylon, but also comes in many other materials such as leather. Non-synthetic binding is frequently used with bamboo, grass and wool rugs, but is often used with carpet made from other materials.

History

The Pazyryk Carpet, of Armenian origin, is the oldest known surviving carpet in the world, 5th century BC.

Carpet, made cotton (warp), silk (weft and pile), metal wrapped thread, 17th century, Iran, probably Isfahan.

History details The knotted pile carpet probably originated in the 3rd or 2nd millennium BC in West Asia, perhaps the Caspian Sea area[8] or theArmenian Highland, [9] although there is evidence of goats and sheep being sheared for wool and hair which was spun and woven as far back at the 7th millennium. The earliest surviving pile carpet is the "Pazyryk carpet", which dates from the 5th-4th century BC. It was excavated by Sergei Ivanovich Rudenko in 1949 from a Pazyryk burial mound in the Altai Mountains in Siberia. This richly coloured carpet is 200 x 183 cm (6'6" x 6'0") and framed by a border of griffins. [10] Many experts in oriental carpets hypothesize that it is of Urartian workmanshi p.[9][11]

Afghan carpets Main article: Afghan rug There has recently been a surge in demand for Afghan carpets, although many Afghan carpet manufacturers market their products under the name of a different country.[12] The carpets are made in Afghanistan, as well as by Afghan refugees who reside in Pakistan and Iran.[13] Afghan rugs are usually inexpensive. Famous Afghan rugs include the Shindand or Adraska n (named after local Afghan villages), woven in the Herat area, in western Afghanistan.

Armenian carpets Main article: Armenian carpet Armenian carpets were renowned by foreigners who travelled to Artsakh; the Arab geographer and historian Al-Masudi not ed that, among other works of art, he had never seen such carpets elsewhere in his life. [14] Art historian Hravard Hakobyan notes that "Artsakh carpets occupy a special place in the history of Armenian carpet-making."[15] Com mon themes and patterns found on Armenian carpets were the depiction of dragons and eagles. They were diverse in style, rich in colour and ornamental motifs, and were even separated in categories depending on what sort of animals were depicted on them, such as artsvagorgs (eagle- carpets),vishapagorgs ( dragon-carpets) and otsagorgs (serpent- carpets).[15] The rug mentioned in the Kaptavan inscriptions is composed of three arches, "covered with vegatative ornaments", and bears an artistic resemblance to the illuminated manuscripts produced in Artsakh.[15] The art of carpet weaving was in addition intimately connected to the making of curtains as evidenced in a passage by Kirakos Gandzaketsi, a 13th- century Armenian historian from Artsakh, who praised Arzu- Khatun, the wife of regional prince Vakhtang Khachenatsi, and her daughters for their expertise and skill in weaving.[16] Chinese carpets See also: Oriental rug As opposed to most antique rug manufactory practices, Chinese carpets were woven almost exclusively for internal consumption. China has a long history of exporting traditional goods; however, it was not until the first half of the 19th century that the Chinese began to export their rugs. Once in contact with western influences, there was a large change in production: Chinese manufactories began to produce art-deco rugs with commercial look and price point. The centuries old Chinese textile industry is rich in history. While most antique carpets are classified according to a specific region or manufactory, scholars attribute the age of any specific Chinese rug to the ruling emperor of the time. The earliest surviving examples of the craft were produced during the time of Ch'ung Chen, the last emperor of the Chen Dynasty.

Indian carpets

Antique Amritsar Rug From India - Part of The Nazmiyal's Antique Rug Collection in New York City Carpet weaving may have been introduced into the area as far back as the eleventh century with the coming of the first Muslim conquerors, the Ghaznavids and the Ghauris, from the West. It can with more certainty be traced to the beginning of the Mughal Dynasty in the early sixteenth century, when the last successor of Timur, Babar, extended his rule from Kabul to India to found the Mughal Empire. Under the patronage of the Mughals, Indian craftsmen adopted Persian techniques and designs. Carpets woven in the Punjab made use of motifs and decorative styles found in Mughal architecture. Akbar, a Mogul emperor, is accredited to introducing the art of carpet weaving to India during his reign. The Mughal emperors patronized Persian carpets for their royal courts and palaces. During this period, he brought Persian craftsmen from their homeland and established them in India. Initially, the carpets woven showed the classic Persian style of fine knotting. Gradually it blended with Indian art. Thus the carpets produced became typical of the Indian origin and gradually the industry began to diversify and spread all over the subcontinent. During the Mughal period, the carpets made on the Indian subcontinent became so famous that demand for them spread abroad. These carpets had distinctive designs and boasted a high density of knots. Carpets made for the Mughal emperors, including Jahangir and Shah Jahan, were of the finest quality. Under Shah Jahan's reign, Mughal carpet weaving took on a new aesthetic and entered its classical phase.

The Indian carpets are well known for their designs with attention to detail and presentation of realistic attributes. The carpet industry in India flourished more in its northern part with major centres found in Kashmir, Jaipur, Agra and Bhadohi. Indian carpets are known for their high density of knotting. Hand-knotted carpets are a speciality and widely in demand in the West. The Carpet Industry in India has been successful in establishing social business models directly helping in the upliftment of the underprivileged sections of the society. [17] Few notable examples of such social entrepreneurship ventures are Jaipur rugs, [18] Fabindia.[19] Another category of Indian rugs which, though quite popular in most of the western countries, have not received much press is hand-woven rugs of Khairabad (Citapore rugs). Khairabad small town in Citapore (now spelled as "Sitapur") district of India had been ruled by Raja Mehmoodabad. Khairabad (Mehmoodabad Estate) was part of Oudh province which had been ruled by shi'i Muslims having Persian linkages. Citapore rugs made in Khairabad and neighbouring areas are all hand-woven and distinct from tufted and knotted rugs. Flat weave is the basic weaving technique of Citapore rugs and generally cotton is the main weaving material here but jute, rayon and chenille are also popular. Ikea and Agoch a have been major buyers of rugs from this area.

Pakistani carpets

Main article: Pakistani rug The art of weaving developed in South Asia at a time when few other civilizations employed it. Excavations at Harappa and Mohenjo -Daro– ancient cities of the Indus Valley Civilization– have established that the inhabitants used spindles and spun a wide variety of weaving materials. Some historians consider that the Indus Valley civilization first developed the use of woven textiles. At present, hand-knotted carpets are among Pakistan's leading export products and their manufacture is the second largest cottage and small industry. Pakistani craftsmen have the capacity to produce any type of carpet using all the popular motifs of gulls, medallions, paisleys, traceries, and geometric designs in various combinations.[20] Recently, at the time of independence, manufacturing of carpets was set up in Sangla Hill, a small Town of District Sheikhupura. Chaudary Mukhtar Ahmad Member son of Maher Janda introduced and taught this art to locals and immigrants. He is considered founder of this industry in Pakistan. Sangla Hill is now a focal point in Carpet Industry in Pakistan. Almost all the exporters and manufacturers who are running their business at Lahore, Faisalabad and Karachi have their area offices in Sangla Hill.

Persian carpets Main article: Persian carpet

The Carpet Seller (Giulio Rosati) The Persian Una carpet is a part parte of Persian della (Iranian) art and cultura culture. Carpet- persian weaving in Persia dates back a (una to the Bronze buona Age. parte di questa) The earliest si basa surviving corpus sulla of Persian tessitur carpets come a dei from the Safavid dyna tappeti sty (1501–1736) . Si in the 16th può far century. risalire However, la painted prima depictions prove attivita a longer history ’ di of production. tessitur There is much a variety among classical Persian combi carpets of the nata 16th and 17th addiritt century. ura Common motifs all’Eta include scrolling ’ del vine Bronz networks, arabes o. ques, palmettes, Il più cloud bands, antico medallions, and overlapping reperto geometric di compartments tappet rather than o animals and persian humans. o, sicura mente attribui to, This is apparti because Islam, ene the dominant alla religion in that dinasti part of the world, forbids a their depiction . Savafi Still, some show de figures engaged (1501- either in the hunt 1736) or feasting ed è di scenes. The metà majority of these ‘500. carpets are wool, Ci but several silk exa sono mples produced comun in Kashan que survive.[21] docum entazio ni Iranian carpets certe are the finest in (illustr the world and azioni, their designs are disegni copied by , weavers from other countries modell as well. i che ne Iran is also the docum world's largest entano producer and una exporter of grande handmade storia carpets, preced producing three ente. quarters of the world's total Già tra output and il 16’ having a share of ed il 30% of world's 17’ export markets. secolo [22][23] Iran is also c’era the maker of the una largest grande handmade carpet varietà in history, di measuring tappeti 60,546 square in feet.[24] Persia. I motivi tradizi onali present ano reti di giunch i intrecc iati, arabes chi, palmet te, strisce con nuvole , medag lioni e costruz ioni a compa rti geome trici piuttos to che rappre sentazi oni di uomini o animal i. Tali scelte di fondo dipend evano dalle prescri zioni dell’Isl am che, come è noto, vieta le immag ini antrop omorfe . Solo ad un certo punto comin cerann o a compa rire scene di caccia o di banche tti. La maggi oranza delle opere tessili è in lana anche se vi sono (e vi erano già nel 1600) esempi di annoda ture in seta, concen trati sopratt utto a Kasha n. I tappeti iranian i sono i più fini, i più ricerca ti ed i miglio ri del mondo e i loro disegni sono (e sono stati copiati ) dai laborat ori di tutto il mondo . L’Iran è anche il più grande produtt ore ed esporta tore a livello mondi ale di tappeti fatti a mano, mante nendo una produz ione di circa tre quarti di tutta la produtt ività specifi ca mondi ale. Sempr e la Persia eccelle in alcuni primati relativi al settore. Per esempi o è suo il record di 15.000 metri quadri di tessuto unico.

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Scandinavian carpets Main article: Scandinavian rugs

Vintage Scandinavian Rug Scandinavian Flat Weave Rug by Nazmiyal Scandinavian rugs are among the most popular of all weaves in modern design. Preferred by influential modernist thinkers, designers, and advocates for a new aesthetic in the mid- twentieth century, Scandinavian rugs have become very widespread in many different avenues of contemporary interior design. With a long history of adaptation and evolution, the tradition of Scandinavian rug- making is among the most storied of all European rug-making traditions.

Turkish carpets Main article: Turkish carpet

Antique Oushak (Usak) carpet, late 19th Century Turkish carpets (also known as Anatolian), whether hand knotted or flat woven, are among the most well known and established hand crafted art works in the world.[26] Historically: religious, cultural, environmental, sociopolitical and socioeconomic conditions created widespread utilitarian need and have provided artistic inspiration among the many tribal peoples and ethnic groups in Central Asia and Turkey. [27] Turks; nomadic or pastoral, agrarian or town dwellers, living in tents or in sumptuous houses in large cities, have protected themselves from the extremes of the cold weather by covering the floors, and sometimes walls and doorways, with carpets and rugs. The carpets are always hand made of wool or sometimes cotton, with occasional additions of silk. These carpets are natural barriers against the cold. Turkish pile rugs and kilims are also frequently used as tent decorations, grain bags, camel and donkey bags, ground cushions, oven covers, sofa covers, bed and cushion covers, blankets, curtains, eating blankets, table top spreads, prayer rugs, and for ceremonial occasions.

The oldest records of flat woven kilims come from Çatalhöyük Ne olithic pottery, circa 7000 B.C. One of the oldest settlements ever to have been discovered, Çatalhöyük is located south east of Konya in the middle of the Anatolian region.[28] The excavations to date (only 3% of the town) not only found carbonized fabric but also fragments of kilims painted on the walls of some of the dwellings. The majority of them represent geometric and stylized forms that are similar or identical to other historical and contemporary designs.[29]

The knotted rug is believed to have reached Asia Minor and the Middle East with the expansion of various nomadic tribes peoples during the latter period of the great Turkic migration of the 8th and 9th centuries. Famously depicted in European paintings of The Renaissance, beautiful Anatolian rugs were often used from then until modern times, to indicate the high economic and social status of the owner. Women learn their weaving skills at an early age, taking months or even years to complete the beautiful pile rugs and flat woven kilims that were created for their use in every aspect of daily life. As is true in most weaving cultures, traditionally and nearly exclusively, it is women and girls who are both artisan and weaver.[30] [31] [32]

Turkmen ("Bukhara") carpet Main article: Turkmen carpet

The large carpet in Turkmenistan Türkmen carpet is a type of handmade floor- covering textile traditionally originating in Central Asia. It is useful to distinguish between the original Turkmen tribal rugs and the rugs produced in large numbers for export mainly in Pakistan and Iran today. The original Turkmen rugs were produced by the Turkmen tribes who are the main ethnic group in Turkmenistan and are also found in Afghanistan and Iran. They are used for various purposes, including tent rugs, door hangings and bags of various sizes.[33]

Azerbaijani rug

Main article: Azerbaijani rug In November 2010 the Azerbaijani carpet was proclaimed a Masterpiece of Intangible Heritage by UNESCO. [34][35]

Oriental carpets in Europe

Oriental carpets began to appear in Europe after the Crusades in the 11th century. Until the mid-18th century they were mostly used on walls and tables. Except in royal or ecclesiastical settings they were considered too precious to cover the floor. Starting in the 13th century oriental carpets begin to appear in paintings (notably from Italy, Flanders, England, France, and the Netherlands). Carpets of Indo-Persian design were introduced to Europe via the Dutch, British, and French East India Companies of the 17th and 18th century.[36]

Spanish carpets

16th Century Alcaraz Rug From Spain –

Part of The Nazmiyal's Antique Rug Collection in New York City Although isolated instances of carpet production pre-date the Muslim invasion of Spain, the Hispano- Moresque examples are the earliest significant body of European-made carpets. Documentary evidence shows production beginning in Spain as early as the 10th century AD. The earliest extant Spanish carpet, the so- called Synagogue carpet in the Museum of Islamic Art, Berlin, is a unique survival dated to the 14th century. The earliest group of Hispano-Moresque carpets, Admiral carpets (also known as armorial carpets), has an all-over geometric, repeat pattern punctuated by blazons of noble, Christian Spanish families. The variety of this design was analyzed most thoroughly by May Beattie. Many of the 15th-century, Spanish carpets rely heavily on designs originally developed on the Anatolian Peninsula. Carpet production continued after the Reconquest of Spain and eventual expulsion of the Muslim population in the 15th century. 16th-century Renaissance Spanish carpet design is a derivative of silk textile design. Two of the most popular motifs are wreaths and pomegranates. During the Moorish (Muslim) period production took place in Alcaraz in the province of Murcia, as well as being recorded in other towns. Carpet production after the Christian reconquest continued in Alcaraz while Cuenca, first recorded as a weaving centre in the 12th century, became increasingly important, and was dominant in the 17th and early 18th century. Carpets of completely different French based designs began to be woven in a royal workshop, the Royal Tapestry Factory (Real Fábrica de Tapices de Santa Bárbara) in Madrid in the 18th century. Cuenca was closed down by royal degree of Carlos IV in the late 18th century to stop it competing with the new workshop. Madrid continued as a weaving centre through to the 20th century, producing brightly coloured carpets most of whose designs are strongly influenced by French carpet design, and which are frequently signed (on occasions with the monogram MD; also sometimes with the name Stuyck) and dated in the outer stripe. After the Spanish civil war General Franco revived the carpet weaving industry in workshops named after him, weaving designs that are influenced by earlier Spanish carpets, usually in a very limited range of colours.[37]

Bulgarian carpets Main article: Chiprovtsi carpet The Chiprovtsi carpet (Чипровци килим) is a type of handmade carpet with two absolutely identical sides, part of Bulgarian national heritage, traditions, arts and crafts. Its name is derived from the town of Chiprovtsi where their production started in the 17th century. The carpet weaving industry played a key role in the revival of Chiprovtsi in the 1720s after the devastation of the failed 1688 Chiprovtsi Uprising against Ottoman rule. The western traveller Ami Boué, who visited Chiprovtsi in 1836– 1838, reported that "mainly young girls, under shelters or in corridors, engage in carpet weaving. They earn only five francs a month and the payment was even lower before". By 1868, the annual production of carpets in Chiprovtsi had surpassed 14,000 square metres.[38] In 1896, almost 1,400 women from Chiprovtsi and the region were engaged in carpet weaving. In 1920, the locals founded the Manual Labour carpet-weaving cooperative society, the first of its kind in the country.[39] At present. the carpet (kilim) industry remains dominant in the town. [40] Carpets have been crafted according to traditional designs, but in recent years it is up to the customers to decide the pattern of the carpet they have ordered. The production of a single 3 by 4 m (9.8 by 13.1 ft) carpet takes about 50 days; primarily women engage in carpet weaving. Work is entirely manual and all used materials are natural; the primary material is wool, coloured using plant or mineral dyes. The local carpets have been prized at exhibitions in London, Paris, Liège and Brussels. In recent decades, however, the Chiprovtsi carpet industry has been in decline as it had lost its firm foreign markets. As a result, the town and the municipality have been experiencing a demographic crisis.

French carpets Main article: Savonnerie manufactory

Savonnerie tapisserie 18th centuryPalace of Versailles, France

In 1608 Henry IV initiated the French production of "Turkish style" carpets under the direction of Pierre DuPont. This production was soon moved to the Savonnerie factory in Chaillot just west of Paris. The earliest, well- known group produced by the Savonnerie, then under the direction of Simon Lourdet, are the carpets that were produced in the early years of Louis XIV's reign. They are densely ornamented with flowers, sometimes in vases or baskets, against dark blue or brown grounds in deep borders. The designs are based on Netherlandish and Flemish textiles and paintings. The most famous Savonnerie carpets are the series made for the Grande Galerie and the Galerie d'Apollon in the Palais du Louvre between c. 1665-1685. These 105 masterpieces, made under the artistic direction of Charles Le Brun, were never installed, as Louis XIV moved the court to Versailles in 1688. Their design combines rich acanthus leaves, architectural framing, and mythological scenes (inspired by Cesare Ripa's Iconologie) with emblems of Louis XIV's royal power.

Pierre-Josse Perrot is the best-known of the mid- eighteenth-century carpet designers. His many surviving works and drawings display graceful rococo s- scrolls, central rosettes, shells, acanthus leaves, and floral swags. The Savonnerie manufactory was moved to theGobelins in Paris in 1826.[41] The Beauvais manufactory, better known for their tapestry, also made knotted pile carpets from 1780 to 1792. Carpet production in small, privately owned workshops in the town of Aubusson began in 1743. Carpets produced in France employ the symmetrical knot.[37]

English carpets Knotted pile carpet weaving technology probably came to England in the early 16th century with Flemish Calvinists fleeing religious persecution. Because many of these weavers settled in South- eastern England in Norwich the 14 extant 16th and 17th century carpets are sometimes referred to as "Norwich carpets." These works are either adaptations of Anatolian or Indo- Persian designs or employ Elizabethan- Jacobean scrolling vines and blossoms. All but one are dated or bear a coat of arms. Like the French, English weavers used the symmetrical knot. There are documented and surviving examples of carpets from three 18th- century manufactories: Exeter (1756–1761, owned by Claude Passavant, 3 extant carpets), Moorfields (1752–1806, owned by Thomas Moore, 5 extant carpets), and Axminster (1755–1835, owned by Thomas Whitty, numerous extant carpets). Exeter and Moorfields were both staffed with renegade weavers from the French Savonnerie and, therefore, employ the weaving structure of that factory and Perrot- inspired designs. Neoclassical designer Robert Adam supplied designs for both Moorfields and Axminster carpets based on Roman floor mosaics and coffered ceilings. Some of the most well- known rugs of his design were made for Syon House, Osterley House, Harewood House, Saltram House, and Newby Hall.

Axminster carpet was a unique floor covering made originally in a factory founded at Axminster, Devon, England, in 1755 by the cloth weaver Thomas Whitty. Resembling somewhat the Savonnerie carpets produced in France, Axminster carpets were symmetrically knotted by hand in wool on woolen warps and had a weft of flax or hemp. Like the French carpets, they often featured Renaissance architectural or floral patterns; others mimicked oriental patterns. Similar carpets were produced at the same time in Exeter and in the Moorfields section of London and, shortly before, at Fulham in Middlesex. The Whitty factory closed in 1835 with the advent of machine-made carpeting. The name Axminster, however, survived as a generic term for machine-made carpets whose pile is produced by techniques similar to those used in making velvet or chenille.[42] Axminster carpet has three main types of broadloom carpet construction in use today (machine woven, tufted & hand knotted). Machine woven carpet is an investment that will last 20 or 30 years and woven Axminster and Wilton carpets are still extremely popular in areas where longevity and design flexibility are a big part of the purchasing decision. Hotels and leisure venues almost always choose these types and many homes use woven Axminsters as design statements.

Machine used to cut and re-roll carpet lengths

Machine woven carpets like Axminster and Wilton are made by massive looms that weave together ‘bobbins’ of carpet yarn and backing. The finished result, which can be intricately patterned, creates a floor that provides supreme underfoot luxury with high performance. Tufted carpets are also popular in the home. They are relatively speedy to make - a pre- woven backing has yarns tufted into it. Needles push the yarn through the backing and which is then held in place with underlying “loopers”. Tufted carpets can be twist pile, velvet, or loop pile. Twist pile carpets are produced when one or more fibres are twisted in the tufting process, so that in the finished carpet they appear to be bound together. Velvet pile carpets tend to have a shorter pile and a tighter construction, giving the finished article a smooth, velvety appearance. Loop pile carpets are renowned for being hard wearing and lend carpets great texture. The traditional domain of rugs from far away continents, hand knotted squares and rugs use the expertise of weavers to produce work of the finest quality. Traditional rugs often feature a deliberate ‘mistake’ on behalf of the weaver to guarantee their authenticity. Six of Axminster carpets are known as the "Lansdowne" group. These have a tripartite design with reeded circles and baskets of flowers in the central panel flanked by diamond lozenges in the side panels. Axminster Rococo designs often have a brown ground and include birds copied from popular, contemporary engravings. Even now a large percentage of the 55,000 population town still seek employment in this industry. The town of Wilton, Wiltshire is also known for its carpet weaving, which dates back to the 18th century. [43]

Modern carpeting and installation

Macro shot of Berber carpet. Berber carpets are a style of carpet containing big and small tufts. It uses a loop pile construction type, and usually contains small flecks of dark colour on lighter shade background colours. Carpet is commonly made in widths of 12 feet (3.7 m) and 15 feet (4.6 m) in the USA, 4 m and 5 m in Europe. Where necessary different widths can be seamed together with a seaming iron and seam tape (formerly it was sewn together) and it is fixed to a floor over a cushioned underlay (pad ) using nails, tack strips (known in the UK as gripper rods), adhesives, or occasionally decorative metal stair rods, thus distinguishing it from rugs or mats, which are loose-laid floor coverings. For environmental reasons, the use of wool, natural bindings, natural padding, and formaldehyde-free glues is becoming more common. These options are almost always at a premium cost, though with no sacrifice to performance. In the UK some carpets are still manufactured for pubs and clubs in a narrow width of 27 inches (0.69 m) and then sewn to size. Carpeting which covers an entire room area is loosely referred to as 'wall-to- wall', but carpet can be installed over any portion thereof with use of appropriate transition moldings where the carpet meets other types of floor coverings. Carpeting is more than just a single item; it is, in fact, a system comprising the carpet itself, the carpet backing (often made of latex), the cushioning underlay, and a method of installation. Carpet tiles are also available, typically 50 centimetres (20 in) square. These are usually only used in commercial settings and are affixed using a special pressure- sensitive glue, which holds them into place while allowing easy removal (in an office environment, for example) or to allow rearrangement in order to spread wear.[44] References 1. Jump up ^ "Definition of carpet". Thefreedictionary.com . Retrieved 2013-10- 04. 2. Jump up ^ "Carpet - Definition". Merriam- webster.com. 2012-08- 31. Retrieved 2013- 10-04. 3. Jump up ^ How It's Made, Season 2, Episode 7 4. Jump up ^ "Famed Bhadohi carpet gets GI tag". The Times of India. Sep 9, 2010. 5. Jump up ^ "About the GoodWeave label". Goodweave.org. Retrieved 2012-01-26. 6. Jump up ^ Gudrun Heisterberg-Moutsis, Rainer Heinz, Thomas F. Wolf, Dominic J. Harper, David James, Richard P. Mazzur, Volker Kettler, Hansgert Soiné “Floor Coverings” Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry 2002, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim.doi:10.1002 /14356007.a11_263 7. Jump up ^ "Berbercarpetbibl e.com". Berbercarpetbible.com . Retrieved 2012-01- 26. 8. Jump up ^ E.J.W. Barber, Prehistoric Textiles: The Development of Cloth in the Neolithic and Bronze Ages with Special Reference to the Aegean, 1992, ISBN 0-691- 00224-X, p. 171 9. ^ Jump up to: a b Volkmar Gantzhorn, "Oriental Carpets", 1998, ISBN 3-8228-0545-9 10. Jump up ^ "The State Hermitage Museum: Collection Highlights". Hermitagemuseum.org . Retrieved 2013-10- 04. 11. Jump up ^ "Ulrich Schurmann, The Pazyryk. Its Use and Origin, Munich, 1982". Archive.org. p. 46. Retrieved 2013- 10-04. 12. Jump up ^ "Afghan rugs sell like hot cakes". Afghanembassyjp.com . 2008-02-02. Retrieved 2012-01-26. 13. Jump up ^ "Afghan rugs". Afghan rugs. Retrieved 2012-01-26. 14. Jump up ^ Ulubabyan, Bagrat A (1975). Խաչենի իշխանությունը, X-XVI դարերում (The Principality of Khachen, From the 10th to 16th Centuries) (in Armenian). Yerevan, Armenian SSR: Armenian Academy of Sciences. p. 267. 15. ^ Jump up to: a b c Hakobyan. Med ieval Art of Artsakh, p. 84. 16. Jump up ^ (Armenian) Kira kos Gandzaketsi. Պատմ ություն Հայոց (History of Armenia). Yerevan, Armenian SSR: Armenian Academy of Sciences, 1961, p. 216, as cited in Hakobyan.Medieval Art of Artsakh, p. 84, note 18. 17. Jump up ^ "History Of Rugs From India". nazmiyalantiquerugs.c om. Retrieved 2014- 10-28. 18. Jump up ^ "A Case of Social Entrepreneurship". Chillibreeze.com. Retrieved 2013-10-04. 19. Jump up ^ "Handloom weavers shareholders fabric suppliers". The Times Of India. 2008- 05-06. 20. Jump up ^ Stone, Peter F. The Oriental Rug Lexicon. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1997. 21. Jump up ^ Pope, Arthur Upham. A Survey of Persian Art from Prehistoric Times to the Present. Vol. XI, Carpets, Chapter 55. New York: Oxford University Press, 1938-9. 22. Jump up ^ http://www.kohan journal.com/en/index. php? option=com_content& task=view&id=229&It emid=54 23. Jump up ^ Khalaj, Mehrnosh (2010-02- 10). "Iran’s oldest craft left behind". FT.com. Retrieved 2013-10-04. 24. Jump up ^ "Photo in the News: World's Largest Carpet Woven for Worshippers". News.nationalgeograp hic.com. 2010-10-28. Retrieved 2013-10-04. 25. Jump up ^ "Iran unveils vast handmade carpet". BBC News. 2007-07-31. Retrieved 2010-04-28. 26. Jump up ^ "The Brukenthal Museum: The extraordinary value of the Anatolian Carpet". Brukenthalmuseum.ro. Retrieved 2012-01-26. 27. Jump up ^ "The historical importance of rug and carpet weaving in Anatolia". Turkishculture.org. Retrieved 2012-01-26. 28. Jump up ^ "Çatalhöyük.com: Ancient Civilization and Excavation". Catalhoyuk.com. Retrieved 2012-01-26. 29. Jump up ^ "Ancient Kilim Evidence Findings in Çatalhöyük". Turkishculture.org. Retrieved 2012-01-26. 30. Jump up ^ "The Dominant role of Turkish Women and Girls in Turkish carpet weaving". Turkishculture.org. Retrieved 2012-01-26. 31. Jump up ^ "The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition: The Role of Women and Girls in traditional rug and carpet weaving" (PDF). Retrieved 2012-01-26. 32. Jump up ^ Aslanapa, Oktay. One Thousand Years of Turkish Carpets. Translated and edited by William A. Edmonds. Istanbul: Eren 1988. 33. Jump up ^ Living legend, The president of Turkmenistan Gurban guly Berdymukhamedov bo ok about Turkmen rug 34. Jump up ^ "The traditional art of Azerbaijani carpet weaving in the Republic of Azerbaijan". Unesco.org. Retrieved 2012-01-26. 35. Jump up ^ "Azerbaijani carpet entered UNESCO List of Intangible Cultural Heritage". En.apa.az. Retrieved 2014-02-05. 36. Jump up ^ Dimand, Maurice Sven and Jean Mailey. Oriental Rugs in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1973. 37. ^ Jump up to: a b Sherrill, Sarah B. Carpets and Rugs of Europe and America. New York: Abbeville Press, 1996. 38. Jump up ^ Костова, p. 20. 39. Jump up ^ Костова, pp. 20– 22. 40. Jump up ^ Димитрова, Милка (2005-05- 25). "Чипровските килими—запазена марка на килимарския бизнес в България" (in Bulgarian). БНР Ради о България. Retrieved 2008-09-19. 41. Jump up ^ (french) Jean Coural, Les Gobelins , Nouvelles Editions Latines, 1989, p. 47 42. Jump up ^ "Axminster carpet - Encyclopedia Britannica". Britannica.com. Retrieved 2013-10-04. 43. Jump up ^ "Interior Decoration: A Complete Source". Google book. Retrieved 2011-11-14. 44. Jump up ^ Fletcher, Alan J. The Complete Carpet Buying Guide. Portland Oregon: AJ Books 2006.

 Books.google.com, "What Makes A Rug Good", February 1946, Popular Science, detailed article on carpet and manufacturing of figured Wilton carpeting. Some Of The images that were used in this article are from the Nazmiyal Antique Rugs Gallery In New York City Rugs and carpets

Rugs

Carpets

People Places

Cleaning

Fabrics Manufacture and installation

Manufacturers Carpets in culture Notable individual carpets Turkce Halı Vikipedi, özgür ansiklopedi

Halın dokumacılığı, 1890 tarihli bir fotoğraf

Bugünkü Cezayir'den bir halı dokuma atölyesinde çalışan Mağribî kadınlar; 1899.

Halı; atkılarının atılmasından sonra (arka iplikleri) üzerine desene göre istenilen hav yüksekliğinde iplerin geçirilerek düğümlenmesi ile yapılan ev içinde ve genellikle yer örtüsü olarak kullanılan eşyadır. Bazı evlerde de duvarda görülür. Halının kökü Anadolu Selçuklu Devleti'nden gelmiştir. Kilimle halı bir birinden farklıdır: Kilim ince bir halı tipidir. Dünyada bilinen ilk halılar Orta Asya'da Türkler tarafınd an dokunmuştur. Bu halıların günümüze kadar ulaşabilmiş en eski örneğinin MÖ 6-5. yüzyıllarda yapılmış olduğu ve halenLeningrad Müzesi'nde saklandığı bilinmektedir. [1] Bu halı Pazırık Halısı olarak bilinmektedir. Halı insanların rahat ve sıcak bir zemin arayışı sonucu ortaya çıkan ve ev dekorasyonunda önemli bir yer tutan bir malzemedir. Tarihi ise insanlık tarihi kadar eskidir. İnsanlar önce sıcak bir zemin yaratmak amacıyla hayvan postlarını kullanıyorlardı.

