Sekar Alit’ and the Three Times of Text

‘Sekar Alit’ and the Three Times of Text

Oleh

I Ketut Wandia

FAKULTAS ILMU BUDAYA

UNIVERSITAS UDAYANA

2019

‘Sekar Alit’ and the Three Times of Text

Defining ‘Sekar Alit’

‘Sekar Alit’ is one of the poetic genres of the Balinese Traditional Song (henceforth

BTS). It is one of the most commonly heard and enacted verbal arts in Bali. It is the singing or chanting of the of BTS text which is then directly followed by line by line interpretation of the meanings or messages shared or conveyed by the song lyric, delivered by an interpreter

(‘pengartos’). Soon after one line of the song text is sung by the respective singer

(‘pengewacen’), the interpretation follows. The role of the interpreter is to put the meanings or messages across to the audience by using his/her stylistic modes. It is a kind of embroidering of the messages conveyed in the song lyric. The performance is usually accompanied by a set of Balinese orchestra – an ensemble called ‘gaguntangan’. This musical ensemble is also commonly used in ‘arja’ drama play performance.

‘Sekar Alit’ has long been known and has become part of the life of the Balinese community. This genre is not an unusual commodity for the Balinese. They encounter this kind of ‘tembang’ or song almost every day. The Balinese cannot be separated from this tradition since it has been embodied in the entire life of the community, and the instances of BTS punctuate the day in their enactment with the obligatory, diurnal rituals. “Sekar Alit’ is also called “Sekar Macapat” or reading the song lyric in fours. This will be more elaborately presented at point 1.5.3 - Table 3 below.

The central claims of the Thesis 3

The central claim of this thesis, and its rationale for further enquiry into a field already engaged by established scholars (Creese, 2009; Putra, 2009, Putra and Creese, 2012), is as follows:

‘Sekar Alit’ is a paradoxical cultural, artistic, and even social phenomenon. Rather than experiencing the shrinkage of its participatory base (performers and audience), ‘Sekar Alit’ is undergoing a “revitalization” which may exemplify to a wider world, as well as to Indonesian communities, what are the crucial factors in retaining a cultural activity, or any form of

“local genius”. By contrast in Japan, Noh theatre is supported by only a section of older members of the community; Opera and theatre in Sydney (despite the Opera House) have to find new ways of appealing beyond a minority (of typically older patrons). How is it that the younger members of Balinese communities (of customary villages) become so deeply and competitively imbued with the conduct of ‘Sekar Alit’ (and its related forms)?

This thesis suggests that 8 main variables – cultural, political, and artistic – are involved in what must be seen as a growing success in the maintenance, and extension, of a traditional form. The success is all the remarkable because ‘Sekar Alit’ involves an unusual combination of singer and interpreter: this is to say, it is not simply a traditional song genre per se; rather it involves a discourse which embroiders the feelings conveyed by the song.

The techniques for this embroidery require expertise distinct from voice quAlity, namely, knowledge of a cultural background associated with older (male) members of the community.

This thesis, therefore, takes up the work of others in observing and analysing the currency of “matembang”; but the new electronic forms of delivery, and the “flexibility” in 4

the genre emphasised by Putra and Creese (2012), are explored by applying various functionalist concepts to the most successful genre – ‘Sekar Alit’. These concepts include 3 temporal perspectives, explained below, which permit us to separate, and then combine, factors from the historical evolution of culture in Bali (phylogenetic perspective), examples from the development of lives on an individual basis (the ontogenetic view), and the dynamics of the form and functions of a collection of around 150 instances of ‘Sekar Alit’

(with an inner core of 20 instances with accompanying commentaries/interpretations). This last point allows the characteristic unfolding of ‘Sekar Alit’ to emerge – this is a ‘logogenetic’ perspective (how the text “unfolds”, or is delivered, in real time). The 3 perspectives on the times or “histories” of the genre are developed with input from public performances and analytical methods drawn from the tradition of functional linguistics based on the concepts of the British (now Australian based) linguist, M.A.K. Halliday. His work, for example, emphasises the importance of the 3 histories implicated in all text, and which provide 3 perspectives by which semiotic evolution needs to be considered (Halliday, 1995/2003: 412-

13; 1997/2003: 250). In essence, by reflecting on 3 verbs, the significance of the 3 histories can be quickly communicated – language texts “evolve” for a community; language texts

“also “develop” for persons in each individual life history; and, in any given instance, language – a text – “unfolds”.

