A CHRONOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION OF THE MIDDLE KINGDOM TOMBS AT MEIR Steven Darlow B.App.Sc., University of Technology Sydney M.Comp., M.A., Macquarie University A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Ancient History Faculty of Arts Macquarie University 2017 Front Cover Image: Tomb C1 (Ukhhotep III), Meir. Top Register, North wall of Statue Recess. (from author’s photograph, 2011 site visit) For Aidan and Ciara DECLARATION I certify that the work in this thesis titled: “A Chronological Investigation of the Middle Kingdom Tombs at Meir”, has not previously been submitted for a degree, nor has it been submitted as part of requirements for a degree to any other university or institution. I also certify that the thesis is an original piece of research. Any help and assistance that I have received in my research work and the preparation of the thesis itself have been appropriately acknowledged. All sources of information and literature utilised in the writing this work have been acknowledged and referenced where appropriate. No ethics approval was required for this dissertation. Dated this 20th day of December 2017 Steven Darlow Student ID: 89023315 ii ABSTRACT In the early to mid- Twelfth Dynasty, the provincial governors of the region downstream of Asyut developed a strong local culture, maintaining a degree of independence from the royal court that lasted until the reign of Senusret III. Located geographically in the middle of this group of four provinces is the fourteenth Upper Egyptian Nome, with the tombs of its governors situated in the necropolis of Meir. While the Meir tombs, along with the contemporary tombs of the other three provincial centres of Beni Hasan, Bersheh and Asyut have been the subjects of extensive prior study, aspects of the modes of artistic transmission between these provinces (and possible driving influences, including external factors) have not been fully addressed. This thesis is arranged as a comparative chronological investigation, with the governors’ tombs at Meir as the primary focus, and the tombs of the governors of the neighbouring provinces making up the comparison sites. Contemporaneous tombs from other provincial sites and the royal courts of Western Thebes and Lisht are also included, for assessment of influences on Meir from these sources, as well as sources from earlier periods in Egyptian history (including Old Kingdom influences from Meir and the Memphite court and First Intermediate period / Eleventh Dynasty influences from various sites). The chronological framework of the study is established from textual sources in chapter three, primarily relying on fixed dating via regnal references and relative dating via genealogical references. Other attributes of the tomb texts are investigated for their chronological dimension, confirming that changes in the phrases of the hetep-di-nesu formula established in prior studies are observed in the tombs of the study, and that epithets and titles of the tomb owner (with the exception of the title ‘Great Overlord of the N Nome’) are less variable from a chronological perspective. Chapter four compares the architectural features of the Meir tombs with those of the comparison sites, with the finding that architectural styles are largely driven by local influences, but some common elements are identified which emphasise a longitudinal axis of orientation towards a cult focus (shrine) on the rear wall. Part two of chapter four compares the governors’ tombs at Meir with the burials of their direct subordinates (extended family and officials) by textual comparisons with the coffins from the lesser burials. Three distinct clusters of coffins are identified, with the names of the owners of the later group suggesting probable intermixing of individuals from this social class with their contemporaries from Beni Hasan (possibly via intermarriage and associated migration). Chapter five compares the artistic styles and techniques observed in the Meir tombs with those of the comparison sites, noting that canonical techniques are universally applied, but are subject to local conventions and varying artistic capabilities. Case studies outline selected stylistic and compositional features of Meir tomb B2, highlighting the significant achievements of that particular artist in advancing the iii Meir artistic style from Eleventh and early Twelfth Dynasty royal styles, as well as the development of the artists’ grids through the Twelfth Dynasty as observed in tombs B2 and C1 (taking advantage of the unique existence at Meir of two chronologically separate tombs attesting surviving grids). The iconography of the desert hunt and the tomb owner fishing and fowling is examined in Chapter six. Influences on the depiction of these themes at