![Analysis of Divergence for Yield and Quality Traits in Some Elite Basmati Rice Genotypes [Oryza Sativa L.]](http://data.docslib.org/img/c1b6724486c429563eca3bbf58b472e1-1.webp)
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol., 6 No. 2: October 2015 ______
Analysis of divergence for yield and quality traits in some elite Basmati rice genotypes [Oryza sativa l.]
C.R. ALLAM1*, H.K. JAISWAL1 AND A. QAMAR2 1Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, College of Agriculture, GKVK, UAS, Bangalore 560 065. 2 Department of Plant Physiology, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221005, Uttar Pradesh, India. Received: 08.03.15 Accepted: 08.08.15
ABSTRACT Genetic divergence was assessed among 23 genotypes of basmati rice representing different regions of India on the basis of yield and quality characteristics utilizing Mahalanobis D2 analysis. Based on the genetic distance (D2 values), the rice genotypes were grouped into six clusters. Of the six clusters formed cluster VI consisted of maximum eight genotypes followed by cluster V accommodating six genotypes, cluster I with four genotypes, cluster III and IV with three genotypes each and cluster II with one genotype. The results indicated that there was some degree of similarity of genotypes clustered together on the basis of their origin. However, the pattern of distribution of some genotypes from different eco- geographical regions was found random, indicating that geographical diversity and genetic diversity were not related. The maximum intra cluster distance was observed for the cluster III. The highest genetic divergence was observed between the clusters IV and I exhibiting wide diversity. The genotypes representing cluster VI are more yielding combined with excellent cooking quality. Among different traits, plant height, kernel length, elongation ratio and amylose content had maximum contribution towards total divergence may be used as selection parameters in segregating generations. Intelligent selection of genotypes from the clusters may be used as potential donors for future hybridization programmes to develop varieties and hybrids of high yield without much compromise on quality. Key words: Amylose, Basmati rice, Cluster, Genetic divergence, Oryza sativa L. and Quality traits.
Basmati Rices, indigenous to the Indian sub-continent and endowed with unique quality traits are palatal delights of the MATERIALS AND METHODS rice connoisseurs’ world over. These virtues of Basmati Rices The experimental material used in the study comprised of command them premium price in domestic and international twenty three basmati rice genotypes grown in different agro- markets (Siddiq E.A et al., 2012). India is leading exporter of ecological zones of India. Two non-basmati genotypes were basmati rice to global market. The country has exported also included in study to know their relatedness to basmati 37,57,271.44 MT of basmati rice to the world for the worth of genotypes. The details of the genotypes are presented in Table Rs. 29,299.96 crores during the year 2013-2014 1. All genotypes were evaluated for grain yield and its (www.apeda.gov.in). Improving productivity and quality traits attributing characters following randomized complete block of basmati rice always remain crucial. It is of no value to design (RBD) with three replications during kharif season of increase the production potential of genotypes compromising on two consecutive years of 2010 and 2011 at Institute of quality. To sustain the leading position of basmati exports and Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, to further improve the export potential of country amid stiff India. Transplanting was done 25 days after sowing of seeds in competition, basmati improvement should necessarily aim to nursery bed in a 4m2 plot. Plant to plant distance was 15cm, row recover transgressive segregants and hybrids without to row distance was 20cm and the crop was raised as per compromise on basmati traits is needed. Traditional basmati rice recommended package of practices to ensure normal crop. varieties are very low yielding due to their poor harvest index, Observations were recorded on ten yield attributes viz., days to tendency to lodging and increasing susceptibility to foliar 50% flowering, days to maturity, plant height (cm), panicle