İhtiyaçları arttıkça, ihtiyaçlarına uygun post bulamadıkları için, post taklidi yaygılar ürettiler. Zamanla sevdiklerini de desenleştirerek, bugünkü halının kaba örneklerine ulaştılar. Kısaca halı insanoğlunun doğaya karşı ve doğayı kendine uydurma mücadelesinin ilk ürünlerindendir. Günümüze kadar gelen halı, yaşantımıza ekonomik, sosyal ve kültürel olarak önemli bir yer tutar. Gerek Türklerdeki, gerekse doğu ülkelerindeki ev dekorasyonundaki başlıca unsur halı ve kilimdir. Günümüzde modern teknolojinin sınırsız avantajlarını kullanan halı sektörü kendini sürekli yenilemektedir. Her yıl yeni trendlerin, kalitelerin ortaya çıktığı halı sektörü yaratıcılığın sınırlarını zorlamaya devam etmektedir.  Acem halısı

 Demirci halıları

 Gördes halıları

 Milas halısı

 Taşpınar Halıları

 Yağcıbedir Halıları

 Kafkas halısı

 Türk Halısı Italiano

Tappeto

Tappeto khamset

Tappeto bukhara Un tappeto è un drappo di tessuto di materiale vario, generalmente di lana o anche di seta, cotone e altre fibre vegetali e artificiali, prodotto in diverse grandezze, colori e disegni annodando, a mano o a macchina, i fili di catena con quelli di trama. Usato per ricoprire pavimenti, tavoli e superfici simili è generalmente di grosso spessore.

 Cenni storici In Oriente, il tappeto ha origini particolarmente antiche, datate V secolo o VI secolo, più tardi il tappeto annodato sarebbe stato introdotto in Persia dai turchi Selgiuchidi a partire dall'XI secolo. Il più antico tappeto a noi pervenuto è noto come Tappeto di Pazyryk (circa 500 a.C.).

L'arte del tappeto persiano giunse alle più alte vette durante la dinastia dei Safavidi, ovvero fino al primo quarto del Settecento. Nell'Ottocento ha un ruolo importante la città turca di Smirne dietro le accresciute richieste della borghesia europea.

I Tappeti egiziani, un tempo chiamati Tappeti di Damasco o Tappeti mammelucchi a motivi geometrici stilizzati, furono prodotto di punta dei mercanti veneziani già dal 1500, come appare ad esempio nei dipinti dell'epoca di Tintoretto.

Il periodo migliore della produzione di tappeti in India corrisponde al XVI secolo e XVII secolo, sotto la dinastia Moghul e grazie a lavoratori migrati dalla Persia. I capolavori di questa arte raffigurano spesso scene di caccia con elementi naturalistici.

In Europa i tappeti sono stati fabbricati sin dal 1200 in Spagna, con molteplici riferimenti alla produzione anatolica; questo tipo di tappeto venne massicciamente esportato nel resto del continente e chiamato tappeto ispano-moresco. La Francia ebbe maggior fortuna nella produzione seicentesca dei laboratori del Louvre, i cui motivi sono ispirati alla pittura francese di paesaggio. Nel 1800 la manifattura dei tappeti venne fusa con quella dei gobelin.

In altre nazioni europee nacque una produzione più che altro all'imitazione di disegni orientali, ma maggiormente meccanizzata; infine nel 1900 l'arte del tappeto passò dall'imitazione a motivi astratti o stilizzati, fino alla rivalutazione di tipi rustici regionali. Le lavorazioni orientali Il tappeto orientale ha una individualità spiccata, che permette agli esperti del settore di determinare il luogo d'origine e, con buona approssimazione, persino l'età. Ogni distretto, persino ogni famiglia, possiede disegni e motivi propri che vengono trasmessi di generazione in generazione e che di solito non vengono copiati da estranei. Peraltro la conoscenza dei costumi permette anche di stabilire l'uso che si intendeva fare del tappeto ed il simbolismo religioso o poetico in esso contenuto. I tappeti orientali sono classificati in base alle aree di provenienza, non necessariamente coincidenti con confini politici, e tipicamente nominati secondo la città di provenienza[1]:

 Tappeti persiani, ornati a disegni floreali con scene di caccia e, negli esemplari antichi, persino di novelle;



 Tappeti Anadöl o turchi, commercializzati nei mercati principali di Smirne ed Istanbul, non hanno solitamente figure umane o di animale e sono asimmetrici, con prevalenza di colori come azzurri, verde Nilo, seppia, giallo ed avorio;



 Tappeti Afgani;



 Tappeti Berberi, caratterizzati da colori squillanti (rosso, azzurro, oro), disegni geometrici asimmetrici e lane di filato grosso;



 Tappeti del Caucaso, adorni principalmente di arabeschi e figure geometriche;



 Tappeti indiani;

  Tappeti Transcaspio, i cui tipi migliori vanno sotto il nome di Bukhara, caratterizzati da motivi geometrici che si ripetono su uno sfondo rosso;



 Tappeti Turkestan, il cui motivo dominante è un ottagono reiterato in colonne verticali o orizzontali;



 Tappeti del Deccan;



 Tappeti cinesi, che riprendono disegni ed ornamenti tipici delle ceramiche della medesima provenienza, come il drago e la fenice; La lana utilizzata nei tappeti orientali è prevalentemente di pecora, ma ciò non esclude l'utilizzo di lana di capra o di cammello. La finezza del filo ed il numero dei punti annodati nell'unità di superficie dipendono anch'essi dalla regione di provenienza, ma anche dal pascolo e dalla razza dell'animale da cui si è ricavata la lana.

Sono da considerarsi tappeti anche le coperte tessute dagli indiani Navajo.

Tappeti persiani

 Tabriz

 Kashan  Isfahan

 kirman

 Herat

I coloranti I coloranti utilizzati dalla tradizione orientale sono divisi in due gruppi:  Coloranti naturali, usati per tutti i tappeti fino al 1870;

 Coloranti sintetici, giunti dall'Europa nella seconda metà del XIX secolo; L'introduzione di coloranti chimici all'anilina rischiò di pregiudicare la fama del Tappeto Orientale in tutto il mondo. Infatti i tappeti lavorati con filati tinti chimicamente scolorivano e si deterioravano rapidamente. Il governo persiano dopo qualche decennio proibì l'importazione dei coloranti all'anilina e vennero prese severe misure contro chi continuava ad utilizzarli.

I nodi

Nodi che formano il vello di un tappeto. Due sono i tipi di nodi utilizzati dalle popolazioni orientali per tessere tappeti:

 Il nodo simmetrico Turkibaft, che in persiano significa "annodato dai turchi", è anche noto come ghiordes o semplicemente nodo turco. Prende questo nome perché effettivamente utilizzato prevalentemente dalle popolazioni turche, comprese quelle della Persia;

 Il nodo asimmetrico Farsibaft, "annodato dai persiani", prende anche nome di senneh (o Sehna) o nodo persiano.

 La decorazione Le categorie decorative della tradizione orientale sono:

 Tappeti geometrici, che non necessitano di un'alta densità di nodi, sono prevalentemente utilizzati da popolazioni nomadi ed in alcuni villaggi anatolici, persiani e caucasici. I motivi sono generalmente semplici e spesso formati dalla ripetizione degli stessi elementi. Come nelle altre arti si tratta della forma più primitiva di decorazione ed i suoi elementi sono generalmente frutto di antichi retaggi tribali;



 I Tappeti floreali nacquero agli inizi del XVI secolo con l'introduzione di nuove tecniche e tecnologie che permisero l'esecuzione di motivi curvilinei e quindi di una maggiore densità di nodi. Le decorazioni, a differenza dei tappeti geometrici, nascono dall'artista che disegna e colora i cartoni: l'Ustad, il maestro decoratore che poi affida il suo progetto agli artigiani addetti all'annodatura. Entrambe le tipologie annoverano le stesse strutture decorative del campo:

 A tutto campo, con una decorazione uniforme per tutto il campo del tappeto;



 A medaglione centrale, dove al centro del tappeto viene posto un grande elemento principale. A volte i medaglioni possono essere ripetuti più volte, solitamente mai più di tre volte;



 Da preghiera, che presentano il mihrab ovvero presentano il campo composto a nicchietta;  Ad alberi, motivo utilizzato anche nei tappeti da preghiera;

 Ad animali, nei tappeti geometrici solitamente animali legati alla vita dei nomadi (cavalli, ecc.) mentre nei tappeti floreali l'esotismo delle specie annoverate è limitato solo dalla fantasia dell'Ustad Glossario dei tappeti

 Abrash

 Asmalyk

 Boghce

 Botè

 Broccato

 Cagiarino

 Cartone

 Cemce

 Ch'I-Lin

 Cicekli: tipo di kilim  Cufico

 Dozar: tappeto da 2 × 1,4 m di dimensioni

 Elmali: motivo a pomo

 Giofti

 Kenarè: tappeto da 1 × 3, 4 o 5 m di dimensione

 Kilim: tappeto non annodato a doppia faccia (turco)  Mazarlik: tappeto da sepoltura

 Medaglione

 Medijdi

 Mohtasham: tappeti kashan di fine ottocento

 Parmak: tipo di kilim

 Saf: tipo di tappeto da preghiera  Sileh: tecnica di tessitura

 Sumak

 Sabakhi

 Verneh: tecnica di tessitura

 Yatak: tipo di tappeto

 Zar: unità di misura superiore al metro (iraniano)  Zaronim: tappeto da 1,5 × 1 m di dimensioni Note

1. ^ I tappeti e il loro nome - Morandi Tappeti Voci correlate[modifica | mod ifica wikitesto]  Tappetologia (scienza che studia i tappeti orientali annodati)

 Serabend (tipo di tappeto persiano)

 Arazzo

 Pezzotto (tappeto valtellinese)

 Tappeto di Pazyryk

 Farahan (tappeto) (tipo di tappeto persiano)  Giushegan (tipo di tappeto persiano)

 Kerman (tappeto) (tipo di tappeto persiano)

 Nain (tipo di tappeto persiano)

 Aubusson (decoro)

 Botteh (decoro)

 Donbakli (decoro)

 Farangh o voi (decoro)

 Mastufi (decoro)  Mina khani (decoro)

 Tappeto di guerra

 Tappeto da preghiera

 Tappeto rosso

 Tappeto volante

 Tapetum lucidum

 Tappeto in Tesauro del Nuovo Soggettario, BNCF, marzo 2013. Persian rugs The Rothschild Small Silk Medallion Carpet, mid-16th century, Museum of Islamic Art, Doha (enlarge image to see detail) Persian arts Visual arts Painting Miniature Calligraphy Decorative arts Jewelry Metalworks Embroidery Motifs Tileworks Handicrafts Pottery Literature Literature Mythology Folklore Philosophy Performance arts Dance Music Cinema Theatre Other Architecture Cuisine Carpets Gardens V T E The Persian carpet or Persian rug (Middle Persian: bōb,[1] Persian: farsh, meaning "to فرش spread"; qālī)[2] is قالی sometimes an essential part of Persian art and culture. Carpet-weaving is undoubtedly one of the most distinguished manifestations of Persian culture and art, and dates back to ancient Persia. In 2008, Iran’s exports of hand-woven carpets was $420 million or 30% of the world's market.[3][4] There is an estimated population of 1.2 million weavers in Iran producing carpets for domestic markets and international export. [5] Iran exports carpets to more than 100 countries, as hand-woven rugs are one of its main non-oil export items. The country produces about five million square metres of carpets annually—80 percent of which are sold in international markets. [6] In recent times Iranian carpets have come under fierce competition from other countries producing reproductions of the original Iranian designs as well as cheaper substitutes.[6]

The designs of Persian carpets are copied by weavers from other countries as well. Iran is also the world's largest producer and exporter of handmade carpets, producing three quarters of the world's total output.[7][8][9] Though in recent times, this ancient tradition has come under stiff competition from machine-made products. [10] Iran is also the maker of the largest handmade carpet in history, measuring 60,546 square feet (5,624.9 square metres).[11][12][13] Persian carpets can be divided into three groups; Farsh / Qāli (si zed anything greater than 6×4 ,قالیچه) feet),Qālicheh meaning "small rug", sized 6×4 feet and smaller), and nomadic carpets ;گلیم)known as Gelim ,Zilu زیلو including meaning "rough carpet").[2] In this use, Gelim includes both pile rugs and flat weaves (such as kilim and soumak).

History The art of carpet weaving existed in Persia (or Iran) in ancient times, according to evidence such as the 2500- year-old Pazyryk carpet, dating back to 500 B.C., during the Achaemenid period...... The first documented evidence on the existence of Persian carpets comes from Chinese texts dating back to the Sassanid period (224–641 AD)...... This art underwent many changes in various eras of the Persian history to an extent that it passed an upward trend before the Islamic era until the Mongol invasion of Persia. After the invasion, the art began to grow again during the Timurid and Ilkhanid dynasties.[1] ......

With the passage of time, the materials used in carpets, including wool, silk and cotton, will decay. Therefore archa eologists are rarely able to make any particularly useful discoveries during archaeological excavations...... What has remained from early times as evidence of carpet-weaving is nothing more than a few pieces of worn- out carpets. Such fragments do not help very much in recognizing the carpet-weaving characteristics of pre- Seljuk period (13th and 14th centuries AD) in Persia...... Early history

The Pazyryk Carpet, the oldest known surviving carpet in the world, 5th century BC. The exceptional Paz yryk carpet was discovered in 1949 in an archaeological excavation in 1949 in the Pazyryk Valley, in theAltai Mountains in Si beria. The carpet was found in the grave of a Scythian princ e......

Radiocarbon testing indicated that the Pazyryk carpet was woven in the 5th century BC. [14] This carpet is 283 by 200 cm (approximately 9.3 by 6.5 ft) and has 36 symmetrical knots per cm² (232 per inch²). [15] The advanced technique used in the Pazyryk carpet indicates a long history of evolution and experience in weaving. It is considered the oldest known carpet in the world.[16] Its central field is a deep red color and it has two wide borders, one depicting deer and the other horsemen. The Pazyryk carpet was thought, by its discoverer Serge i Rudenko, to be a product of the Achaemenid s.[17][18] ..... Currently, whether it is a nomadic product with Achaemenid influence, or a product of the Achaemenids remains the subject of debate.[19][20]

...... Medieval Period From the yarn fiber to the colors, every part of the Persian carpet is traditionally handmade from natural ingredients over the course of many months.

Persian carpet at The Louvre In the 8th century A.D. Azarbaijan Province was among the largest centers of carpet and rough carpet (ziloo) weaving in Persia (Iran). The Province of Tabarestan, besides paying taxes, sent 600 carpets to the courts of caliphs inBaghdad ever y year. At that time, the main items exported from that region were carpets, and small carpets for saying prayers ( also known as prayer mats)...... Furthermore, the carpets of Khorassan, Si stan and Bukhar a, because of their prominent designs and motifs, were in high demand among purchasers.[1] Du ring that era dyeing centers were set up next to carpet weaving looms. The industry began to thrive until the attack on Iran by the Mongol army.[1]

.... During the reigns of the Seljuq and Ilkhanate dy nasties, carpet weaving was still a booming business, and a mosque built by Ghazan Khan in Tabriz, in northwestern Persia, was covered with superb Persian carpets. Sheep were specially bred to produce fine wool for weaving carpets...... Carpet designs depicted by miniature paintings belonging to the Timurid era lend proof to the development of this industry at that time. There is also another miniature painting of that time available which depicts the process of carpet weaving......

Oriental carpets in Renaissance painting from Europe are often given detailed depictions that help fill in gaps in the record of actual surviving carpets. The designs share a common style with Persian decoration in other media, such as tilework and non- figurative pages in manuscripts with Persian miniatures...... It is thought that the designs for carpets made for the court were made by the court artists and sent to the weavers, and the court commissions led the development of style the used in other works. The most famous Persian carpet from this period is a large Safavid (1 501–1736) example known as the Ardabil Carpet, in the Victoria and Albert Museum in London, which in fact is now a combination of two original carpets, with another piece from the second in Los Angeles. [21] .... This has been the subject of endless copies ranging in size from small to full scale. There is an 'Ardabil' at 10 Downing Streetand even Hitler had an 'Ardabil' in his office in Berlin.[22][23] ...... The carpets were woven in 1539-40 according to the dated inscriptions. The foundation is of silk and the pile of wool with a knot density of 300- 350 knots per square inch ( 465-542 thousand knots per square meters). The original size of both carpets 1 1 was 34 ⁄2 by17 ⁄2 feet (10.5 by 5.3 metres).[24] ...... Los Angeles County Museum of Art See also Victoria & Albert Museum There is much variety among classical Persian carpets of the 16th and 17th century. There are numerous sub-regions that contribute distinctive designs to Persian carpets of this period such as Tabriz and La var Kerman......

Common motifs include scrolling vine networks, arabe sques, palmettes , cloud bands, medallions, and overlapping geometric compartments rather than animals and humans......

Figural designs are particularly popular in the Iranian market and are not nearly as common in carpets exported to the west...... Modern period

Detail of modern carpet Although carpet production is now mostly mechanized, traditional hand woven carpets are still widely found all around the world, and usually have higher prices than their machine woven counterparts due to them being an artistic presentation......

Iran exported $517 million worth of hand woven carpets in 2002. Iran's carpet exports amounted to US$635 million in 2005 , according to the figures from the state-owned Iran Carpet Company. Most are top-notch hand-woven products. In October 2007, National Iranian Carpet Center revealed that hand-woven carpets have ranked first in country's non- oil exports and hold the third position among overall exports...... Nearly five million workers are engaged in the Iranian carpet industry, making it one of the biggest enterprises in the country. In recent times Iranian carpets have come under fierce competition from other countries producing fakes of the original Persian designs as well as genuine cheaper substitutes...... Most of the problems facing this traditional art is due to absence of patenting and branding the products as well as reduced quality of raw materials in the local market and the consistent loss of original design patterns. The absence of modern R&D is causing rapid decline in the size as well as market value of this art.[25] To give one example, the "Carpet of Wonder" in the Sultan Qaboos Grand Mosque in Mus cat in the Sultanate of Oman measures 4,343 square metres. Its construction required four years of labour by 600 workers, resulting in 12 million man hours of work. [26]

...... Materials

So-called Salting carpet, wool, silk and metal thread. about 1600. Wool is the most common material for carpets but cotton is frequently used for the foundation of city and workshop carpets. There are a wide variety in types of wool used for weaving. Those of which include Kork wool, Manchester wool, and in some cases even camel hair wool.

Silk carpets date back to at least the sixteenth century in Sabzevar and the seventeenth century in Kashan and Yazd. Silk carpets are less common than wool carpets since silk is more expensive and less durable; they tend to increase in value with age. Due to their rarity, value and lack of durability, silk carpets are often displayed on the wall liketapestries rat her than being used as floor coverings.

Designs, motifs, and patterns

Elements of the Persian carpet. Persian rugs are made up of a layout and a design which in general included one or a number of motifs. The Iran Carpet Company, a specialist in the subject, has attempted to classify Persian carpet designs and has carried out studies of thousands of rugs...... Their results show that there have been slight alterations and improvements to almost all original designs. In its classification the company has called the original designs as the 'main pattern' and the derivatives as the 'sub patterns'. They have identified 19 groups, including: historic monuments and Islamic buildings, Shah Abbassi patterns, spiral patterns, all- over patterns, derivative patterns, interconnected patterns, paisley patterns, tree patterns, Turkoman patterns, hunting ground patterns, panel patterns, European flower patterns, vase patterns, intertwined fish patterns, Mehrab patterns, striped patterns, geometric patterns, tribal patterns, and composites.

Design Design can be described in terms of the manner in which it organizes the field of the rug. One basic design may serve the entire field, or the surface may be covered by a pattern of repeating figures. In areas using long- established local designs, the weaver often works from memory, with the patterns passed on within the family......

This is usually sufficient for simple rectilinear design. For the more elaborate curvilinear designs, the patterns are carefully drawn to scale in the proper colours on graph paper......

Each square thus becomes a knot, which allows for an accurate rendition of even the most complex design. Designs have changed little through centuries of weaving. Today computers are used in the production of scale drawings for the weavers. [27] Layout Persian rugs are typically designed using one of four patterns:

a) all-over, b) central medallion, c) compartment and (d) one- sided. Some abstract asymmetrical design can be found but most of these can be described as one-sided or unidirectional. Motifs There are a number of patterns which are found in Persian and Oriental rugs called 'motifs', these designs have different meanings and tend to be used depending on the area the rug was woven although it is not unusual to find more than one motif in a single rug. Some of the more common motifs are:

 Boteh

 Gul

 Herati

 Mina-Khani

 Rosette  Shah Abbasi

 Azari Kharchang

 Islimi Floral Techniques and structures Long weaving process The weaving of pile rugs is a difficult and tedious process which, depending on the quality and size of the rug, may take anywhere from a few months to several years to complete. To begin making a rug, one needs a foundation consisting of warps: strong, thick threads of cotton, wool or silk which run the length of the rug and wefts similar threads which pass under and over the warps from one side to the other.

The warps on either side of the rug are normally combined into one or more cables of varying thickness that are overcast to form the selvedge. Weaving normally begins by passing a number of wefts through the bottom warp to form a base to start from. Loosely piled knots of dyed wool or silk are then tied around consecutive sets of adjacent warps to create the intricate patterns in the rug. As more rows are tied to the foundation, these knots become the pile of the rug. Between each row of knots, one or more shots of weft are passed to tightly pack down and secure the rows.

Depending on the fineness of the weave, the quality of the materials and the expertise of the weavers, the knot count of a handmade rug can vary anywhere from 16 to 800 knots per square inch.

When the rug is completed, the warp ends form the fringes that may be weft- faced, braided, tasseled, or secured in some other manner.

Looms Looms do not vary greatly in essential details, but they do vary in size and sophistication. The main technical requirement of the loom is to provide the correct tension and the means of dividing the warps into alternate sets of leaves. A shedding device allows the weaver to pass wefts through crossed and uncrossed warps, instead of laboriously threading the weft in and out of the warps.

Horizontal looms The simplest form of loom is a horizontal; one that can be staked to the ground or supported by sidepieces on the ground. The necessary tension can be obtained through the use of wedges. This style of loom is ideal for nomadic people as it can be assembled or dismantled and is easily transportable. Rugs produced on horizontal looms are generally fairly small and the weave quality is inferior to those rugs made on a professional standing loom.

Vertical looms Vertical looms are undoubtedly more comfortable to operate. These are found more in city weavers and sedentary peoples because they are hard to dismantle and transport. There is no limit to the length of the carpet that can be woven on a vertical loom and there is no restriction to its width.

There are three broad groups of vertical looms, all of which can be modified in a number of ways: the fixed village loom, the Tabriz or Bunyan loom, and the roller beam loom. The fixed village loom is used mainly in Iran and consists of a fixed upper beam and a moveable lower or cloth beam which slots into two sidepieces.

The correct tension is created by driving wedges into the slots. The weavers work on an adjustable plank which is raised as the work progresses. The Tabriz loom, named after the city of Tabriz, is used in North Western Iran. The warps are continuous and pass around behind the loom. Tension is obtained with wedges. The weavers sit on a fixed seat and when a portion of the carpet has been completed, the tension is released and the carpet is pulled down and rolled around the back of the loom. This process continues until the rug is completed, when the warps are severed and the carpet is taken off the loom. The roller beam loom is a traditional Turkish village loom, but is also found in Persia and India. It consists of two movable beams to which the warps are attached. Both beams are fitted with ratchets or similar locking devices and completed work is rolled on to the lower beam. It is possible to weave very long rugs by these means, and in some areas of Turkey rugs are woven in series.

Tools In order to operate the loom, the weaver needs a number of essential tools: a knife for cutting the yarn as the knots are tied; a comb-like instrument for packing down the wefts; and a pair of shears for trimming the pile. In Tabriz the knife is combined with a hook to tie the knots which lets the weavers produce very fine rugs, as their fingers alone are too thick to do the job.

Some traditional tools of the craft. A small steel comb is sometimes used to comb out the yarn after each row of knots is completed. This both tightens the weave and clarifies the design. A variety of instruments are used for packing the weft. Some weaving areas in Iran known for producing very fine pieces use additional tools.

In Kerman, a saber like instrument is used horizontally inside the shed, and in Bijar a heavy nail-like tool is used. Bijar is also famous for their wet loom technique, which consists of wetting the warp, weft, and yarn with water throughout the weaving process to make the elements thinner and finer.

This allows for tighter weaving. When the rug is complete and dried, the wool and cotton expand to make the rug incredibly dense and strong. A number of different tools may be used to shear the wool depending on how the rug is trimmed as the rug progresses or when it is complete. Often in Chinese rugs the yarn is trimmed after completion and the trimming is slanted where the color changes, giving an embossed three- dimensional effect. Knots Two basic knots are used in most Persian Carpets and Ori ental rugs: the symmetrical Turkish or Ghiordes knot (used in Turkey, the Caucasus, East Turkmenistan, and some Turkish and Kurdish areas of Iran), and the asymmetrical Persian or Senneh knot (Iran, India, Turkey, Pakistan, China, and Egypt).

To make a Turkish knot, the yarn is passed between two adjacent warps, brought back under one, wrapped around both forming a collar, then pulled through the center so that both ends emerge between the warps.

The Persian knot is used for finer rugs. The yarn is wrapped around only one warp, then passed behind the adjacent warp so that it divides the two ends of the yarn. The Persian knot may open on the left or the right, and rugs woven with this knot are generally more accurate and symmetrical.

Other knots include the Spanish knot looped around single alternate warps so the ends are brought out on either side and the Jufti knot which is tied around four warps instead.

Flat-woven carpets Flat woven carpets are given their colour and pattern from the weft which is tightly intertwined with the warp. Rather than an actual pile, the foundation of these rugs gives them their design. The weft is woven between the warp until a new colour is needed, it is then looped back and knotted before a new colour is implemented. The most popular of flat- weaves is called the Kilim. Kilim rugs (along with jewellery, clothing and animals) are important for the identity and wealth of nomadic tribes- people. In their traditional setting Kilims are used as floor and wall coverings, horse-saddles, storage bags, bedding and cushion covers. Various forms of flat-weaves exist including:

 Herati

 Jajim

 Gelim (Kilim)

 Maleki

 Sirjan  Soumak (Sou makh)

 Suzani

Traditional centers of carpet production in Iran (Persia)

The Kashan hunting carpetJaktmatt an on the wall of Gustaf V's apartment at Stockholm Palace ca 1950 The major classical centers of carpet production in Persia were in Tabriz (1500– 1550), Kashan ( 1525–1650), He rat (1525– 1650), and Kerman (16 00–1650).

The majority of carpets from Tabriz have a central medallion and quartered corner medallions superimposed over a field of scrolling vine ornament, sometimes punctuated with mounted hunters, single animals, or animal combat scenes. Perhaps the best-known of the Tabriz works are the twin Ardabil carpets most likely made for the shrine at Ardabil (toda y in the collections of the Victoria and Albert Museum in London and the Los Angeles County Museum).

Kashan is known for its silk carpet production, most famously, for the three silk hunting carpet masterpieces depicting mounted hunters and animal prey (currently in the collections of the Vienna Museum of Applied Arts (MAK), the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, and the Stockholm Palace). The Kashan carpets are among the most valuable in existence.

The Herat carpets, or ones of similar design created in Lahore (Pakis tan) and Agra (India) , are the most numerous in Western collections. They are characterized by a red field with scrolling vine ornament and palmettes with dark green or blue borders.

The seven classes of Kerman carpet were defined by May Beattie. She identified their unique structure and named it the "vase technique." Carpet types in this group include garden carpets (ornamented with formal gardens and water channels) and the ogival lattice carpets. A fine and well-known example of the latter was purchased by the Victoria and Albert Museum under the guidance of William Morris. The influence of Persian carpets is readily apparent in his carpet designs.

The Seraband rug is produced in Arak. Anatolian and Persian carpets

Farsbâf (Senne h)

Turkbâf (Ghior des)

The difference between Anatolian (Turkish) and Persian carpets is today largely one of tradition. Typically, a traditional Persian carpet is tied with a single looping knot (Persian or Senneh Knot), while the traditional Anatolian carpet is tied with a double looping knot (Turkish or Ghiordes Knot).

This means that for every 'vertical strand' of thread in a carpet, an Anatolian carpet has two loops as opposed to the one loop for the various Persian carpets that use a Persian 'single' knot.

Ultimately, this process of 'double knotting' in traditional Anatolian carpets results in a slightly more block like image compared to the traditional 'single knotted' Persian carpet. The traditional Anatolian style also reduces the number of Knots per sq cm. Today, it is common to see carpets woven in both Turkey and Iran using either of the two knot styles. When comparing carpets the only way to definitively identify the knot used is to splay open the pile by bending the rug against itself and looking at the base of the knot. Types of Persian carpets and rugs

A Carpet from Varamin Carpet dealers have developed a classification for Persian carpets based on design, type of fabric, and weaving technique.

 Abadeh

 Afghan/Yomut (Turkmen)

 Ahar

 Afshar  Arak

 Ardabil

 Ardestan

 Assadabad rug

 Bakhtiari

 Balouch

 Bijar  Birjand

 Borujerd

 Chelaberd

 Chodor

 Dorokhsh

 Farahan

 Ferdos  Ghayen

 Gonabad

 Gonbad Ghaboos

 Gorgan

 Herat

 Heriz (Hariz)  Isfahan

 Joshghan

 Jozan

 Kashan

 Kashmar

 Kerman

 Lilian  Mahan

 Mahalat

 Maku

 Mamasani

 Marand

 Mashhad

 Mazlaghan  Meshkin Shahr

 Moshk Abad

 Mood

 Nain

 Nishaboor

 Rafsanjan

 Ravar  Saraband

 Sarab

 Saraband

 Sarukh

 Semnan

 Sha Savan

 Shahre Kord  Shiraz

 Shahr Reza

 Qazvin

 Qom

 Tabriz

 Tehran

 Torghabeh  Varamin

 Yalameh

 Yazd

 Zanjan

 Zabol Rugs for a specific purpose include:

 Hunting Scene Rugs Most expensive in the world The most expensive carpet of the world is a 17th-century Persian carpet which was sold in June 2013 in an London auction for $33.8m.[28]

Literature  Essie Sakhai:Persian Rugs And Carpets - The Fabric of Life, Antique Collectors' Club Ltd, Suffolk, England, 2008 ISBN 978-1-85149- 507-8

 Essie Sakhai:Orienta l Carpets - a buyer's guide, Parkway Editions LTD, London, England, 1995 ISBN 1- 898259-15-1  Essie Sakhai:The Story of Carpets, Random House UK Ltd, London, England, 1991 ISBN 1- 85170727-1

 Jenny Housego: Triba l Rugs - An Introduction to the Weaving of the Tribes of Iran, Scorpion Publications, London 1978 ISBN 978-0-905906- 05-8

 Ulrich Schurmann: Or iental Carpets, Octopus Books Limited, London 1979 ISBN 0- 7064-1017-3

 Ian Bennett: Orient al Rugs, Volume One: Caucasian, Oriental Textile Press Ltd, England, 1981 ISBN 0- 902028-58-5  Jan David Winitz: The Guide to Purchasing an Oriental Rug, The Breema Rug Study Society & Dennis Anderson Photo- Publishing, Oakland, 1984 ISBN 0- 930021-002  Andrew Middleton: Rug s & Carpets: Techniques, Traditions & Designs, Mitchell Beazley, London 1996 ISBN 1- 85732-634-2

 Ulrich Schurmann: Ca ucasian Rugs, Washington International Associates, Accokeek, Maryland, 1974 ISBN 0- 915036-00-2

 James D. Burns: Visions of Nature: The Antique Weavings of Persia, Umbrage Editions, Iceland, 2010 ISBN 978-1-884167- 23-1

Iran portal

A Turkmen rug in a household setting

Quran verses are written on handmade Persian carpet

 Afghan carpet

 Baharestan Carpet

 Dilmaghani  Flying Carpet

 Gabbeh

 Gelim (Also K ilim or Kelim)

 Heriz rug

 Carpet Museum of Iran  Kashan rug

 Kashmir rug

 Nazmiyal Collection

 Oriental rug

 Pakistani rug

 Tabriz rug  The Poot (Persian Carpet documentary)

 Turkish carpet

 War rugs  Essie Sakhai (Persian Carpet Expert) [29] References 1. ^ Jump up to: a b c d Nouri- Zadeh, Sh., Persian Carpet; The Beautiful Picture of Art in History. 2. ^ Jump up to: a b Savory, R., Carpets, (Encyclopaedi a Iranica); accessed January 30, 2007. 3. Jump up ^ Iran- daily.com 4. Jump up ^ FT.com 5. Jump up ^ Presstv.co m 6. ^ Jump up to: a b Presstv.co m 7. Jump up ^ Kohanjou rnal.com 8. Jump up ^ FT.com 9. Jump up ^ Erug.com 10. Jump up ^ Tourismir an.ir 11. Jump up ^ News.nati onalgeographi c.com 12. Jump up ^ Payvand.c om 13. Jump up ^ News.bbc .co.uk 14. Jump up ^ Haider, R., Carpet that Captive 15. Jump up ^ Nouri- Zadeh, Sh., Turkish Carpet; The Beautiful Picture of Art in History, 16. Jump up ^ Rubinson, Karen S., "Animal Style" Art & the Image of the Horse and Rider 17. Jump up ^ S.I. Rudenko, Kul't ura naseleniia Gornogo Altaia v skifskoe vremia (Mosco w and Leningrad, 1953) 18. Jump up ^ Rudenko, Sergei I., Frozen Tombs of Siberia, The Pazyryk Burials of Iron-Age Horseman (University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, California, 1970) 19. Jump up ^ Lerner J., Some So- called Achaemenid Objects from Pazyryk, Source: Notes in the History of Art, vol. 10, no. 4:8-15 (1991). 20. Jump up ^ Harald Böhmer and Jon Thompson, Th e Pazyryk Carpet: A Technical Discussion, Source: Notes in the History of Art, vol. 10, no. 4:30-36 (1991). 21. Jump up ^ Hillyer, L., and Pretzel, B., The Ardabil Carpet - a new perspective, V &A Museum acces sed January 29, 2007. 22. Jump up ^ Wearden, J., The Surprising Geometry of the Ardabil Carpet, Abstracts from the Ars Textrina Conference, Leeds 1995. 23. Jump up ^ Hillyer, L., and Pretzel, B., The Ardabil Carpet - a new perspective, V &A Museum; accessed January 29, 2007 24. Jump up ^ The Ardabil Carpets, Exhibition at the Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Jozan.net; accessed January 29, 2007. 25. Jump up ^ BBCPersi an.com 26. Jump up ^ Persiancar petguide.com 27. Jump up ^ Oriental Rugs: A Complete Guide, by Murray L. Eiland Jr. & Murray Eiland III, London 2008, page 66 28. Jump up ^ BBCNew s.com 29. Jump up ^ name="Ti mberlake">B. B. Timberlake (10 March 2006). "In love with the fabric of life". Financia l Times. "Sakhai has spent a life in rugs. He comes from a family ofTehran Jews and has that bewitching contentment of a man lucky enough to have made a living from his passion. He has written numerous books on rugs and advises many museums and collectors. His main store is on Piccadilly overlooking St . James's Palace."