Meir are traced from royal and elite examples from the Fifth and Sixth Dynasty Memphite cemeteries, via the Sixth Dynasty tombs at Meir. Alignment of key attributes of these scenes are noted between Meir and all of the comparison sites towards the mid Twelfth Dynasty. The data from the above analyses are synthesised in chapter seven, which illustrates points at which the paternal line of succession is interrupted at Beni Hasan and Meir, and similarities in how royal legitimacy was invoked at both sites to support the new incumbent. Routes of artistic transmission to and from Meir are presented for the iconographic themes of the desert hunt and the tomb owner fishing and fowling, demonstrating a tendency towards horizontal transmission processes which correlate with the evidence of intermarriage and migration between nomes during the Twelfth Dynasty, particularly noting evidence of this between Beni Hasan and Meir. Changes in technique can also be aligned chronologically with evidence of intermarriage and migration between nomes, particularly the change in technique in Meir tomb C1 from cut relief to purely painted representation (following the long-standing technique of artistic execution at Beni Hasan). iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my deepest appreciation to my principal supervisor, Professor Naguib Kanawati for his infinite patience and encouragement over the eight years of my candidature. Without his guidance and ongoing support this thesis would not have been possible. I would like to thank my associate supervisor Dr Alexandra Woods for her advice in framing my research at the outset and her valuable feedback on my early work on the thesis. Her expertise in the iconography of the tomb owner fishing and fowling was also invaluable in guiding my research in this aspect of the study. I am indebted to the Department of Ancient History, Faculty of Arts, Macquarie University for giving me the opportunity to join Prof Kanawati, Dr Woods and the team on field work at Meir and Beni Hasan, where I was able to collect data directly from the tombs which form a central part of this work. I would like to thank my family for all the support over the years I have spent undertaking this task. Without their encouragement I would not have been able to finish it. Special thanks must go to my wife Monica, for carrying out the onerous task of proof-reading the final draft. I also acknowledge the life-long passion of my father in ancient worlds and peoples, and who passed this enduring interest on to me. To him I owe everything for my starting down this path in the first place. v LIST OF TABLES Table 4.1 Architectural Features of the Governors’ Tombs 113 Table 4.2 Seriation of Architectural Features of the Governors’ 117 Tombs Table 4.3 Seriation of Textual Attributes of the Meir Governors’ 127 Tombs and Coffins from Associated Shaft Tombs. Table 6.1 Seriation of the Desert Hunt scene (a) constrained 220 (b) unconstrained Table 6.2 Seriation of the Tomb Owner Fishing and Fowling scene 236 (a) constrained (b) unconstrained vi LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1 Sketch Map of the Meir Necropolis (northern part) 18 Figure 4.1 Elevated Porch fronting Statue Recess – Tomb B4 (Ukhhotep II) 140 Figure 4.2 Elevated statue recess – Tomb C1 (Ukhhotep III) 140 Figure 4.3 Probable portico remnant – Tomb C1 (Ukhhotep III) 141 Figure 4.4 Typical Plain Fronted Eleventh Dynasty Tomb Exterior, 141 Beni Hasan Figure 4.5 Portico of tomb BH2 at Beni Hasan (Nomarch Amenemhat) 142 Figure 4.6 Approach to statue recess – tomb BH2 (Nomarch 142 Amenemhat) Figure 4.7 Coffin of Overseer of Sealbearers Ukhhotep (M1NY) 143 MMA 12.182.132a. Figure 4.8 Shaft tomb on terrace above and behind governor’s 143 tomb B1 (Senbi I) at Meir. Figure 5.1 Wing Detail from Pintail Duck – Tomb B1 (Senbi I) 206 Figure 5.2 Procession of Cattle – Tomb B1 (Senbi I) 206 Figure 5.3 Procession of Cattle - Tomb B2 (Ukhhotep I) 207 Figure 5.4 Beja Leading Cattle – Tomb B2 (Ukhhotep I) 207 Figure 5.5 Leading Cattle – Tomb B2 (Ukhhotep I) 208 Figure 5.6 Tomb Owner Seated – Tomb B2 (Ukhhotep I) 208 Figure 5.7a Tomb Owner seated, with (presumed) wife at feet, Tomb 209 B2 (Ukhhotep I) Figure 5.7b Detail of (presumed) wife, Tomb B2 (Ukhhotep I) 209 Figure 5.8a Divergence from Canon – Facial Features: Blind 209 Musician, Tomb B2 (Ukhhotep I) Figure 5.8b Divergence from Canon – Facial Features: Beja 209 Herdsman, Tomb B2 (Ukhhotep I) Figure 5.9 Transmission of Expression in animal figures – Tomb B2 210 (Ukhhotep I) vii Figure 5.10 Divergence from Canon in Posture of minor figure – 210 Tomb B1 (Senbi I) Figure 5.11 Bringing Down a Bull (Detail)– Tomb B2 (Ukhhotep I) 211 Figure 5.12 Duelling Boatmen (Detail) – Tomb B2 (Ukhhotep I) 211 Figure 5.13 Painted Representation of tomb