INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR INNOVATIVE RESEARCH IN MULTIDISCIPLINARY FIELD ISSN: 2455-0620 Volume - 6, Issue - 8, Aug – 2020 Monthly, Peer-Reviewed, Refereed, Indexed Journal with IC Value: 86.87 Impact Factor: 6.719 Received Date: 13/08/2020 Acceptance Date: 29/08/2020 Publication Date: 31/08/2020

VAIKUNDA SWAMIKAL AND SOCIAL TRANSFORMATION IN SOUTH

Dr.Padmanabhan. N. Principal, CAS College, Madayi-Kannur Email - [email protected]

Abstract: The second half of the 19th and the early decades of the 20th century, the society of underwent a great change. The social change ultimately resulted to the abolition of social evils in the society. The social reformers of the period identified various socio-economic disabilities of the downtrodden sections of the society. All men are potentially intellectuals in the sense of having an intellect and using it, but not all are intellectuals by social action. The Nadars of were compelled by circumstances to rise up to the occasion. They were longing for an agency to liberate them from the clutches of the feudal anarchy. The Christian Missionaries and the enlightened social reformers became the harbingers of such a change. The social reformers like Vaikunda Swamikal who hailed from among the Nadars tried to educate and enlighten the masses and thereby empower them to bargain for their legitimate rights. He was the first social reformer and social revolutionary leader for the upliftment of Avarnas of South India.

Key Words: Community-Samatuva Samajam- -Nizhalthankals- Thuvayalpanthy- Muttirikinaru- Love Flag- Inter Dining -Liberation of the Deprived Classes.

1. INTRODUCTION: During the 19th century, a number of reform movements that attempted to change the socio--religious life of the people, emerged in different parts of South India. The middle class took the initiative for it. The chief intention of the reformers was to modify Brahminic , make it competent and soften its evils in the changed milieu. Actually the ‘lower’ and the Depressed Classes were the greatest victims of the oppressive system. It was in such a background that reformists started emerging from among the ‘lower’ castes belonging to various part of South India1. They attempted at constructing a Dalit identity and provided an organizational base to the movement. A critical outlook of the past and a new inspiration for the future marked the awakening. Reason and judgments took the place of birth and beliefs; superstition yielded to Science; immobility was replaced by progress; and a zeal for reform of proved abuses over powered age-long apathy and inertia and a complacement acquiescence in whatever was current in society. With the coming of Vaikunda Samikal a new sect of Hinduism has appeared as a curious phenomenon in the religious history of South .

2. Early Life: Vaikunda Swamikal was born in a poor Vaishnavite Nadar family in 1808 A.D. at Sasthan Kovil Vilai, now known as Swamithoppu, a small village, eight kilometers South- West of Kanyakumari. In his boyhood, he was known as Muthukutty. His father was Ponnumadan2 and mother was Veyilal3. From his birth he showed some extraordinary talents and they noticed some spiritual essence in the newborn child. As the face of the child was radiant with a spiritual glow the people believed that this boy was an incarnation of God4. They thought that their sorrows and tears will disappear through this child. Seeing the majestic appearance, they named the child as Mudi Sudum Perumal5. As this denoted a ruler, the high caste objected to it and brought it to the notice of the government. Therefore, the government issued an order immediately to change the name of the boy in accordance with the caste rules. In compliance with the orders of the government, his name was changed as Muthukutti 6. This arrogant and dictatorial policy of the government and the attitude of the caste Hindus hurt the feelings of Muthukutti which created a feeling of revenge in his mind. As there was no regular school, Muthukutti studied the and literatures of various faiths and moral works with the help of the learned men of his village. Thirukural inspired him about equality and the art of good government. Harichandrapurana instilled in him the power of Truth7. Like his parents; Muthukutti was also a great devotee of . He learnt the devotional songs of Vishnu and conducted daily poojas in his house. He was very kind to the poor people. He believed in and allotted a part of his earnings to feed the poor. Muthukutti hated the oppressive treatment of the lower class people by the high castes in connivance with the Government officials and condemned oppressive taxes like talavari, velaipadivu, and other kinds of poll taxes that