diseases; hence there is a need to develop new varieties length (cm), effective panicles per plant (no.), spikelets per combining the grain quality attributes of basmati with high yield panicle (no.), filled grains per panicle (no.), spikelet fertility potential (Amarawathi et al., 2008). Genetic improvement of (%), test weight (gm) and yield per plant (gm) of ten randomly any crop mainly depends upon the genetic variability present in selected plants in each entry in a replication. Observations were the population. The nature and magnitude of genetic divergence also recorded to study grain quality characters viz., brown rice would help the plant breeder in choosing right choice of parents length (mm), brown rice breadth (mm), brown rice L/B ratio, in order to obtain high amount of heterotic expression in F1s and kernel length (mm), kernel breadth (mm), kernel L/B ratio, broad spectrum variability in subsequent generations kernel length after cooking (mm), elongation ratio, alkali spread (Vivekanandan and Subramanian, 1993). Keeping this in view, value (Little et al., 1958) and amylose content (Juliano 1971). the present investigation was undertaken to study the nature and For statistical analysis, INDOSTAT software was used. The degree of genetic divergence among some indigenous basmati mean of the 25 genotypes were analyzed statistically by the rice genotypes. A meaningful classification of experimental method outlined by Ostle (1966). The analysis of variance for material depending upon different characters helps to different characters was carried out in order to assess the genetic distinguish genetically close and diverse genotypes which is a variability among genotypes as given by Cochran and Cox prerequisite for any genetical study. (1950). The level of significance was tested at 5% and 1% using 1
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol., 6 No. 2: October 2015 ______F table values given by Fisher and Yates (1963). The genetic rank (Table 6). Hence, plant height, spikelets per panicle, diversity between the genotypes was worked out using kernel length, elongation ratio, alkali spread value and amylose Mahalanobis D2 analysis (1936) and grouping of genotypes into content may be used as selection parameters in the segregating clusters was carried out following Tocher’s method (Rao, 1948 generations. and 1952). The cluster mean values showed a wide range of variation for all the yield traits under study (Table 7) however, variation RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS among quality traits was less (Table 8). The cluster I exhibited The analysis of variance revealed a significant difference higher days to 50% flowering, days to maturity, spikelets per among twenty five genotypes for all ten yield characters panicle and lowest panicle length, spikelet fertility and test indicating the existence of high variability among the genotypes weight. Genotypes in this cluster can be used to improve (Table 2). However, there is little variation exist for quality number of spikelets per panicle which have bearing on yield. traits since basmati quality traits are unique and should not vary Cluster II designated with lower days to 50% flowering, days to (Table 3). Based on the relative magnitude of D2 estimates, maturity, effective panicles, spikelets per panicle, filled grains twenty five genotypes were grouped in to six clusters (Table 4). and yield per plant. However, this cluster is ignored as it Cluster VI was the largest, consisting of eight genotypes contains a single non-basmati genotype. Cluster III was marked followed by six genotypes in cluster V, four genotypes in cluster for its highest plant height, panicle length and filled grains and I, three genotypes each in clusters III and IV and one genotype lowest brown rice breadth. This cluster includes traditional in cluster II. The clustering pattern indicated that there was basmati cultivars with tall plant type which is an undesirable some degree of similarity of genotypes clubbed together in a character for high yield however; these genotypes can be cluster on the basis of their origin. Similar findings were utilized for grain quality traits. Cluster IV genotypes are reported by Singh et al., 2008. However, some genotypes were designated by more number of effective panicles and spikelet placed in clusters independent of geographical origin. Similar fertility also having excellent basmati cooking qualities viz kind of results were also reported in other studies (Sharma et al., highest kernel L/B ratio and kernel length after cooking. Cluster 2002; Datt and Mani, 2003; Pradhan and Mani , 2005; Sharma V genotypes represent lowest alkali spreading value. Cluster VI et al,. 