A critical topic is the electronic ‘explosion’ of the possibilities for the performances to be shared across communities in Bali, and beyond. Creese (2009) has highlighted this revolution, with particular emphasis on ‘interactive’ radio. This trend is growing with the development of You Tube and with televised, modified forms, including village, work place 5

and school competitions. The concerns of this thesis are mainly to view the combined influence of a range of factors around this new technological breadth of exposure.

These interacting variables can be suggested, at this stage of discussion, as some indication of the overall findings of the thesis. The factors might be listed, perhaps too briefly, as:

1. the relative cultural homogeneity in village unit,

2. the early socialisation into ‘arts’ and ‘taksu’

3. the ‘amplification’ through new media

4. the interaction of artistic or religious images and ideas

5. the ‘ngayah’ principle of obligatory practice;

6. the use of Balinese

7. the freedom from class, gender, and age restriction;

8. the melding of social and personal emotions in the songs

Functional perspective and the three times of text

In this thesis I will be adopting a functional perspective on ‘Sekar Alit’, a perspective drawn from Systemic Functional Linguistics and one that emphasizes that every semantic event in a culture involves 3 dimensions: form, function and a specific relationship with cultural contexts. In this I am following the tradition of researchers including M.A.K.

Halliday, R. Hasan, and J.R. Firth, going back to the anthropology of B. Malinowski. One needs to illuminate the integration and dynamism of generic traditions in changing to meet the evolving conditions of a society. 6

In understanding this relationship between tradition and the integration of new social conditions, it is useful to adopt the ‘3 times’ perspective of Halliday who draws attention to the fact we can take every text as a pulse of semantic energy which has to unfold in real time, the time of the text. This we can regard as logogenetic time, the unfolding of the wordings and performance in a specific cultural milieu.

But, similarly, we need to take account of the fact the utterance of the text, whether one of verbal art or of casual conversation, contributes to the actuAlities of a person’s living in a community. Therefore, every text plays roles in what we call the ontogenetic development of the interactants, the persons who create the text, and those who use and share the meaning as it impacts on human life at that time. This is the time of individual life spans. We may think of it as an “ontogenetic perspective” on the time of the text. So, at this stage we get the logogenetic perspective, the actual unfolding of the text as a succession of meaningful acts; and then we have the way those meaningful acts impact upon the life of a particular member of the community.

But beyond these two immediate perspectives, we also have what Halliday calls the phylogenetic perspective in which we treat the culture and its vector of change, the progressive growth and evolution, as the third form of time, a 3rd form of collaboration between text and time. The text can only exist because it takes up and carries on patterns from the past and delivers speakers and interactants into the future, which they are making by the utterance of a text. That future is typically a future of a collective, of a whole community or culture where the text has already established itself. Its roles, and its functions as actual patterns of the text, are carried over into the future, at the same time as typically they must adapt to the facts of the community experience. The facts include the 7

conventions surrounding the exchange of goods and services and, more important, the semiotic structure of channels by which people can communicate to exchange any messages. These channels of semiotic potential are always subject to change. And the phylogenetic perspective is the grand arc of a culture’s or community’s history, within which the text has served a function, or a range of functions.

We can look at the 3 times of text: the logogenetic, the ontogenetic and phylogenetic in any order. We can set out, as many do, first of all, from the phylogenetic, cultural evolution perspective and from this perspective, the actual generic form of the text, particularly the generic form of the song, or genre of song, becomes central. On the other hand, we have the ontogenetic significance of speaking, uttering and performance, and this ontogenetic significance demands that we fill social space with texts: texts that do something for us, texts that are tools for us to address the needs that we have. The logogenetic perspective is the fact that the text will have to have some manifest forms and these forms will involve the succession of steps or of acts of meaning, acts of speaking. This succession will have its own character and dynamism, which of course will be under the pressures from phylogenetic and ontogenetic arenas to adapt according to the changing conditions of needs of the utterer of the text. (See Chapter 3 for a fuller account of Systemic

Functional Linguistics).