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were extracted from the people by adopting coercive methods8. At the age of 20, Mathukutty fell ill and suffered a lot of miseries and he was taken to the famous Murugan temple at Tiruchendur9. From where he attained enlightenment and assumed the name ‘Vaikundar’10. Mathukutty is said to have attained a revelation and declared himself as the son of Lord Vishnu. He also declared that he was born to salvage the Shannars and to establish the rule of dharma11. Muthukkutti then returned to his native place and performed a number of miracles on his return journey. The lower caste people anxiously welcomed Muthukkutti and considered him as their leader where as the high caste Hindus opposed him and tried to forbid him from entering into their villages. In several places, he was attacked by the caste Hindus and the Muslims12. In 1833 A.D., Muthukkutti started meditation at Poovandarthoppu. For the first two years, he meditated in a six feet hallow pit called dapa. During this period, he took only liquid food and fruits. For the next two years, he strived hard and meditated for the abolition of caste system13. The caste Hindus opposed his meditation and attempted to disrupt the penance and to dispel the popularity of Muthukkutti. However he completed his four years penance without minding the opposition14. He welcomed all the lower caste people who thronged to his place. As a result, number of lower caste people came from all over south and neighboring places and represented their grievances to Muthukkutti who continued to console them. Consequently, they worshipped him as the real incarnation of Lord Vishnu and called him as Vaikunda Swamikal15. Vaikunda Swamikal heard the grievances of the people and helped them in all possible ways. By his miraculous power, he cured their diseases and advised them the ways to lead a healthy life. He cured the different diseases like mental disorders and other afflictions like blindness, deafness, and paralysis and skin diseases16. The ability of Swamikal seems to have been so powerful that he was able to heal by giving holy soil and water. His act of healing attracted number of people all over South India. People brought their sick folk to him and prayed for their recovery17. In his preaching Vaikunda Swamikal emphasized Charity, Love, Truth and Self respect among the people18. He severely criticized Swathi Tirunal19, for his negligence to introduce welfare of the poor low caste people. He called Travancore king as Ananthapuri Neechan and cursed as Karineechanmar.20 He wanted the expulsion of the reigning Raja. The speeches of Vaikunda Swamikal against the Raja earned the enmity of the high caste people and the Government21. Jealousy over the popularity of this saviour, the caste Hindus made a plot to kill Vaikunda Swamikal by giving poisonous food, but he escaped from the plot through his miraculous power22.Then, they petitioned before SwathiTirunal.The king heard their grievances and arranged for an enquiry at the Suchindram Temple Mandabam23. The caste Hindus reported all the activities of Vaikunda Swamikal and requested his immediate arrest and suppression of his new movement. The Raja sent his army to Poovandarthoppu to arrest him24. When the army reached Poovandarthoppu, the followers of Vaikunda Swamikal gathered in large numbers, opposed his arrest and prepared for an open fight. But Vaikunda Swamikal appealed them to remain patient. The soldiers arrested him and severely beaten him25. Even during his imprisonment, Vaikunda Swamikal was subjected to several inhuman treatments by the government officials and the Maharaja. He was put inside a lime-kiln, in the cage of hyena and also amidst fire. But he escaped from all these tortures unhurt. At last the Raja decided to release Vaikunda Swamikal on the condition that he should entertain only the members of his own community26. But he refused to make any declaration and he tore the royal order into pieces. The Raja finally ordered the release of Vikunda Swamikal on the first week of March 1839, after an imprisonment of hundred and ten days. Amidst rejoicing his followers took him to Nanchlinadu in a great procession27. Vaikunda Swamigal then continued his reform activities and sent his people to penance and trained them about their mode of a new independent life that Dharma Yuga must come shortly. His idea of the reign of Dharma Yuga made him a great humanist28. Long before the genesis of popular socio-religious reform movements, Vaikunda Swamikal gave the clarion call to the oppressed communities to liberate themselves from the clutches of the caste Hindus. Being a social reformer he succeeded to inject the spirit of confidence in the minds of the Nadars and to correct the social maladies29. The Nadars were not allowed to enter public schools and government offices and services. The articles like oil, milk and butter touched by the Nadars were supposed to be polluted. They were not permitted to carry umbrellas or to wear shoes, sandals or golden ornaments or to carry pots of water on the hip or to build tiled houses above one storey in height or to milk cows30. The Nadars were not allowed even to enter the Courts of Justice and they could get justice only from outside the Court. They could worship only from outside the temple. The study of either sacred or profane science was also forbidden to these unfortunate people31. The Nadars were prohibited from the use of public roads, bridges, wells and caste Hindus villages. They could not dine with others and also not permitted to use the names of ruling class or the suffixes of the rulers. These social evils were making the ground ready for reform and revolt32.