2008 and Sharma et al,. 2011). represents highest test weight which has direct bearing on yield. Average intra and inter cluster distance (D2 and D) values This cluster is also possessing excellent basmati grain qualities among six clusters were presented in Table 5 and cluster like highest brown rice length, kernel length and lowest brown diagram depicted in Fig 1. The average intra cluster D values rice breadth and low kernel breadth. All the genotypes included ranged from 0 to 54.217. The highest intra cluster distance in this cluster possessing a good combination of highest grain (D=54.217) was observed in the cluster III, indicating wide yield without compromising on quality which shows importance genetic variation among the genotypes included in the cluster. of using genotypes in this cluster as one of the parents in This cluster included traditional basmati varieties viz Basmati breeding programme. For instance, Pusa basmati-1, in addition 370 and Type-3 or Dehradooni basmati. Emphasis should be to remaining as a landmark variety, it served as donor variety given to this cluster while selection of parents for hybridization for developing many progressively improved basmati quality programme since traditional basmati cultivars are excellent in varieties and hybrids (Siddiq et al., 2012). It was observed that basmati cooking qualities. The inter cluster D values ranged except cluster VI, no other cluster contained the combination of from 66.770 to 120.259. The maximum genetic distance was both yield and quality features together in its member. between cluster IV and I (D=120.259) followed by cluster III Considering the importance of genetic distance, relative and II (D=113.08), cluster III and I (D=111.83) and cluster VI contributions of characters towards total divergence, the present and III (D=106.715), revealing that genotypes included in these investigation suggests that parental lines selected from cluster clusters are genetically diverse and may give rise to superior VI for plant height, test weight, kernel length, alkali spread recombinants and high heterotic response. However, it was value and amylose content; cluster IV for effective number of noted that cluster II included only one genotype which is a non- panicles, spikelet fertility, kernel L/B ratio and kernel length basmati. This cluster should not used for basmati breeding since after cooking; cluster III for panicle length and filled grains to isolate good basmati quality genotype, both parents in a cross could be used in breeding programme to isolate superior should possess basmati quality traits. recombinant genotypes with higher yield and best basmati Percentage contribution of the characters towards total quality. However, it was noted that, unlike the development of divergence (Fig 2) revealed that maximum percentage of non-basmati hybrids, the task of developing basmati quality contribution came from the trait plant height (34%), followed by hybrids was challenging as the development of parental lines kernel length (14%), elongation ratio (14%), alkali spread value was required to be incorporated with the basmati quality traits in (12%), brown rice L/B ratio (8%), amylose content (7%) and order to improve the yield potential without sacrificing the spikelets per panicle (5%). Relative importance of some of these special quality features of basmati. characters in inter varietal divergence on basmati rice was ACKNOWLEDGEMENT reported in other study (Datt and Mani, 2003; Pradhan and Mani, 2005; and Singh et al., 2008). The other traits had very The authors are thankful to Head, Department of Genetics low contribution to genetic divergence. Contribution of each and Plant Breeding, I.Ag.Sci, BHU and Dr. Vijai P, Assistant character towards genetic divergence has been estimated from Professor, Department of Plant Physiology, I. Ag. Sci., BHU for the number of times that each character appeared in the first necessary help in lab.