Dyadic Nature of ‘Sekar Alit’

As stated above (1.1), the peculiarity of ‘Sekar Alit’ genre is the presence of an interpreter who does line by line interpretation of the song message. The interpreter wraps 8

up the message in such a way using his/her stylistic modes to make the performance more interesting. In this respect, during the transferring process of the message to the respective audience, the interpreter is doing a kind of embroidery so that the performance will become more entertaining but challenging. The level of embroidery is much affected by the skill and the background knowledge of the interpreter apart from the length of experience he/she has.

In relation to the above concept, it is obvious that the performance of ‘Sekar Alit’ is dyadic and dialogic in nature. This means that there should be a singer or a group of singers

(‘pengawacen’) on one hand, and an interpreter or a group of interpreters (‘pengartos’) on the other hand. Soon after the singer finishes chanting or singing each line of the song, the interpretation of the message of it then follows, often extending for many clauses beyond any wording actually delivered by the singer. We know then that the interpreters are creators and verbal artists in their own right.

The success of the dyadic genre of ‘Sekar Alit’ is that when the singer can present the singing of the song with a melodious voice following the rules of the ‘macapat’ and then complemented by smooth flowing and amazing interpretation of the song message. The singer can understand the song’s theme and the context of the singing and then delivers the singing in such a way followed by an accurate and powerful interpretation. For this reason, the performance of ‘Sekar Alit’ can be considered as a piece of entertainment apart from other functions it serves in the community.

A complete performance of ‘Sekar Alit’ is the presence of a Balinese gamelan ‘music’ orchestra which usually accompanies the ‘arja’ drama play called ‘gaguntangan’. (This 9

central genre is explained in relation to BTS below). This traditional genre can either be monologic or dialogic since the role of an interpreter is not always practical or available. This can depend on the where the singing takes place. However, in a formal setting with the presence of an audience, an interpreter should be involved. It is important to note that only a very knowledgeable community member can be an interpreter, so such people are far fewer than the possible candidates for singing.

In line with the art of interpreting, the interpreter tries to find out his/her own ways on how to deliver or transfer foregrounded meanings to the audience. Dramatization through voice and gestures are ways that can make the performance more lively and dynamic. Ideally speaking, both the singer and interpreter have to internalize the general theme of the song so that they can choose suitable styles for doing their respective roles.

Besides, understanding the audience’s background (gender, ages, education and professions) is helpful for the success of transferring the ‘essence’ of the song.

An interpreter (he or she) should understand the message or general theme of the song and, moreover, he or she has to be seen to retain that theme although there are different modes or styles to employ during the delivery or the process of interpreting. In this respect, having sufficient traditional knowledge on the theme of the song is a prerequisite.

Accordingly, the same thing should be taken into consideration by the singer so that he/she can adapt the way he/she presents the singing of the song. Different functions or themes will require different styles/ways of both singing and interpreting. For example, perhaps not surprisingly, the ‘Sekar Alit’ song for temple festival, funeral and wedding all will have different modes of singing and interpreting. 10

Hence, with respect to the interpretation of the meanings shared in the song, there will be two complementary meanings: the singer’s/song’s meaning and the one of the interpreter. As for the tasks of being the singer or interpreter as mentioned above, it turns out that there are more people who aim to be singers and fewer prepared to be interpreters. It can be seen from the fact that the duties of an interpreter are more various and more demanding than those of the singer’s. Apart from having a good voice quAlity, he

(or she) typically should understand deeper cultural contexts (the phylogenetic resonances of the performance), and also he needs to make the general theme relevant to a current audience with many different educational and social backgrounds. By doing so, the audience will get a broad satisfaction: they get not only the shared knowledge of the song theme

(moral education, for example) but also entertainment.

The lyric form of ‘Sekar Alit’ is composed in Balinese language but sometimes also in

Middle Javanese. The latter tend to be ones used to accompany religious rituals. Balinese language has three speech levels: High/Refined speech level, Middle, and Low. They are used in ways that depend upon the context of situation of speaking: whom we are speaking with and at what occasion or situation. Meanwhile, mixed speech levels of Balinese may be employed by the interpreter in accordance with his (or her) perceived needs as expounder and entertainer.