 Gallery of Persian Rug ………………..

Persian hali Acem halısı Vikipedi, özgür ansiklopedi

İran düğümü (Senneh)

Türk düğümü (Gördes) Acem halısı, İran halısına veril en addır. Düğüm tarzları da Türkiye'de dokunan halılardan farklıdır. Acem düğümü veya İran düğümü denilen dokuma tarzı Gördes düğümüveya Türk düğümü şeklinde anılan dokuma tarzından daha gevşek olup, kalite ve dayanıklılık açısından daha zayıftır. Kategoriler:

 Halı

 İran'da kültür

 Azerbaycan'da kültür

 Türkiye'de kültür Gördes düğümü, çift düğüm ya da kapalı ilme, Manisa'nın Gördes kazasında kullanıldığından bu ismi alan, Türkiye'de halı dokumalarda kullanılan, dünya literatürüne de Türk düğümü olarak geçmiş, bir düğüm çeşidi. Bu düğümün iki türü görülmektedir. İç Anadolu'da kullanılan düğüm şeklinde; iplik, çözgü çiftinin önce öndeki sonra arkadaki teline dolanarak bağlanır. Batı Anadolu'da kullanılan düğümde aynı işlem ters uygulanmaktadır. Bu değişiklik halının kalitesini etkilememekte, yalnızca Batı Anadolu'da dokunan halıların hav kesiminde kolaylık sağlamaktadır. Tekstil ile ilgili bu madde bir taslaktır. Madde içeriğini geliştirerek Vi kipedi'ye katkıda bulunabilirsiniz. ……………..

Tappeti persiani Tapis persan Pour les articles homonymes, voir Tapis (homonymie).

Détail d'un tapis persan détenu par le musée du Louvre à Paris. Le tapis persan est un élément essentiel et une des manifestations les plus distinguées de la culture et de l'art persans, dont les origines remontent à l'âge du bronze. Le luxe auquel est associé le tapis persan fournit un contraste saisissant avec ses débuts modestes parmi les tribus nomades de Perse. Le tapis était alors l'article nécessaire contre les hivers rudes. Depuis, il est devenu un mode d'expression artistique par la liberté qu'autorise notamment le choix des couleurs vives et des motifs employés. Les secrets de fabrication sont transmis de génération en génération. Les artisans utilisaient les insectes, les plantes, les racines, le sécorces et d'autres matières comme source d’inspiration. À partir du XVI e siècle, la fabrication des tapis s'est développée jusqu'à devenir un art à part entière. Premiers tapis

Photo du tapis Pazyryk datant du5e siècle av. J.-C.. Il fut découvert enSibérie sur le plateau de l'Oukok, où vivait le peuple pazyryk. Avec le temps, les matériaux utilisés dans les tapis, dont la laine, la soie et le coton, se dégradent. C'est pourquoi lesarchéologues n'ont pas pu faire de découvertes intéressantes sur les traces les plus anciennes. Dans une seule fouille cependant, menée en 1949, un exceptionnel tapis Pazyryk a été découvert au milieu des glaces de la vallée Pazyryk, dans les monts Altaï en Sibérie. Il se trouvait dans la tombe d'un prince scythe mise à jour par un groupe d'archéologues russes so us la supervision de Sergueï Roudenko. Les tests au carbone 14 ont montré que ce tapis avait été tissé au V e siècle av. J.-C.. Il mesure 1,83 mètre de large sur 2 mètres de long et compte 3 600 nœuds symétriques par décimètre carré. La technique avancée de tissage utilisée sur ce tapis indique une expérience certaine dans la maîtrise de cet art. La plupart des experts pensent que le tapis Pazyryk est l'aboutissement d'une longue évolution de la technique de fabrication du tapis d'au moins un millénaire. D'après cette théorie, l'apparition de la technique du tissage de tapis daterait donc d'au moins 3 500 ans. Mais tout ce qu'il reste comme traces du tissage de tapis aux temps anciens se limite à quelques pièces de tapis mal conservées. Ces fragments n'aident pas à reconnaître les caractéristiques des techniques de tissage de tapis de la période pré- seldjoukide (XIe-XIIe sièc le) en Perse. Il existe cependant des mentions écrites de l'existence du tapis en Asie occidentale au cours de l'époque préislamique, mais il est impossible de savoir s'ils étaient noués ou tissés. Quelques fragments de tapis nous sont parvenus de l'époque sassanide, découverts à Shahr-e Qumis. Les plus vieilles pièces découvertes sont celles trouvées dans l'Est du Turkestan, datant du IIIe au Ve siècle de l'ère chrétienne, ainsi que quelques tissages à la main des Seldjoukides d'Asie mineure qui sont exposés dans la mosquée Ala'edin à Konya et dans la mosquée Ashrafoghlu à Beyshehir, en Turquie. Ces pièces ont attiré l'attention des chercheurs au début du siècle dernier et sont maintenant conservées au Musée des arts turcs et islamiques à Istanbul et au musée Molana à Konya.

Arrivée en Europe D'après Kurt Erdmann, les tapis d'Orient n'ont pas été importés en Europe avant le XIIIe siècle1. En effet, des tapis présumés d'origine persane apparaissent sur les tableaux de Giotto (1266-1337), qui semble être le premier à les représenter, puis sur des œuvres de Van Eyck (v. 1390 - 1441), Mantegna (1435- 1506), Van Dyck (1599- 1641) et Rubens (1577- 1640). Ces tapis achetés par les Européens étaient de trop grande valeur pour être posés sur le sol, telle que le voulait la pratique en Orient. Les termes utilisés dans les inventaires vénitiens ind iquent qu'ils étaient placés sur des tables (tapedi da desco, tapedi da tavola) et des coffres servant de sièges (tapedi da cassa)1 ; les peintures européennes confirment ces usages2 (cf. le Portrait d'un sénateur de L. Bassano).

Naissance de l'industrie du tapis en Perse

Un tapis persan De nombreux tapis (entre 1 500 et 2 000) ont été conservés depuis la période safavide, mais la datation et l'établissement de la provenance de ces tapis restent très difficiles. Il en subsiste aussi de l'ère Qajar et Pahlavi en nombre encore plus grand.

Les inscriptions (cf. ci- dessous) sont une indication précieuse pour déterminer les artisans, les lieux de fabrication, les commanditaires, etc. De plus, une fois qu'un tapis a été fabriqué et est resté dans un endroit précis, il permet d'identifier les autres pièces qui lui sont relatives. Il est généralement accepté parmi les spécialistes que ce sont les Safavides qui ont fait passer le tapis d'une production artisanale assurée par des tribus nomades au statut d'« industrie nationale » dont les produits étaient exportés en Inde, dans l'Empire ottoman et en Europe 3. L'exportation du tapis a été florissante à la période safavidevers l'Europe (parfois via la colonie portugaise de Goa 4) et vers l'empire Moghol, où les tapis persans ont stimulé la production locale. Quelques tapis safavides ont aussi été transportés par la Compagnie hollandaise des Indes orientales vers Batavia, Ceylan, la Malaisie, Cochin ainsi que vers la Hollande même.

Des commandes européennes étaient passées en Perse pour le tissage de tapis spéciaux : par exemple, le groupe des « tapis polonais » a sans douté été noué à Ispahan, mais certains portent les armes de Pologne. Sur la base de récits de voyageurs et d'autres sources textuelles5, il apparaît que des ateliers de tapis royaux existaient à Ispahan, Kashan et Ker man. Ces ateliers produisaient des tapis pour les palais et mosquées du Shah, mais aussi pour être offerts aux monarques voisins ou aux dignitaires étrangers, ou encore réaliser des pièces sur commande de la noblesse ou d'autres citoyens. Le commanditaire versait alors du capital sous forme de matières premières et versait un salaire aux artisans pendant la durée du nouage. Le développement rapide de l'industrie du tapis en Perse à l'époque safavide semble être dû au goût des souverains pour cet artisanat. Ismaïl I er puis Shah Tahmasp et Shah Abbas le Grand sont connus pour avoir été personnellement intéressés par la production des tapis. On a même supposé que les deux derniers souverains cités se sont personnellement investis dans la production de tapis, notamment par le dessin des motifs6. Au cours de leur règne, les productions de tapis persan ont été les plus importantes de toute l'époque safavide.

Bien que les Safavides aient transformé la fabrication du tapis en production nationale, les tribus nomades et les petits ateliers urbains continuèrent à produire des tapis persans, et ce même après l'invasion afghane de 1722, qui mit fin au règne de la dynastie — donc à leur mécénat en faveur de la production de tapis. Il est cependant prouvé que Nâdir Châh et Karim Khân Zand ont fait réaliser des tapis dans le sud de la Perse, renouant ainsi avec le mécénat royal. C'est véritablement avec l'établissement de la dynastie qajare (1797) que la production du tapis fleurit à nouveau, encouragée surtout par la demande locale.

L'exportation restait peu répandue jusqu'à ce qu'une conjonction de facteurs fasse exploser les exportations. En effet, au début de la deuxième moitié duXIXe siècle, la pébrine atteint la Perse et fait fortement chuter la production de soie, jusqu'alors une exportation majeure du pays. Parallèlement, une forte demande européenne de tapis d'Orient suite à l'exposition de Vienne en 1873, ainsi que l'émergence d'une classe moyenne importante en Grande- Bretagneouvre un marché important à la Perse, qui cherchait un produit de substitution à la soie pour l'exportation. À partir de la fin des années 1870, la Perse commence à exporter massivement en Grande- Bretagne (deux compagnies anglaise, Messrs. Ziegler & Co. et Hotz & Co. fondent des manufactures en Iran), en France (un acheteur des Grands Magasins du Louvre se fournit annuellement) et aux États-Unis. Malheureusement, la fin de la période Qajar est marquée par un paradoxe. D'un côté, des tapis de soie somptueux, égalant ceux du XVIIe siècle sont produits. De l'autre côté, la qualité générale des tapis se détériore après l'introduction des colorants de synthèse en Perse, pourtant interdits par le gouvernement en 1877.

Production contemporaine

Vente de tapis au grand bazar deTéhéran, 2008. Les deux guerres mondiales représentent une période de déclin pour le tapis persan. La production repart après 1948, et aboutit à des tapis somptueux grâce au mécénat des Pahlavi. En 1949, le gouvernement iranien organise une conférence à Téhéran pour remédier aux problèmes de baisse de qualité des tapis, constatés depuis plus de soixante ans (utilisation d'aniline et de colorants au chrome, baisse de qualité des dessins, usage du nœud jofti). À l'occasion de cette conférence, une série de mesures est prise par le gouvernement qui aboutit à un renouveau du tapis persan.

La production de tapis persan diminue fortement après la révolution islamique car le nouveau régime considère les tapis comme un « trésor national » et refuse de les exporter en Occident. Cette politique est abandonnée en 1984 étant donnée l'importance des tapis comme source de revenus. Les exportations connaissent un nouvel essor à la fin des années 1980 et de la guerre Iran-Irak. Elles font plus que tripler en valeur (de 35 millions US$ à 110 millions US$) et doubler en poids (de 1154 tonnes à 2845 tonnes) entre mars et août 1986 — ce qui contribue a une baisse mondiale du prix des tapis.

Aujourd'hui, les techniques de tissage traditionnelles sont toujours bien vivantes, même si l'essentiel de la production de tapis est devenue mécanisée. Ces tapis traditionnels tissés à la main s'achètent dans le monde entier et sont généralement beaucoup plus onéreux que ceux réalisés à la machine. On peut admirer de nombreuses pièces très fines de tapis persans au musée du tapis d'Iran, à Téhéran. Fabrication Le métier et les outils Femmes tissant un tapis sur un métier vertical (vers 1890). Photo d'Antoin Sevruguin

Outils utilisés dans la fabrication des tapis. De haut en bas : ciseaux, couteaux, peigne et aiguille. Il existe quatre sortes de métiers : le métier horizontal, le métier vertical fixe, le métier vertical de type Tabriz et le métier vertical à ensouples rotatives. Le métier horizontal est le plus primitif des quatre. Il n'est plus employé aujourd'hui que par des nomades. Il consiste simplement en deux barres de bois entre lesquelles sont tendues les fils de laine dans le sens de la longueur. Durant le travail, les fils de chaîne sont maintenus tendus grâce à deux pieux liés aux extrémités de chaque barre et plantés dans le sol. Ce métier est facilement transportable lorsque la tribu se déplace. Le métier vertical fixe, employé presque uniquement dans les centres de production de moindre importance, est aussi un modèle rustique. Il consiste en un cadre vertical dont les montants supportent les extrémités de deux barres rondes et parallèles appelées ensouples. Entre ces deux ensouples sont fixés les fils de chaîne. Le tissage commence toujours par le bas. Pendant le travail, l'ouvrier est assis sur une planche qui repose sur les barreaux de deux échelles fixées aux montants verticaux du métier. Au fur et à mesure que le nouage progresse, la planche servant de siège doit s'élever en même temps que le tapis. Ce type de métier est utilisé pour des tapis dont la longueur ne dépassera pas celle du métier lui- même, c'est-à-dire trois mètres.

Le métier dit de Tabriz représente une amélioration du métier vertical. Il a été inventé par les artisans de cette ville. Il est utilisé un peu partout dans les grands centres de production en Iran. Dans ce type de métier, les fils de chaîne se déroulent de l'ensouple supérieure à la bobine inférieure, sous laquelle ils passent avant de revenir vers l'ensouple supérieure. Ce système offre l'avantage de pouvoir nouer des pièces de longueur égale à deux fois la hauteur du métier.

Le dernier type de métier, à ensouples rotatives, représente la version la plus évoluée du métier vertical. Tout le fil de chaîne nécessaire au nouage du tapis est enroulé sur l'ensouple supérieure, tandis que sur la bobine inférieure s'enroule le tapis au fur et à mesure du travail. Ce métier permet donc de confectionner des pièces de n'importe quelle longueur. Les outils utilisés dans le travail du tapis sont peu nombreux et très simples. Le couteau sert à couper les brins du nœud; entièrement en métal, il est parfois pourvu d'un crochet qui sert à nouer (surtout à Tabriz). Le peigne est fait de plusieurs lames de métal dont les pointes s'écartent pour former les dents. Il sert à tasser le ou les fils de trame contre la rangée de nœuds. Les ciseaux, plats et larges, sont utilisés pour raser le velours du tapis.

Les matières premières

Femmes qashqais en train de laver de la laine. Les matériaux nécessaires à la fabrication d'un tapis persan sont la laine, la soie et le coton. La laine et la soie sont surtout utilisées pour le velours du tapis, plus rarement pour la chaîne et la trame qui sont généralement en coton. La laine de mouton est la plus utilisée, plus particulièrement celle à fibre longue (prélevée sur les épaules et les flancs de l'animal). La laine d'agneau est aussi très recherchée. On appelle la laine de bonne qualité kurk et celle la plus médiocre est nommée tabachi. Les laines les plus réputées viennent du Khorasan ou des tribus lors et kurdes.

Le coton est utilisé exclusivement pour la chaîne et la trame. Dans certains types de tapis, comme ceux de Qom ou deNa'in, on mélange au velours de laine un fil de soie.

Dans les tapis très précieux, le velours est de soie. Pour certains tapis anciens, des fils d'argent, d'or, ou de soie entourés d'un fil de métal précieux étaient aussi employés. Actuellement, la chaîne et la trame sont toujours en coton (sauf pour certains tapis nomades entièrement en laine), car celui-ci est plus solide et résistant et il permet une meilleure tenue du tapis. Les colorants

Écheveaux de laine.

Restauration d’un tapis ancien. La palette très variée des tapis persans est en grande partie responsable de leur renom. La laine à teindre est d'abord déposée dans un bain concentré d'alun qui fait office de « mordant ». Puis elle est mise en teinture dans un bain colorant, et enfin mise à sécher au soleil. Avant l'apparition des colorants synthétiques (découverte de l'aniline en 1856 et apparition des colorants en Perse à la fin du XIX e siècle, les teinturiers utilisaient uniquement des colorants naturels, provenant de substances végétales. Parmi les colorants employés :

 Le rouge donné par la racine de garance, poussant à l'état sauvage dans une grande partie de l'Iran.

  Les feuilles de l'indigo donnaient du bleu, qui pouvait être très foncé, presque noir.

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 Les feuilles de vigne donnaient les jaunes, qui étaient aussi obtenus à l'aide du safran (couleur plus délicate), cultivé dans le Khorasan.

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 Le vert est obtenu en mélangeant du bleu et du jaune avec du sulfate de cuivre.

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 Les couleurs naturelles de la laine fournissent les gris et le marron, qu'on peut aussi obtenir avec du brou de noix.

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 On emploie la laine naturelle de mouton ou le poil de chameau noir pour la couleur noire, pour laquelle l'oxyde de fer contenu dans la noix de galle est aussi utilisé.

 Aujourd'hui, la plupart des teinturiers utilisent des colorants synthétiques (sauf parmi les nomades, qui utilisent encore les couleurs naturelles), un grand nombre d'entre eux étant des colorants au chrome, qui présente des avantages par rapport à l'aniline et a permis de baisser les coûts.

Sur certains tapis, et à certains endroits ou sur le fond, il est possible que la teinte change. Cette modification de couleur s'appelle abrash. C'est la preuve que le tapis a été teint avec des colorants végétaux. La chaîne et la trame

Photo du recto et du verso d'un tapis persan. On peut apercevoir le fils de trame blanc entre les nœuds. La chaîne est l'ensemble des fils verticaux tendus entre les deux extrémités du métier. Les franges des tapis sont les extrémités des fils de chaîne. La trame est formée d'un ou plusieurs fils transversaux (généralement deux, l'un lâche et l'autre tendu), disposés entre deux rangées de nœuds. La trame sert à resserrer les nœuds en rangées parallèles et assure la solidité du tapis. La trame est tassée au moyen d'un peigne spécial (voir photo plus haut). Les nœuds

Turkbâf

Farsbâf Il existe deux types de nœud : le ghiordes ou turkbâf et le senneh, ou farsbâf. Le turkbâf est utilisé essentiellement en Turquie et dans le Caucase. Le farsbâf (fars signifiant « persan) » est surtout utilisé en Perse. Dans le turkbâf, le brin de laine est enroulé autour de deux fils de chaîne de façon à former un tour complet autour de chacun des deux fils de chaînes. Les extrémités du brin ressortent entre les deux fils (voir dessin ci- contre). Dans le farsbâf, le brin de laine ne forme un tour complet qu'autour d'un des deux fils de chaîne. Certains artisans, voulant gagner du temps (mais la qualité du tapis s'en trouve diminuée) nouent les brins de laine sur deux fils de chaîne. Les nœuds sont alors appelés turkbâf jofti ou farsbâf jofti.

L'artisan commence toujours par tisser une lisière en bas du tapis. Une lisière est une bande serrée faite de plusieurs fils de trame qui empêchera le tapis de s'effilocher ou de voir les nœuds se relâcher. La lisère terminée, le nouage peut commencer. Chaque brin de laine est noué sur deux fils de chaîne contigus. Ce sont ces brins de laine qui formeront le « velours » du tapis. Lorsqu'un rang est terminé, l'artisan fait passer un fil de trame, tantôt devant, tantôt derrière chaque fil de chaîne.

Après chaque nœud, l'artisan coupe le brin de laine a environ sept centimètres du nœud et il le tire vers le bas ; c'est ce qui déterminera le « sens » du tapis. En effet, une des caractéristiques du tapis persan est qu'il apparaît totalement différent selon l'angle de vue et l'incidence de la lumière. Toutes les quatre ou six rangées, l'artisan effectue un premier rasage du velours. C'est seulement à la fin du nouage du tapis que la tranche de velours est égalisée. Si le tapis est très fin, il sera égalisé très ras. Au contraire, il sera plus haut pour un tapis dont la qualité du nouage est plus basse. C'est la qualité du nouage qui fait la qualité et le prix d'un tapis persan. Un tapis de qualité moyenne compte 2 500 nœuds au décimètre carré, un tapis de basse qualité 500 nœuds au décimètre carré seulement. Un tapis d'excellente qualité peut compter jusqu'à 10 000 nœuds au décimètre carré.

Les formats

 Ghali (littéralement « tapis ») : désigne les tapis de grande dimension, de plus de 190x280 cm.  Dozar ou Sedjadeh : employés indifféremment. Le nom vient de do, « deux » et zar, une mesure persane correspondant à 105 cm environ. Ces tapis mesurent approximativement 130-140 centimètres de largeur pour 200-210 centimètres de longueur.

 Ghalitcheh : Tapis de même format que les précédents mais de qualité très fine.

 Kelleghi ou Kelley : tapis de format allongé, mesurant environ 150- 200x300-600 cm. Ce tapis est traditionnellement réservé à être disposé en tête (kallehsignifie « tête » en persan) d'un tapis (ghali).

 Kenareh : format allongé aussi mais plus petits; 80-120cmx250- 600 cm. Il est traditionnellement positionné sur les côtés (kenār signifie « côté » en persan) d'un tapis plus grand.

 Zaronim : correspondant à un zar et demi. Ces tapis mesurent donc environ 150 cm de long.

 Différence entre tapis anatolien et tapis persan La différence entre les tapis anatoliens (turcs) et persans est largement une question de fabrication et de tradition dans l'emploi des motifs.

Typiquement, un tapis persan traditionnel est noué avec un nœud asymétrique (nœud persan ou senneh), alors que le tapis anatolien traditionnel est noué avec un double nœud symétrique (nœud turc ou ghiordes). Finalement, ce procédé de « nœud symétrique » utilisé dans le tapis traditionnel anatolien/turc donne une impression que l'image est plus construite par blocs en comparaison au tapis persan traditionnel à nœud simple dont le dessin est beaucoup plus fin.

Le style traditionnel anatolien réduit aussi le nombre de nœuds au mètre carré. Ces facteurs ont contribué à créer la réputation ancienne et internationale de qualité des tapis persans. Aujourd'hui, il est commun de voir des tapis tissés à la fois en Turquie ou en Iran utilisant l'un ou l'autre des styles. Quand on compare des tapis, la seule façon d'identifier le type de nœud utilisé est de plier le tapis contre lui même et de regarder la base du nœud.

Architecture d'un tapis Comme un ouvrage d'architecture, le tapis est réalisé d'après un plan (appelé « carton »), qui indique la composition, l'agencement du décor et la disposition des motifs. Le carton est dessiné par un maître (ostad en persan), qui n'est pas forcément tapissier, mais peut être peintre. Le schéma d'un tapis reprend souvent celui d'une reliure de manuscrit, les deux arts étant intimement liés car leurs concepteurs sont souvent les mêmes peintres. On distingue deux types : schémas orientés et non orientés. Parties d'un tapis

Les différentes parties d'un tapis persan. Les différentes parties d'un tapis portent les noms suivants :

 Bordures secondaires : elles peuvent être intérieures ou extérieures (par rapport à la bordure principale) et sont plus ou moins nombreuses, plus ou moins étroites. les bordures extérieures sont parfois de couleur unie.

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 Bordure principale : elle complète l'ornementation du tapis et donne un équilibre à l'ensemble.

  Champ : le champ est constitué de la partie interne du tapis, délimitée par les bordures d'encadrement.

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 Écoinçons : les écoinçons sont formés par les angles du champ.

  Médaillon central : Les médaillons sont de formes diverses: circulaire, ogivale, étoilée ou polygonale. Ils peuvent être assortis de pendentifs.

 Schémas orientés Ils sont dessinés autour d'un axe unique de symétrie et imposent un sens au tapis, qui ne peut être regardé que d'un seul point de vue. Les tapis figuratifs sont fréquemment conçus de cette façon. C'est aussi le cas des tapis de prière, qui possèdent un champ orné d'une niche appelée mihrab. Schémas non orientés Ces tapis peuvent être regardés de n'importe quel point de vue car leurs dessins ne sont pas orientés. La décoration est formée soit de motifs continus, soit de motifs tous semblables répétés jusqu'à couvrir la totalité du champ. Schéma à motif centré Ce type de tapis est aussi conçu pour être regardé de n'importe quel point de vue, mais sa composition possède un élément central dominant autour duquel on trouve des motifs secondaires.

Décor Tapis à décor géométrique

Motifs animaux d'inspiration géométrique: de g. à d. chien, coq, chameau. Ils représentent le goût particulier d'un artisan ou les traditions d'une tribu. Ces tapis sont décorés d'éléments linéaires (traits verticaux, horizontaux et obliques). Le dessin est très simple et souvent formé par la répétition du même motif.

Les dessins géométriques se trouvent le plus souvent dans les tapis des nomades, des petits villages d'Anatolie et du Caucase. Les motifs géométriques s'étant transmis de génération en génération, il est facile à l'œil exercé de reconnaître la tribu dont ils proviennent.

Tapis à dessin curviligne ou floral Ils sont le résultat d'une évolution qui a suivi celle de l'art islamique, auxquels ils appartiennent.

C'est à l'époque des Safavides et plus particulièrement à partir de Shah Tahmasp (1523- 1576) que sont créés les premiers tapis à décors floraux, afin de satisfaire les goûts des Safavides. La différence entre les tapis des nomades et les tapis floraux est due au rôle du « maître » (ostad). C'est lui qui dessine le carton qui sera reproduit par les noueurs. Les dessins des tapis des nomades sont, eux, transmis par la tradition.

Motifs Article détaillé : Motifs décoratifs de l'art perse. Le boteh, l'un des motifs les plus connus, employé en Perse. Les motifs de champ sont un dessin répété jusqu'à envahir toute la surface du champ. Les plus connus sont les suivants :

 le boteh : son dessin est en forme d'amande ou représente pour certains un cyprès. C'est le plus connu des motifs employés en Perse.

  le gol : mot persan signifiant « fleur ». Le motif est de forme octogonale.

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 le motif hérati : motif composé d'une rosace centrale enfermée dans un losange. Les sommets du losange sont surmontés de rosaces plus petites. 

 le joshagan : il est formé d'une succession de losanges ornés de fleurs stylisées.

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 le Kharshiang : en persan, « crabe ». Motif inventé sous le règne de Shah Abbas.

  le minah khani : motif qui évoque un champ fleuri. Il est composé de quatre fleurs disposées de façon à dessiner un losange et d'une fleur plus petite au centre.

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 le zil-e sultan : il est formé de deux vases superposés, ornés de rose et de branches fleuries. Parfois, des oiseaux sont posés sur le vase. Son origine est relativement récente (XIXe siècle).

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 Chah Abbasi : sous ce nom est regroupée toute une série de dessins inventés sous le règne de Shah Abbas. Ce sont des décors à base de fleurs, inspiré de la fleur de lys.

 Les motifs de bordure sont ceux qui ornent les bandes latérales du tapis. Les plus connus sont les suivants :

 le hérati de bordure : ils sont différents des hérati de champ. Ils se composent d'une alternance de rosaces et de fleurs, et de rameaux fleuris.

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 le boteh de bordure : semblable au boteh de champ.

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 la bordure coufique : elle porte ce nom à cause de sa ressemblance avec le style d'écriture du même nom. Ils sont toujours en blanc.

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 la bordure à feuilles dentelées : elle est formée d'une succession de feuilles dentelées, disposées en biais.  Les motifs d'ornementation sont des dessins destinés à compléter le décor du champ et de la bordure. On y retrouve les motifs suivants :

 l'étoile à huit branches

 la rosace

 le svastika  la croix grecque, entre autres celles à crochets.

 le motif dit du chien qui court.

 Les inscriptions et les dates apparaissent sur la bordure de certains tapis et sont des inscriptions diverses : versets du Coran, vers, dédicaces, date de fabrication, mention du lieu de production.

Symboles et signification Vieux tapis persan au Musée du Louvre. Le tapis a toujours rempli en Orient une double fonction, pratique et symbolique, dont le sens se perd parfois aujourd'hui. Il constitue un espace magique où les bordures représentent les éléments terrestres érigés en défenseurs du champ, habité par la sphère de l'univers et du divin7

Un des décors les plus courants est l'arbre, arbre de vie représentant la fertilité, la continuité et servant de lien entre le sous-sol, la terre et le divin. Ce motif largement anté- islamique est souvent représenté dans les tapis de prière persans.

Les nuages, qui sous forme très stylisée peuvent être transformés en trèfles, symbolisent la communication avec le divin et la protection divine.

Le médaillon central représente quant à lui le soleil, le divin, le surnaturel.

Dans certains tapis, les écoinçons reprennent les motifs du médaillon central ; ces quatre éléments revêtent alors la signification de portes d'approche et de protection du centre divin.

Le jardin, qui est associé au paradis (le mot dérive en effet du vieux-persan pairidei eza qui signifie « jardin », « enclos », qui a donné pardis en persan) donne lieu à un type de composition qui apparaît dès le XVII e siècle en Perse a fin d'imiter les jardins des shah, divisés en parcelles rectangulaires ou carrées par des allées et des canaux d'irrigation (chahar bagh).

On peut trouver aussi des tapis à thème cynégétique : la chasse est une activité prisée des Shah, requérant adresse, force et connaissance de la nature. Ce thème est également lié au paradis et aux activités spirituelles, puisque la chasse se déroule souvent dans une nature qui peut rappeler les jardins du paradis. Letapis de Mantes, daté de la deuxième moitié du XVI e siècle et conservé au musée du Louvre est à ce titre exemplaire. Centre traditionnels de production de tapis en Iran (Perse) [modifier | modifier le code]

Les centres de production classiques majeurs en Perse étaient à situés à Tabriz (1500-1550), Kashan (1525-1650), H erat (1525-1650), et Kerman (1600- 1650).

La majorité des tapis originaires de Tabriz ont un médaillon central et des quarts de médaillons dans les coins recouvrant une ornementation faite d'un champ de vignes entrelacés, parfois ponctués par des chasseurs à cheval, des animaux seuls ou des scènes de combat d'animaux.