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Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol., 6 No. 2: October 2015 ______Table: 1 List of basmati varieties under study: Variety Parentage Origin TBD-1 Mutant of Taroari Basmati BHU TBD-2 Mutant of Taroari Basmati BHU TAROARI BASMATI Pureline selection from local Basmati Haryana BASMATI 370 Pureline selection from local agro commercial group Punjab KASTURI BASMATI Basmati 370/CR 88-17-1-5 DRR, Hyderabad SONASAL BASMATI - Jammu & Kashmir RANBIR BASMATI Selection from Bas 370-90-95 Jammu & Kashmir PUSA 2517-2-51-1 - IARI, New Delhi PUSA BASMATI-1 Pusa 167/Kernal local IARI, New Delhi PUSA BASMATI-1S-97 Selection from Pusa Basmati-1 BHU PUSA 44 IARI 5901-2/IR-8 IARI, New Delhi PUSA SUGANDH-3 - IARI, New Delhi PUSA SUGANDH-5 Pusa 3A/Haryana Basmati IARI, New Delhi HUBR-2-1 HBR 92/Pusa Basmati-1/Kasturi BHU BASMATI-24-1 Local land race Maharaj ganj, U.P BASMATI-24-5 Local land race Partawal, U.P BASMATI-24-7 Local land race Siddardh nagar, U.P VASUMATI - PUSA SUGANDH-2 - IARI, New Delhi CSR-30(YAMINI) Selection from Taroari Basmati JP-2 Collection from Basti Uttar Pradesh PUSA 1460 Improved Pusa Basmati-1 IARI, New Delhi PUSA 1121(Pusa Sugandh-4) Pusa 614-1-2/Pusa 614-2-4-3 IARI, New Delhi MAHI SUGANDHA BK 79/Basmati 370 Rajasthan TYPE-3 Selection from Dehradoon Basmati Uttar Pradesh
Table 2. Analysis of variance for yield attributing characters in Basmati rice. Days to Plant Panicle Effective Spikelets/ Filled Spikelet Test Days to Yield per plant Source d.f. 50% Height Length Panicles Panicle Grains Fertility Weight maturity (gms) Flowering (cm) (cm) (no.) (no.) (no.) (%) (gms) Replication 2 0.413 0.093 0.982 1.279 0.213 0.373 25.120 0.492 0.010 0.538 Treatment 24 204.120** 202.396** 1117.06** 24.205** 11.264** 2425.97** 1734.05** 23.470** 0.315 18.988** Error 48 0.705 0.675 0.573 0.353 0.074 5.901 11.38 2.969 0.013 0.447 **Significance at p=0.01
Table 3. Analysis of variance for quality characters in Basmati rice. Brown Brown Brown Kernel Kernel Kernel Alkali Amylose Rice Rice Rice KLAC Elongation Source d.f Length Breadth L/B Spread Content Length Breadth L/B (mm) Ratio (mm) (mm) Ratio Value (%) (mm) (mm) Ratio Replication 2 0.005 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.003 0.042 0.036 0.000 0.053 0.108 Treatment 24 2.330** 0.005 0.596 2.187* 0.034 0.606 6.048** 0.075 7.692** 4.296** Error 48 0.004 0.002 0.000 0.001 0.002 0.016 0.025 0.000 0.025 0.083 **Significance at p=0.01, *Significance at p=0.05
Table 4. Distribution of 25 genotypes of Basmati rice into different clusters Cluster Genotypes included Number I TBD-1, TBD-2, Pusa 44, Basmati 24-1. 4 II J.P-2. 1 III Basmati 370, Sonasal Basmati, Type-3. 3 IV Taroari Basmati, Ranbir Basmati, Mahi Sugandha. 3 V HUBR-2-1, Basmati 24-5, Basmati 24-7, Vasumati, Kasturi Basmati, CSR-30. 6 VI Pusa 2571-1-51-1, Pusa Basmati-1, Pusa Basmati-1S-97, Pusa Sugandha-3, Pusa Sugandha-5, Pusa Sugandha-2, Pusa 1460, Pusa 1121. 8
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Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol., 6 No. 2: October 2015 ______Table 5. Average intra (diagonal, bold) and Inter Cluster distance (D2 and D) values among six clusters. Cluster 1 Cluster 2 Cluster 3 Cluster 4 Cluster 5 Cluster 6 Cluster 1 2560.624 5023.218 12507.210 14462.350 6216.438 9804.567 (50.602) (70.874) (111.835) (120.259) (78.844) (99.018) Cluster 2 0.000 12787.240 11060.010 5425.273 6470.942 (0) (113.080) (105.166) (73.656) (80.442) Cluster 3 2939.550 4498.574 5818.756 11388.150 (54.217) (67.07) (76.280) (106.715) Cluster 4 1290.658 4458.332 5479.328 (35.925) (66.770) (74.022) Cluster 5 2187.157 4661.551 (46.767) (68.275) Cluster 6 2057.086 (45.355) (D values are in parenthesis).