Figure1.1 The contestants of Sekar Alit on Bali TV

The songs have various functions and meanings depending upon the contexts of situation where it is being performed. However, by and large, like other song genres, ‘Sekar

Alit’ is essentially about moral values. Explicit moral teaching can be found in most of the song texts across all ritual functions. In the following, I introduce one of the most popular songs, one with explicit, high moral values for all generations:

Balinese song text English translation

Eda ngaden awak bisa Don’t think you know everything

Depang anake ngadanin Let others judge it for you

Geginane buka nyampat It is like the work of sweeping

Anak sai tumbuh luhu Rubbish is always everywhere 12

Ilang luhu buke katah Once rubbish is swept away, dust remains

there

Yadin ririh However smart you are

Liu enu palajahang There are still a lot more (things) to learn

The song is typically introduced from an early age by the parents in the family and by the teachers at schools. The moral value depicted from the song is the importance of being humble and that one never stops learning: Do not ever show off your ability, and let other people judge for us. The significance is that there are many other people who are smarter and even more knowledgeable than us; so, it is no use showing off your capability, or boasting. It is analogous to the work of sweeping. The emergence of rubbish and dust is unavoidable. It occurs continuously. In this respect, we have to do our duty properly and never give up since there are still many things that we need to know about this world. In the current context, the wise expression “Long Life Learning or Education’’ is suitable for the theme of this song. An interpreter would elaborate these themes and motifs.

In Bali, ‘Sekar Alit’ helps to mark out the everyday life of the Balinese people. Not unlike other types of songs or ‘tembang’, this traditional song is used as a medium to express ideas, feelings, love, emotions and affections. That is to say, ‘Sekar Alit’ is employed as a means of working communication. It is embedded in the culture of the Balinese and therefore projects many facets of the life cycles of the Balinese community. It has become embodied and inherent in the heart of the community, both in the village and for those living in the newer urban areas. It is not surprising then for the Balinese to see and employ 13

such a cultural tradition on a daily basis (see below: especially the chapter on ontogenesis and BTS).

Figure 1.2 Contestants of ‘Sekar Alit’ Competition at Bali Arts Festival

To locate the tradition of ‘Sekar Alit’ amid the parallel forms of verbal art, one needs to survey, briefly, the ‘types’ of metrical form that BTS share. (See the Chart of the Balinese

Poetic Genre – Table 1.1 below).

Table1.1 Balinese Poetic Genre/Balinese Traditional Song 15

In general, the Balinese poetic genre is divided into four types which are distinguished by the language used, metrical patterns and styles of singing. Those four types of the genres are ‘Sekar Agung’ which is also called ‘Kakawin’ written in Old Javanese (Kawi) and which utilizes a Sanskrit - influenced syllabic metre known as the ‘Great Metre’. ‘Sekar Madya’, also called ‘Kidung’ is written in either Middle Javanese or Balinese, using indigenous metrical patterns known as ‘Middle Metre’. Sekar Alit, also popularly called ‘Geguritan’, is generally written in Balinese language and occasionally in Old Javanese, utilizing the indigenous tembang known as ‘Small Metre’. The fourth type is Sekar Rare, also called

Dolanan, written in very simple Balinese; it also uses indigenous tembang ‘Small Metre.

The following matrix (Table1.2) presents the general characteristics of the Balinese

Traditional Song that distinguishes between one type of the genre with the other.

Types of “Tembang/Sekar” Sekar Agung Sekar Madya Sekar Alit Sekar Rare Sekar Agung is also Sekar Madya is also Sekar Alit is also Sekar Rare is also called Kekawin. It is called Kekidungan. It called Tetembangan. called Gending Rare supreme in nature, is sacred, magic , It has got various or Dolanan. It has rich for Hindu holy and homage in kinds of got the Religion philosophy nature. characteristics, such characteristics of called Tatwa as happy, sad, happiness, cheers, Dyatmika,like Kekidungan is a holy gloomy, funny, playing or having having good song used as one of romantic, angry and fun,funny, and rich attitude used as the elements in disappointed. That is for moral education. guidance of life in Hindu Religious why this tembang is It is suitable for kids the society. rituals. Meanwhile, used as a means of who just start to Sekar Madya is the communication in the learn to sing (from Kekawin is derived main component of dialogues among Kindergarten up to from the word ‘awi’ a Kidung. characters in Arja 10 years old). This which means ‘is drama play and song does also have written’ and has got Kidung can be Gambuh as well. the characteristics morphological written in either of being process like Middle Javanese or Compared to the disappointed and 16