Les œuvres de Tabriz les plus connues sont peut- être les tapis jumeaux d'Ardabil — conservés aujourd'hui dans les collections du Victoria and Albert Museum à Londres et du Los Angeles County Museum. Kashan est connu pour ses tapis de soie.

Les œuvres le plus fameuses sont les trois tapis de soie représentant des scènes de chasse avec des chasseurs à cheval et leurs proies animales qui sont de véritables chefs d'œuvre, conservés dans les collections du Musée d'arts appliqués de Vienne8 (ou MAK), au musée des beaux-arts de Boston, et au Musée de Stockholm. Les tapis de Kashan sont parmi les plus recherchés. En 1969, un tapis s'est par exemple vendu en Allemagne pour 20 000 dollars US.

Les tapis de Herat, ou ceux au dessin similaire créés à Lahore et Âgrâ en Inde , sont les plus nombreux dans les collections occidentales. Ils se caractérisent par un champ rouge de pieds de vigne entrelacés et des palmettes vert foncé ou des bordures bleues.

Les sept classes de tapis de Kerman ont été définies par May Beattie. Elle a identifié leur structure unique et l'a appelée « technique du vase ». Les types de tapis dans ce groupe incluent les tapis jardin (ornés de jardins formels et de canaux d'eau courante) et les tapis au treillis en ovale. Un exemple très connu et parfait de ce dernier type a été acheté par le Victoria and Albert Museum sous les conseils de William Morris. L'influence des tapis persans est flagrante dans les dessins de ses tapis.

Types de tapis Les vendeurs de tapis ont développé une classification des tapis persans basée sur le dessin, le type de fabrication et la technique de tissage. Les catégories ont été nommées d'après les villes et les régions associées à chaque type de motifs. La liste qui suit présente les principaux types de tapis persans.  Ab  Ha  Lo  Sa  Ve ade med rest rou ra h an an k mi n  Ar  He  M  Se dab riz ash nn  Ya il had eh  Isp zd

 Ba aha  M  Sh khti n esh ira ari kin z  Jos

 Be hag  Na  Q luc han in om h  Ka  Sa  Ta  Bi sha rab bri djar n z  Sa

 Fe  Ke rab  Té rag rma and hér han n an 

Tapis de Nain

 Tapis de Tabriz



Tapis de Kashan

 Détail du champ d'un tapis d'Ispahan



Tapis de Qom Notes et références 1. ↑ a et b Survey of Persian art, p. 3160- 3161 2. ↑ Voir aussi Hans Holbein le Jeune, Portrait du marchand Georg Gisze, Berlin, Gemäldgallerie où apparait un tapis de type seldjoukide, à bordure coufique. 3. ↑ (en) Annette Ittig, Sarah B. Sherill, Karen S. Rubinson, Barbara Schimtz, Eleanor Sims, Daniel Walker, Layla S. Diba, Willem M. Floor, P. R. Ford, Siawosh Azadi, « Carpets [archive] », dans Encyclopædia Iranica en ligne [archive] 4. ↑ Gans-Ruedin, p. 11. 5. ↑ Florencio, p. 102; Tavernier, I, p. 397,589 ; Chardin, III, p. 120 6. ↑ Vārzi, p. 58. 7. ↑ Enza Milanesi, Le tapis, Gründ, 1999 (ISBN 2-7000- 2223-8). 8. ↑ Site du MAK [archive]. Sources[modifier | modi fier le code]

 Florencio del Niño Jesús, A Persia (1604- 09). Peripecias de una embajada pontificia que fué a Persia a principios del Siglo XVII, Biblioteca Carmelitana-Teresiana de Misiones II, Pamplona, 1929.

 J.B.Tavernier, Les six voyages de J.B.Tavernier en Turquie, en Perse et aux Indes, 2 vols., Paris, 1676

 J. Chardin, Voyages du Chevalier Chardin en Perse, 4 vols., Amsterdam, 1735.

 M.Vārzi, Honar va san'at-e qālī dar Irān, Tehran, 1350/1971.

 Fabio Formenton, Le livre du tapis, Deux coqs d'or, Paris, 1982.

 M.H Beattie, Carpet of central Persia, Sheffield, 1976  Arthur U. Pope et Phyllis Ackerman, A Survey of persian art, 1981

 Enza Milanesi, Le tapis, Gründ, 1999 ISBN 2-7000- 2223-8.

 Article Tapis de l'Encyclopaedi a Iranica (en)  tapis persans, sur Wikimedia Commons Bibliographie

 (en) Cecil Edwards, The Persian Carpet - A survey of the carpet-weaving industry in Persia, Duckworth, London, 1953 (reprinted 1960, 1967, 1975, 1983) (ISBN 0 7156 0256 X) ;

 (fr) (fa) E. Gans- Ruedin, Splendeur du tapis persan, Office du Livre, Fribourg (Suisse), 1978(ISBN 2 8264 0110 6) ;

 (en) E. Gans- Ruedin, The Splendor of Persian carpets, Rizzoli, New York, 1984 (ISBN 084780179 9) ;

 (en) David Black, The Atlas of Rugs and Carpets, Tiger Books International, Londres, 1986 (ISBN 002511120 5) ;

ﺗاﺭیﺦ ﻭﻫﻨر فرﺶ ﺑافﻲ ( (fa Histoire de) ﺩﺭ ﺍیرﺍﻥ l'art du tapis en Iran), Téhéran, 2005 (ISBN 964-448- 245-x). Articles connexes[modifier | mo difier le code]

 Musée du tapis d'Iran

 Art persan

 Art iranien

 Tapis en général et tapisserie

 Tapis arménien  Kilim (aussi appelé Gelim ou Kelim)

 Gabbeh et Gabbeh, film de Mohsen Makhmalbaf

 Hétérotopie Liens externes[modifier | mod ifier le code]

 (en) erug.com, 2005, (page consultée le 17 juin 2005), Apprendre à propos des tapis

 (en) Islamic architecture.com, 24 nov. 2005, (page consultée le 17 juin 2005), Tapis islamiques

 (en) bukhara- carpets.com, (page consultée le 17 juin 2005), Histoire complète des tapis persans

 (en) Rugsyclopedia sur latifrugs.com, 2004, (page consultée le 17 juin 2005), Source complète d'information sur le tapis

 une vidéo qui montre la façon de nouer un nœud turkbaf ou ghiordes  (nl) Vieux tapis persan au Musée d'Histoire Juive d'Amsterdam ………………

…………….

NEWROZ Nowruz Nowruz نوروز

Haft-Seen, White House ceremony for Nowruz, 2008 Als Also spelled o Nourooz, Nouruz, call Norouz, Norooz, ed Narooz, Nauruz, Nawroz, Noruz, Nohrooz, Novruz, Nauroz, Navroz, Naw-Rúz, Nowroj, Navroj, Nevruz, Newroz (Kurdish), Navruz, Navrez, Nooruz, Nauryz, Nowrouz,Наврӯз, ნავრუზი (Georgian), नवररह (Kashmiri), નવરરઝ (Parsi Gujarati), ननररज (Hindi) Ob Iran ser Azerbaijan [1] ved Afghanistan [2] by Georgia [3] Iraq [4] Kazakhstan [5] Kyrgyzstan [5] Russia [6] Syria [7] Tajikistan [8] Turkey [9] Turkmenistan [10] [11] Uzbekistan

Ethnic and religious groups worldwide: Ethnic Kazakhs in Mongolia Kurdish diaspora Zoroastrians, Baloc h, Sufis,Ismailis, Al evis, Alawites, Babi s,Bahá'ís and the Iranian diasporaand Afghan diaspora. Also observed unofficially in Bosnia,Caucasus, Crimea, India,[12] [13] Macedonia,[12][13] Serbia, and among Uyghurs and Salars ofChina. Sig New year holiday nifi can ce Cel The Haftsin setting, ebr Chahârshanbe ati Sûrî, Sizdah Bedar, ons etc. Dat March 19, 20, 21 or e 22 201 Wednesday 20 3 d March 2013 at ate 11:02 UTC * 201 Thursday 20 March 4 d 2014 at 16:57 ate UTC * Fre annual que ncy Novruz, Nowrouz, Nooruz, Navruz, Nauroz, Nevruz * Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity Co Azerbaijan, Afghani un stan, India, Iran,Kyr try gyzstan, Pakistan, T urkey,Uzbekistan Re 282 fer en ce Re Asia and Australasia gio n * * Inscription history Ins2009 cri pti on

 Name as inscribed by UNESCO ** Region as classified by UNESCO ,نوﺭﻭز :Nowruz (Persian IPA: [nouˈɾ u ː z], meaning "[The] New Day") is the name of the Persian New Year.[14] [15][16][17] Nowruz marks the first day of spring or Equinox [18] as and the beginning of the year in the Persian calendar. It is celebrated on the day of the astronomical Northward equinox, which usually occurs on March 21 or the previous/following day depending on where it is observed. The moment the sun crosses the celestial equator and equalizes night and day is calculated exactly every year and families gather together to observe the rituals. Nowruz is celebrated by people from diverse ethnic communities and religious backgrounds for thousands of years. It is a secular holiday that is enjoyed by people of several different faiths. It originated in Persia in one of the capitals of the Achaemenid empire in Persis (Fars)[19] in Iran and is also celebrated by the cultural region that came under Iranian influence or had migrations by Persians including Azerbaijan, the North Caucasus, Kurdish inhabited regions of eastern Turkey and Northern Iraq,[20] Afghan istan, Tajikistan, Turkme nistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrg yzstan, Kazakhstanand other scattered populations in Central Asia. Nowruz is partly rooted in the religious tradition of Zoroastrianism. Among other ideas, Zoroastrianism is the firstmonotheistic religio n that emphasizes broad concepts such as the corresponding work of good and evil in the world, and the connection of humans to nature. Zoroastrian practices were dominant for much of the history of ancient Persia (centered in what is now Iran). Nowruz is believed to have been invented by Zoroaster himself, although there is no clear date of origin. [21] Since the Achaemenid era the official year has begun with the New Day when the Sunleaves the zodiac of Pisces and enters the zodiacal sign of Aries, signifying the Spring Equinox. Nowruz is also a holy day for Sufi Muslims, Bektashis, Ism ailis, Alawites,[22] Alevi s, Babis and adherents of the Bahá'í Faith.[23] The term Nowruz in writing first appeared in historical Persian records in the 2nd century AD, but it was also an important day during the time of the Achaemenids (c. 550–330 BCE), where kings from different nations under thePersian Empire used to bring gifts to the Emperor, also called King of Kings (Shahanshah), of Persia on Nowruz. The significance of Nowruz in the Achaemenid Empire was such that the great Persian king Cambyses II's appointment as the king of Babylon was legitimized only after his participation in the New Year festival (Nowruz). [24] The UN's General Assembly in 2010 recognized the International Day of Nowruz, describing it as a spring festival ofPersian origin which has been celebrated for over 3,000 years.[25] [26] During the meeting of The Inter- governmental Committee for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Heritage of the United Nations, held between 28 September – 2 October 2009 in Abu Dhabi, Nowrūz was officially registered on the UNESCO List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.[27] [28][29][30] Etymology The term Nowruz is a Persian compound word and consists of:

 now (Old Persian nava) means "new", descends from Proto-Indo- European *néṷ os and has the following cognates: in Latin novus, German neu, Sanskrit náva, Rus sian novyj etc. The Persian pronunciation differs in the many dialects of the language: while theeastern dialects have preserved the original diphthong (IPA : [næuˈɾ o ː z]), the western dialects usually pronounce it with a different diphthong (IPA: [nouˈɾ u ː z]), and some colloquial variants (such as the Tehrani accent) pronounce it with a monophthong (no; IP A: [noːˈɾ u ː z]).

 rūz (for variant pronunciations see above) means "day" in Modern Persian, as did Middle Persian lwc (pronounce d rōz or rōj). The original meaning of the word, however, was "light". The term is descended from Proto- Iranian *raučah- (comp are Avestan raocah "lig ht; day"), itself derived from Proto-Indo- European*leṷ k-, and is related to Sanskrit rúci, Latin lux, Armenian loys, Russian luč and, in fact, English light.[citation needed] Spring equinox Main article: March equinox Illumination of the Earth by the Sun on the day of equinox, (ignoring twilight). The first day on the Iranian calendar falls on the March equinox, the first day of spring, around 20 March. At the time of the equinox, the sun is observed to be directly over the equator, and the north and south poles of the Earth lie along the solar terminator; sunlight is evenly divided between the north and south hemispheres. In c. the 11th century AD major reforms of Iranian calendars took place and whose principal purpose was to fix the beginning of the calendar year, i.e. Nowrūz, at the vernal equinox. Accordingly, the definition of Nowruz given by the Iranian scientist TṬūsī was the following: "the first day of the official new year [Nowruz] was always the day on which the sun entered Aries before noon".[31] History and tradition Tradition and mythology Bas-relief in Persepolis, Fars province ofIran. A Zoroastrian symbol of Nowruz – on the vernal equinox the powers of the eternally fighting bull (personifying the Earth) and lion (personifying the Sun) are equal. The celebration has its roots in Ancient Iran. Due to its antiquity, there exist various foundation myths for Nowruz inIranian mythology. In the Zoroastrian tradition, the seven most important Zoroastrian festivals are the Gahambars and Nowruz, which occurs at the spring equinox. According to Mary Boyce,[32] “ It seems a reasonable surmise that Nowruz, the holiest of them all, with deep doctrinal significance, was founded by Zoroaster himself . ” Between sunset of the day of the 6th Gahanbar and sunrise of Nowruz was celebrated Hamaspathmaedaya (later known, in its extended form, as Frawardinegan). This and the Gahanbar are the only festivals named in the surviving text of the Avesta. The Shahnameh, dates Nowruz as far back to the reign of Jamshid, who in Zoroastrian texts saved mankind from a killer winter that was destined to kill every living creature.[33] The mythical Persian King Jamshid (Yima or Yama of theIndo- Iranian lore) perhaps symbolizes the transition of the Indo-Iranians from animal hunting to animal husbandry and a more settled life in human history. In the Shahnameh and Iranian mythology, he is credited with the foundation of Nowruz. In the Shahnama, Jamshid constructed a throne studded with gems. He had demons raise him above the earth into the heavens; there he sat on his throne like the sun shining in the sky. The world's creatures gathered in wonder about him and scattered jewels around him, and called this day the New Day or No/Now-Ruz. This was the first day of the month of Farvardin (the first month of the Persian calendar).[34] The Persian scholar Abu Rayhan Biruni of the 10th century AD, in his Persian work "Kitab al-Tafhim li Awa'il Sina'at al-Tanjim" provides a description of the calendar of various nations. Besides the Persian calendar, various festivals of Arabs, Jews, Sabians, Greeks and other nations are mentioned in this book. In the section on the Persian calendar he ,(ﺗقویم پاﺭسیاﻥ :Persian) mentions Nowruz, Sadeh, Tiregan, Mehregan, the six Gahanbar, Parvardegaan, Bahmanja, Isfandarmazh and several other festivals. According to him: It is the belief of the Persians that Nowruz marks the first day when the universe started its motion.[35] The Persian historian Abu Saʿ īd Gardēzī [36] in his work titled Zayn al- Akhbār under the section of the Zoroastrians festivals mentions Nowruz (among other festivals) and specifically points out that Zoroaster highly emphasized the celebration of Nowruz and Mehregan.[37] History Persepolis all nations staircase. Notice the people from across the AchaemenidPersian Empire bringing gifts. Some scholars have associated the occasion to be either Mehregan or Nowruz.[38] Although it is not clear whether proto-Indo- Iranians celebrated a feast as the first day of the calendar, there are indications that both Iranians and Indians may have observed the beginning of both autumn and spring, related to the harvest and the sowing of seeds, respectively, for the celebration of new year. [39]

Boyce and Grenet explain the traditions for seasonal festivals and comment: "It is possible that the splendor of the Babylonian festivities at this season led the Persians to develop their own spring festival into an established new year feast, with the name Navasarda 'New Year' (a name which, though first attested through Middle Persian derivatives, is attributed to the Achaemenian period). Since the communal observations of the ancient Iranians appear in general to have been a seasonal ones, and related to agriculture, it is probable, that they traditionally held festivals in both autumn and spring, to mark the major turning points of the natural year".[39] We] have reasons to believe that the celebration is much older than that date and was surely celebrated by the people and royalty during the Achaemenid times (555–330 BC). It was, therefore, a highly auspicious occasion for the ancient Iranian peoples. It has been suggested that the famous Persepolis comp lex, or at least the palace of Apadana and the Hundred Columns Hall, were built for the specific purpose of celebrating Nowruz. Although, there may be no mention of Nowruz in recorded Achaemenid inscriptions (see picture) [40] There is a detailed account by Xenophon of Nowruz celebration taking place in Persepolis and the continuity of this festival in the Achaemenid tradition.[41] in 539 BC the Jews came under Persian rule thus exposing both groups to each other's customs. According to Encyclopædia Britannica, the story of Purim as told in the Book of Esther is adapted from a Persian novella about the shrewdness of harem queens suggesting that Purim may be a transformation of the Persian New Year.[42] A specific novella is not identified and Encyclopædia Britannica itself notes that “no Jewish texts of this genre from the Persian period are extant, so these new elements can be recognized only inferentially”. The Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics notes that the Purim holiday is based on a lunar calendar while Nowruz occurs at the spring equinox (solar calendar). The two holidays are therefore celebrated on different dates but within a few weeks of each other, depending on the year. Both holidays are joyous celebrations. Given their temporal associations, it is possible that the Jews and Persians of the time may have shared or adopted similar customs for these holidays. [43] The story of Purim as told in the Book of Esther has been dated anywhere from 625–465 BC (although the story takes place with the Jews under the rule of the Achaemenid Empire and the Jews had come under Persian rule in 539 BC), while Nowruz is thought to have first been celebrated between 555–330 BC. It remains unclear which holiday was established first.

Nowruz was the holiday of Arsacid/Parthian dyna stic Empires who ruled Iran (248 BC-224 AD). There are specific references to the celebration of Nowruz during the reign of Vologases I (51–78 AD), but these include no details. [40] Before Sassanids esta blished their power in West Asia around 300 AD, Parthians celebrated Nowruz in Autumn and 1st of Farvardin began at the Autumn Equinox.

Extensive records on the celebration of Nowruz appear following the accession of Ardashir I of Persia, the founder of the Sassanid dynasty (224–651 AD). Under the Sassanid Emperors, Nowruz was celebrated as the most important day of the year. Most royal traditions of Nowruz such as royal audiences with the public, cash gifts, and the pardoning of prisoners, were established during the Sassanian era and persisted unchanged until modern times. Nowruz, along with Sadeh (celebrated in mid-winter), survived in society following the introduction of Islam in 650 AD. Other celebrations such Gahanbar andMehr agan were eventually side-lined or were only followed by the Zoroastrians, who carried them. It was adopted as the main royal holiday during the Abbasidperiod. In the book Nowruznama ("Bo ok of the New Year", which is attributed to Omar Khayyam,[44] a well known Persian poet and Mathematician, a vivid description of the celebration in the courts of the Kings of Persia is provided:[45] “ From the era of Kai ” Khusraw till the days of Yazdegard, last of the pre- Islamic kings of Persia, the royal custom was thus: on the first day of the New Year, Now Ruz, the King's first visitor was the High Mobad of the Zoroastrians, who brought with him as gifts a golden goblet full of wine, a ring, some gold coins, a fistful of green sprigs of wheat, a sword, and a bow. In the language of Persia he would then glorify God and praise the monarch. This was the address of the High Mobad to the king : "O Majesty, on this feast of the Equinox, first day of the first month of the year, seeing that thou hast freely chosen God and the Faith of the Ancient ones; may Surush, the Angel-messenger, grant thee wisdom and insight and sagacity in thy affairs. Live long in praise, be happy and fortunate upon thy golden throne, drink immortality from the Cup of Jamshid; and keep in solemn trust the customs of our ancestors, their noble aspirations, fair gestures and the exercise of justice and righteousness. May thy soul flourish; may thy youth be as the new- grown grain; may thy horse be puissant, victorious; thy sword bright and deadly against foes; thy hawk swift against its prey; thy every act straight as the arrow's shaft. Go forth from thy rich throne, conquer new lands. Honor the craftsman and the sage in equal degree; disdain the acquisition of wealth. May thy house prosper and thy life be long!"

Following the demise of the Caliphate and the subsequent re- emergence of Persian dynasties such as the Samanids and Buyid s, Nowruz was elevated to an even more important event. The Buyids revived the ancient traditions of Sassanian times and restored many smaller celebrations that had been eliminated by theCaliphate. According to the Syrian historian Yaqut al- Hamawi, the Iranian Buyid ruler ʿAżod-od-Dawla (r. 949- 83) customarily welcomed Nowruz in a majestic hall, wherein servants had placed gold and silver plates and vases full of fruit and colorful flowers.[46] The King would sit on the royal throne (masnad), and the court astronomer came forward, kissed the ground, and congratulated him on the arrival of the New Year. [46] The king would then summon musicians and singers, and invited his boon companions. They would gather in their assigned places and enjoy a great festive occasion.[46]

Even the Turkic and Mongol i nvaders did not attempt to abolish Nowruz in favor of any other celebration. Thus, Nowruz remained as the main celebration in thePersian lands by both the officials and the people.

Local variations The festival of Nowruz is celebrated by many groups of people in the Middle East, Central and South Asia, but particularly by Persians and various other Iranian peoples.[47] It is called Naw-wradz or Nu way-kāl by the Pashtuns, Navroz by Zoroastrians of the subcontinent, Nevruz in Turkic, Uyghurs who live in Northwestern China call it "Noruz", and it is called Sultan Nevruz in Albanian. In Kurdish communities located in parts of western Iran, the holiday is referred to as Newroz, which is a variety of the Persian word Nowruz. The variety Nawroz is also an Eastern Persian word and is also used in the Persian speaking regions of Central Asia. [48] In Pashto language it نوﻭﺭ ځځ is pronounced as – "Naw-Wraz" (New Day).

Around the world

Kurds celebrating. Fire is the symbol of Nowruz Iranian Azeris in New York City

Nowruz in Tekeli in 2013

Traditional costume for Nowruz inKazakhstan Nowruz is celebrated in Greater Iran, Caucasus, Central Asia and by Iranians worldwide. It is a public holiday in Iran,Iraq, [4] Georgia, A fghanistan, Azerbaijan, Tajikistan,[1] Turkmenist an,[49] Uzbekistan,[50] Kyr gyzstan,[51] Pakistan andIndia.[52][53] Also the Canadian parliament by unanimous consent, has passed a bill to add Nowruz to the national calendar of Canada, on March 30, 2009.[54][55] In Albania Sultan Nevruz is celebrated as a mainly mystical day by the Bektashi sect, and there are special ceremonies in the Tekke led by the clergy and large meals are served there. They celebrate this day as the birthday of Ali. Also all Albanians celebrate a secular version of Nowruz, called Spring Day. Nowruz is also celebrated by Kurdish people in Iraq [4][56] and Tu rkey [57] as well as by Baltistan in the Pakistan and Parsis i n the Indian subcontinent. Other notable celebrations take place by Iranians around the world, such as Los Angeles, Toronto, Colog ne and in United Kingdom, mainly in London.[58] But because Los Angeles is prone to devastating fires, there are very strict fire codes in the city. No fires are allowed even on one's own property. Usually, Iranians living in Southern California go to the beaches to celebrate the event where it is permissible to build fires.[59] On 15 March 2010, The United States House of Representatives passed The Nowruz Resolution (H.Res. 267), by a 384–2 vas cote, [60] "Recognizing the cultural and historical significance of Nowruz, ... .".[61] In Iran, the Islamic Republic attempted to suppress Nowruz following the Iranian Revolution and was met with very little success. The Ayatollahs considered Nowruz a pagan holiday and a distraction from more important things such as Islamic holidays.[62] It is also a holy day for Alawites,[22] Alevis, and adherents of the Bahá'í Faith. [23] Countries that have Nowruz as a public holiday include the following:

 Afghanistan (21 March)[2]

 Albania (22 March) [63][64]  Azerbaijan (20 March to 26 March, total of 7 days)[65] [66]  Georgia

 Kosovo (21 March)

 Kyrgyzstan (21 March)[67]

 Iran (20 March to 24 March, total of 5 days in general + total of 14 days for schools and universities)[68]  Iraq (de jure in Iraqi Kurdistan, de facto national[4]) (21 March)[69]

 Kazakhstan (21 March to 24 March, total of 4 days)[5]

 Bayan-Ölgii, Mongolia (22 March, regional state holiday only)[5]  Tajikistan (20 March to 23 March, total of 4 days)[8]

 Turkmenistan (20 March to 23 March, total of 4 days)[70]

 Uzbekistan (21 March)[71] In the Zoroastrian faith

Zoroastrians worldwide celebrate Nowruz as the first day of the New Year. Parsi Zoroastrians of South Asian origin celebrate it as "Nowroj", "Navroz", or "Navroj" on the fixed day of March 21, while Zoroastrians of Iranian background generally celebrate, like other Iranians, on the actual Spring Equinox date. Because different Zoroastrian communities in India/Pakistan and Iran have evolved slightly different calendar systems, there is some variance. Adherents of the Fasli variant of the Zoroastrian calendarcelebrate Nowruz in March, but today, most other Zoroastrians also celebrate on this day. Other variants of the Zoroastrian calendar celebrate the Nowruz twice: once as Jamshedi Nowruz on March 21 as the start of spring, and a second Nowruz, in July/August (see Variations of the Zoroastrian calendar), as either New Year's Eve or New Year's Day. That the second Nowruz is celebrated after the last day of the year, known as Pateti, which comes after a Muktad period of days remembering the dead. Many Parsis are confused by this, and mistakenly celebrate Pateti as if it were Nowruz, when in fact Nowruz is the day after. Some attribute this confusion by some as celebrating the last day of the year (contrary to what might be expected from a term that means "new day"), may be due to the fact that in ancient Persia the day began at sunset, while in later Persian belief the day began at sunrise. Zoroastrians of Iranian origin generally put up a Haft Sheen table while Muslim Iranians put up Haft Sin table. The difference is because Muslims can not put wine (Sharab) on the table. Zoroastrians of Parsi (South Asian) origin do not traditionally use a Haft Sin. They set up a standard "sesh" tray – generally a silver tray, with a container of rose water, a container with betel nut, raw rice, raw sugar, flowers, a picture of Zarathustra the prophet, and either a floating wick in a glass filled with water topped with oil for fuel, or an "afargania", a silver urn with a small fire nourished by sandalwood and other fragrant resins.

Celebration in Iran Haft Seen in Toopkhaneh Sq. of Tehran, Nowruz 2013 Nowruz is the most important holiday in Iran. Preparations for Nowruz begin in the month Esfand (or Espand), the last month of winter in the Persian solar calendar. Hajji Firuz is the traditional herald of Nowruz. He oversees celebrations for the new year perhaps as a remnant of the ancient Zoroastrian fire-keeper. His face is painted black (black is an ancient Persian symbol of good luck) and wears a red costume. Then he sings and dances through the streets with tambourines and trumpets spreading good cheer and heralds the coming of the New Year.

Spring cleaning and visiting one another Further information: Spring cleaning Spring cleaning, or Khouneh Tekouni (literally means 'shaking the house') or 'complete cleaning of the house' is commonly performed before Nowruz. Iranians start preparing for the Nowruz with a major spring-cleaning of their houses, the purchase of new clothes to wear for the new year and the purchase of flowers (in particular the hyacinth and the tulip are popular and conspicuous). In association with the "rebirth of nature", extensive spring- cleaning is a national tradition observed by almost every household in Iran. This is also extended to personal attire, and it is customary to buy at least one set of new clothes. On the New Year's Day, families dress in their new clothes and start the twelve-day celebrations by visiting the elders of their family, then the rest of their family and finally their friends. On the thirteenth day families leave their homes and picnic outdoors, as part of the Sizdah Be- dar ceremony.

During the Nowruz holidays, people are expected to visit one another (mostly limited to families, friends and neighbors) in the form of short house visits, which are usually reciprocated. Typically, on the first day of Nowruz, family members gather around the table, with the Haft Seen on the table or set next to it, and await the exact moment of the arrival of the spring. At that time gifts are exchanged. Later in the day, the first house visits are paid to the most senior family members. Typically, the youth will visit the elders first, and the elders return their visit later. When in previous year, a family member is deceased, the tradition is to visit that family first (among the elders). The visits naturally have to be relatively short, otherwise one will not be able to visit everybody on their list. A typical visit is around 30 minutes, where you often run into other visiting relatives and friends who happen to be paying a visit to the same house at that time. Because of the house visits, you make sure you have a sufficient supply of pastry, cookies, fresh and dried fruits and special nuts on hand, as you typically serve your visitors with these items with tea or sherbet. Many Iranians will throw large Nowruz parties in a central location as a way of dealing with the long distances between groups of friends and family. Some Nowruz celebrants believe that whatever a person does on Nowruz will affect the rest of the year. So, if a person is warm and kind to their relatives, friends and neighbors on Nowruz, then the new year will be a good one. On the other hand, if there are fights and disagreements, the year will be a bad one. As an extended tradition to the holiday, men may or may not choose to shave their faces until the night of the "New Day" as a sign of removal of old habits and tendencies and the rebirth of their faith and being. One tradition that may not be very widespread (that is, it may belong to only a few families) [citation needed] is to place something sweet, such as honey or candy, in a safe place outside overnight. On the first morning of the new year, the first person up brings the sweet stuff into the house as another means of attaining a good new year.

Chahārshanbe Suri Main article: Chaharshanbe Suri The night before the last Wednesday of the year is celebrated by Iranians as Chahārshanbe چهاﺭشﻨبه :Suri (Persian Sur meansing ,(سوﺭی feast, party or festival inPersian,[72] Kurdish: Ç چوﺍﺭشه مه [arşema Sor[73][74 Azerbaijani: Od ,سوﻭﺭێ çərşənbəsi (meaning Fir e Wednesday) in Persian, [72] the Iranian festival of fire. This festival is the celebration of the light (the good) winning over the darkness (the bad); the symbolism behind the rituals are all rooted back to Zoroastrianism. The tradition includes people going into the streets and alleys to make bonfires, and jump over them while singing the traditional song Zardi-ye man az (ane) to, sorkhi-ye to az (ane) man ("az-ane to" means belongs to you); This literally translates to "My yellowness is yours, your redness is mine," with the figurative message "My paleness (pain, sickness) for you (the fire), your strength (health) for me." The fire is believed to burn out all the fear (yellowness) in their subconscious or their spirit, in preparation for new year.

Serving different kinds of pastry and nuts known as Ajil-e Moshkel-Goshā (lit. pr oblem-solving nuts) is the Chahārshanbe Suri way of giving thanks for the previous year's health and happiness, while exchanging any remaining paleness and evil for the warmth and vibrancy of the fire. According to tradition, the living are visited by the spirit of their ancestors on the last days of the year, and many children wrap themselves in shrouds, symbolically re-enacting the visits. They also run through the streets banging on pots and pans with spoons and knocking on doors to ask for treats. The ritual is called qashogh-zany (spoon beating) and symbolizes the beating out of the last unlucky Wednesday of the year ( See also Trick-or- treating). There are several other traditions on this night, including: the rituals of Kūze Shekastan, the breaking of earthen jars which symbolically hold one's bad fortune; the ritual of Fal- Gûsh (lit.Divination by ear), or inferring one's future from the conversations of those passing by;[75] and the ritual of Gereh-goshā’ī, making a knot in the corner of a handkerchief or garment and asking the first passerby to unravel it in order to remove ones misfortune.

Haft Sīn Main article: Haft-Sin

A Haft sin table in Tehran. ﻫفت :Haft Sîn (Persian or the seven 'S's is (سین a major traditional table setting of Nowruz, the traditional Iranian spring celebration. The haft sin table includes seven items starting with the in (س) letter 'S' or Sīn the Persian alphabet. The custom and the traditional practice of Haft Sin has been changed over the past millennium. The term was initially referred to as Haft Chin. The word Haft Chin is derived from the word Chin ( "meaning "to place (چین the ,(ﻫفت) and Haft number 7. The items originally represented seven of the Zoroastrian yazatas or divinities including ātar and asmān . The invasion of Sassanid Persia by the Umayyad Caliphate in 650 brought acculturation and cultural transformation to the local Persians. This subsequently forced the local population to adapt and replace many Zoroastrian customs and words with Arabic and Islamic concepts. The Arabic language was heavily enforced upon the conquered from the local Berbers in North Africa and the Copts in Egypt to the Aramaic Christians in Syria and Iraq, and later the Persians and other Iranian speaking populations throughout Iran and the surrounding areas.