Table 6. Times ranked first and percentage contribution to total D2 CHARACTERS TIMES RANKED IST ff PERCENTAGE CONTRIBUTION TO TOTAL D2 Days to 50% Flowering 4 1.33 Days to Maturity 0 0.00 Plant Height (cm) 102 34.00 Panicle Length(cm) 0 0.00 Effective Panicles 1 0.33 Spikelets/ Panicle 14 4.67 Filled Grains 0 0.00 Spikelet Fertility % 0 0.00 Test Weight (100 Grain Wt 0 0.00 Yield/ Plant (gm) 0 0.00 Brown Rice Length (mm) 2 0.67 Brown Rice Breadth (mm) 0 0.00 Brown Rice L/B Ratio 23 7.67 Kernel Length (mm) 41 13.67 Kernel Breadth (mm) 0 0.00 Kernel L/B ratio 0 0.00 KLAC(mm) 15 5.00 Elongation Ratio 41 13.67 Alkali Spread Value 36 12.00 Amylose Content(%) 21 7.00
Table 7. Mean values of different clusters with respect to10 yield traits Panicle Test Weight Days to 50% Days to Plant Effective Spikelets/ Filled Spikelet Yield/ Length (100 Grain Flowering Maturity Height (cm) Panicles Panicle Grains Fertility % Plant (gm) (cm) Wt.) 1 Cluster 105.833** 135.833** 95.658* 24.383* 10.083 195.250** 165.917 85.167* 1.772* 9.992 2 Cluster 89.667* 119.667* 108.667 28.000 6.000* 135.333* 118.333* 87.400 2.307 5.923* 3 Cluster 94.444 124.444 150.856** 30.844** 10.444 193.667 169.444** 86.983 2.003 11.647 4 Cluster 97.444 127.444 139.589 29.089 10.667** 159.889 141.667 88.552** 2.296 11.882** 5 Cluster 99.111 128.944 114.717 27.583 9.667 155.611 135.000 86.783 2.181 9.793 6 Cluster 99.875 129.875 105.792 29.333 8.500 168.000 147.208 87.765 2.472** 10.724 (*LOWEST VALUES; **HIGHEST VALUES)
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Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol., 6 No. 2: October 2015 ______Table 8. Mean values of different clusters with respect to10 quality traits Brown Brown Brown Kernel Kernel Alkali Rice Rice Kernel KLAC Elongatio Amylose Rice L/B Length Breadth Spread Length Breadth L/B ratio (mm) n Ratio Content (%) Ratio (mm) (mm) Value (mm) (mm) 1 Cluster 6.583* 2.000* 3.292* 6.500* 1.717 3.752* 12.783 1.956** 6.000 22.898 2 Cluster 8.000 2.200** 3.600 7.767 2.000** 3.883 12.400* 1.590* 6.000 20.560* 3 Cluster 6.944 2.000* 3.467 6.700 1.756 3.850 13.594 1.930 3.667 23.973 4 Cluster 8.200 2.020 4.117 7.967 1.700* 4.702** 15.633** 1.951 3.889 24.167** 5 Cluster 7.500 2.000* 3.750 7.367 1.750 4.213 13.247 1.777 3.333* 23.883 6 Cluster 8.692** 2.000* 4.346** 8.429** 1.817 4.637 14.892 1.722 6.458** 23.713 *LOWEST VALUES; **HIGHEST VALUES
Fig. 1 Relative disposition of clusters showing average genetic distance (D2) between and within them
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Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol., 6 No. 2: October 2015 ______
Fig. 2 Percentage contribution towards total Divergence
REFERENCES Amarawathi, Y., Singh, R., Singh, A.K., Singh, V.P., Mohapatra, T., Ostle, B. 1966. Statistics in research 1st edition, Oxford and Indian Sharma, T.R., Singh, N. 2008. Mapping of quantitative trait loci Book House Private Limited, New Delhi. for basmati quality traits in rice (Oryza sativa L.). Molecular Breeding, 21:49-65 Rao, C.R. 1948. The utilization of multiple measurements in problems of biological classification. Journal of Royal Statistics Society Cochran, G. W. and Cox, M.G. 