reduplication and Balinese, using other three romantic ( sung in suffix, then becomes indigenous metrical tembangs, Sekar Alit Janger dance),and Kekawin meaning pattern known as is the most popular the characteristic of literary works. ‘Middle Metres’ tembang/song in Bali. showing homage (Sekar Madya). Apart from being (sung in Sang Hyang When singing Sekar used as a medium of dance). This Agung, we have to communication, it is tembang, especially understand the also used to create a dolanan, is sung notion of Guru – Geguritan ( a literary while playing and Lagu. Guru means a work in the form of dancing immitating heavy/hard, long, story or poem). In a certain characters loud and vibrating geguritan, there are like animals, old voice; and Lagu many kinds of man, etc. which means a light, tembangs/pupuhs basically deals with short, flat and weak which are all created learning to socialize voice. in accordance with and respect, that are the mood or theme of all rich for moral the song. values and Kekawin is written education. in Old Sekar Macepat has Javanese(Kawi) and got certain rules , like uses Sanskrit : influenced syllabic Pada Lingsa, meaning Sekar Rare is written metres known as the number of lines or in Balinese and ‘Great Metres’ sentences in each sometimes uses a (Sekar Agung). pupuh or stanza and low speech level of Guru Wilang, the the Balinese. It uses number of syllables in indigenous tembang each line or sentence suitable for the kids. and Ding Dong rule, Called Sekar Rare. that is, type of vowel sound ending every line in a pupuh or verse. For example, Pupuh Sinom has got 10 lines in each verse, 8 syllables in each line except for line 9 which has only 4 syllables. As for the ding dong rule, it can be seen like : 1a, 2i, 3a, 4i, 5i, 6u, 7a, 8i, 9u, and 10a. In 17

singing Sekar Macepat, the pause and tone should be at the fourth syllable, though that syllable is not the last word/syllable. That is why, Macapat literally means reading in four.

Geguritan/Sekar Alit is written in Balinese, but occasionally in Old Javanese, and uses indigenous tembang known as ‘Small Metre’ (Sekar Alit).

Tembang refers to the type of rhythm (pupuh), which is bound by Pada Lingsa -- rules governing the number of lines in one verse, and the number of syllables in each line and the final vowel of each line.

Table 1.2 Characteristics of Balinese Traditional Song

Types and characteristics of Balinese traditional song

Balinese Traditional Song is called ‘Tembang’. It is one of oldest arts in Bali and has been a strong part of Balinese culture. Some Tembangs were sung by Balinese before the coming of Hindu-Buddhist cultures, such as Kuskus Arum, Suaran Kumbang, Puspa Pangan 18

Jali, etc. In addition, most of the ‘tembangs’ in Bali have high moral messages or moral education. Based on the structure and function, Tembang can be classified into ‘Sekar

Agung/Kekawin/Wirama’, ‘Sekar Madya/Kidung’, ‘Sekar Alit’/’Sekar Macapat’, and ‘Sekar

Rare’/‘Gegending’Gegending’.

‘Sekar Agung’/ ‘Kekawin’ / ‘Wirama’

‘Kekawin’ is actually life philosophies and other Vedic lessons delivered to people through songs. ‘Kekawin’ is sung in ceremonies. Kidung song texts are written in Sanskrit.

For this reason it requires the singer and interpreter to know the language. The singer sings the song lyric line by line in the Sanskrit language and the interpreter interprets the meaning/message of the song lyric and then transfers it to the audience by using Balinese language. Some famous Kekawin in Bali are Saronca, Tanukerti, Girisa, Wirat, and

Puspitagra.

‘Sekar Madya’/ ‘Kidung’

Like ‘Sekar Agung’, ‘Sekar Madya’ is also usually sung to accompany rituals/ ceremonies in Bali. This genre is chanted by a group of singers and accompanied by musical orchestra. Kidung themes are mostly about prayers of adoration. Kidung came to Bali from

Java around the 16th – 19th century. Along the contact, Balinese culture then affected this genre in such a way. This influence is evident in the Kidung structure in Bali, which consists of ‘Pangawit’ (opening part) and ‘Pangawak’ (main part) and these two terms are not found in Java. Some famous ‘Kidungs’ in Bali are Wargasari, Sudhamala, Sidhapaksa, and Alis-alis

Ijo. 19

‘Sekar Alit’/ ‘Macapat’

‘Sekar Alit’ are Balinese traditional songs which have main rule called ‘Padalingsa’.