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Vaikunda Swamikal lived at a time when the Nadar community was undergoing social changes with regard to its social structure. During the period they were prohibited to wear cloth below the knee and above the waist. They were even prohibited from using turban to carry any luggage on their head. They used a pad on head made of Palmyra leaves called summadu for carrying any luggage33. As a reform and protest, Vaikunda Swamikal ordered his followers to wear turban on their heads. He appealed to his followers not only to cover the bosoms of their women folk but also to wear a turban on their head as a mark of their royalty and stirred the minds of the people to realize their rights and privileges34. His teachings had a powerful impact on the Nadar Community. The preaching of Vaikunda Swamikal aroused the spirit of self-respect among the members of the Nadar community. The movement of Vaikunda Swamikal aimed at uniting the lower caste people and to relieve them to a large extent from the shackles of oppression. He became a guiding star to them. He kindled the spirit of the Nadars through his activities35. He emphasized the spread of education among them for the removal of superstitions and dogmatic traditions. The drift of Nadars towards conversion also declined.

3. Samathuva Samajam : Vaikunda Swamikal founded a society known as Samtuva Samajam36 to fight for equality among the various castes and to protect the rights of the Avarnas.He looked down upon such evils as castes, superstitious beliefs, and slavery which decayed the society. The upper caste people thrived on the subjugation of the lower caste people who were made to think that they were inferior37. He therefore wanted to redeem the society and preached “one caste and one religion. All men and woman are equal. Let slavery must be abolished”38. He called upon all people, irrespective of caste, religion and gender to under the shadow of one tree which was equality. The members of Samathuva Samajam were advised to follow the symbol of religious and social values which would give them equal status with other people. Vaikunda Swamikal taught his disciples how to preach his doctrines among the people. He advised them not to impose their message compulsorily. He sent his disciples to different places for the propagation of his doctrines and practiced the principle of dharma and preached the idea of samatuvam among the people of various castes. The people gave a warm welcome to the disciples and tried to follow the teachings of Swamikal. Thus he became a radical social reformer of the Age39.

4. Nizhalthankals : Main temple is called ‘Pathy’. Vaikunda Swamikal established number of sub- temples called ‘Nizal Thangal’40 all around South Travancore in order to have link with the whole community. He founded it to common people who had no access to orthodox Hindu temples. It was used mainly to propagate his faith and to feed the poor and the hungry41. In appearance the Nizhalthankals were nothing but small huts which give nizhal or shade to the people. The people considered it as the abode of Lord Vishnu. Vaikunda Swamikal used it as an institution to unite all the people and that tradition is maintained till date by his followers42. Nizhalthankals were mainly for the cause of Dharma Paripalanam (Execution and maintenance of Dharma). He stressed his devotees to follow his words with all strictness and informed that if any one violates his words in their service in the Nizhalthankals they would be punished43. Following the foot step of his mentor, his followers established a large number of Nizhalthankals in various places of South India. It formed an important institution in the socio-religious life of the people and brought all the people together, irrespective of their caste distinctions. It also revolutionized the mode and formalities of worship in temples44. The common people called it as Naryana swamikoil and people belonging to various castes come to worship in these . They conduct festivals generally twice or thrice a year. The festival is generally called Eaduvasipuvisha, during which they preach dharma to the poor people. The followers of Swamikal strictly avoid making any offerings to the other Hindu temples. There should be no idol worship or animal sacrifices in these Nizhalthankals45.