The Arab conquests dramatically changed the Middle East and North Africa in respect to language, culture, and religion. The digraph Ch is not present in the (چ) Arabic language leading to its replacement by the in the word (س) letter S Sin. The Arabic assimilation of the Persians and other Iranian groups continued under the Abbasid Empire until the revival of the Persian language and culture by the Samanid Empire in 819 although the term and custom of Haft Chin had evolved into Haft Sin after nearly two centuries of Arab rule. The "Haft Chin" items are: 1. Mirror – symbolizing Sky 2. Apple – symbolizing Earth 3. Candles – symbolizing Fire 4. Golab – rose water symbolizing Water 5. Sabzeh – wheat, or barley sprouts symbolizing Plants 6. Goldfish – symbolizing Animals 7. Painted Eggs – symbolizing Humans a nd Fertility Haft-Sin The Haft Sīn items are:

 sabzeh – wheat, barley or lentil sprouts growing in a dish – symbolizing rebirth

 samanu – a sweet pudding made from germinated wheat – symbolizing affluence

 senjed – the dried fruit of the oleaster tree – symbolizing love

 sīr – garlic – symbolizing medicine  sīb – apples – symbolizing beauty and health

 somaq – sumac berries – symbolizing (the color of) sunrise

 serkeh – vinegar – symbolizing age and patience. Other items on the table may include:  Sonbol – Hyacinth (plant)

 Sekkeh – Coins – representative of wealth

 traditional Iranian pastries such as baghlava, toot, naan- nokhodchi

 Aajeel – dried nuts, berries and raisins

 lit candles (enlightenm ent and happiness)  a mirror (symbolizing cleanness and honesty)

 decorated eggs, sometimes one for each member of the family (fertility)

 a bowl of water with goldfish (life within life, and the sign of Pisces which the sun is leaving). As an essential object of the Nowruz table, this goldfish is also "very ancient and meaningful" and with Zoroastrian connection. [76]

 rosewater, believed to have magical cleansing powers

 the national colours, for a patriotic touch  a holy book (e.g., the Avesta, Qur'an,or K itáb-i-Aqdas) and/or a poetry book (almost always either the Shahnameh or the Divan of Hafiz) Cuisine

Kazakh guards at Nowruz celebrations in Astana.

 Ash-e Reshteh: A noodle soup traditionally served on the first day of Noruz. The noodles are symbolic, as the waves and knots made by the noodles represent the multitude of possibilities of one's life. Untangling the noodles are said to bring good luck and fortune.[77]

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 Sabzi Polo Mahi: The New Year's Day traditional meal is called Sabzi Polo Mahi, which is rice with green herbs served with fish. The traditional seasoning for Sabzi Polo are parsley, coriander, c hives, dill and fenugree k. The many green herbs and spices in this dish are said to represent the greeness of Spring.  Reshteh Polo: rice cooked with noodles which is said to symbolically help one succeed in life.

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 Dolme Barg : A traditional dish of Azeri people, cooked just before the new year. It includes some vegetables, meat and rice which have been cooked and embedded in grape leaves and cooked again. It is considered useful in reaching to wishes.

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 Kuku sabzi : Herbs and vegetable souffle, traditionally served for dinner at New Year. A light and fluffy omelet style made from parsley, dill, coriander, spinach, spri ng onion ends, and chives, mixed with eggs and walnut.

 Nowruz Koje: A traditional New Year's dish of the Kazakh people, which includes water, meat, salt, flour, cereal, and milk; symbolizing joy, luck, wisdom, health, wealth, growth, and heavenly protection.

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 Naan Berenji: Cookies made from rice flour.

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 Baqlava: A flaky pastry filled with walnuts, almonds or pistachios. Flavored with rosewater.

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 Samanu: Sprouted wheat pudding

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 Noghl: Candied almonds.

 Sizdah Bedar Main article: Sizdah Bedar The thirteenth day of the new year festival is Sizdah Bedar (literally meaning "passing the thirteenth day", figuratively meaning "Passing the bad luck of the thirteenth day"). This is a day of festivity in the open, often accompanied by music and dancing, usually at family picnics. Sizdah bedar celebrations stem from the ancient Persians' belief that the twelve constellations in the Zodiac controlled the months of the year, and each ruled the earth for a thousand years at the end of which the sky and earth collapsed in chaos. Hence Nowruz lasts twelve days and the thirteenth day represents the time of chaos when families put order aside and avoid the bad luck associated with the number thirteen by going outdoors and having picnics and parties. At the end of the celebrations on this day, the sabzeh grown for the Haft Seen (which has symbolically collected all sickness and bad luck) is thrown into running water to exorcise the demons (divs) from the household. It is also customary for young single women to tie the leaves of the sabzeh before discarding it, so expressing a wish to be married before the next year's Sizdah Bedar. Another tradition associated with this day is Dorugh-e Sizdah, literally meaning "the lie of the thirteenth", which is the process of lying to someone and making them believe it (similar to April Fools Day).

In South Asia As celebrated by Parsis In the Fasli/Bastani variant of the Zoroastrian calendar, Navroz is always the day of the vernal equinox (nominally falling on March 21). In the Shahenshahi andKa dmi calendars, which do not account for leap years, the New Year's Day has drifted ahead by over 200 days. These latter two variants of the calendar, which are only followed by the Zoroastrians of Pakistan and India, celebrate the spring equinox as Jamshed-i Nouroz, with New Year's Day then being celebrated in July–August as Pateti "(day) of penitence" (from patet "confession, " hence also repentance and penitence). The Parsi New Year is celebrated as Jamshed Navroz across the world by the entire Parsi community. The festival falls on the first day of the first month of the Fasli calendar, followed by the Parsis. This falls in the month of March according to the Gregorian calendar. As the day commences with the advent of spring or Vernal Equinox, Jamshed Navroz is celebrated with immense fun and fervor. All the Zoroastrians observe this festival by performing all the rituals and rites with full devotion and duty. A particular sect of Parsis resides in the western part of India and hence, Jamshed Navroz celebrations can be prominently noticed in these regions. Go through the following lines to know more about celebrating Jamshed Navroz in India. Commemorated in a grand and elaborate fashion, preparations for Jamshed Navroz begin well in advance. Houses are cleaned to remove all the cobwebs and painted new. They are then adorned with different auspicious symbols, namely, stars, butterflies, birds and fish. New attires are ordered and made especially for the festival. On the day of Jamshed Navroz, people dress in their new and best clothes and put on gold and silver kustis and caps. The doors and windows are beautified with garlands of roses and jasmines. Color powders are used for creating beautiful and attractive patterns, known as rangoli, on the steps and thresholds. These intricate and creative patterns display the sanctity of the festivals. Moreover, fish and floral motifs are a favorite among rangolis and considered highly auspicious. Guests are welcomed by sprinkling rose water and rice, followed by applying a tilak. Breakfast usually consists of Sev (a vermicelli preparation roasted in ghee and choc-a-bloc with dry fruits) which is served with yogurt and enjoyed by young and old alike. After breakfast, it is time to visit the Agiary or Fire Temple to offer prayers. Special thanksgiving prayers, known as Jashan, are held and sandalwood is offered to the Holy Fire. At the end of this religious ceremony, all Parsis take the privilege to exchange new greetings with one another by saying ‘Sal Mubarak’. Back home, special delicacies are made marking the lunch as an elaborate and delicious affair. Various Parsi dishes, such as Sali boti (a mutton and potato preparation), chicken farchas, patrani machchi (fish steamed in a leaf), mutton pulao and dal, kid gosh and sasni machchi (a thick white gravy with pomfret) jostle for space on the table. However, the most significant dish that forms an integral part of Jamshed Navroz celebrations is pulav (rice enriched with nuts and saffron). Besides, plain rice and moong dal are a must on this day. Desserts too are not behind in terms of variety, the most important being falooda. It is a sweet milk drink made from vermicelli and flavored with rose essence. Lagan-nu- custard, or caramel custard, is another favorite on this occasion. The entire day is spent by visiting friends and relative and exchanging good wishes and blessings.

Parsi rituals The people begin with cleaning their homes as a general custom of Nowruz, known as ‘spring clean’. This is observed days before the festival. The Parsis clean every part of their house, dust furniture and wash carpets. This is practiced to welcome the new spring season with freshness. The Parsis also believe that the soul of the departed family members would visit the homes of their loved ones on Nowruz Eve. The number seven has been regarded magical and significant for the Zoroastrians. The number seven symbolizes the seven elements of life, namely, fire, earth, water, air, plants, animals and humans. The traditional table setting of Jamshed Navroz includes seven specific items beginning with the letter ‘S’, known as Haft Sin, that signify life, health, wealth, abundance, love, patience and purity. These items are also known to have astrological correlations to planets Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn, and Sun and Moon. The Haft Sin items are sabzeh (wheat or lentil sprouts representing rebirth), samanu (creamy pudding made from germinated wheat regarded as holy and symbolizes affluence), seeb (apple symbolizing health and beauty), senjid (dried fruit of lotus tree stands for love), sir (garlic regarded as medicinal and represents health), somagh (sumac berries signifying the color of the sun and the victory of good over evil) and serkeh (vinegar representing old age and patience). Apart from these foods, there are other items that are placed on the traditional table. These items include sonbol (hyacinth plant,a symbol of 'fertility' or continuous chain of human progeny), sekkeh (coins representing wealth), aajeel (dried nuts, berries and raisins), lit candles (enlightenment and happiness), a mirror (cleanness and honesty), decorated eggs (fertility), traditional Iranian pastries like baghlava, toot and naan- nokhodchi, a bowl of water with goldfish (very essential for the Nowruz table), rosewater (magical cleansing powers), national colors (for a patriotic touch) and a holy book (the Avesta, Qur'an, Bible, Torah or Kitáb-i-Aqdas) and/or a poetry book (either the Shahnama or the Divan of Hafiz). At the strike of the clock indicating New Year, the Parsis wear their clean and new dresses and gather around the Nowruz table and Haft Sin. Prayers are offered for health, happiness and prosperity. Next, the family members hug and kiss each other as part of the New Year greetings. The delicacies prepared for the occasion are served and consumed. The oldest member of the family then takes the lead and presents the Eidi (New Year’s gift) to the younger members present. Celebration by Kashmiris

The Kashmiris celebrate Navroz (or Navreh in Kashmiri) on a date around the vernal equinox. The date, which usually falls between mid-March and mid-April, is determined by the lunar calendar every year. The day of the vernal equinox (coinciding with the Iranian Nowruz) is also celebrated by the Kashmiris in the same manner as the lunar Navroz and is referred to as Sonth. Thal Bharun (meaning 'filling the platter') is a major Navroz tradition. It is similar to the Iranian Haft Sin. The items placed on the tray or platter generally includewheat or rice , a sweet pudding made from milk and cereal, fruits, walnuts, rosewater, a coin (sikkeh), a pen, an ink-holder, a mirror (for introspection, purity of thought and honesty), and a lit diya or clay lamp (representing satyaprak asa, the Light of the Truth). Besides, new clothes are worn and presents are exchanged. Some adults, particularly women, fast on this day. In the Twelver Shi'a faith and Shia Ismaili faith Along with [78] Ismailis, [79] Alawites and Alevis, the Twelver Shi'a also hold the day of Nowruz in high regard. Here are the events that took place on this amazing day as enumerated by Imam Jafar as Sadiq, Hazrat Ali's great grandson, in the summary above, source – Muhammad Bakir Majlisi in his Bihar al-Anwar: • God made a covenant with the souls before creation • Nowruz marks the first day when the universe started its motion • Adam was created • Prophet Abraham destroyed the pagan idols that were being worshipped by his father and others • The Quran was revealed to Prophet Muhammad (s.a.s.), the night of Layla tul Qadr - Night of Power • Prophet Muhammad took Hazrat Ali on his shoulders to smash 360 idols in Mecca • Prophet Muhammad declared Ali as his legitimate successor at Gadhir-e Khumm • Hazrat Ali was born on Navroz (on the solar calendar, the lunar Muslim calendar had not yet been established until the Hijra, the migration of Prophet Muhammad from Makkah to Medina) in the Kaaba that was built by Prophet Abraham and Prophet Ismael (Ibrahim and Ismail) • Hazrat Salman Farsi, Al-Fars (Salman the Persian) converted to Islam on Navroz and used to prepare special sufro (offering of food and sweets) on the day of Navroz for Prophet Muhammad and Hazrat Ali.

“O you who believe! When you consult the Apostle, then offer something in offering (mehmani, sufro) before your consultation; that is better for you and purer; but if you do not find (the means), then surely Allah is Forgiving, Merciful” – Quran 58.12 The day upon which Nowruz falls has been recommended as a day of fasting for Twelver Shi’a Muslims by Shi’a scholars, including Abul-Qassim al-Khoei, Imam Khomeini [80] and A li al-Sistani.[81] The day also assumes special significance for Shias as it was on 21 March 656 AD when the first Imam Hazrat Ali assumed the office of Caliphate.

Celebration by Shia Muslims of Lucknow Shia Muslims of Pakistan, and Kashmir also celebrates Nowruz with zeal. According to Shias of Lucknow's belief it is celebrated to mark the day when Ali was declared the successor of prophet.

In Afghanistan Nowroz is celebrated widely in Afghanistan. Also known as Farmer's Day, the observances usually last two weeks, culminating on the first day of the Afghan New Year, March 21. [2] During the Taliban rule (1996–2001), Nowruz was banned and considered an "ancient pagan holiday centered on fire worship". [82] Preparations for Nowroz start several days beforehand, at least after Chaharshanbe Suri, the last Wednesday before the New Year. Among various traditions and customs, the most important ones are as following:

Nowruz in Mazar-i- Sharif, Afghanistan

 Guli Surkh میله ى :festival (Persian The Guli :(گل سرخ Surkh festival which literally means Red Flower Festival (referring to the red Tulip flowers) is the principal festival for Nowroz. It is celebrated in Mazar-e Sharif during the first 40 days of the year when the Tulip flowers grow in the green plains and over the hills surrounding the city. People from all over the country travel to Mazari Sharif to attend the Nawroz festivals. Various activities and customs are performed during the Guli Surkh festival, including the Jahenda Bala event and Buzkashi games.

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 Jahenda ;جهﻨده ﺑال :Bālā (Persian old Persian Zoroastrian term Zend or Zand Pers Jahenda [83]:( ژند :ian Bala is celebrated on the first day of the New Year (i.e. Nawroz), and is attended by high- ranking government officials such as the Vice-President, Ministers, and Provincial Governors. It is a specific religious ceremony performed in the Blue Mosque of Mazar that is believed (mostly by Sunnite Afghans) to be the site of the tomb of Ali ibn Abi Talib, the fourth caliph of Islam. The ceremony is performed by raising a special banner whose color configuration resembles Derafsh Kaviani. This is the biggest recorded Nowroz gathering where up to 200,000 people from all over Afghanistan get together in Mazar central park around blue mosque to celebrate the banner raising (Jahenda Bālā ) ceremony.

  Buzkashi: Along with other customs and celebrations, normally a Buzkashi tournament is held during the Guli Surkh festival in Mazaris Sharif, Kabul and other northern cities of Afghanistan.

  Haft ﻫفت :Mēwa (Persian ,In Afghanistan :(میوه people prepare Haft Mēwa (literally translates as Seven Fruits) instead of Haft Sin which is common in Iran. Haft Mewa is like a Fruit salad made from 7 different Dried fruits, served in their own syrup. The 7 dried fruits are: Raisin, Senjed (the dried fruit of the oleaster tree),Pistac hio, Hazelnut, Prune (dr y fruit of Apricot), Walnut and whether Almond or another species of Plum fruit.

  Samanak: It is a special type of sweet dish made from germinated wheat, and is normally cooked or prepared on the eve of Nawroz or a few days before the Nawroz. Women take a special party for it during the night, and cook it from late in the evening till the daylight, singing a special song: Samanak dar Josh o mā Kafcha zanem – Dochtaran* dar Khwāb o mā Dafcha zanem (* Dochter mains 1 daughter 2 young Lady or girl)

  Special cuisines: People cook special types of dishes for Nowroz, especially on the eve of Nowroz. Normally they cook Sabzi Chalaw, a dish made from riceand spinach, separately. Moreover, the bakeries prepare a special type of cookie, called Kulcha-e Nowrozī, which is only baked for Nowroz. Another dish which is prepared mostly for the Nowroz days is Māhī wa Jelabī (Fried Fish and Jelabi) and it is the most often meal in picnics. In Afghanistan, it is a common custom among the affianced families that the fiancé's family give presents to or prepare special dishes for the fiancée's family on special occasions such as in the two Eids (Eid ul-Fitr and Eid al- Adha), Barā'at and in Nowroz. Hence, the special dish for Nowroz is Māhī wa Jelabī. 

 Sightseeing to Cercis fields: The citizens of Kabul go to Istalif, Charikar or other green places around where the Cercis flowers grow. They go for picnic with their families during the first 2 weeks of New Year. 

 Jashn-e Dehqān: Jashn-e Dehqan means The Festival of Farmers. It is celebrated in the first day of year, in which the farmers walk in the cities as a sign of encouragement for the agricultural productions. In recent years, this activity is being performed only in Kabul and other major cities, in which the mayor and other high governmental personalities participate for watching and observing.

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 Kampirak: Like "Haji Nowruz" in Iran, he is an old bearded man wearing colorful clothes with a long hat and rosary who symbolizes beneficence and the power of nature yielding the forces of winter. He and his retinue pass village by village distributing gathered charities among people and do his shows like reciting poems. The tradition is observed in central provinces specially Bamyan and Daykundi.[84]

 In Azerbaijan Main article: Novruz in Azerbaijan Nowruz in Azerbaijan.

Azerbaijani youth celebrating Novruz. Usually preparation for Novruz begins a month prior to the festival. Each of forthcoming 4 weeks is devoted to one of the four elements and called accordingly in Azerbaijan. Each Tuesday people celebrate the day of one of the four elements – water, fire, earth and wind.[85] People do house cleaning, plant trees, make new dresses, paint eggs, make national pastries such as shekerbura, pakhlava, shorgoghal and a great variety of national cuisine.[86] Wheat is fried with kishmish (raisins) and nuts (govurga). As a tribute to fire- worshiping every Tuesday during four weeks before the holiday kids jump over small bonfires and candles are lit. On the holiday eve the graves of relatives are visited and tended.[87] Novruz is a family holiday. In the evening before the holiday the whole family gathers around the holiday table laid with various dishes to make the New Year rich. The holiday goes on for several days and ends with festive public dancing and other entertainment of folk bands, contests of national sports. In rural areas crop holidays are marked.[88] The decoration of the festive table is khoncha, a big silver or copper tray with Samani placed in the centre and candles and dyed eggs by the number of family members around it. The table should be set, at least, with seven dishes. [85] On the last Tuesday prior to Novruz, according to old traditions children slip around to their neighbours' homes and apartments, knock at their doors, and leave their caps or little basket on the thresholds all the while hiding nearby waiting for candies, pastries and nuts.[85]

Celebration in China Traditionally, "Nawriz" was celebrated mainly in China's Xinjiang Uyghur Auton omous Region by the Uyghur, Chinese Tajik, Salar, and Kazakh ethnicities. [89]

In Turkey Main article: Newroz as celebrated by Kurds "Churshama Kulla" is the tradition where people jump over the fire.[citation needed] It is celebrated as a national emblem in Kurdistan. In this Picture Kurds in Istanbul celebrate Newroz through coming together and showing their cultural unity. Although the Kurds celebrate Nowruz, it was not however until 2005 that Kurdish population of Turkey could celebrate their new year openly.[90] "Thousands of people have been detained in Turkey, as the authorities take action against suspected supporters of the Kurdish rebel movement, the PKK. [91] The holiday is now official in Turkey after international pressure on the Turkish government to lift culture bans. Turkish government renamed the holiday Nevroz in 1995. [92] In the last years, limitations on expressions of Kurdish national identity, including the usage of Kurdish in the public sphere, have been considerably lifted off. The word 'Newroz' is Kurdish for 'Nowruz'. The Kurds celebrate this feast between 18 and 21 March. It is one of the few ‘people's celebrations’ that has survived and predates all the major religious festivals. The holiday is considered by Kurds to be the single most important holiday of every year. With this festival Kurds gather into the fairgrounds mostly outside the cities to welcome spring. Women wear colored dresses and spangled head scarves and young men wave flags of green, yellow and red, the colors of the Kurdish people. They hold this festival by lighting fire and dancing around it.[93] The main Kurdish greeting that accompanies the festival is Newroz pîroz be! literally translating to "Congratulations on the New Year" or equivalent to Happy Newroz!. Another greeting used is, Bijî Newroz!, simply meaning Long live Newroz! Newroz is still largely considered as a potent symbol of Kurdish identity in Turkey. Newroz celebrations are usually organised by Kurdish cultural associations and pro- Kurdish political parties. Thus, the Democratic Society Party was a leading force in the organisation of the 2006 Newroz events throughout Turkey. In recent years the Newroz celebration gathers around 1 million participants in Diyarbakır, the biggest city of the Kurdish dominated Southeastern Turkey. As the Kurdish Newroz celebrations in Turkey often are theater for political messages, the events are frequently criticized for being political rallies rather than cultural celebrations. On 21 March 2013, PKK leader Abdullah Ocalan called for a ceasefire through a message that was released in Diyarbakır during the Newroz celebrations.[94] In other largely populated Kurdish regions in the Middle East including Iraq and Syria, similar celebrations are carried out with fire, dancing and music. In Iran, it is the most important festival of the whole year. In Kurdistan, jumping over the fire (known as Chuwarshama Kulla[citation needed]) happens on New Year's Eve (rather the last Tuesday of the year). In Pakistan This festival is like Nowruz of Iran, Afghanistan, and Central Asia.Peoples of Gilgit Baltistan are called gbians (gbians, gb people, Balti) In Northern Pakistan (Chitral, Gilgit, Baltistan ) because of Shia Majority,[citation needed] population there, and Northern Punjab[citation needed] Nowruz is celebrated as a socio- religious festival. It is also celebrated with much fervour in Balochistan, and in almost all of Pakistan's major urban centres. [citation needed] The day coincides with the Spring Equinox on March 21, but the celebration continues for weeks. In Baltistan, the main features of Nowruz are the giving of coloured eggs to friends signifying the earth and polo matches. In Balochistan, the festival is marked with outdoor feasts, and the traditional jumping over a fire to wash away sins and usher in a fresh start. It is a part of Balti people's culture.[95]

In the Bahá'í Faith Main article: Bahá'í Naw-Rúz Naw-Rúz in the Bahá'í Faith is one of nine holy days for adherents of the Bahá'í Faith worldwide and the first day of the Bahá'í calendar occurring on the vernal equinox, around March 21.[96] The Bahá'í calendar is composed of 19 months, each of 19 days,[97] and each of the months is named after an attribute of God; similarly each of the nineteen days in the month also are named after an attribute of God.[97] The first day and the first month were given the attribute of Bahá, anArabic word meaning splendour or glory, and thus the first day of the year was the day of Bahá in the month of Bahá.[96] [98] Bahá'u'lláh, the founder of the Bahá'í Faith, explained that Naw-Rúz was associated with the Most Great Name of God,[96][98] and was instituted as a festival for those who observed the Nineteen day fast.[99][100]

The day is also used to symbolize the renewal of time in each religious dispensation.[101] `Abdu'l -Bahá, Bahá'u'lláh's son and successor, explained that significance of Naw-Rúz in terms of spring and the new life it brings.[96] He explained that the equinox is a symbol of the messengers of God and the message that they proclaim is like a spiritual springtime, and that Naw-Rúz is used to commemorate it. [102] As with all Bahá'í holy days, there are few fixed rules for observing Naw- Rúz, and Bahá'ís all over the world celebrate it as a festive day, according to local custom. [96] Persian Bahá'ís still observe many of the Iranian customs associated with Nowruz such as the Haft Sîn, but American Bahá'í communities, for example, may have a potluck dinner, along with prayers and readings from Bahá'í scripture.

UN recognition Main article: International Day of Nowruz The UN's General Assembly in 2010 recognized March 21 as the International Day of Nowruz, describing it a spring festival of Persian origin which has been celebrated for over 3,000 years and calling on world countries to draw on the holiday's rich history to promote peace and goodwill. During the meeting of The Inter-governmental Committee for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Heritage of the United Nations, held between 28 September – 2 October 2009 in Abu Dhabi, Nowrūz was officially registered on the UNESCO List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity. [103] In response to the UN recognition, Iran unveiled a postage stamp. The stamp was made public in the presence of Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad during the first International Nowruz Celebrations in Tehran on Saturday, 27 March 2010. President Ahmadinejad also called for joint efforts to further acquaint the world about the meaningful holiday, adding that it could significantly promote global peace and justice: “Observing Norooz will not only promote cultural values, but it will also help nations establish relations based on friendship, peace, justice and respect.”[104]

The second International Nowruz Celebrations were also held in Tehran in 2011. The 3rd International Nowruz Celebrations were held in Dushanbe, Tajikistan, on March 25, 2012 with Tajik President and his Iranian, Afghan counterparts in attendance. Turkmenista n is scheduled to host the next international ceremonies to celebrate Nowruz.[105] Spelling variations in English A variety of spelling variations for the word "Nowruz" exist in English-language usage. Random House (unabridged) provides the spelling "nowruz". [106] Merriam-Webster (2 006) recognizes only the spelling "nauruz" (and a contestant in the final session of the 2006 Scripps National Spelling Bee, Allion Salvador, in the United States was disqualified on that basis[107][108]). In the USA, many respected figures in the field of language such as Dr. Yarshater at Columbia University have suggested to use Nowruz.[citation needed] Gallery[edit]



Nowruz in Syria.



Nowruz in Kazakhstan.

 Nowruz in Istanbul,Turkey.



Nowruz in Qajar dynasty.