‘Padalingsa’ consists of ‘Guru Wilang’ and ‘Guru Dingdong’. ‘Guru Wilang’ is a rule which governs the number of words in a row/line and number of rows in a song stanza.

Meanwhile, ‘Guru Dingdong’ is a rule which arranges the vowel/vocal ending of each line.

Pupuh is used for expressing one’s feelings, love and emotion and also to give advice/moral education. The same as the functions of ‘Sekar Agung’ and ‘Sekar Madya’, this genre is also widely chanted in the religious rituals to help create the nuance of the ceremonies. This traditional song has varieties of ‘pupuh’ or metrical forms depending upon the themes or messages they want to deliver.

The word ‘Macapat’

‘Macapat’ means ‘reading in fours’. It consists of two words, ‘maca’ meaning ‘to read’ and ‘pat’ meaning ‘four’. That is, when people read or sing aloud old stories in ‘macapat’ metre (‘kidung’), as a general rule they should try to breathe or make breaks only after each fourth syllable of a line. This popular explanation fits in somewhat with the generally accepted rules which favour divisions of four syllables for all lines lengths. The ‘ginanti’ metre is the best example of this ‘division into fours’ idea, since each of its six lines has eight syllables. For example:

Ginanti Metre 20

Balinese song text English translation

Saking tuhu manah guru Genuinely, deep from my heart

Mituturin cening jani To tell you, my students, now

Weruhe luwir senjata Knowledge is like a weapon

Ne dadi prabotang sai That can be used every time

Keanggen ngeruruh merta For earning a living

Saenun cening maurip Along your life time

When we look at the above song more closely, it is obvious that it has 6 lines for the whole verse or stanza and each line contains 8 syllables. In addition, the vowel ending of each line is varied. The first line ends with ‘u’, the second with ‘i’, the third ends with ‘a’, the fourth with ‘i’, the fifth ends with ‘a’, and the last line/sixth line ends with ‘i’. Moreover, when we want to chant or sing this song, first, we have to see the number of the syllables for every line. Then we have to do a pause/break at the end of every fourth syllable

(following the ‘macapat’ rule). For example, taken from the first line of the above song, the singer should gives pauses at: Sa – king – tu - hu// ma – nah – gu – ru. In this syllable division, it is clearly seen that the first fourth syllable stops at ‘hu’ and the second at ‘ru’.

More detailed pictures of the number of lines and vowel ending for all types of ‘Sekar

Alit’ metres can be seen in the Metrical Form of ‘Sekar Alit’ (Table 1.3) below:

Table 1.3 Metrical Form of ‘Sekar Alit’

Kartomi (1973:39) stated that ‘Tembang’ (in Low Javanese) or ‘Sekar’ (in High

Javanese, literally meaning ‘flower’) means ‘song’. There are three main groups of

‘tembang’ based on their poetic system: 1) Tembang Gede which are sung in ‘big’ (gede)

Indian poetic metres, 2) Tembang Tengahan and 3) Tembang Macapat, the latter two groups of which are songs in ‘little’ (cilik) autochthon metres. She also added that there is another group of Javanese song called ‘lagu dolanan’ (songs for children). 22

‘Tembang macapat’, then in its widest historical sense may mean song in indigenous

Javanese poetic metres, and in its narrower, more exact sense, song in one of the ten or so poetic metres accepted today as belonging to ‘tembang macapat’, in contrast to ‘tembang gede’, which are in imported Indian metres and based on Sanskrit prosodic rules of metric quantity. ‘Macapat metres’ fit the Javanese language well, while the ‘tembang gede’ metres are, theoretically, in some ways not suited to the Javanese language, which does not distinguish between long and short syllables as in Sanskrit.

With respect to the ‘macapat’ metric structure, Kartomi (1973:40) said that ‘ten’ generally accepted ‘macapat metres’ are commonly used in modern Java. Each poetic line

(gatra) has a number of syllables (lampah) and this rule is called ‘Guru Wilangan’. In addition, each line must end with a word containing a certain fixed vowel. Such kind of rule is called ‘Guru Lagu’. Furthermore, she stated that having chosen a suitable metre (or metres) for the subject of a poem, by obeying the above rules, a poet may construct a

‘macapat’ poem in any number of verses (‘pada’).