5. Thuvayalpanthy : During the period the lower caste people were not accustomed to regular bath and they rarely washed their dress properly because of their incessant work. Vaikunda Swamikal advised his followers to observe personal hygiene46. Swamikal led his followers to tapa (meditation) at Muttapathi, a coastal village near Kanyakumari and conducted Thuvayalpanthy47. Large number of families participated in the meditation. Through this organization, Swamikal trained his people to inculcate the idea of purity of thought and action. His followers are expected to meet the socio- religious needs of the local community in spite of all hardships48. The lower castes were extremely fond of fish and tobacco. Swamikal discouraged the use of them. He made them wash their dress, take regular bath and eat simple vegetarian food. He also trained them to take food only after prayer. He asked the people to say regular prayers in the morning, at mid-day and in the evening every day. He prepared the

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people to lead a planned and noble life49. The primary motive of Swamikal was to abolish caste and asked his followers not to observe caste distinctions. Vaikunda Swamikal tried to change the model of housing of the Avarnas who were not allowed to build any storeyed houses and were not permitted to build their houses on the roadside. Their dwellings were miserable huts made of sticks with walls of mud. In most cases instead of walls, curtains made of coconut leaves thatched with grass were used50. The dwellings were scattered and not clustered together on either side of the street or road. There were no public streets connecting their dwellings with each other. Swamikal instructed the people to build houses, with rooms and to build them close to each other. He also directed his followers to construct their dwellings in a regular order and to provide each house with doors in four directions51. Thuvayalpanthy gave a new life to the people. He brought an awareness of human rights to the Nadars and an awakening of a sense of social brotherhood. Thus, Swamikal’s work changed the life-pattern of the downtrodden Nadars in concentrated areas52. Tradition holds that Vaikunda Swamikal was the of Lord Vishnu to safeguard the downtrodden.

6. Munthiri Kinaru : As a general custom, the Avarnas were prohibited from drawing water from public wells.The Savarnas had separate wells so that they could avoid the presence and pollution of the lower caste people. The Brahmins took bath in the temple ponds before their worship in the temples but the Avarnas were not permitted to take bath in the so-called sacred water of the temple pond. Vaikunda Swamikal transgressed the prevailing order and dug a well popularly called Munthirikinaru at Swamithoppu53. It was open to all people, irrespective of their caste. While in Travancore society access to wells was discriminated on the basis of castes, Munthiri Kinaru offered its water which was believed to have had curative power to all castes mostly of those castes which were below the Shannars in the caste hierarchy54. Around Munthiri Kinaru, Vaikunda Swamikal regularly organized inter-dining (Samapanthibhojanam) among different castes. People belonging to different castes brought uncooked food, cooked it with the water of Munthiri Kinaru and ate it in a community feast along with him. His methods were innovative, practical and result-oriented, which steadily created awareness, motivated the Avarnas and wiped out the social evils55. His language was simple and poetic. So even the illiterate people could understand his teachings. He sent his disciples to the houses of other caste people in order to encourage inter-dining. In keeping with the cult’s spirit of indiscriminating love, Samathuva Samajam founded by Vaikunda Swamikal adopted a saffron flag with a white patch in the middle known as Anbu Kodi which means flag of love56. Vaikunda Swamikal called his followers Anpukodimakkal (children of love flag). The flag is red ochre in colour which is the symbol of sacrifice and strong mind, with a white tridental mark which stands for purity, peace and love57. The mark is also in the shape of a lamp which expresses the idea of wisdom and justice.The devotees of Swamikal carry this flag in their procession on the incarnation day of every year.