1950. Experimental designs. John 10:159-203 wiley and sons, Newyork. Rao, C.R. 1952. Advanced statistical methods in biometrical research. Datt, S. and Mani, S.C. 2003. Genetic divergence in elite genotypes of John Wiley and Sons. Inc. New York. basmati rice (Oryza sativa L.). Indian Journal of Genetics and Plant Breeding, 63(1):73-74 Pradhan, S.K. and Mani, S.C. 2005. Genetic diversity in basmati rice. Oryza 42(2):150-152 Fisher, R.A. and Yates, F. 1963. Statistical tables for biological, agricultural and medical research. Oliver and Boyd, London. Sharma, A., Yadav, D.V., Singh, A.K., Yadav, G., Gulia, S., Gupta, K.R., Singh, R., Deepak, P. 2002. Genetic divergence in Juliano, B.O. 1971. A simplified assay for milled rice amylase. Cereal aromatic rice. (Oryza sativa L.). National Journal of Plant Science Today 16:334-338, 340, 360. Improvement 4(2):46-49. Little, R.R., Hilder, G.B. and Dawson, E.H. 1958. Differential effect Sharma, A., Gupta, K.R. and Kumar, R. 2008. Genetic divergence in of dilute alkali on 25 varieties of milled white rice. Cereal Basmati rice (Oryza sativa L.) under irrigated ecosystem. Crop Chemistry, 35:111-126 improvement 35(1):8-10 Mahalanobis, P.C. 1936. On the generalized distance in statistics. Sharma, S.K., Nandan, R., Singh, S.K., Sharma, A.K., Kumar, S., Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci., India:12-49 Sharma, P.K., Singh, M.K. and Kumar, V. 2011. Genetic divergence in rice (Oryza sativa L.) genotypes under irrigated condition. Progressive Agriculture 11(2):321- Singh, Y., Pani, D.R., Pradhan, S.K., Bajpai, A. and Singh, U.S. 325 2008. Divergence analysis for quality traits in some indigenous Basmati rice genotypes. Crop Improvement 45(4):263-267 Siddiq, E.A., Vemireddy, L.R., and Nagaraju, J. 2012. Basmati Rices: Genetics, Breeding and Trade. Agric Res 1(1):25-36 Vivekanandan, P. and Subramanian, S. 1993. Genetic divergence in rainfed rice. Oryza 30:60-62
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Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol., 6 No. 2: October 2015 ______Development of Trichogramma Chilonis Ishii. on Corcyra cephalonica Stainton and Spodoptera litura Fab.
DILEEP, R.C., NAIK, KUMUD V. AND DHOBE, N. S. Department of Agril. Entomology, College of Agriculture, Dr. Balasaheb sawant Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeth, Dapoli, Dist- Ratnagiri (M.S.)- 415712 Received: 03.03.15 Accepted: 02.07.15
ABSTRACT The Laboratory studies on Trichogramma chilonis Ishii. were undertaken at Entomology Department, College of agriculture, Dapoli, Dr. B.S.K.K.V., Dapoli. The host influences the growth and survival of the developing parasitoids as well as the fecundity, longevity, developmental period and sex ratio etc., Among the hosts accepted, maximum and significantly superior per cent eggs parasitized was noticed on eggs of C. cephalonica (86.67 %) which was highly preferred for parasitization by the parasitoid and minimum per cent eggs parasitized was noticed on eggs of S. litura (76.67 %) which was least preferred by the parasitoid.
Key words: Development, Trichogramma Chilonis Ishii, Corcyra cephalonica Stainton, Spodoptera litura Fab., per cent parasitization.