Nowruz in Azerbaijan. See also[edit] Holidays portal

 Assyrian new year

 Earth Day

 Iranian calendar

 Iranian festivals

 Islamic New Year

 Kha b-Nisan

 New Year's Day

 Nowruz Eve among Mazandarani people  Public holidays in Iran

 Sham el-Nessim

 Songkran

 Vernal Equinox Day References[edit] 1. ^ Jump up to: a b "BBCPersian.co m". Bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 2010-04-06. 2. ^ Jump up to: a b c Lt. j.g. Keith Goodsell (March 7, 2011). "Key Afghan, US leadership plant trees for Farmer’s Day". United States Central Command. Retrieved 2012-12-03. 3. Jump up ^ "Nowruz Declared as National Holiday in Georgia". civil.ge. 21 March 2010. Retrieved 11 March 2013. 4. ^ Jump up to: a b c d "20 March 2012 United Nations Marking the Day of Nawroz". Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Iraq). Retrieved 18 April 2012. 5. ^ Jump up to: a b c "Celebrating Nowruz in Central Asia". fravahr.org. Retrieved 23 March 2007. 6. Jump up ^ "Россия празднует Навруз [Russia celebrates Nowruz]". Golos Rossii (in Russian). 21 March 2012. Retrieved 11 March 2013. 7. Jump up ^ "Arabs, Kurds to Celebrate Nowruz as National Day". Retrieved 11 March 2013. 8. ^ Jump up to: a b "Tajikistan 2010 Bank Holidays". Bank-holidays.com. Retrieved 2010-04-06. 9. Jump up ^ Emma Sinclair-Webb, Human Rights Watch (Organization), "Turke y, Closing ranks against accountability", Human Rights Watch, 2008. "The traditional Nowrouz/Nowrooz celebrations, mainly celebrated by the Kurdish population in the Kurdistan Region in Iraq, and other parts of Kurdistan in Turkey, Iran, Syria and Armenia and taking place around March 21" 10. Jump up ^ "General Information of Turkmenistan". sitara.com. Retrieved 26 December 2012. 11. Jump up ^ "Nowruz observed in Indian Subcontinent". www.iranicaonline.org . Retrieved 29 December 2013. 12. ^ Jump up to: a b "Nowruz celebrations". Euronews.com. 2013- 03-20. Retrieved 2013-03-27. 13. ^ Jump up to: a b Persian Cultural Roots, Jacelyn Michael, "Celebrating Nowrus", ed. Paul Beran and B. Summer Hughes, [1], 3. 14. Jump up ^ "Norouz Persian New Year". British Museum. 2010-03-25. Retrieved 2010-04-06. 15. Jump up ^ "General Assembly Fifty-fifth session 94th plenary meeting Friday, 9 March 2001, 10 a.m. New York". United Nations General Assembly. 9 March 2001. Retrieved 2010- 04-06. 16. Jump up ^ "Nowrooz, a Persian New Year Celebration, Erupts in Iran – Yahoo! News". News.yahoo.com. 2010-03-16. Archived from the original on 2010-03-22. Retrieved 2010-04-06. 17. Jump up ^ "U.S. mulls Persian New Year outreach". Washington Times. 2010-03-19. Retrieved 2010-04-06. 18. Jump up ^ . Raheel Niazi https://en.wikipe dia.org/wiki/Equinox. Retrieved March 20, 2014. Missing or empty |title= (help) 19. Jump up ^ Xenophon and His World: Papers from a Conference Held in Liverpool in July 1999. 1999-07- 01. Retrieved 2010- 03-17. 20. Jump up ^ Jaclyn, Michael. Nowruz Curriculum Text. Harvard University. 21. Jump up ^ Boyce, M. "Festivals. i. Zoroastrian". Encyclo paedia Iranica. 22. ^ Jump up to: a b "But they also celebrate some of the same festivals as the Christians, like Christmas and Epiphany, as well as Nawruz, which originally is the Zoroastrian New Year.". I-cias.com. Retrieved 2010-04-06. 23. ^ Jump up to: a b "The Baha'i Calendar". Retrieved 2007-03-19. 24. Jump up ^ Trotter, James M. (2001). Reading Hosea in Achaemenid Yehud. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 108. ISBN 978-1- 84127-197-2. 25. Jump up ^ "General Assembly Recognizes 21 March as International Day of Nowruz, Also Changes to 23–24 March Dialogue on Financing for Development". UN.org. 23 February 2010. Retrieved 2010- 04-06. 26. Jump up ^ Sheikholeslami, Ali (2010-02-24). "UN Officially Recognizes March 21 as International Nowruz Day". Businessweek.com. Retrieved 2010-04-06. 27. Jump up ^ Novruz, Nowrouz, Nooruz, Navruz, Nauroz, Nevruz: Inscribed in 2009 on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity, UNESCO. 28. Jump up ^ Noruz and Iranian radifs registered on UNESCO list, Tehran Times, 1 October 2009, TehranTimes.co m. 29. Jump up ^ Persian music, Nowruz make it into UN heritage list, Press TV, 1 October 2009, PressTV.ir 30. Jump up ^ Nowruz became international, in Persian, BBC Persian, Wednesday, 30 September 2009, BBC.co.uk 31. Jump up ^ R. Abdollahy, Calendars ii. Islamic period, in Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. 4, London-Newyork, 1990. 32. Jump up ^ Encyclopædia Iranica, "Festivals: Zoroastrian" Boyce, Mary[dead link] 33. Jump up ^ Moazami, M. "The Legend of the Flood in Zoroastrian Tradition." Persica 18: 55–74, (2002) Document Details 34. Jump up ^ "Shahnameh:a new translation by Dick Davis, Viking Adult, 2006. pg 7". Amazon.com. Retrieved 2010-04-06. ﺑرگرفته ^ Jump up .35 ﺍز: «گﻨجیﻨه ي سخن»، ﺗألیف ﺩكتر ذﺑیح ﺍل صفا، ﺍنتشاﺭﺍت ﺍمیركبیر، 1370، جلد یكم، Original ص 292 نخستین ﺭﻭز ﺍست :excerpt ﺍز فرﻭﺭﺩین ماه ﻭ ﺍز ﺍین جهت، ﺭﻭز نو نام كرﺩه ﺍند؛ زیرﺍ كه پیشانﻲ سال نو ﺍست ﻭ آﻥ چه ﺍز پس ﺍﻭست ﺍز ﺍین پﻨج ﺭﻭز [= پﻨج ﺭﻭز ﺍﻭل فرﻭﺭﺩین] ﻫمه جشن ﻫاست. ﻭ ششم فرﻭﺭﺩین ماه ﺭﺍ «نوﺭﻭز ﺑزﺭگ» ﺩﺍﺭند؛ زیرﺍ كه خسرﻭﺍﻥ ﺑدﺍﻥ پﻨج ﺭﻭز حق ﻫاي حشم ﻭ گرﻭﻫاﻥ ﻭ ﺑزﺭگاﻥ ﺑگزﺍﺭﺩندي ﻭ حاجت ﻫا ﺭﻭﺍ كرﺩنﻲ، آﻥ گاه ﺑدین ﺭﻭز ششم خلوت كرﺩندي خاصگاﻥ ﺭﺍ. ﻭ ﺍعتقاﺩ پاﺭسیاﻥ ﺍندﺭ نوﺭﻭز نخستین آﻥ ﺍست كه ﺍﻭل ﺭﻭزي ﺍست ﺍز زمانه ﻭ ﺑدﻭ، .فلك آغازید گشتن 36. Jump up ^ Gardīzī, Abu Saʿ īd ʿ Abd-al-HṬayy b. Żah Ṭh Ṭāk b. Mah Ṭmūd in Encyclopedia Iranicaby C. Edmund Bosworth Iranica on line 37. Jump up ^ Tārīkh- i Gardīzī / taʾ līf, Abū Saʻ īd ʻ Abd al-HayyṬ ibn Zahāk ibn Mah Ṭmūd Gardīzī ; bih tas Ṭh Ṭīh Ṭ va tah Ṭshiyah va taʻ līq, ʻ Abd al- HṬayy HṬabībī. Tihrān : Dunyā-yi Kitāb, 1363 [1984 or 1985]. excerpt from page مهرگاﻥ ﺑزﺭگ ﺑاشد، :520 ﻭ ﺑعضی ﺍز مغاﻥ چﻨین گویﻨد: که ﺍین فیرﻭزی فریدﻭﻥ ﺑر ﺑیوﺭﺍسپ، ﺭﺍم ﺭﻭز ﺑوﺩست ﺍز مهرماه، ﻭ زﺭﺩشت که مغاﻥ ﺍﻭ ﺭﺍ ﺑه پیغمبری ﺩﺍﺭند، ﺍیشاﻥ ﺭﺍ فرموﺩه ﺍست ﺑزﺭگ ﺩﺍشتن .ﺍین ﺭﻭز، ﻭ ﺭﻭز نوﺭﻭز ﺭﺍ 38. Jump up ^ Laura Foreman, "Alexander the Conqueror: The Epic Story of the Warrior King", Da Capo Press, 2004. pg 80: "The procession of the gift bearers was part of the annual New Year's rite in which Achaemenid m onarchs renewed and reaffirmed their kingshp". Alexander the Conqueror: The Epic Story of the Warrior King J.M. Cook, 'The rise of the Achaemenids and establishment of their empire' in: Ilya Gershevitch (ed.): The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. II: The Median and Achaemenian Periods, 1985 Cambridge, page 237:Darius built a great fortified terrace four miles to the south, at which he and some of his successors constructed palaces. This latter is what is known as Persepolis. It is sometimes asserted that the Kings went there for the New Year festival at the vernal Equinox and that the relief of Apadana are realistic representation of a procession that actually took place there, with delegations of all the subject people coming with their gifts. 39. ^ Jump up to: a b A History of Zoroastrianism: Under the Achaemenians By Mary Boyce, Frantz Grenet Published by BRILL, 1982 ISBN 90-04-06506-7, ISBN 978-90-04-06506-2, page 3-4 40. ^ Jump up to: a b Rezakhani, Khodadad. "Nowruz in History". Retrieved 2008-03-21. 41. Jump up ^ Christopher Tuplin; Vincent Azoulay, Xenophon and His World: Papers from a Conference Held in Liverpool in July 1999, Published by Franz Steiner Verlag, 2004, ISBN 3-515- 08392-8, p.148. 42. Jump up ^ The Judaic tradition » Jewish myth and legend » Sources and development » Myth and legend in the Persian period. "Encyclopædia Britannica". Retrieved 2009-03-21. 43. Jump up ^ Edited by, James Hastings, John Alexander Selbie, Louis Herbert Gray, vol. 10, p. 506. Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics. Retrieved 2012-04-03. 44. Jump up ^ A.A. Seyed-Gohrab (ed.), "The Great 'Umar Khayyam: A Global Reception of the Rubáiyát ". Leiden University press, 2012. see p12: "In connection to calender reform, another work Nowruz-nama is attributed to Khayyam but the attribution is not without problems" 45. Jump up ^ Umar ibn Ibrahim Khayyam ; bih kushish-i ʻ Ali HṬus Ṭuri., "Nowruznamah", Tehran : Nashr-i Chashmah, 1379 [2000]. Original آئین :Persian excerpt ملوک عجم ﺍز گاه کی خسرﻭ ﺗا ﺑه ﺭﻭزگاﺭ یزﺩجرﺩ شهریاﺭ که آخرین ملوک عجم ﺑوﺩ، چﻨاﻥ ﺑوﺩه ﺍست که ﺭﻭز نوﺭﻭز نخست کس ﺍز مرﺩماﻥ ﺑیگانه، موﺑد موﺑدﺍﻥ پیﺶ ملک آمدی ﺑا جام زﺭین پر می ﻭ ﺍنگشتری ﻭ ﺩﺭمی ﻭ ﺩیﻨاﺭی خسرﻭﺍنی ﻭ یک ﺩسته خوید سبز ﺭسته ﻭ شمشیری ﻭ ﺗیرکماﻥ ﻭ ﺩﻭﺍت ﻭ قلم ﻭ ﺍسپی ﻭ ﺑازی ﻭ غلمی خوب ﺭﻭی ﻭ ستایﺶ نموﺩی ﻭ نیایﺶ کرﺩی ﺍﻭ ﺭﺍ ﺑه زﺑاﻥ پاﺭسی ﺑه عباﺭت ﺍیشاﻥ. چوﻥ موﺑد موﺑدﺍﻥ ﺍز آفرین ﺑپرﺩﺍختی، پس ﺑزﺭگاﻥ ﺩﻭلت آمدندی ﻭ خدمت ﻫا پیﺶ آﻭﺭﺩندی. آﻥ چه که موﺑد موﺑدﺍﻥ ﺑه شاه می گوید، : شها، ﺑه جشن فرﻭﺭﺩین ﺑه ماه فرﻭﺭﺩین، ﺑه آزﺍﺩی گزین یزﺩﺍﻥ ﻭ ﺩین کیاﻥ، سرﻭش آﻭﺭﺩ ﺗو ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍنائی ﻭ ﺑیﻨائی ﺑه کاﺭﺩﺍنی ﻭ ﺩیر زی ﻭ ﺑا خوی ﻫژیر ﻭ شاﺩﺑاش ﺑر ﺗخت زﺭین ﻭ ﺍنوشه خوﺭ ﺑه جام جمشید ﻭ ﺭسم نیاکاﻥ ﺩﺭ ﻫمت ﺑلﻨد ﻭ نیکوکاﺭی ﻭ ﻭﺭزش ﺩﺍﺩ ﻭ ﺭﺍستی نگاه ﺩﺍﺭ، سرت سبزﺑاﺩ ﻭ جوﺍنی چو خوید، ﺍسپت کامکاﺭ ﻭ پیرﻭز ﻭ ﺗیغت ﺭﻭشن ﻭ کاﺭی ﺑه ﺩشمن ﻭ ﺑازت گیرﺍ ﻭ خجسته ﺑه ﺩﺭم ﻭ ﺩیﻨاﺭ، پیشت ﻫﻨری ﻭ ﺩﺍنا گرﺍمی ﻭ ﺩﺭم خوﺍﺭ ﻭ سرﺍیت آﺑاﺩ ﻭ زندگانی ﺑسیاﺭ 46. ^ Jump up to: a b c "A. Shapur Shahbazi, "Nowruz: In the Islamic period"". Iranicaonline.org. Retrieved 2013-03-27. 47. Jump up ^ Rostami, Hoda (2007-03-17). "Yek Jahan Noruz (meaning: Worldwide Nowruz)". Saman (Publication of Iranian National Tax Administration) (23). 48. Jump up ^ "Kurdistan". Ion.uwinnipeg.ca. Retrieved 2013-03-27. 49. Jump up ^ "Turkmen President Urges Youth To Read 'Rukhnama'". Rferl.org. 2006-03-20. Retrieved 2010-04-06. 50. Jump up ^ "Uzbek President says Hussein must be disarmed". Eurasianet.org. 2003- 03-24. Archived from the original on February 2, 2008. Retrieved 2010-04-06. 51. Jump up ^ "Norouz in Kyrgyzstan". Payvand.com. 2006- 03-26. Retrieved 2010-04-06. 52. Jump up ^ "Nowruz – Zarathushtrian New Year". Zoroastrian.org. Retrieved 2013-03-27. 53. Jump up ^ "kashland.com". kashland.com. Retrieved 2013-03-27. 54. Jump up ^ "Canada parliament recognizes 'Nowruz Day'". PRESS TV. 3 April 2009. Retrieved 4 April 2009. 55. Jump up ^ "Bill c- 342". House of Commons of Canada. Retrieved 4 April 2009. 56. Jump up ^ "In pictures: Norouz – New Year festival". BBC News. 2006-03- 21. Retrieved 2010- 04-06. 57. Jump up ^ "Clashes erupt at Turkey's Dita e Verës. spring festival". Dailystar.com.lb. 2006-03-22. Retrieved 2010-04-06. 58. Jump up ^ "BBCPersian.co m". Bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 2010-04-06. 59. Jump up ^ "Novruz... Celebration That Would Not Die". Azer.com. 1990-03- 13. Retrieved 2010- 04-06. 60. Jump up ^ House Passes Historic Norooz (sic) Resolution, National Iranian American Council, Monday, 15 March 2010. 61. Jump up ^ Legislative Digest, GOP.gov, H.Res. 267. 62. Jump up ^ New York Times, March 20, 2006, Ayatollahs Aside, Iranians Jump for Joy at Spring, by Michael Slackman; Nazila Fathi contributed reporting from Tehran for this article, NYtimes.com 63. Jump up ^ "The World Headquarters of the Bektashi Order – Tirana, Albania". komunitetibektashi.org . Retrieved April 25, 2012. 64. Jump up ^ "Albania 2010 Bank Holidays". Bank-holidays.com. Retrieved 2010-04-06. 65. Jump up ^ "Azerbaijan 2010 Bank Holidays". Bank-holidays.com. Retrieved 2010-04-06. 66. Jump up ^ "Nowruz Declared as National Holiday in Georgia". Civil.Ge. 2001-07-01. Retrieved 2010-04-06. 67. Jump up ^ "Kyrgyzstan 2010 Bank Holidays". Bank-holidays.com. Retrieved 2010-04-06. 68. Jump up ^ "Iran (Islamic Republic of) 2010 Bank Holidays". Bank-holidays.com. Retrieved 2010-04-06. 69. Jump up ^ "Iraq 2010 Bank Holidays". Bank-holidays.com. Retrieved 2010-04-06. 70. Jump up ^ "Turkmenistan 2010 Bank Holidays". Bank-holidays.com. Retrieved 2010-04-06. 71. Jump up ^ "Uzbekistan 2010 Bank Holidays". Bank-holidays.com. Retrieved 2010-04-06. 72. ^ Jump up to: a b "Drevet av – novruz.pub". Docs.google.com. Retrieved 2013-03-27. 73. Jump up ^ [2]). Among the Yazidis, this festival is celebrated on the first Wednesday of Nisan (April) which marks the first day of their new year (rather than March 21st). It is also called Cejna Sersal(New Year's Feast)Berbang.org 74. Jump up ^ "Yek- dem.com" (PDF). Retrieved 2010-04-06. 75. Jump up ^ Omidsalar, Mahmoud. "Divinatio n". Encyclopedia Iranica. Retrieved 2012-09-03. 76. Jump up ^ A. Shapur Shahbazi, "Haft Sin", Encyclopædia Iranica, Vol XI, Fasc. 5, pp. 524–526. 77. Jump up ^ Celebrating Noruz: A Resource Guide for Educators. Harvard University.http://cmes. hmdc.harvard.edu/files /NowruzCurriculumTe xt.pdf 78. Jump up ^ http://www.amaa na.org/ismaili/nawruz- persian-new-year/ No wruz Persian New Year – Ismaili Navroz 79. Jump up ^ "Navroz". TheIsmaili.org. 2010- 03-18. Retrieved 2011-05-12. 80. Jump up ^ Tahrir al Wasila, by Ayatollah Khomeini, Vol.1, pg.302–303 81. Jump up ^ Islamic Laws, by Ali al- Sistani, under the section; “Mustahab Fasts” 82. Jump up ^ "USembassy- Israel.org". USembassy-Israel.org. 2002-03-20. Retrieved 2010-04-06. 83. Jump up ^ Malthe Conrad Bruun, Universal geography, or A description of all the parts of the world, Vol. II., London 1822, Pg 282 84. Jump up ^ Arvin, نوﺭﻭز ﻭ چالﺶ ﻫای " .Ayub سیاسی ﻭ مذﻫبی ﺩﺭ :London ."ﺍفغانستاﻥ BBC Persian. Retrieved 2010-03-23. 85. ^ Jump up to: a b c "International Day of Nowruz- 21 March". Azerembassy- kuwait.org. 2010-03- 17. Retrieved 2010- 04-06. 86. Jump up ^ "Azerbaijan marks Novruz holiday". En.trend.az. 2010-03-20. Retrieved 2010-04-06. 87. Jump up ^ "Azerbaijani traditions". Everyculture.com. 1918-05-28. Retrieved 2010-04-06. 88. Jump up ^ "Studentsofthewo rld – Azeri Traditions". Studentsoftheworld.inf o. Retrieved 2010-04- 06. 89. Jump up ^ [3], 2010. 90. Jump up ^ Zaki Chehab, Inside the resistance: the Iraqi insurgency and the future of the Middle East, Published by Nation Books, 2005, ISBN 1-56025- 746-6, p. 198 91. Jump up ^ "Turkish police arrest thousands". BBC News. 1999-03- 22. Retrieved 2013- 03-27. 92. Jump up ^ Marianne Heiberg, Brendan O'Leary, John Tirman. Terror, Insurgency, and the State: Ending Protracted Conflicts, p. 337. 93. Jump up ^ "Kurdistan turco". Marcocavallini.it. Retrieved 2010-04-06. 94. Jump up ^ "Turkey Kurds: PKK chief Ocalan calls for ceasefire". BBC News. Retrieved 21 March 2013. 95. Jump up ^ "Qatuu – Śáari Śáskum (Shari Shaskum ) Burushaski Tranditional Song on Nowruz". YouTube. Retrieved 2013-03-27. 96. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e Walbridge, John (2004-07- 11). "Naw-Ruz: The Bahá'í New Year". Retrieved 2007-03-14. 97. ^ Jump up to: a b Esslemont, J.E. (1980). Bahá'u'lláh and the New Era (5th ed.). Wilmette, Illinois, USA: Bahá'í Publishing Trust. pp. 178–179. ISBN 0- 87743-160-4. 98. ^ Jump up to: a b Lehman, Dale E. (2000-03-18). "A New Year Begins". Planet Bahá'í. Retrieved 2007-03-14. 99. Jump up ^ Bahá'u'lláh (1991). Bahá'í Prayers. Wilmitte, IL: Bahá'í Publishing Trust. p. 261. 100.Jump up ^ Bahá'u'lláh (1992) [1873]. The Kitáb-i-Aqdas: The Most Holy Book. Wilmette, Illinois, USA: Bahá'í Publishing Trust. p. 25. ISBN 0-85398- 999-0. 101.Jump up ^ MacEoin, Dennis (1989). "Bahai Calendar and Festivals". Encyclopæ dia Iranica. 102.Jump up ^ `Abdu'l-Bahá (1913-03-21). "Star of the West" 4 (1). p. 4. republished inEffendi, Shoghi; The Universal House of Justice (1983). Hornby, Helen (Ed.), ed.Lights of Guidance: A Bahá'í Reference File. Bahá'í Publishing Trust, New Delhi, India. ISBN 81- 85091-46-3. 103.Jump up ^ [4] International Day of Nowruz 104. Jump up ^ Iran issues stamp celebrating Int'l Day of Nowruz, PRESS TV, dated Sun, 28 Mar 2010 05:53:40 GMT 105.Jump up ^ "Turkmenistan to Host International Nowruz Celebrations". The Gazette of Central Asia (Satrapia). 9 January 2013. 106.Jump up ^ Random House dictionary (unabridged), 2006 (according toDictionary.reference. com). 107. Jump up ^ 2006 Scripps National Spelling Bee May 31 – June 1, 2006[dead link] 108. Jump up ^ New Jersey Girl wins Scripps Spelling Bee, Scripps News, June 1, 2006. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Nowruz.

 Nowruz at Encyclopæ dia Britannica

 Nowruz at Encyclopæ dia Iranica  UN Recognizes Nowruz as an International day

 Nowruz holiday (English), (Ru ssian), (Turkmen)

 The Persian Nowruz by Iraj Bashiri

 Nowruz Countdown (Persian)

 Nowruz Persian New Year – Amaana.org Videos[edit]

 Nowrooz holidays in Iran – PressTV (2012)

 Nowruz- Simply Explained on YouTube …………….

Zoroastrian Calendar Zoroastrian calendar Primary topics Ahura Mazda Zarathustra aša (asha) / arta Persia/Iran Angels and demons Amesha Spentas · Yazatas Ahuras · Daevas Angra Mainyu Scripture and worship Avesta Gathas · Yasna Vendidad · Visperad Yashts · Khordeh Avesta Ab-Zohr The Ahuna Vairya Invocation Fire Temples Accounts and legends Dēnkard · Bundahiš n Book of Arda Viraf Book of Jamasp Story of Sanjan History and culture Zurvanism Calendar · Festival s Marriage Eschatology Adherents Zoroastrians in India · Zoroastrians in Iran Parsis · Iranis • • • Persecution of Zoroastrians Zoroastrianism portal V T E This article treats of the reckoning of days, months and years in the calendar used by adherents of the Zoroastrian faith. Zoroastrian religious festivals are discussed elsewhere, but have a fixed relationship to Nawruz, the New Year festival, whose timing is discussed below. Three distinct versions of the calendar are currently in use by different Zoroastrian communities. In this article, except where explicitly noted to the contrary, Western- style dates prior to October 5, 1582 AD are reckoned according to the Julian calendar; subsequent dates are according to the Gregorian calendar, in which 15 October 1582 (Gregorian) was the day following 4 October 1582 (Julian). English spellings follow this recommended usage.[1]

 Old Avestan calendar The forerunner of all modern Zoroastrian calendars is the system used to reckon dates in the Persian Empire. In 539 BC, Persia's rulers conquered Babylon, and soon afterwards – at least by the 4th century BC – adopted the Babylonian method of reckoning months: 12 months each containing 30 days. The Zoroastrian calendar follows the Babylonian in relating the seventh and other days of the month to Ahura Mazda. [2]

This 'Avestan Calendar' of 360 days required regular correction to keep it synchronized with the solar year; this was achieved by intercalating a 13th month roughly once every six years.[2][3][4][5][6] [7] Intercalations did not always follow a regular pattern, but during the reign of Artaxerxes II (circa 380 BC) astronomers utilized a 19 year cycle which required the addition of a month called Addaru II month in years 3, 6, 8, 11, 14 and 19, and the month Ululu II in year 17 of the cycle.[5] Older research[8] suggests the first intercalation took place in 309 BC. Fuller information on the naming of months will be found below, but it should be noted that the first month of the year was called Frawardin, and the first day of Frawardin was the 'New Year's Day' or Nawruz (also reckoned Now-Ruz, Nowruz, No Roz, No- Rooz, Norouz, or Navroz), from which all other religious observances were reckoned – this day being, in theory, the day of the Northern vernal equinox, 21 March (Gregorian).

Following Alexander's c onquest of Persia in 330 BC, the Seleucids (312– 248 BC) instituted the Hellenic practice of counting years from the start of an 'era', as opposed to starting a new count at the beginning of the reign of each individual king. They therefore counted years of the era of Alexander (now referred to as theSeleucid era). This practice was not considered acceptable to the Zoroastrian priests, who consequently founded a new era, the era of Zoroaster – which incidentally led to the first serious attempt to establish a historical date for the prophet. The Parthians (150–224 CE), who succeeded the Seleucids, continued the Seleucid/Hellenic tradition.[9] Development of a 365- day calendar Five significant stages seem to have occurred in the introduction of a stable 365-day calendar. Mary Boyce has observed that contemporary scholars are divided on whether this 365-day calendar was in fact preceded by a 360-day calendar of Zoroastrian observances. [10]

First: A 365-day calendar was introduced during the reign of the Sasanian emperor Ar dashir I (226–241 AD). The names of months and of days of the month that had been used in Achaemenian times remained unaltered; the five additional days were inserted after the twelfth month. These five days were named Gatha orGah day s, after the ancient Avesta hymns of the same name. In 226 AD, 1 Frawardin and the New Year celebration of Nawruz had drifted to 1 October. The older custom of counting regnal years from the monarch's coronation was reinstated.[2][5][9]

Second: After 46 years (226–272 AD), with 1 Frawardin now on 19 September, another calendar reform was implemented by Ardashir's grandson Hormazd I (272–273 AD). It seems that during the first year after implentation of the Gatha days, the population had not universally adopted the new dates for religious festivals, resulting in "official" celebrations takings place five days later than popular celebrations. In later years the population had observed the Gatha days, but the original five-day discrepancy persisted. Hormazd's reform was to link the popular and official observance dates to form continual six-day feasts. Nawruz was an exception: the first and the sixth days of the month were celebrated as different occasions. Lesser Nawruz was observed on 1 Frawardin. 6 Frawardin, becameGreater Nawruz, a day of special festivity. Around the 10th century CE, the Greater Nawruz was associated with the return of the legendary king, Jamsed; in contemporary practice it is kept as the symbolic observance of Zoroaster’s birthday, or Khordad Sal.[9][11][12] Third: A major reform of the religious calendar was implemented some time between 399 and 518 AD. The names of the days and months were unaltered, but Nawruz would now be celebrated on the first day of Adur, hitherto the ninth month of the calendar. Other religious festivals were shifted to maintain their relative position to Nawruz. Mary Boyce has argued that, as part of this reform, the six-day festivals were compressed to five days. The major feasts, or gahambars, of contemporary Zoroastrian practice, are still kept as five-day observances today.[9][13] [14]

Fourth: By the reign of Yazdegird III (632– 651 AD), the religious celebrations were again somewhat adrift with respect to their proper seasons. Therefore in 632 AD, the new year due to be celebrated on June 21 was brought ahead by the device of omitting that year's Gatha days; Nawruz was therefore kept on June 16. Most Persian Zoroastrians accepted and used this new calendar.[15] By the 9th century, the Zoroastrian theologian Zadspram had noted that the state of affairs was less than optimal, and estimated that at the time of Final Judgement the two systems would be out of sync by four years.[13]

Fifth: In 1006 AD, the month Frawardin had returned to the correct position so that 1 Frawardin coincided with the Northern vernal equinox. The religious festivals were therefore returned to their traditional months, with Nawruz once again being celebrated on 1 Frawardin.[9]

The reckoning of years 16 June 632 AD is the start date for the current mainstream Zoroastrian reckoning of years. Yazdegird III was the last monarch of the Sasanian dynasty, and since the custom at that time was to count regnal years since the monarch ascended the throne, the reckoning of years was continued, in the absence of a Zoroastrian monarch, under Islamic rule. Zoroastrian dates are distinguished by the suffix Y.Z. for Yazdegird i Era. The usage "AY" is also found.[14][16][17][18] Isolated pockets of Asia Minor use[citation needed] an alternative reckoning of years which predates the Yazdegirdi Era, being based on a supposed date of the birth of Zoroaster on 3 March 389 BC.[citation needed] On this calendar, 27 July 2000 AD was the first day of Zoroastrian year 2390.[15] Yet another form of reckoning is the Zarathushtrian (Zoroastrian) Religious Era (Z.E.R./ZRE), adopted in 1990 AD by the Zarathushtrian Assembly of California. This is based on the putative association of the mission of Zoroaster with the dawn of the astrological Age of Aries, calculated for this purpose to have been theNorthern vernal equinox of 1737 BC. Hence the year 3738 ZRE began in 2000 AD. The Zoroastrian community, both in Iran and in diaspora, have also been said to have accepted it, the former doing so in 1993 AD. A briefing paper from the Zoroastrian Trust Funds of Europe indicates that they recognise this usage to have been pragmatically adopted by Zoroastrians in Iran, while the diaspora continues to use the YZ system.[19][20] The Qadimi calendar The cycle of days and months unaltered since 16 June 632 AD, and the cycle of religious observances unaltered since at least 1006 CE, form a stable calendar which is still in use today. Although Persia came under Arab, Islamic, rule in 651 AD, the civil reckoning of months and days was only disrupted for a short time and had returned to use for civil purposes within a century.[21]

Alternative names To distinguish this calendar from others which developed in due course, the name Qadimi became attached to it – a name which means 'old' or 'ancient' and will also be found with alternative spellings:[17]

 Qadmi (by contraction) [16]  Quadmi

 Kadimi (a Parsi variant spelling)  Kadmi (by contraction) [15]  Kudmi

 Gadimi

 Relationship with the Gregorian calendar The Julian Day Number corresponding to 16 June 632 CE (which was 19 June 632 CE of the proleptic Gregorian Calendar) is 1952063.[22] The Julian Day Number of Nowruz, the first day, of Year Y of the Yazdegirdi Era is therefore 1952063 + (Y − 1) × 365 . 22 July 2000 AD was Nowruz and the first day of 1370 Y.Z. (or 3738 ZRE) according to the Qadimi reckoning.[15] In the Julian year 1300 AD, 669 Y.Z. began on 1 January, and 670 Y.Z. on 31 December of the same year.[15]

The Shahanshahi calendar A 365-day calendar drifts ahead of the solar year at a rate of approximately one day every four years. A 9th- century Zoroastrian text, the Denkard, explicitly acknowledged several methods of compensating for this drift:[23]

 a leap-day every fourth year;  adding ten days every fortieth year;

 a leap-month of 30 days once every 120 years;

 5 months once every 600 years;

 the discrepancy would be a whole year once every 1,440 years.

 The Denkard then states:[23] The time of six hours should be kept apart from (i.e. not to be added to) the last days of the year for many years, till (the hours) amount to (a definite period of time)... And it is the admonition of the good faith that the rectification (of the calendar) should not be made till a month is completed (i.e. till the additional six hours every year amount to a month at the end of a hundred and twenty. years). And more than a period of five months should not be allowed (to accumulate.) [Parentheses appear as in original.] The Denkard – which was not Zoroastrian Scripture but a religious manual – therefore favoured the solution of a leap-month once every 120 years, with a fall-back of adding 5 months after 600 years if this were missed. This practice was not, however, adopted by Zoroastrians living in Islamic Persia.[9] Many Zoroastrians migrated from the Middle East to India during the 10th century, becoming known in India as Parsis. They had knowledge of the Denkard's proposal: at some point between 1125 and 1129, the Parsi-Zoroastrians of the Indian subcontinent inserted such an embolismic month, named Aspandarmad vahizak (the month of Aspandarmad but with the suffix vahizak). That month would also be the last month intercalated: subsequent generations of Parsis neglected to insert a thirteenth month.[17]

Around 1720 AD, an Irani-Zoroastrian priest named Jamasp Peshotan Velati travelled from Iran to India. Upon his arrival, he discovered that there was a difference of a month between the Parsi calendar and his own calendar. Velati brought this discrepancy to the attention of the priests of Surat, but no consensus as to which calendar was correct was reached. Around 1740 AD, some influential priests argued that since their visitor had been from the ancient 'homeland', his version of the calendar must be correct, and their own must be wrong. On June 6, 1745 AD, a number of Parsis in and around Surat adopted the calendar which had continued in use in Iran, now to be identified as the Qadimi reckoning. Other Parsis continued to use the reckoning which had become traditional in India, and call their calendar Shahanshahi. [15][17] Alternative names[edit] The name Shahanshahi means 'imperial' and will also be found with alternative spellings:[17]

 Shahenshahi

 Shahenshai

 "Shenshai" – probably a corruption of 'imperial' [15]  Shensoy  Rasimi – 'traditional'

 Sharshai – of uncertain meaning Arzan Lali the author of Zoroastrian Calendar Services (ZCS) website comments:[16] ... adherents of other variants of the Zoroastrian calendar denigrate the Shenshai or Shahenshahi as "royalist".

Relationship with the Gregorian Calendar 21 August 2000 AD was Nawruz and the first day of 1370 Y.Z. (or 3738 ZRE) according to the Shahanshahi reckoning. Because the one-off intercalation of 30 days happened sometime before the Nawruz of 1129 AD, we can be confident that in that Julian year, 498 YZ began on 12 February by the Qadimi reckoning, but 12 March by the recently introduced Shahanshahi.[15] The Julian Day Number of Nawruz, the first day, of all subsequent Shahanshahi years Y of the Yazdegirdi Era is therefore 1952093 + (Y − 1) × 3 65. The Fasli calendar At the start of the 20th century, Khurshedji Cama, a Bombay Parsi, founded the "Zarthosti Fasili Sal Mandal", or Zoroastrian Seasonal- Year Society. in 1906, the society published its proposal for a Zoroastrian calendar which was synchronised with the seasons. This Fasli calendar, as it became known, was based on an older model, introduced in 1079 during the reign of the Seljuk Malik Shah and which had been well received in agrarian communities. [13][16][17]

The Fasli proposal had two useful features: a leap-day once every four years, and harmony with the solar year. The leap- day, called Avardad- sal-Gah (or in Pahlavi: Ruzevahizak), would be inserted, when required, after the five existing Gatha days at the end of the year. New Year's Day would be kept on the northward vernal equinox, and if the leap-day was applied correctly, would not drift away from the spring. The Fasli society also claimed that their calendar was an accurate religious calendar, as opposed to the other two calendars, which they asserted were only political.[24] The new calendar received little support from the Indian Zoroastrian community, since it was considered to contradict the injunctions expressed in the Denkard. In Iran, however, the Fasli calendar gained momentum following a campaign in 1930 to persuade the Iranian Zoroastrians to adopt it, under the title of the Bastani(traditional ) calendar. In 1925 AD, the Iranian Parliament had introduced a new Iranian calendar, which (independent of the Fasli movement) incorporated both points proposed by the Fasili Society, and since the Iranian national calendar had also retained the Zoroastrian names of the months, it was not a big step to integrate the two. The Bastani calendar was duly accepted by many of the Zoroastrians. Many orthodox Iranian Zoroastrians, especially the Sharifabadis of Yazd, continued to use the Qadimi, however.[16][17] [25] Festivals in leap years The Zoroastrian Year, in Qadimi and Shahanshahi observance, concludes wiith ten days in memory of departed souls: five Mukhtad days on the last 5 days of the 12th month, and five more Mukhtad days, which are also the five-day festival of Hamaspathmaidye m, on the five Gatha days. The penultimate day of the twelfth month is Mareshpand Jashan.[9][24]

In a common year (non-leap year) of the Fasli observance, Mukhtad is observed 11–20 March, with Hamaspathmaidyem and the Gatha days 16–20 March. Mareshpand Jashan is on 14 March.[24] In a leap year of the Fasli observance, Mukhtad is observed 10–19 March, with Hamaspathmaidyem and the Gatha days 15–19 March. Mareshpand Jashan is on 13 March. The leap day, 20 March, called Avardad-sal- Gah, is considered a duplication of Wahishtoisht, the fifth Gatha day, but is not reckoned as Mukhtad or Hamaspathmaidyem. [24][26][27]

Reckoning of years[ In 1906 AD, Nawruz of 1276 Y.Z. fell on 15 August for followers of the Qadimi calendar, and 14 September for those observing Shahanshahi. There was therefore a six- month gap between the Fasli and Qadimi New Year observances, and a seven-month gap to the Shahanshahi. The on-line calendar converters cited at the bottom of this page all give the current Fasli year (following Nawruz in 2011 AD) as 1381 Y.Z. – the same year as the Qadimi and Shahanshahi. However, the accumulated leap days not reckoned in the latter two calendars add up to a whole year in just over 1508 years.[14] Since there is exactly one Fasli year for every Gregorian year, then day one of the proleptic Fasli calendar would be 21 March (Gregorian) 631 AD, with Year 2 beginning on 21 March 632 AD. But Yazdegird III did not ascend the throne until 19 June 632 AD (Gregorian), leading to the curious quirk that the base date for the reckoning of years ends up in Year 2 of the Fasli calendar.