7. Status of the Women : In Travancore South the poor, low caste women who are obliged to labor for their daily support, have nothing to eat on any day on which they remain idle, presenting a direct contrast to the comfort of higher section as might be expected from the condition of extreme and enforced degradation in which they have been so long kept, and the contempt and abhorrence with which they are universally regarded, yet they are human as well as their superiors58. They worked hard and suffered from sickness. Vaikunda Swamikal urged for their liberation from the oppression of caste-ridden society. He exhorted women to fight against every form of oppression. He stressed the chastity of womenfolk.

8. Religious Reform : The religious reform of Vaikunda Swamikal left an everlasting influence on the social life of Kerala. Though it challenged the Hindu orthodoxy, it neither encouraged the people to worship any particular God, nor to construct any temple or conduct any ceremony. He laid emphasis on dharma or charity to attain salvation59. According to his religious doctrine; one can see the invisible hands of God with the poor because God is with none but the poor. Universal brotherhood and prosperity to one and all is the motto of this cult60. His ideology cuts across the narrow limits of caste, creed and religion, and his universal religion is applicable to all. The main object of the teachings of Swamikal was to prepare the world towards the reign of Dharma Yuga by overcoming Yuga. Regarding the nature of Dharma Yuga, he says that there will be only one ruler, one religion and one caste for all. In the Dharma Yuga there will be no crimes or vices among the people61. His idea of the reign of Dharma Yuga made him a great humanist and a Universalist. Swamikal raised his voice against the temple priests. Soon after his revelation at he preached against the rites and rituals conducted in the temples and openly condemned the Brahmins because they led a life of ease and pleasure in the temple precincts. He appealed to the people to give up all their religious rites in connection with the

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temples. He personally witnessed the elaborate rituals and expensive festivities in which the innocent poor people were exploited by the temple priests. He advised the people to denounce the meaningless religious rituals. He also criticized the Devadasi system prevailing in the Brahmanical temples62. Vaikunda Swamikal vehemently opposed the idol worship and he also advised of his devotees not to keep or worship idols. In the Pathy or Nizhal Thangal there are no idols. He said “God is living in the hearts of human beings". So there is no need of idols or images.Instead of an image for worship, Vaikunda Swamikal installed a mirror63. Its objective was to make one realize his self as it is while worshipping a God in any form. The mirror is supposed to tell the devotee ‘first see yourself and you can visualize God in you’. When a person looks at the mirror, it will reflect the person as he is. If a person wants to see God as he thinks how a God must be, he should look at the mirror. The presence of God is inside everybody’s mind and one should realize him when he looks at the mirror64. Vaikunda Swamikal advocated his people to worship God by fasting good meditation. He told them that one cannot placate and propitiate God by giving animal sacrifice. Instead of animal sacrifices, he requested the people to offer flower for worship. He said that flower offering was worth doing and economically unburdened, even the poor people could worship using flowers65. Vaikunda Swamikal used religion only to rouse the people. Because he knew that the Hindu man drinks, sleeps, walks, marries and even robs religiously. Swamikal had a scientific temper, coupled with a rational approach. His concept of religion was ‘Universal love and brotherhood of man’ which could alone bring peace, justice, social equality and harmony. Vaikunda Swamigal assumed the status of Ayya (Father) to all his followers66who affirmed that the worship of Vaikundar is really a worship of the Supreme Being. The low caste people satisfied with the worship of their Ayya and felt that there is no necessity to worship in the Brahminical Temples which were completely under the grip of high castes. To maintain respect, he advocated wearing turban on their heads which was usually worn around their waist to show reverence to the high caste67.