Biological control is the regulation of pest populations (Stainton) or Sitotroga cerealella (Olivier). Due to its using natural enemies, including predators, parasitoids, amenability to mass production, this group of parasitoids has the nematodes and microbial agents (Rosenheim, 1998; Bale et al., distinction of being maximum produced and released natural 2008). As opposed to chemical control, biological control is enemy in the world. These minute endoparasitoids of insect advantageous because it poses no threat to human health, it is eggs are released in crops or forest in large numbers (up to environment friendly, host specific, and probability of the host several millions/ha) timed as per the presence of pest eggs. developing resistance is low. In addition, development of Trichogramma are the most widely augmented species of biological control agent is less expensive compared to natural enemy, mass-produced and field released for about 70 development of an insecticide (Bale et al., 2008). Environment years in biological control efforts. Worldwide over 32 million friendly nature of the biological control can save a huge amount ha area under agricultural crops and forest are treated annually of foreign exchange which is being spent on the import of with different Trichogramma species in 19 countries, mostly in insecticides annually. China and Republic of Soviet Union (Li, 1994). Among the several parasitoids successfully used in the pest management strategies, Trichogrammatids are one of the MATERIAL AND METHODS most important groups of bio agents with renowned interest for Mass production and maintenance of C. cephalonica the suppression of lepidopterous pests all over in India. The culture: genus Trichogramma Westwood and closely related The nucleus culture of C. cephalonica in the form of eggs Trichogrammatoidea Girault parasitoids attack on egg stage of was procured from NBAII, Bangalore and was mass produced the pest. More than 150 species of Trichogrammatids, are and the culture was maintained in a separate room. Bold grains distributed throughout the world parasitizing eggs of over 200 of sorghum were used as larval food. The bold grains of insect species belonging to mainly Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, sorghum were milled in a domestic milling machine making two Neuroptera and Diptera, the majority being Lepidoptera. They pieces of each grain and heat sterilized in hot air oven at 1000C are observed in diverse habitats ranging from aquatic to for 30 minutes to make free from any secondary infestation. arboreal. In India, about 26 Trichogrammatids are recorded; of Material was also treated with streptomycin sulphate @ 0.2 g which, Trichogramma chilonis (Ishii), Trichogramma per kg, to prevent the bacterial infection. Crushed, raw japonicum Ashmead and Trichogramma acheae Nagaraja and groundnut @ 250 g was added to one kilogram of sorghum and Nagarkatti are of significant importance. kept in pre-sterilized wooden trays (30 x 20 cm). Trays were T. chilonis (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae), a minute arranged in a metal shelf. Ant wells were provided to avoid wasp from a group of insects of great importance to biological crawling of ants. Each tray was inoculated with 1000 eggs of control, is a natural enemy of many harmful lepidopterous Corcyra (0-1 hr old) and thoroughly mixed to have uniform insect pests of crops and vegetables. The unique character of distribution of eggs in food material. These trays were secured this minute parasitoid is that, it is exclusively an egg parasitoid, with lid so as to avoid escape of either larvae or moths. The therefore, play important role in pest suppression programme by trays were kept undisturbed for 40 days. destroying the early stage of the pest thereby, curtailing the use After 40 days, the moths were collected by using of pesticides and contributing to prevent environmental mechanical moth collection device and transferred to the pollution. specially designed oviposition cages daily at 8.00 a.m. from each tray. The collected moths were allowed to mate and lay Trichogrammatids are one of the important parasitoids eggs in separate egg laying cages prepared from plastic bucket amenable for mass production, which can be accomplished by (20 lit capacities). The eggs thus laid were collected in the next mass culturing its factitious host, either Corcyra cephalonica morning and cleaned to remove scales and other body parts of 7