Kunst (cited in Kartomi, 1973:44) stated that ‘tembang Macapat’ is the simplest song, compared to classical lyrical – epic ‘Sekar Agung’ or ‘tembang gede’. However, he added, there do not seem to be any strong grounds to support this explanation of the meaning or the use of the word ‘macapat’; The melodies and the musical style of ‘macapat’ singing are certainly not simpler than the ‘tembang gede’ or ‘tembang tengahan’, indeed they are mostly melodically complex and are often more highly ornamented.

In relation to the above perception, Kurnst claimed that the simplicity of ‘tembang macapat’ is supposed to be inherent in the Javanese belief in the ‘inferiority’ of their 23

autochthon verse in comparison with poetry in ‘tembang gede’, with its long lines, Sanskrit prosody, obsolete words and courtly origin. Or it could refer to the practice of singing

‘kidung’ in ‘simple’, unornamented melodic fashion in ‘malam Kidungan’, in order to finish performing a long book in a reasonable time.

‘Sekar Rare’/‘Gegendingan’

‘Sekar Rare’ is the simplest compared to the other three ‘genre’. It has short song lyrics, simple dictions with very clear meanings. Moreover, the song has simpler rules on how to sing in comparison with the other songs. This ‘Gegendingan’ is used in children’s games or dances of which goal is to develop solidarity and socialisation among the children.

In addition, this song is also used to accompany sacred dances. This ‘gegending’ genre can be broadly classified into ‘Gending Rare’, ‘Gending Jejangeran’, and ‘Gending Sanghyang’.

Gending Rare is children song genre. This song is usually used to accompany traditional children’s games. Its main purpose is to teach children about the importance of making friends/socialisation and solidarity like helping each other. It is at once intended to teach moral education and to have fun. Some popular Gending Rare are Meong-meong,

Juru Pencar, Galang Bulan, and Indang-indang Sidi.

Gending Jejangeran is a dynamic and lively song mainly used to accompany ‘Janger

Dance’, a friendship dance. This ‘Janger’ dance is performed by a group of male and female dancers. So there is a group ‘female’ dancers on one side, and male dancers on the other.

They are singing some song themes while dancing. It is a cheerful performance enlivened and accompanied by musical orchestra. Along the performance, the female and male 24

dancers sing the respective songs in turn. It is a dialogic discourse/conversation. The popular song themes are about giving advice and love. But they sometimes ‘mock’ each other. All and all, the song themes chosen are contextual to the current issues in the community.

Gending Sanghyang is a song chanted to accompany sacred dances, such as:

Sanghyang Jaran, Sanghyang Dedari, etc. The dances along with the accompanying songs are usually performed during the procession of a temple festival. Some people, commonly a group of women sing the song melodiously and the dancers are dancing in trance. Some famous Gending Sanghyang are: Kuskus Arum, Suaran kumbang, and Puspa Panganjali.

All ‘pupuhs’ are used to express particular feelings, love and emotions. The names include Pupuh Sinom, Pupuh Semarandana, Pupuh Ginada, Pupuh Ginanti, Pupuh Durma,

Pupuh Dandang Gula, Pupuh Mijil, Pupuh Maskumambang, Pupuh Pangkur and Pupuh

Pucung. These pupuhs are selectively employed depending on variations in the contexts of situation. When gaguritan is chanted and interpreted it is called ‘Magaguritan’ or

‘Matembang.’ This ‘magaguritan’ activity along with ‘Makakawin’ in ‘Sekar Agung’ and

‘Makidung’ in ‘Sekar Madya’ are more popularly known as ‘Mabebasan’ or ‘Pepaosan’. This

‘Mabebasan’ has a variety of technical terms that reflect the poetic genre that is being read.

In every customary village in Bali, there are more than one ‘Mabebasan’, Group that actively perform at religious rituals around the village.

This ‘mabebasan’ group is called: ‘Sekaa Shanti’ or ‘Pesantian’‘Mabebasan’ and involves at least two persons at once (dyadic), the reader/singer (pengawacen) and the interpreter (paneges), and when it is possible, they can also exchange their roles. In the past, the texts were written on strips of palm leaf called ‘lontar’ and they are regularly re- 25

copied, but most of them are now available in book form, in either Balinese or Roman characters. Members of the mabebasan groups often have collection of photocopied texts to be learned and brought to the matembang practice and these texts are conventionally placed on a ‘dulang’ right in front of the performers: singer and interpreter.