Alternative names The name Fasli will also be found in alternative forms:[17]  Fasili

 "Bastani" – Iranian for 'traditional' Relationship with the Gregorian calendar 21 March 2000 AD was Nawruz and the first day of 1370 Y.Z. (or 3738 ZRE) according to the Fasli reckoning. Dr Ali Jafarey describes the Fasli calendar as[21] ...an almost tropical calendar. It is corrected by observing the leap year. Webster's Online direction and various unreferenced sources state that the Fasli calendar follows the Gregorian, and it is shown strictly following the Gregorian calendar in the period 2009–2031 AD in the tables published by R. E. Kadva. The Gregorian calendar itself, however, will not keep 21 March as the date of the Northern vernal equinox forever – it has a deviation of one day every 5025 years. [6][24][26][28][29] Relationship with the Iranian calendar The civil calendar in Iran since 31 March 1925 AD has been the Solar Hejri calendar. This is strictly tied to the actual Northward equinox, rather than a mathematical approximation to it. An Iranian day is reckoned to begin at midnight. Iranian time is 3.5 hours ahead of GMT. New Year's Day is defined to be the day, as reckoned by Iranian time, when the Northward equinox (the precise moment in time when northern and southern hemispheres of the earth pass through the point of the earth's orbit when they are equally illuminated by the sun) occurs on or before noon of that day, or during the 12 hours following the noon of the preceding day. This means that the pattern of leap years in the Iranian calendar is complex – usually following a 33-year cycle where the leap day is inserted every fourth year, but in year 33 instead of year 32, but with occasional 27 or 35 year cycles. [30] From 1960 to 1995, the Northward equinox always fell at such a time that New Year's Day in Iran occurred on the day called 21 March in the Western calendar. But this equivalence was not always true before March 1960, and the exact correspondence broke down again in 1996. In 1959, and at four- year intervals back to 1927, Iranian New Year's Day fell on 22 March in the Gregorian calendar. In 1996, and subsequent Gregorian leap years, Iranian New Year's Day falls on 20 March. The pattern will shift back to a matching set of leap years in 2096 AD.[31] The sources cited above state that the Fasli calendar both follows the Gregorian and was such that New Year's Day coincided with vernal equinox. These two statements are incompatible. The Fasli calendar cannot track both the Gregorian leap years and strictly start on the vernal equinox; further, any calendar strictly tied to the 'day of the equinox' must define when the day starts and ends, which depends on longitude.[16][18][24] A briefing paper from the Zoroastrian Trust Funds of Europe indicates that ...the Irani Zoroastrian calendar does not shift and commences on 21st March. But it is important to note that all Iranians including Zoroastrians celebrate NoRuz (Nawruz) on the actual day of the Northward equinox, therefore some years it can be 20th / 22nd March.[20] Astronomical and mystical aspects of the calendars The three different Zoroastrian calendar-traditions are similar with regard to the principle of the beginning of the months. The Fasli, Qadimi and the Shahanshahi all (notionally) start each of the 30-day- long months with the Sun entering a new constellation, similar to the Vedic (Hindu) Solar calendars as reflected in the Jyotisha (Vedic Astrology), and the Armenian calendar, but different from the Iranian (Jalaali) Calendar, the Julian Calendar, the Mayan Haab Calendar and theFrench Revolutionary Calendar, whose epochs of the months are fixed to the equinoxes/solstices, as are the signs of Western Astrology. The Qadimi and the Shhanshahi Zoroastrian Calendar use merely five epigomenal days, similar to the French Revolutionary, and the Coptic calendar, so their year count slowly travels through the astronomical year. Thus the Qadimi variant of the Zoroastrian calendar keeps track of precession, pointing towards an esoteric (hidden) calculus of world ages.[16][26] The Qadimi (traditional) Zoroastrian calendar puts the month of Dae (pronounced "Day") with the Sun entering the constellation of Taurus (specifically the Pleiades); thus apparently (theory) recalling the time of the origination of the zoroastrian calendar, and its relation to the discovery of the precession. At that time, one very well may conclude, that the vernal equinox also marked the sun's entrance into this constellation of the Golden Calf, the Taurus. According to Mary Boyce,[32] It seems a reasonable surmise that Nawruz, the holiest of them all, with deep doctrinal significance, was founded by Zoroaster himself.

Future developments of the calendars The Fasli Calendar has become very popular outside India, especially in the West, but many Parsis believe that adding a leap day is against the rules, and they mostly continue to use the Shahanshahi Calendar. There is a proposal to correct matters by restoring the leap month, but unless this happens, the Shahanshahi and Qadimi years will continue to start earlier and earlier... the unrevised Qadimi Calendar would eventually coincide with the Fasli Calendar in Gregorian Year 2508, the Shahanshahi New Year will next fall on 21 March in 2632.[26] In 1992, all three calendars happened to have the first day of a month on the same day. Many Zoroastrians suggested a consolidation of the calendars: no consensus could be reached, though some took this opportunity to switch to the Fasli observance. Some priests objected on the grounds that if they were to switch, the religious implements they utilised would require re- consecration, at not insignificant expense.[33] It has also been proposed that the Shahanshahi calendar could be brought back into harmony through the intercalation of whole months.[6] In the UK, most Zoroastrians are Indians who follow the Shahanashai calendar. Nevertheless, noting that Iranian Zoroastrians mostly follow the Fasli calendar, the ZTFE (the official Zoroastrian charity and London centre of worship) marks observances of both calendars.[20][34]

The division of time Zoroastrian practice divides time into years (sal or sol), months (mah), weeks, days (ruz, roz or roj) and watches (gah or geh).[6][17] Divisions of the day] A day is reckoned to begin at dawn, as attested by Chapter 25 of the 9th- century work, the Bundahishn; morning hours before dawn are assigned to the previous calendar day. Each day is divided into five watches:[6][17]

 Hawan (sunrise to noon)

 Rapithwin or Second Hawan (noon to 3 p.m.)  Uzerin (3 p.m. to sunset)

 Aiwisruthrem (sunset to midnight)

 Ushahin (midnight to sunrise) In medieval times, according to the Bundahishn, in winter there were only four periods, with Hawan extending from daybreak until Uziran, with the omission of Rapithwan.

Naming of months and days The months and the days of the month in the Zoroastrian calendar are dedicated to, and named after, a divinity or divine concept. The religious importance of the calendar dedications is very significant. Not only does the calendar establish the hierarchy of the major divinities, it ensures the frequent invocation of their names since the divinities of both day and month are mentioned at every Zoroastrian act of worship.[27]

Day names The tradition of naming the days and months after divinities was based on a similar Egyptian custom, and was instituted at some point between 458 and 330 BC, very probably during the reign of Artaxerxes II (404–358 BC). [35] "The last evidence for the use ... with Old Persian month-names ... comes from 458BCE, ... after which the Elamite tablets cease. " No dated West-Iranian documents from between 458 BC and 330 BC survive, but the fact that the Zoroastrian calendar was created some time during that period can be inferred from its use In a number of far-flung lands which had formerly been parts of the Achaemenid Empire.

The oldest (though not dateable) testimony for the existence of the day dedications comes from Yasna 16, a section of the Yasna liturgy that is – for the most part – a veneration to the 30 divinities with day- name dedications. The Siroza – a two- part Avesta text with individual dedications to the 30 calendar divinities – has the same sequence. 1. Dadvah Ahura Mazdā, 2. Vohu Manah, 3. Aša Vahišta, 4. Khšathra Vairya, 5. Spenta Ārmaiti, 6. Haurvatāt, 7. Ameretāt 8. Dadvah Ahura Mazdā, 9. Ātar, 10. Āpō, 11. Hvar, 12. Māh, 13. Tištrya, 14. Geuš Urvan 15.Dadvah Ahura Mazdā, 16. Mithra, 17. Sraoša, 18. Rašnu, 19. Fravašayō, 20. Verethragna, 21. Rāman, 22. Vāta 23.Dadvah Ahura Mazdā, 24. Daēna, 25. Aši, 26. Arštāt, 27. Asmān, 28. Zam, 29. Manthra Spenta, 30. Anaghra Raočā.

The quaternary dedication to Ahura Mazda was perhaps a compromise between orthodox and heterodox factions, with the 8th, 15th and 23rd day of the calendar perhaps originally having been dedicated to Apam Napat, Haoma, and Dahmān Afrīn. The dedication to the Ahuric Apam Napat would almost certainly have been an issue for devotees of Aredvi Sura Anahita, whose shrine cult was enormously popular between the 4th century BC and the 3rd century AD and who is (accretions included) a functional equal of Apam Napat.

To this day these three divinities are considered 'extra- calendary' divinites inasfar as they invoked together with the other 27, so making a list of 30 discrete entities.

Faravahar, believed to be a depiction of a Fravashi (guardia n spirit), to which the month and day of Farvardin is dedicated The 2nd through 7th days are dedicated to the Amesha Spentas, the six 'divine sparks' through whom all subsequent creation was accomplished, and who – in present-day Zoroastrianism - are the archangels.

Days 9 through 13 are dedications to five yazatas of the litanies (Niyayeshes): Fire (Atar), Water (Apo), Sun (Hvar), Moon (Mah), the star Sirius (Tištrya) that here perhaps represents the firmament in its entirety. Day 14 is dedicated to the soul of the Ox (Geush Urvan), linked with and representing all animal creation. Day 16, leading the second half of the days of the month, is dedicated to the divinity of oath, Mithra (like Apam Napat of the Ahurictriad). He is followed by those closest to him, Sraoša and Ra šnu, likewise judges of the soul; the representatives of which, theFravashi(s), come next. Verethragna, Rāman, Vāta are respectively the hypostases of victory, the breath of life, and the (other) divinity of the wind and 'space'.

The last group represent the more 'abstract' emanations: Religion (Daena), Recompense (Ashi), and Justice (Arshtat); Sky (Asman) and Earth (Zam); Sacred Invocation (Manthra Spenta) and Endless Light (Anaghra Raocha). In present-day use, the day and month names are the Middle Persian equivalents of the divine names or the concepts, but in some cases reflect Semitic influences (for instance Tištrya appears as Tir, which Boyce (1982:31–33) asserts is derived from Nabu-*Tiri). The names of the 8th, 15th, and 23rd day of the month – reflecting Babylonian practice of dividing the month into four periods – can today be distinguished from one another: These three days are named Dae-pa Adar,Dae-pa Mehr, and Dae-pa Din, Middle Persian expressions meaning 'Creator of' (respectively) Atar, Mithra, and Daena.

What might loosely be called weeks are the divisions of days 1–7, 8–14, 15–22 and 23–30 of each month – two weeks of seven days followed by two weeks of eight. The Gatha days at the end of the year do not belong to any such week.[6]

Month names Twelve divinities to whom days of the month are dedicated also have months dedicated to them. The month dedicated to Ahura Mazda is a special case – that month is named after Mazda's stock epithet, "Creator" (Avestan Dadvah, whence Zoroastrian Middle Persian Dae), rather than after His proper name. Seven of the twelve-month names occur at various points in the surviving Avesta texts, but an enumeration similar to the ones for day names does not exist in scripture. Lists of month names are however known from commentaries on the Avesta texts, from various regional Zoroastrian calendars of the 3rd to 7th centuries, and from living usage. That these names have an Old Iranian origin and are not merely Middle Iranian innovations may be inferred from the fact that several regional variants reflect Old Iranian genitive singular forms, that is, they preserve an implicit "(month) of". The month-names (with Avestan language names in parentheses), in the ordinal sequence used today, are: 1. 7. Fraward Mihr in ( Mi θ ra (Frauua he) šinąm) 8. 2. Aban Ardwahi (Apąm sht ) (Ašahe 9. Vahištah Adur e) ( Ā θ rō) 3. 10. Khordad Dae (Haurva (Daθu tātō) šō 4. Tir [Ahur (Tištrye ahe he) Mazda 5. ]) Amurda 11. d Wahm (Amərət an ātō) (Vaŋh 6. əəuš Shahrew Manaŋ ar hō) (Xšaθra 12. he Spend Vairyehe armad ) (Spənt ayāā Ārmat ōiš) The days on which day-name and month-name dedications intersect are festival days (name-day feast days) of special worship. Because Ahura Mazda has four day-name dedications, the month dedicated to Him has four intersections (the first, eighth, fifteenth and twenty-third day of the tenth month). The others have one intersection each, for example, the nineteenth day of the first month is the day of special worship of the Fravashis. There is some evidence that suggests that in ancient practice Dae was the first month of the year, and Frawardin the last. In a 9th- century text, Zoroaster's age at the time of his death is stated to have been 77 years and 40 days (Zadspram 23.9), but the "40 days" do not correspond to the difference between the traditional "death day" (11th of Dae) and "birthday" (6th of Frawardin) unless Dae had once been the first month of the year and Frawardin the last. The festival of Frawardigan is held on the last days of the year, instead of following the name-day feast of the Fravashis (nineteenth day of the month of Frawardin, and also called Frawardigan ).. Calendar tables

 Table mapping Fasli calendar to a Gregorian non- leap year. During a leap year, the mapping for the last 21 days of the Fasli year must be adjusted by subtracting 1 from the March date.

 Table for 1375 YZ. This table shows how the year 1375 YZ corresponds to Gregorian dates using the three Zoroastrian calendars, with links back to 1374, 1373 and 1372 YZ.

 Perpetual Fasli Calendar

 Zoroastrian Calendar of months and days Calendar calculators

 Excel/VBA (Automated) Zoroastrian Shehenshahi Calendar from 1900-2100 Click here to download (© Cyrus Sidhva; Auckland, NZ) OR

 Alternative Download from OR Pls Visit Website*  Conversion tool for Gregorian dates from 1006 AD to 2400 AD (good for all dates 374 YZ to 1770 YZ). It can adjust for the fact that events between midnight and 6 a.m. on a Gregorian date fall on the previous Zoroastrian Day. Shows month view, year view, moon phases and 'Chaugadiyas'.

 The facility above is also available in Gujararti.

 A conversion tool for all three variant calendars, good for AD dates 1911–2030, also with ability to display Zoroastrian dates on a month-to- view page of the Gregorian calendar for 1911– 1930.

 Another implementation of the zanc.org calendar above.

 RozCalc – Zoroastrian Calendar Calculator

 Parsical – Zoroastrian Shahenshahi calendar application References 1. Jump up ^ The list is based on Kotwal F.M. and Boyd, J. A Guide to the Zoroastrian Religion, Scholars Press, 1982. 2. ^ Jump up to: a b c Boyce, Mary (ed. & trans.). Textual Sources for the Study of Zoroastrianism. University of Chicago Press, 1984, pp. 19–20. 3. Jump up ^ al Biruni, ed. Sachau E.. Chronology of ancient nations, p. 11 of Arabic (1000 AD), p. 12 of Sachau translation (1879 AD), online athttp://www.arch ive.org/stream/ch ronologyofanci00 biru#page/12/mo de/2up 4. Jump up ^ Boyce, Mary (on behalf of the Persian Heritage Foundation). Zor oastrianism – Its Antiquity and Constant Vigour. Mazda Publishers, 1992, p. 108. 5. ^ Jump up to: a b c Bickerman , E. J.. Chronology of the Ancient World. Thames & Hudson, 1968, p. 24. 6. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f The Zoroastrian religious calendar, http://w ww.avesta.org/zc al.html – accessed 15 October 2011 7. Jump up ^ Panaino, Antonio. Calend ars, in Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. IV, Fasc. 6–7, pp. 658–677, online version at http://www.ira nicaonline.org/art icles/calendars - accessed 17 October 2011 8. Jump up ^ Drouin, M. E.. Revue Archéologique, 1889, ii 43 ff 9. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Boyce , Mary. On the Calendar of Zoroastrian Feasts. Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, Vol. 33, No. 3 (1970), pp. 513–539 and online at http://www.jsto r.org/stable/61452 0 and http://www. essenes.net/pdf/O n%20the %20Calendar %20of %20Zoroastrian %20Feasts %20.pdf 10.Jump up ^ Boyce, Mary. Further on the Calendar of Zoroastrian Feasts. Iran (Jour nal of the British Institute of Persian Studies), 2005, XLIII, pp. 1–38 11.Jump up ^ Stausberg, Michael. Zoroast rian festivals, http://w ww.michaelstaus berg.net/Texts/Zo roastrian %20Festivals.pdf – accessed 17 October 2011. 12.Jump up ^ Khordad Sal (Birthday of Zoroaster) in BBC database of religious observances, last updated 2 October 2009,http://www. bbc.co.uk/religio n/religions/zoroas trian/holydays/kh ordadsal.shtml – accessed 17 October 2011. 13.^ Jump up to: a b c Stausberg, Michael. Die Religion Zarathushtras. Geschichte – Gegenwart – Rituale. Band (Volume) 3. Kohlhammer, 2004, pp. 66–67. 14.^ Jump up to: a b c de Blois, François. The Persian Calendar in Iran, 1996, Vol. 34, pp. 39–54 – online at http://www.jsto r.org/stable/42999 43 15.^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Pari se, Frank. The Book of Calendars, 2nd edition. Gorgias Press, 2002, pp. 96, 108–109 and 115–117. 16.^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g The Lalis website – Zoroastrian Calendar. http://a hura.thelalis.com/ – accessed 17 October 2011. 17.^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Ed uljee, K.E.. Zoroastrian Heritage: Zoroastrian Calendar. http://h eritageinstitute.co m/zoroastrianism/ calendar/index.ht m 2007–2011 – accessed 16 October 2011. 18.^ Jump up to: a b Pithavala, Behram D.. True Zoroastrian Year: An invitation to think. 9 March 1963. http://www .heritageinstitute. com/zoroastrianis m/pdf/pithavala.p df – accessed 17 October 2011 19.Jump up ^ Jafarey, Ali Akbar, The Precise Iranian Calendar made simple, http://ww w.zoroastrian.org/ articles/The %20Precise %20Iranian %20Calendar.htm – accessed 17 October 2011. 20.^ Jump up to: a b c Zoroastria n Festivals celebrated by Zoroastrian Trust Funds of Europe Incorporated, a briefing paper by the Zoroastrian Trust Funds of Europe. 21.^ Jump up to: a b Jafarey, Ali Akbar. No-Rooz, The Zarathushtrian New Year http://www.i ranchamber.com/ culture/articles/no rooz_zarathushtri an_new_year.php – accessed 17 October 2011 22.Jump up ^ Calculator at http://www.imc ce.fr/en/grandpub lic/temps/jour_jul ien.php 23.^ Jump up to: a b The Denkard, Book III, Paragraph 419, online at http://www.ave sta.org/denkard/d k3s414.html#cha p419 24.^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Kadva, Rohinton Erach. Compendi um of Fasli Zoroastrian Calendars 1379 AY through 1400 AY, compiled 7 September 2009.http://zoroa strian.ru/files/eng /zoroastrian- calendars-1379- ay-1400-ay- fasli.pdf – accessed 17 October 2011 25. Jump up ^ The Zoroastrian Calendar. http:// www.ahuramazda .com/calendar.ht m – accessed 17 October 2011 26.^ Jump up to: a b c d Moonwis e website, http:// www.moonwise.c o.uk/year/1375zo roastrian.htm – accessed 17 October 2011 27.^ Jump up to: a b Eduljee, K.E.. 365-Day Fasli- Bastani/Gregoria n Perpetual Calendar Grid. 2007-2011 http://www.herita geinstitute.com/z oroastrianism/cal endar/page2.htm – accessed 16 October 2011. 28.Jump up ^ Webster's Online Dictionary, http:// www.websters- dictionary- online.org/definiti ons/Zoroastrian – accessed 17 October 2011 29.Jump up ^ Khoshkish, Anoush. Iranian Calendar, at Wolfram Research: http://s cienceworld.wolf ram.com/astrono my/IranianCalend ar.html – accessed 17 October 2011 30.Jump up ^ Ministry of Iran (Islamic Republic of), Calendar, htt p://www.en.iran.i r/about/iranian- calendar – accessed 17 October 2011 31.Jump up ^ Zadeh, Hossein Bagher. Time of the New Year. SCI Usenet Newsgroup, March 16, 1994 and reposted athttp://www.gha ndchi.com/iransc ope/Anthology/Ti meOfTheNewYea r.htm – accessed 17 October 2011 32.Jump up ^ Boyce, Mary. Festivals, i. Zoroastrian, in Encyclopaedia Iranica, http://w ww.iranicaonline. org/articles/festiv als-i – accessed 17 October 2011 33.Jump up ^ Zoroastrian Calendar, http:// www3.sympatico .ca/zoroastrian/ca l.html – accessed 17 October 2011 34. Jump up ^ The Shap Working Party on Education in Religions, Calen dar of Religious Festivals: A treasury of diversity, http://w ww.shapworking party.org.uk/calen dar2.html – accessed 17 October 2011 35.Jump up ^ Boyce, Mary. A History of Zoroastrianism, Volume 2. E. J. Brill, 1982, pp. 243–250 Armenian carpet

Armenian Carpet "Gohar" with Armenian inscription, 1700, Artsakh (Nagorn o-Karabagh) The term Armenian carpet designates, but is not limited to, tufted rugs or knotted carpets woven in Armenia or by Armenians frompre- Christian times to the present .[1][2][3] It also includes a number of flat woven textiles. The term covers a large variety of types and sub-varieties. Due to their intrinsic fragility, almost nothing survives—neither carpets nor fragments— from antiquity until the late medieval period. Traditionally, since ancient times the carpets were used in Armenia to cover floors, decorate interior walls, sofas, chairs, beds and tables. [4] Up to present the carpets often serve as entrance veils, decoration for church altars and vestry. Starting to develop in Armenia as a part of everyday life, carpet weaving was a must in every Armenian family, with the Carpet making and rug makingbeing almost women's occupation. [5] Armenian carpets are unique "texts" composed of the ornaments where sacred symbols reflect the beliefs and religious notions of the ancient ancestors of the Armenians that reached us from the depth of centuries. The Armenian carpet and rug weavers preserved strictly the traditions. The imitation and presentation of one and the same ornament- ideogram in the unlimited number of the variations of styles and colors contain the basis for the creation of any new Armenian carpet. In this relation, the characteristic trait of Armenian carpets is the triumph of the variability of ornaments that is increased by the wide gamut of natural colors and tints. Etymology of word "carpet" in the Armenian and other languages The Armenian words for carpet are "karpet" (Armenian: կարպետ) [6] or "gorg" (Armenian: գորգ).[7] T hough both words in Armenian are synonymous, word "karpet" is mostly used for non-pile rugs and "gorg" is for a pile carpet. Two of the most frequently used terms to designate woven woolen floor coverings emanate directly from the Armenian experience: carpet and kali/khali. The term "kapert" (Armenian: կապերտ) , formed of root "kap" (Armenian: կապ) that means "knot",[8][9] later to become "karpet" (Armenian: կարպետ) in colloquial Armenian, is used in the 5th- century Armenian translation of the Bible (Matthew 9:16 and Mark 2:21).[10] It is assumed that the word "сarpet" entered into French (French: car pette) and English (English: carpet) in the 13th century (through Medieval Latin carpita, meaning "thick woolen cloth") [11] as a consequence of the trade in rugs through the port cities of the Armenian kingdom of Cilicia.Francesco Balducci Pegolotti, a Florentine merchant stationed in Cyprus, reported in his La pratica della mercatura that from 1274 to 1330, carpets (kaperts) were imported from the Armenian cities of Ayas and Sis to Florence.[12]

Armenian word "gorg" (Armenian: գորգ) is first mentioned in written sources in the 13th century. This word ("gorg") is in the inscription that was cut out in the stone wall of Kaptavan Church in Artsakh (Karabagh) and is dated by 1242— 1243 AD.[13][14] Grigor Kapantsyan, professor of Armenian Studies, considered that Armenian "gorg" (Armenian:գորգ) is a derivative of Hittite- Armenian vocabulary, where it existed in the forms of "koork" and "koorkas". Edgar H. Sturtevant, an expert in Hittite studies, explains the etymology of word "koork"/"koorkas" as "horse cloth".[15]

As for the Persian "qali", which entered into Turkish as "qali" or as "khali" in Anatolia Ottoman Turkish and Armenian,[16] it derives from the city of Theodosiopolis-Karin- Erzerum, known to the Arabs as Qali-qala from the Armenian "Karnoy k‘aghak", the "city of Karin". The name "Erzerum" itself, as is well known, is of Armenian origin from the usage Artzen ar- Rum. This latter term came into being after the destruction of the important Armenian commercial center of Artzen, 15 kilometers east of Theodosiopolos- Karin, by the Seljuks in 1041 after which the inhabitants fled to Karin, then in Rum, that is in Byzantine territory, renaming it Artzen in Rum or Arzerum/Erzerum/Erzur um.[17]

History The art of the Armenian carpet and rug weaving has its roots in ancient times. However, due to the fragile nature of carpets very few examples have survived. Only one specimen has been discovered from the ancient (pre- Christian) period and relatively few specimens are in existence from the early medieval period which can be found in private collections as well as various museums throughout the world.

"The complex history of Armenian weaving and needlework was acted out in the Near East, a vast, ancient, and ethnically diverse region. Few are the people who, like the Armenians, can boast of a continuous and consistent record of fine textile production from the 1st millennium BC to the present. Armenians today are blessed by the diversity and richness of a textile heritage passed on by thirty centuries of diligent practice; yet they are burdened by the pressure to keep alive a tradition nearly destroyed in the Armenian Genocide of 1915, and subverted by a technology that condemns handmade fabrics to museums and lets machines produce perfect, but lifeless cloth".[18] [19] Early history

The Pazyryk carpet Various rug fragments have been excavated in Armenia dating back to the 7th century BC or earlier. Complete rugs, or nearly complete rugs of this period have not yet been found. The oldest, single, surviving knotted carpet in existence is the Pazyryk carpet, excavated from a frozen tomb in Siberia, dated from the 5th to the 3rd century BC, now in the Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg. Although claimed by many cultures, this square tufted carpet, almost perfectly intact, is considered by many experts to be of Caucasian, specifically Armenian, origin. The eminent authority of ancient carpets, Ulrich Schurmann, says of it, "From all the evidence available I am convinced that the Pazyryk rug was a funeral accessory and most likely a masterpiece of Armenian workmanship".[20] Gantzhorn concurs with this thesis. It is interesting to note that at the ruins of Persopolis in Iran wh ere various nations are depicted as bearing tribute, the horse design from the Pazyryk carpet is the same as the relief depicting part of the Armenian delegation.[21]

The historian Herodotus writ ing in the 5th century BC also informs us that the inhabitants of the Caucasus wove beautiful rugs with brilliant colors which would never fade. [22] The Christian period Apart from the Pazyryk carpet , after Armenia declared itself as the first Christian state in 301 AD, carpet making took on a decidedly Christian art form and identity. This art form existed continuously unaltered until the Armenian Genocide. By the Middle Ages, Armenia was a major exporter of carpets to as far away places as China. In many Medieval Chinese artworks for example, carpets were depicted in which the designs were typically that of Armenian carpets with some even depicting clear Christian crosses. The art of the Armenian carpet during this period evolved alongside Armenian church architecture, Armenian cross-stones and illuminated manuscript art, with typical rug motifs using the same elements of these designs. The cruciform with its variations would eventually come to dominate Armenian carpet designs. The Armenian Genocide

The Armenian Orphan rug also known as the Ghazir rug The period of the Armenian Genocide from 1894- 1923 saw a demographic change in the hitherto Armenian tradition of rug and carpet making in Anatolia (Western Armenia as well as Turkey). Even though carpets from this region had established the commercial name of "Turkish Carpet" there is evidence to suggest that the majority of weavers in the Ottoman Empire were Armenians. However, after 1923, carpet making in the newly established Turkish republic was erroneously declared a "historically Turkish craft" as is claimed, for example, by the Turkish and Islamic Arts Museum where many Armenian carpets are depicted as "Turkish or Islamic art".[21] During the Genocide, in addition to the catastrophic loss of many expert carpet weavers, thousands of Armenian children were also orphaned and the Near East Relief saved many of these children, some of whom ended up in the northern part of Beirut, where a rug factory would be established under the guidance of Dr. Jacob Kuenzler, a Swiss missionary. This factory was established for the purpose of teaching young orphans (mainly girls) rug weaving, so that they may go on making a living later on in their adult lives. Thus for a brief period "orphan- rugs" were created in this factory, the most famous of which was gifted to the White House in 1925, as a gesture of gratitude and good will towards the American people by the orphans. Known as the Armenian Orphan rug, the rug depicts a Biblical Garden of Eden featuring various animals and symbols and measuring 12 feet by 18 feet with 4 million knots. This rug is said to have been made by 400 orphans over a period of 18 months from 1924- 1925. The Soviet period After a short- lived republic Armenia fell to Soviet rule in 1920 and within a short period, carpet making in the Caucasus as well as Central Asia would take a new turn. The Soviet Union commercialized the trade and sponsored much of the production. Thus carpet making went from a mostly home craft to a mostly commercial craft. However, in rural areas the carpet making traditions in some families continued. Although commercial carpet makers were mostly free to practice their art, religious themes were discouraged. During this period the designs on Armenian rugs also changed somewhat, although the overall character remained. Many "Soviet carpets" were also produced depicting Communist leaders. The modern era With the fall of the Soviet Union, carpet making in Armenia and Nagorno-Karabakh continued. Private companies as well as home workshops were again revived. Among some weavers, the traditional method of using rug motifs from Armenian churches, manuscript art and cross-stones was also revived. After the Nagorno-Karabakh War some carpet making workshops were formed to help the many displaced Armenia ns find employment. Today the traditional art of Armenian carpet making is kept alive by weavers in Armenia and Nagorno-Karabakh using all the methods, techniques and designs from ancient times.[citation needed] This is remarkable considering the history of Armenia. Development of Armenian carpet and rug weaving

Armenian rugs shown at Vernissage market in Yerevan Armenian carpet weaving that at the initial period coincided with cloth weaving by execution technique have passed the long path of development, starting from simple fabrics, which had been woven at the braiding frames of various form to pile knotted carpets that became the luxurious and dainty pieces of arts. Carpet-weaving is historically a major traditional profession for the majority of Armenian women, including many Armenian families . Prominent Karabakh carpet weavers there were men too. The oldest extant Armenian carpet from the region, referred to as Artsakhduring the medieval era, is from the village of Banants (near Gandzak) and dates to the early 13th century.[23] The first time that the Armenian word for carpet, gorg, was used in historical sources was in a 1242- 1243 Armenian inscription on the wall of the Kaptavan Church in Artsakh.[24]

Art historian Hravard Hakobyan notes that "Artsakh carpets occupy a special place in the history of Armenian carpet- making."[24]Common themes and patterns found on Armenian carpets were the depiction of dragons and eagles. They were diverse in style, rich in color and ornamental motifs, and were even separated in categories depending on what sort of animals were depicted on them, such as artsvagorgs (eagle- carpets), vishapagorgs ( dragon-carpets) and otsagorgs (serpent- carpets).[24] The rug mentioned in the Kaptavan inscriptions is composed of three arches, "covered with vegatative ornaments", and bears an artistic resemblance to the illuminated manuscripts produced in Artsakh.[24]

The art of carpet weaving was in addition intimately connected to the making of curtains as evidenced in a passage by Kirakos Gandzaketsi, a 13th- century Armenian historian from Artsakh, who praised Arzu- Khatun, the wife of regional prince Vakhtang Khachenatsi, and her daughters for their expertise and skill in weaving.[25] Armenian carpets were also renowned by foreigners who traveled to Artsakh; the Arab geographer and historian Al-Masudi not ed that, among other works of art, he had never seen such carpets elsewhere in his life.[26] On the opinion of various authors that the origin of the oriental carpets and rugs did not have any association with nomadic tribes, and Central Asia. They consider that the "oriental carpet is neither of nomadic origin, nor do its origins lie in Central Asia; it is a product of ancient oriental civilizations in the Armenian Uplands at the crossroads of the oldest trade routes between west, north and south".[21]

The development of carpet and rug weaving in Armenia had been the barest necessity that had been dictated by the climatic conditions of the complete Armenian Highland. The type, size and thickness of carpets and rugs had also depended upon the climate of every specific region within the territory of Armenian Highland.[27] The dwelling houses and other buildings in Armenia were constructed exclusively of stone or were cut in rocks with no wood flooring inside traditionally. This fact was proved by the results of excavations carried out in medieval Armenian cities, such as Dvin, Artashat, Ani a nd others.[4] There has been the necessary source of raw materials in Armenia, including wool yarn and other fibres, as well as natural dyes.[28] The most widespread raw materials to produce yarn for carpets and rugs was sheep wool, as well as goat wool, silk, flax, cotton and other. In the 13th and 14th centuries, when the carpet weaving started to develop at Near East, Armenia "was one of the most productive regions" in this regards. It was conditioned by the existence of "good quality wool, pure water and dyes, especially beautiful purple dye".[29] One of the most important conditions for the development of carpet and rug weaving was the availability of towns and cities, where the arts and crafts might develop. These cities and towns also served as large commercial centers located on main ancient trade routs that passed by the Armenian Highland, including one of the branches of Silk Road that passed across Armenia [30] Silk Road#Persian Royal Road.