9. Conclusion: The socio-religious movements organized by Sri Vaikunda Swamikal produced far-reaching changes among the downtrodden people and gained wide popularity among them. Hailing from a depressed community, Swamikal severely criticized the caste Hindus and their governmental machinery. His revolutionary teachings gave a rude shock to the feudal social set up of South India. His message emancipated the people from the social customs and religious superstitions and restored them to self-reliance, self-confidence and to a spirit of freedom and free thinking.

NOTES AND REFERENCES: 1. K.N. Panikkar, Culture, Ideology, Hegemony, Intellectuals and Social Consciousness in , New Delhi, 1995, P.7. 2. He was a palmyrah climber by profession. 3. V. Thankayya, Sri Vaikuknta Swamikal Navothana Silpi, Trivandrum, 2001, PP.24-35 4. N. Elengo and Vijayashanthi Elango, ,The Light of the World, Theni, 1997, p. 5. 5.P. Sarveswaran, Vaikunda Swamikal: A Forgotten Social Reformer of Kerala’, Journal of Kerala Studies, Vol. VII, Trivandrum, 1980, PP.1-6;Also See Confidential file, Public Department, G. O. No. 185, 10 March, 1923. 6.R. Ponnu, ‘Sri Vaikunda Swamikal and his Struggle for Social Justice’, Journal of Indian History, Vol. LXXVI- LXXVIII,Trivandrum,PP.65-80. 7. P. Sarveswaran,n.5, PP.5-8 8. Philip M. Prasad, ‘Vaikundapadar: Thekkan Keralathinte Shilpi’, Mathrubhumi Weekly (Mal.), September 09, 2001, P.18. 9. It is a Hindu pilgrim centre for sacred bath mainly to cure his disease as it was the belief that a bath in the holy waters was a remedy for all diseases. 10. K. K. Pillai, ‘The caste System in Tamilnadu’, Journal of Madras University, Vol. XLIX, No.2, Madras, 1977, p.70.See Tamil Nadu State Archives, Chennai; Confidential file No. 32 of 1918 11. Annual Report of LMS, Nagarcoil Mission District, , 1892.P.14.See Kerala State Archives Department, Thiruvananthapuram, Cover File No. 15855, dated 21 December 1849. 12.P. Narayanan, ‘Haindava Navodhanathinter Mudi Choodum Perumal Vaikunda Swamikal’, Kesari, (Mal. Weekly), Kozhikode, August 20, 2000, p. 7. 13. P. Sarveswaran, n.5, PP.6-10; See. Strictly Confidential, Public (General) Department, Fortnightly report for the second half of October, 1935. 14.P.Sundaram Swamikal and K. Ponnumani, Ayya Vaikunda Nathar (Mal.), (Biography), Samithoppu, 2001,PP. 53-56. 15. Sreedhara Menon, Survey of Kerala History, Madras, 1967, p. 312.Also see R.N. Yesudas, A Peoples Revolt in Travancore, Trivandrum, 1975,P. 135.