A mabebasan group is usually invited to conduct textual singing as an accompaniment to rituals such as temple festivals and life – cycle ceremonies including tooth – filings, weddings and cremations. Although mabebasan has been carried out to accompany ritual activity for many centuries, but, in the past only small numbers of people in any village had the necessary literacy to enact the performances. The electronic media have opened it up to a much wider audience, and enabled many more people to take part in it.

Creese (2009:210) states that mabebasan/matembang performance has long been an integral part of religious rituals and festivals in Bali as well as important in life – cycle rituals such as weddings, funerals and teeth – filing ceremonies. In addition to this core ritual and religious function, private study groups or clubs (Pesantian), whose members have an interest in both the content of the texts and the aesthetics of the performance, meet regularly throughout Bali. Creese further says that the traditional Balinese poetic genres comprise a repository of ethical, religious and moral wisdom that is still highly esteemed.

More than mere story, they are well loved both for their content and as narrative sources for performing arts in Bali. In addition, they also provide salutary examples of the right conducts and behaviour of the heroes and Gods. The moral and religious value of the texts and the authenticity of their content have undoubtedly been important factors in continuing development of these manuscript – based tradition over centuries. 26

As one of the conventions, all artists taking part in the ‘Sekar Alit’ performance (singer, interpreter and geguntangan players) should wear the Balinese traditional dress with the styles or motifs chosen and negotiated. In addition, during the performance they are all supposed to sit down in crossed legs position for men and kneeling for women. The song texts that will be chanted and interpreted are placed on the ‘dulang’, long neck wooden offering plate. This dulang is put right in front of the singer(s) and interpreter(s). In addition, before the performance commences, a Priest or one of the members in the group prays dedicating offerings to God, the Almighty, wishing for the success of the entire performance.

Figure 1.3 ‘Sekaa Pesantian’ or Singing Group of Bank Rakyat Indonesia (BRI)

‘Tembang’ refers to the type of rhythm or pupuh which is bound by padanglingsa - governing the number of lines in one verse, the number of syllables in each line and final 27

vowel of each line (Zoetmulder, 1974, and Creese, cited in Putra, 2009: 2). There are various types of tembangs (or pupuhs) that are popular in the Balinese community. All ‘pupuhs’ are used to express particular feelings, love and emotions. For a detailed illustration and complete division of the Balinese Traditional Song/’Tembang’ please see the ‘Taxonomy’ of the genre presented at figure 1.4 below.

Pangkur Laras Slendro 28

Figure 1.4 Taxonomy of Balinese Traditional Song

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Butt, D.G., et al. (2006). Using Functional Grammar. An Explorer’s Guide. Second Edition. Sydney: National Centre for English Language Teaching and Research Macquarie University. Creese, H. (2009). Singing the text: on – air textual interpretation in Bali. In J. van der Putten and M.K. Cody (Eds.), Lost times and untold tales from the Malay World (pp.210 – 226). Singapore: Singapore University Press. Halliday, M.A.K. and Matthiessen, C.M.I.M. (1999).Construing Experience Through Meaning: A Language - Based Approach to Cognition. London: Continuum. Halliday,M.A.K. and Ruqaiya Hasan. (1989). Language, Context, and Text : Aspects of Language in a Social-Semiotic Perspective. Deakin University : Deakin University Press. Halliday, M.A.K. (1994). An Introduction to Functional Grammar. United Kingdom: EdwardArnold. Halliday, M.A.K and Mathiessen, C.M.I.M. (2004).An Introduction to FunctionalGrammar. London: Hodder Education. Hasan, R. (1999). Speaking with reference to context.In M. Ghadessy (Ed.).Text and Context in Functional Linguistics. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. Putra, I Nyoman Darma and Helen Creese.(2012). More than just ‘Numpang Nampang’. Indonesia and the Malay World, 40: 118, 272 – 297. Putra, I Nyoman Darma. (2009). ‘Kidung Interaktif’: vocalising and interpreting traditional literature through electronic mass media in Bali. Indonesia and the Malay World 37 (109): 249 – 76.