Abd ar-Rashid al-Bakuvi wrote that "the carpets and as-zalali that are named "kali" are exported from Kalikala (Karin) that was located on the strategic road between Persia and Europe. According to the 13th-century Arab geographer Yaqut al- Hamavi, the origin of the word kali/khali/hali, a knotted carpet, is from one of the early and important Armenian carpet centers, Theodosiopolis, Karin in Armenian, Qaliqala in Arabic, modern Erzerum. He says, "А Qaliqala on fabrique des tapis qu'on nomme qali du nom abrege de la ville".[31][32] Academician Joseph Orbeli directly writes that word "karpet" is of Armenian origin[33]

Between the tangible reality of the Pazyryk carpet and the Mongol domination of the Near East in the 13th century virtually nothing survives, not even fragments. Our knowledge of oriental rugs is entirely from literary sources. Of these there are three categories: the Arab geographers and historians, who represent the most important witnesses of rug making, the Italian merchants and travelers, and the Armenian historians. The most common term for these Near Eastern floor and wall covering in these sources are Armenian carpets or carpets from Armenia. It is only later, as the Ottomans conquered these areas, including all of Armenian in the 16th century, that the term Turkish carpet began to be used, but that too was replaced in the 19th century by the term Persian rug or carpet because the great commercial agents of England, the U.S., and Germany began setting up looms for quantity weaving in Iran to supply the ever increasing demand for the oriental rug in their countries.

The Medieval Arab sources – al-Baladhuri (a 9th-century Persian histo rian), Ibn Hawqal (a 10th-century Arab writer , geographer, and chronicler), Yaqut (13th- century Arab geographer), and Ibn Khaldun (a 14th- century Arab polymath) among the most famous - speak regularly about the wonderful Armenian carpets of Qali-qala and the medieval Armenian capital of Dvin ("Dabil" in Arab sources) as well as their use of the Armenian red cochineal dye known in Armenian as vordan karmir ("worm's red"), the fundamental color of many Armenian rugs. Marco Polo reports the following his travel account as he passed through Cilician Armenia: "The following can be said of Turkmenia: the Turkmenian population is divided into three groups. The Turkomans are Muslims characterized by a very simple way of life and extremely crude speech. They live in the mountainous regions and raise cattle. Their horses and their outstanding mules are held in especially high regard. The other two groups, Armenians and Greeks, live in cities and forts. They make their living primarily from trade and as craftsmen. In addition to the carpets, unsurpassed and more splendrous in color than anywhere else in the world, silks in all colors are also produced there. This country, about which one might easily tell much more is subject to the Khan of the eastern Tatar Empire"[34][35]/ According to the 13th- century Arab geographer Yaqut al- Hamawi, the origin of the word kali/khali/hali, a knotted carpet, is from one of the early and important Armenian carpet centers, Theodosiopolis, Karin in Armenian, Qaliqala in Arabic, modern Erzerum. He says, "А Qaliqala on fabrique des tapis qu'on nomme qali du nom abrege de la ville".[31][32]Academician Joseph Orbeli directly writes that word "karpet" is of Armenian origin.[36]

Gallery

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Armenian girls, weaving carpets in Van, 1907, Western Armenia References 1. Jump up ^ Temurjyan, В. С. (1955). "The Carpet Weaving in Armenia" ("Ковроделие в Армении"). Yerevan: Institute of History, Academy of Science of the Armenian SSR. 2. Jump up ^ Davtyan Давтян С., Армянский карпет. АН Армянской ССР, Ереван, 1975, С. (1975). "Armenian Carpet" ("Армянский карпет"). Yerevan: Academy of Science of the Armenian SSR. 3. Jump up ^ Kouymjian, Dickran; Kévorkian et B. Achdjian (1991). "Les tapis à inscriptions arméniennes",in "Tapis et textiles arméniens". Marseilles. pp. 247– 253. 4. ^ Jump up to: a b N. Marr, Armgiz, 1939, Yerevan, p. 197 - in Russian 5. Jump up ^ "Armenians. The End of the 19th - Beginning of the 20th century" at Russian Ethnographic Museum, St. Petersburg, Russia 6. Jump up ^ Армянско- русский словарь, Издательство АН Армянской ССР, Ереван, 1987, стр. 345 7. Jump up ^ Армянско- русский словарь, Издательство АН Армянской ССР, Ереван, 1987, стр. 167 8. Jump up ^ Armenian- English, English- Armenian Dictionary 9. Jump up ^ Армянско- русский словарь, Издательство АН Армянской ССР, Ереван, 1987, стр. 337 10. Jump up ^ Matthew 9:16. Ոշ ոք արկանէ կապերտ անթափ `ի վերայ հնացեակ ձորձոյ., Mark 2:21. Ոշ ոք կապերտ նոր անթափ արկանէ...etc., Hovhann Zohrapian, Scriptures of the Old and New Testments (critical edition in Armenian), Venice, 1805, pp. 654, 671. 11. Jump up ^ "carpet" in "Online Etymology Dictionary", "carpet - late 13th century, "coarse cloth;" mid- 14th century, "tablecloth, bedspread;" from O.Fr. carpite "heavy decorated cloth," from M.L. carpita "thick woolen cloth," pp. of L. carpere "to card, pluck," probably so called because it was made from unraveled, shreded, "plucked" fabric; from PIE *kerp- "to gather, pluck, harvest" (see harvest). Meaning shifted 15th century to floor coverings. From 16th-19th centuries often with a tinge of contempt, when used of men (e.g. carpet- knight, 1570s) by association with luxury, ladies' boudoirs, and drawing rooms. On the carpet "summoned for reprimand" is 1900, U.S. colloquial (but cf. carpet (v.) "call (someone) to be reprimanded," 1823, British servants' slang). To sweep (something) under the carpet in the figurative sense is first recorded 1963. The verb meaning "to cover with a carpet" is from 1620s. Related: Carpeted; carpeting". 12. Jump up ^ Pegoletti, La pratica della mercatura, edited by Allan Evans. Cambridge, Mass.: Mediaeval Academy of America, 1936 13. Jump up ^ Голоссарий. Карпет 14. Jump up ^ Kh. Hakobyan, "Medieval Art of Artsakh", Yerevan, Armenian SSR, "Parberakan, 1990, p. 84, ISBN 5- 8079-0195-9 15. Jump up ^ Sturtevant, Edgar H. (1931). Hittite glossary: words of known or conjectured meaning, with Sumerian ideograms and Accadian words common in Hittite texts. Language, Vol. 7, No. 2, pp. 3- 82., Language Monograph No. 9. 16. Jump up ^ James W. Redhouse, A Turkish and English Lexicon, Constantinople, 1921, p. 1423 17. Jump up ^ Halil Inalcik, "Erzurum", The Encyclopedia of Islam, Leiden-London, 1965, p.712 18. Jump up ^ http://armenianstu dies.csufresno.edu/fac ulty/kouymjian/article s/armenia_textiles.htm Dickran Kouymjian, "Armenia Textiles: An Overview", The catalogue of an exhibition entitled "Trames de memoire d'Armenie: broderies et tapis sur les chemins de l'exil de 1900-1940" on Armenian refugees in the textile industry in southern France after the 1915 genocide to be held at the Museon Arlaten in Arles, France from June through December 2007 as part of the Year of Armenia in France 19. Jump up ^ Kouymjian, Dickran (2007). "Armenia Textiles: An Overview" в "Trames d’Arménie : tapis et broderies sur les chemins de l’exil (1900-1940)". Arles: Muséon Arlaten. 20. Jump up ^ Ulrich Schurmann, The Pazyryk. Its Use and Origin, Munich, 1982, p.46 21. ^ Jump up to: a b c Volkmar Gantzhorn, "Oriental Carpets", 1998, ISBN 3-8228-0545-9 22. Jump up ^ The Nine Books of the Histories of Herodotus. Thomas Gaisford, Peter Laurent, London, 1846, CLIO I p.99 23. Jump up ^ Hakobyan, Hravard H (1990). The Medieval Art of Artsakh. Yerevan, Armenian SSR: Parberakan. p. 84. ISBN 5-8079- 0195-9. 24. ^ Jump up to: a b c d Hakobyan. Me dieval Art of Artsakh, p. 84. 25. Jump up ^ (Armenian) Kira kos Gandzaketsi. Պատմ ություն Հայոց (History of Armenia). Yerevan, Armenian SSR: Armenian Academy of Sciences, 1961, p. 216, as cited in Hakobyan. Medieval Art of Artsakh, p. 84, note 18. 26. Jump up ^ Ulubabyan, Bagrat A (1975). Խաչենի իշխանությունը, X-XVI դարերում (The Principality of Khachen, From the 10th to 16th Centuries) (in Armenian). Yerevan, Armenian SSR: Armenian Academy of Sciences. p. 267. 27. Jump up ^ David Tsitsishvili "Rugs and Carpets from the Caucasus", "Avrora", Leningrad, 1984 № 672(7-20); p.p. 7- 8(total pages: 151) 28. Jump up ^ ref name="ReferenceB"> Геродот, Book 1, Chapter 203, Volume 1, 29. Jump up ^ "Encyclopædia Britannica: a new survey of universal knowledge, Volume 19, Author: Walter Yust, 1953, p. 623 30. Jump up ^ The Silk Road represents an early phenomenon of political and cultural integration due to inter-regional trade. In its heyday, the Silk Road sustained an international culture that strung together groups as diverse as the Magyars, Armenians, and Chinese 31. ^ Jump up to: a b А.Н Тер- Гевондян «Армения и Арабский Халифат» Издательство АН Армянской ССР, Ереван 1977 год; стр 205(всего 326) 32. ^ Jump up to: a b Deutscher Kaliverein «Kali» p 109 Издатель Brill Archive, 1907. 33. Jump up ^ М.В Бабеников «Народное декоративное искусство Закавказья и его мастера» гос.архитектуриздате льство 1948 г.,173стр. стр-ца 67 34. Jump up ^ Marco Polo, Il Milione, translated by Ulrich Köppens from the Ottimo-manuscript of 1309, Florence Bibliotheca Nationale, Inv. no. II.IV.88, Berlin: Propyläen, 1971 35. Jump up ^ Discussion of the various manuscripts and early printed version of Marco Polo in French, Italian and German in Volkmar Ganzhorn, Der christlich orientalische Teppich, Köln: Taaschen, 1990, pp. 13-15 36. Jump up ^ М.В Бабеников «Народное декоративное искусство Закавказья и его мастера», ГосАрхитектурИздат ельство, 1948, 173 стр., стр. 67 …. Turkish carpet

Carpet and Interior of The Harem Room. Topkapi Palace, Istanbul Turkish carpets and rugs, whether hand knotted or flat woven (Kilim, Soumak, Cicim, Zili), are among the most well known and established hand crafted art works in the world. [1] Historically: religious, cultural, environmental, sociopolitical and socioeconomic conditions created widespread utilitarian need and have provided artistic inspiration among the many tribal peoples and ethnic groups in Central Asiaand Turkey.[2] The term tends to cover not just the products of the modern territory of Turkey, but also those of Turkic peoples living elsewhere, mostly to the east of Anatolia. Apparently originating in the traditions of largely nomadic Turkic peoples, the Turkish carpet, like the Persian carpet, developed during the medieval Seljuk period a more sophisticated urban aspect, produced in large workshops for commissions by the court and for export. The many styles of design reached maturity during the early Ottoman Empire, and most modern production, especially for export, looks back to the styles of that period. Turkish (also known as Anatolian) rugs and carpets are made in a wide range of distinct styles originating from various regions in Anatolia. Important differentiators between these styles may include: the materials, construction method, patterns and motif, geography, cultural identity and intended use.

History

Turkish loom and weavers (1908). The oldest records of flat woven kilims come from Çatalhöyük Neolit hic pottery, circa 7000 BC. One of the oldest settlements ever to have been discovered, Çatalhöyük is located south east of Konya in the middle of the Anatolian region.[3] The excavations to date (only 3% of the town) not only found carbonized fabric but also fragments of kilims painted on the walls of some of the dwellings. The majority of them represent geometric and stylized forms that are similar or identical to other historical and contemporary designs.[4] The oldest known hand knotted rug is the famous so-called Pazyryk Carpet, dating back to the 5th century BC. It was excavated by Russian Professor Sergei Rudenko and his archeology team, from the Pazyryk burials, a Scythian burial mound in the Altai Mountainsof Siberia, near the tri- border area of modern day Russia, Mongolia and China, in the late 1940s.[5] Some scholars associate the knotted pile carpet with the nomadic Turkic peoples..[6] The populace of Anatolia through the ages have included many ancient civilizations, such as the Hittites, the Phrygians, the Assyrians, the Ancient Persians, the Armenians, the Ancient Greeks, and the early Byzantine Empire. After the 11th century the Seljuks and theOttoman Empire. There are documentary records of carpets being used by the ancient Greeks and Persians, but there is not much information about them left. Some believe that the knotted rug reached Asia Minor and the Middle East with the expansion of various nomadic tribes peoples during the latter period of the great Turkic migration of the 8th and 9th centuries. Very little is then known about the history of rugs until the 12th, 13th and 14th centuries from which Seljuk examples found in various Turkish mosques have survived, nearly all now in museums or private collections.[7]

The geographical regions where inhabitants have lived throughout the centuries lie in the temperate zone. Temperature fluctuations between day and night, summer and winter may vary greatly. Turks; nomadic or pastoral, agrarian or town dwellers, living in tents or in sumptuous houses in large cities, have protected themselves from the extremes of the cold weather by covering the floors, and sometimes walls and doorways, with carpets and rugs. The carpets are always hand made of wool or sometimes cotton, with occasional additions of silk. These carpets are natural barriers against the cold. Turkish pile rugs and kilims are also frequently used as tent decorations, grain bags, camel and donkey bags, ground cushions, oven covers, sofa covers, bed and cushion covers, blankets, curtains, eating blankets, table top spreads, prayer rugs, and for ceremonial occasions. The Kurds, Yörük, Yahyali, Turkomen and other tribal groups throughout Turkey continue to weave much sought after rugs. Eastern and Central Turkey in particular, weaving a great number of nomadic pieces for the market and for personal use.[8] In general, the Turkish take their shoes off upon entering a house. Thus, the dust and dirt of the outdoors are not tracked inside. The floor coverings remain clean and the inhabitants of the house, if need be, can comfortably rest on the floor. In traditional households, women and girls take up carpet and kilim weaving as a hobby as well as a means of earning money. Women learn their weaving skills at an early age, taking months or even years to complete the beautiful pile rugs and flat woven kilims that were created for their use in every aspect of daily life. As is true in most weaving cultures, traditionally and nearly exclusively, it is women and girls who are both artisan and weaver.[9][10]

Turkish rugs are fairly distinguishable amidst carpets from other major weaving groups, such as Persian or Caucasian carpets. Aside from the classic double knot, their color scheme and design features are mostly recognizable, albeit, there are numerous variations province to province. From the faded palette and elegance of an Uşak carpet, to the bold colorful design motifs of an Eastern Anatolian nomadic piece ,

Selçuk (Seljuk) Carpets

Selçuk (Seljuk) carpet, 13th century In 1272, the Venetian merchant traveler and explorer Marco Polo was the first European writer to mention Anatolian carpets, specifically mentioning the "Beautiful rugs of Konya and Karaman". [11] Konya carpets are named for the region in which they were made. Renamed from the Greek Iconium when the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum made it their capital, Konya is one of the largest and oldest continuously occupied cities in Asia Minor. When Polo wrote of the Konyas, he had probably seen them in manufactories that were attached to the Seljuk courts. In the early 20th century, large carpets were found in the Alâeddin Mosque in Konya. They are now housed in the Turkish and Islamic Arts Museum in Istanbul. The original carpets discovered in Konya's Alaeddin Mosque dating from the first half of the 13th century are products of Seljuk Anatolia and show the development in pile carpet weaving up to that period. They have also come to be considered by some experts, prototypes, for all post-Seljuk carpets. The details of their origins are still a matter of speculation.[12][13] A high point in the art of carpet making was achieved during the three centuries of the Seljuk Period, but unfortunately there are no surviving examples from the period called the "Great Seljuq Empire", 1037–1194. There are however, surviving carpets and fragments from the "Anatolian Seljuk Period", 1243–1302. These pieces have been designated as the "Konya Carpets", however, this is a misnomer. The sources of the evidence come from three finds: those from Konya, those from Beyşehir and those from Fostat.

Left File: Yellow Oriental carpet in Hans Memling altarpiece of 1488–1490. The "hooked" motif defines a "Memling carpet". [14] Louvre Museum. Right File: Konya 18th- century carpet with Memling gul design. In spite of the fragmented condition of most of these samples, it has been possible to piece together what is believed to be, the first expression in a consistent development of design and quality. Thus this group can be called the first group of Turkish carpets, recognizable as the forerunners of carpets of later periods, even up to the present. Today the total Seljuk carpet collection consists of eighteen pieces, fifteen of which are fragments. Eight of these were found in Konya, three in Beyşehir, and seven are from Fostat. Only two within the group are quite similar, both of which are now in the Museum of Turkish and Islamic Arts in Istanbul. The others, all having varying colors and motifs, are completely unique. Such variations indicate the existence of considerable creative potential on the parts of those who produced them. In essence, a study of the Seljuk group reveals that the prototypic designs were derived from the infusion of highly stylized floral motifs into geometric designs, and from border compositions consisting of Kufic patterns. In some cases, the geometric forms are created by the repetition of motifs in rows. Floral motifs, if one can identify them as such, are not only stylized but highly abstract, certainly representational figures are unknown. A thorough examination of each of these fragments may well reveal that generalizations must give way to the unique and stunning quality of each piece.

Famously depicted in European paintings of the late Middle Ages and Renaissance, beautiful Anatolian rugs were often used from then until modern times, to indicate the high economic and social status of the owner. Among other names, some of these rugs have come to be known as "Lotto carpets", "Holbein carpets", and "Memling" or "Memling gul carpets". These terms make reference to their depiction in minute detail in paintings by Lorenzo Lotto, Hans Holbein the Younger and Hans Memling.[15] In addition, there are a great number of other known and unknown artists who also represent Anatolian carpets of the Seljuk Empire era in their paintings.[16] Ottoman Court Carpets[

Silk Hereke Rug. Over 1200 knots per square inch A weaving workshop was established in 1843 in Hereke, a small coastal town 60 kilometers from Istanbul on the bay of Izmit.[17] It also supplied the royal palaces with silk brocades and other textiles. Known as the Hereke Imperial Factory, the mill was subsequently enlarged to include looms producing cotton fabric. Silk brocades and velvets for drapes and upholstery were manufactured at a workshop known as the "kamhane". In 1850 the cotton looms were moved to a factory in Bakirköy, west of Istanbul, and one hundred jacquard looms were installed in Hereke. Although in the early years the factory produced exclusively for the Ottoman palaces, as production increased the woven products were available in the Kapalıçarşı or Grand Bazaar, in the second half of the 19th century. In 1878 a fire in the factory caused extensive damage, and it was not reopened until 1882. Carpet production began in Hereke in 1891 and expert carpet weavers were brought from the famous carpet weaving centers of Sivas, Manisa and La dik.

The carpets were all hand woven, and in the early years they were either made for the Ottoman palaces or as gifts for visiting statesmen. The number of looms steadily increased to meet the demand and, when Hereke carpets went on sale in Istanbul, their fame quickly spread to Europe. Soon the Hereke factory was receiving many commercial orders and business flourished. Hereke carpets are known primarily for their fine weave. Silk thread or fine wool yarn and occasionally gold, silver and cotton thread are used in their production. Wool carpets produced for the palace had 60–65 knots per square centimeter, while silk carpets had 80–100 knots. The oldest Hereke carpets, now exhibited in Topkapı and other palaces in Istanbul, contain a wide variety of colours and designs. The typical "palace carpet" features intricate floral designs, including the tulip, daisy, carnation, crocus, rose, lilac, and hyacinth. It often has quarter medallions in the corners. The medallion composition used in rugs made in Usak, in western Turkey, since the 16th century was widely used at the Hereke factory. These medallions are curved on the horizontal axis and taper to points on the vertical axis. Hereke prayer rugs feature patterns of geometric motifs, tendrils and lamps as background designs within the representation of a mihrab (prayer niche). Once referring solely to carpets woven at Hereke, the term "Hereke carpet" now refers to any high quality carpet woven using similar techniques. Hereke carpets remain among the finest and most valuable examples of woven carpets in the world.[18] Construction method

Turkish Knot Persian Knot A variety of tools are needed in the construction of a handmade rug. Some tools, such as a loom, are an absolute necessity for all weavers, and other tools, such as a hook, are used only by certain weaving groups. In general, different rug weaving areas use slightly different versions of the same tools. Some common tools used in rug weaving are: vertical looms, horizontal looms, floor looms, design plates, knives, scissors, spindles, hooks and combs.[19] Most pile rugs from Anatolia utilize the symmetrical ghiordes do uble knot or "Turkish knot". Each knot is made on two warps. With this form of knotting, each end of the pile thread is wrapped all the way around the two warps, pulled down and cut, creating a stronger rug than the much more typical asymmetrical single knot senneh or "Persian knot".

The Seljuk rugs found at Konya, capital of Anatolian Seljuks, are knotted with the Turkish ghiordes knot, in the same style as the carpet fragments found by Rudenko and his team during the Pazyryk excavations in the Altai mountains. Ottoman court rug designers also started the use of silk in the warp and weft on looms in Constantinople (Istan bul) and Bursa. After each row is woven, a length of yarn is passed through it and this single-warp knot creates the denser knotting which permits finer and more intricate designs to be created. In some of the carpets, a relief effect is obtained by clipping the pile unevenly. In 1891, the first carpet factory with 100 looms was opened by Abdulhamid II at Hereke and even today, rugs in Anatolia, especially around Kayseri, Sivas, Konya, Kars, and Isparta, follow these traditional patterns.[20] Materials

Turkish rug weaver in Konya. Only natural fibers are used in handmade rugs. The most common materials used for the pile are wool, silk and cotton. Sometimes, goat and camel hair are also used by nomadic and village weavers. Wool is the most frequently used pile material in a handmade rug because it is soft, durable, easy to work with and not too expensive. This combination of characteristics is not found in other natural fibers. Wool comes from the coats of sheep. Natural wool comes in colors of white, brown, fawn, yellow and gray, which are sometimes used directly without going through a dyeing process. Cotton is used primarily in the foundation of rugs. However, some weaving groups such as Turkomans also use cotton for weaving small white details into the rug in order to create contrast.

Wool on wool (wool pile on wool warp and weft): This is the most traditional and often the most "authentic" (if such a word can be used) type of Anatolian rug. Wool on wool carpet weaving dates back further and utilizes more traditional design motifs than its counterparts. Because wool cannot be spun extra finely, the knot count is often not as high as a "wool on cotton" or "silk on silk" rug. Wool on wool carpets tend to be more tribal or nomadic using traditional geometric designs or otherwise non-intricate patterns. Wool on cotton (wool pile on cotton warp and weft): This particular combination facilitates a more intricate design pattern than a "wool on wool carpet", as cotton can be finely spun which allows for a higher knot count. A "wool on cotton" rug is often indicative of a so-called, "city rug". Wool on cotton rugs feature floral designs and flourishes in addition to traditional geometric patterns. Silk on silk (silk pile on silk warp and weft): This is perhaps the most intricate type of carpet; featuring a very fine weave. Knot counts on some superior quality "silk on silk" rugs can be as high as 28×28 knots/cm2. Knot counts for silk carpets intended for floor coverings should be no greater than 100 knots per square cm, or 10×10 knots/cm2. Carpets woven with a knot count greater than 10×10 knots/cm2 should only be used as a wall or pillow tapestry. These very fine, intricately woven rugs and carpets are usually no larger than 3×3 m. Carpets by regions

Antique Oushak (Usak) carpet, late 19th century Rugs have been woven in Anatolia since before the 13th century. Carpets derive their names from the localities in which they are produced, tribal groups they are associated with, as well as from the techniques of their manufacture, the characteristic patterns of their ornamentation, the layout of the design and the intention of their use. The motifs employed in Turkish carpets are so varied and can be classified into so many subcategories that they constitute, as it were, a great fan stretching from Thrace to Kars. From the Sivas region emerge the Sarkisla, Zara, Kangal and Divrigi carpets characterised by a remarkable wealth of symbolic expression forming one of the links in the rich chain of Turkish tradition. Motifs differing markedly in form and detail can be found in Anatolian kilims from Yagcibekir to Dosemealti, from Kula to Çanakkale.

The most important distinguishing feature of the motifs employed in Anatolian carpets is the "symbolisation" imposed by the traditional weaving techniques. The linear values of these woven fabrics constitute the symbolic representation of the ideas which the Turkish woman wishes to express. Perhaps it would be an exaggeration to say that all the motifs employed in carpets and kilims bear a symbolic significance, but it is usually possible to find a hidden connection between the "visible motif" and the "under lying motif". The symbolic values conferred upon the objects are stylised by the Turkish weaving technique itself. The language of the motifs is the language of any-one who can understand.[21] Well known weaving cities, towns, and districts include (but are not limited to): Uşak, Bergama, Mil as, Hereke, Konya, Nevş ehir, Nigde,Antalya, Çan akkale, Kars, Kayseri, M alatya, Siirt, Taşpınar, Si vas, Yahyali, Izmir, Gazi antep Manisa, Ladik and the Van Province. Gallery

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Antique Anatolian Kurdish Yastik

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Anatolian carpet with double medallion, late 16th century

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Kirşehir praying rug. 18th century. Mevlâna Mausoleum. Konya

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Edirne Selimiye Mosque interior and prayer rug Saph

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Early 20th-century Siirt Battaniyesi. Child's mohair prayer rug/blanket

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Nomadic Eastern Anatolian Kurdish tribal çuval. Circa 1880

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Newspaper carpet, Aksehir 20th century

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Small pattern Holbein carpet, Anatolia 16th century

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An antique Uşak carpet

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Antique Eastern Anatolian nomadic tribal rug. Circa 1880

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Silk on silk Turkish carpet; Hadosan, Urgüp

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Ancient Kirşehir prayer rug in the Tilavet room; Mevlâna Mausoleum, Konya

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Vintage Turkish Kilim geometric patterned rug

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Pile rug, circa 1875; Southwestern Anatolia

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Central Anatolian lambs wool Yatak

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Vintage Central Anatolian Yahyali tribal rug

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Antique Gaziantep double prayer rug

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Turkish çuval

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The Sultan Ahmet CamiiPrayer Rug Saph. "The Blue Mosque", Istanbul, Turkey 2006

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Turkish tribal kelim

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Vintage Uşak

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Taspinar rug

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Vintage Konya prayer seccade

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Central Anatolian tribal weave rug. Early-mid 20th century

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Anatolian nomadic Cicim; floor loom made.

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Anatolian Yoruk tribal rug

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Ottoman Era Kayseri silk prayer rug. Circa 1880's

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Anatolian Ortakoy Region rug

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Urgup rug featuring Kufic inner border See also[edit] Turkey portal Types of Turkish carpet[edit]

 Bergama carpet

 Hereke carpet  Konya Carpets and Rugs

 Milas carpet

 Ushak carpet

 Yürük rug Other related carpets[edit]

 Armenian carpet

 Kurdish rugs

 Persian rug

 Turkmen rug Carpets in art[edit]

 Islamic Art

 Oriental carpets in Renaissance painting References[edit] 1. Jump up ^ The Brukenthal Museum: The extraordinary value of the Anatolian Carpet. Brukenthalmuseum.ro. Retrieved on 2012-01- 27. 2. Jump up ^ The historical importance of rug and carpet weaving in Anatolia. Turkishculture.org. Retrieved on 2012-01- 27. 3. Jump up ^ Çatalhöyük.com: Ancient Civilization and Excavation. Catalhoyuk.com. Retrieved on 2012-01- 27. 4. Jump up ^ Ancient Kilim Evidence Findings in Çatalhöyük. Turkishculture.org. Retrieved on 2012-01- 27. 5. Jump up ^ The State Hermitage Museum: The Pazyryk Carpet. Hermitagemuseum.org . Retrieved on 2012- 01-27. 6. Jump up ^ The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art: The debate on the origin of rugs and carpets. Books.google.com. Retrieved on 2012-01- 27. 7. Jump up ^ Konya Carpet Findings. Turkishculture.org. Retrieved on 2012-01- 27. 8. Jump up ^ The Turkotek Salon: Anatolian Rugs, Tribal Distinctions. Turkotek.com. Retrieved on 2012-01- 27. 9. Jump up ^ The Dominant role of Turkish Women and Girls in Turkish carpet weaving. Turkishculture.org. Retrieved on 2012-01- 27. 10. Jump up ^ CA Geissler, TA Brun, I Mirbagheri, A Soheli, A Naghibi and H Hedayat (1981). "The Role of Women and Girls in traditional rug and carpet weaving". American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 34 (12): 2776–2783. PMID 73 15779. 11. Jump up ^ Marco Polo in Konya. Art Fact.com. Retrieved on 2012-01-27. 12. Jump up ^ Selçuk Carpets. Old Turkish Carpets (2012-01-20). Retrieved on 2012-01- 27. 13. Jump up ^ Kurt Erdmann (1970). Seven hundred years of Oriental carpets. University of California Press. pp. 45–. ISBN 978-0- 520-01816-7. Retrieved 27 January 2012. 14. Jump up ^ King and Sylvester, p. 57[clarification needed] 15. Jump up ^ Memling Guls. Rjohnhowe.wordpress. com (2010-10-14). Retrieved on 2012-01- 27. 16. Jump up ^ Carpets of the Ottoman Period. Oldturkishcarpets.com (2012-01-20). Retrieved on 2012-01- 27. 17. Jump up ^ Hereke Silk Carpet.com. Hereke Silk Carpet.com. Retrieved on 2012-01-27. 18. Jump up ^ Reference: Yetkin, Serare. Historical Turkish Carpets. Istanbul: Turkiye Is Bankasi, 1981. Turkish Culture.org. Retrieved on 2012-01-27. 19. Jump up ^ Construction Methods and Tools. Goldenyarncarpet.com . Retrieved on 2012- 01-27. 20. Jump up ^ The Turkish Cultural Foundation: Construction Methods of Seljuk and Ottoman Court Era Rugs. Turkishculture.org. Retrieved on 2012-01- 27. 21. Jump up ^ The Turkish Cultural Foundation: Our Traditional Cultural Heritage: Anatolian Turkish Hand-Woven Carpets And Kilims. Turkishculture.org. Retrieved on 2012-01- 27.