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16. R. Ponnu,n.6, PP.16-23 17. Samuel Mateer, Native Life in Travancore, London, 1883, p. 294. 18.Ibid. 19. He was the Raja of Travancore 20. Black cheater 21. K, Kusuman, Slavery in Travancore, Trivandrum, 1973,PP.58-62 22. G. Krishnan Nadar, Down trodden Movement in Kerala, Trivandrum, 2007,PP.106-114 23. P. Ramachandran, ‘Suhindram ’, Journal of Kerala Studies, Vol. III, Part II, June 1976,PP. 1-7. 24. Prabhash,J.,Affirmative Action and Social Change:Social Mobility of Dalits,P.43 25. Rajayyan, Nadar Charithra Rahasyangal (Malayalam), Trivandrum, 2007,P.12. 26. Samuel Mateer, n.17,PP. 213-214. 27.P.K, Gopalakrishnan, Keralathinte Samkarika Charitram, Trivandrum, 1984,PP.57-63. 28.P.n.5, P. 3. 29. Samuel Mateer, Land of Charity, pp.207-208 30. K.K., Pillay, “The caste System in Tamil Nadu”, Journal of Madras University, Vol.XLIX,No.2,P.70.see. Tamil Nadu State Archives, Chennai; Confidential file No. 13 of 1931 31. R.S, Yesudas, n.15, P.135 32. R., Ponnu,n.6, PP.65-80. 33. Samuel Mateer, n.17, p.294. 34. M. Emmanuel, The Nadars Through the Ages, Nagercoil, 2002,P. 305. 35. G.M. Raj, Nadar Charithram, Trivandrum, 1998, p.34. 36.It was an organisation equality of humans 1836 37. K. Vasanthan, Kerala Charithra Nigandu ( Mal), Kottayam, 1983, p. 412. 39.Madhava Menon, T., (ed.), A Handbook of Kerala, Vol. II, Thiruvananthapuram, 2002,PP.202-210 40. The temple founded by Vaikunda swamikal was Nizhal Thankal 41. P.Sarveswaran, n.5, P.5 42. Samuel Mateer, n.29, p.4 43. S.M.L. Lakshmana Chettiar, Folklore in Tamilnadu, New Delhi, 1973, p. 28.see Tamil Nadu State Archives, Chennai; Confidential file No. 02 of 1924 44.M. Emmanuel,n.34, p.6. 45.Ibid. 46. Samuel Mateer, n.29, pp. 207-8. 47. It simply means integration and purification of a group 48. Nagam Aiya, Travancore State Manuel, vol. III, Trivandrum, 1904, p. 234. 49. Malayala Monarama Year Book, Kottayam, 1959, p.112. 50. R.N. Yesudasan,n.15, p. 179. 51. Samuel Mateer,n.28, p. 222.see Tamil Nadu State Archives, Chennai; Confidential file No.48 of 1922 52. Silvester Ponnumuthan, The Spitutuality of Basic Ecclesial Communities in the Socio-Religious Context of Thiruvananthapuram, Rome, 1996, p. 157. 53. Ward and Conner, Memoirs of the Survey of Travancore and Cochin States, Vol. 1 Kerala State Gazetteers Department, Trivandrum, 1994.PP.24-29. 54. P, Sarwesvaran,n.5, p.1 55. N. Amalan, Vaikunda Mahatmiyam, Swamithoppu, p.12. 56. Samuel Mateer, n.29, p. 294. 57. E.M.S.Namboodiripad, Kerala Society and Politics, New Delhi, 1984, PP.37-46 58. Samuel Mateer, n.29, p.294 59. Robin Jeffrey, The Decline of Nair Dominance: Society and Politics in Travancore 1847-1908, London, 1976, p.25. 60. Samuel Mateer , n.29, see. Tamil Nadu State Archives, Chennai; Confidential file No. 03 of 1925 61. Cheriyan, P.J., (ed.), Perspective on Kerala History, Thiruvananthapuram, 1999.PP.264-68 62. Ibid. 63. V, Nagam Aiya, The Travancore State Manual vols.III, Kerala State Gazetteers Department, Trivandrum, 1999.P.207 64. T.K, Velu Pillai, The Travancore State Manual, Vol.II, p.724 65. Esthak, I., Mathru Bhoomi Weekly, February 12, 2006.see. Samuel Mateer, Land of Charity, London, 1871, p.222 66. His followers are generally called Ayya Vazhi Makkal. 67. Sabukuttan, K., C.Krishnan and Social Change in Kerala, Kottayam, 2002, p.162; Also see. M.Sahadevan, From Brahminism to Liberalism, Palakkad, 2008, p.178; C.R., Kesavan Vaidyar, Marga Darsikal, Irinjalakuda, 1978.

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