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol., 6 No. 2: October 2015 ______the moths, by rolling them on blotting paper. Cleaned eggs were Freshly laid, U.V irradiated 20 eggs of respective host’s further used to maintain the Corcyra culture and for undertaking were pasted randomly on a small white paper card strip (4 x 3.5 various research aspects. cm) separately with the help of diluted gum which were then air Mass production and maintenance of T. chilonis culture: dried and were served to 3 pre-mated freshly emerged females The nucleus culture of T. chilonis in the form of of T. chilonis from mass culture in a small glass vial (7.5 × 7 trichocard was procured from NBAII, Bangalore. Cards (15 x 8 cm). After 24 h, the paper strip were removed and kept in a cm) were prepared from white colour cardboard paper to separate same size vial for further development of the parasitoid maintain the Trichogramma culture in the laboratory throughout and following biological parameters of T. chilonis from the experiment period. The eggs of Corcyra were used for the respective host’s trichocards were recorded separately. preparation of Trichocards. Per cent parasitization Cleaned eggs of C. cephalonica were exposed to Ultra Black coloured eggs were considered as the parasitized Violet (U.V) radiation in a U.V chamber for 45 minutes at a eggs, on the basis of which, per cent parasitization was height of 15 cm so as to kill the embryo. These eggs were used determined. for preparing Trichocards. Per cent adult emergence One cc eggs of Corcyra were sprinkled on each card Out of total parasitized eggs, the number of parasitoids smeared with a thin layer of pure gum arabic mixed with emerged were counted and per cent adult emergence was distilled water with 5 ml plastic vial having a perforated lid. A determined. single layer of uniformly distributed Corcyra eggs was formed Sex ratio on the card. After proper drying, the individual egg card was To determine sex ratio the emerged adults were first killed introduced in glass bottle (15 × 25 cm) having freshly emerged by keeping them under refrigerator at 00 C. From those killed T. chilonis adults. Adults of T. chilonis were fed on 5 per cent adults, sexing was done by observing individual parasitoid honey solution in the form of a fine streak on the inner wall of under 10X hand lens based on the morphological characters, as the bottle. Adults were allowed to parasitize Corcyra egg cards given below. for 24 hours. Trichocards thus parasitized were shifted to Male: Male was darker and usually smaller than female, with separate plastic bottles. Each parasitized card was provided with black colour short, round abdomen. Antenna was distinct, long, the date of parasitization and proposed date of emergence of the more plumose, with black long bristles. Dorsum of thorax was parasitoid. The parasitized eggs turned black on the fourth day brown with black tinge. due to the deposition of black granules in the inner surface of Female: Female was pale in colour and larger than male. Body the chorion. This was an indication of the development of was yellowish orange, with tapering abdomen. Antenna was parasitoid. The parasitoid emergence started after seventh day of short, not distinct, was less plumose with few short bristles. parasitization. Hence, new cards were prepared after seven days Adult longevity: for maintaining the pure culture, which further was utilized in Newly emerged five male and female adult parasitoids various studies. were kept individually in a small glass vial (7.5 x 7 cm) without Mass production and maintenance of S. litura culture: food. The adult longevity was worked out from their emergence The initial culture of S. litura was obtained by collecting till death. the larval stages from the infested crop like caster and marigold Total developmental period: grown in University Farm. The larvae then reared in cylindrical From first day of parasitization till death of adult was transparent glass jars (42 cm height; 30 cm diameter) having recorded to determine total developmental period. piece of blotting paper at their bottom. Fresh tender leaves of caster were provided as food for larvae twice a day. The top of RESULTS AND DISCUSSION the glass jar was covered with muslin cloth secured firmly with Development of T. chilonis on C. cephalonica and S. litura: rubber band. Fully developed last instar larvae were The host influences the growth and survival of the handpicked and transferred to glass jars having 7.5 cm thick developing parasitoids as well as the fecundity, longevity, layer of fine soil at the bottom. Moths emerged from pupae developmental period and sex ratio etc., Thus one would expect were used for building up of subsequent culture. Newly improvement in their biological efficiency by rearing them on emerged male and female were confined into large glass jars for some suitable hosts. Hence to find out the egg parasitoid mating along with folded pieces of black blotting paper for egg biological efficiency two hosts viz., C. cephalonica and S. litura laying. The freshly emerged male and female moths were were selected and following biological parameters were tested. confined to single glass jar in ratio of 2:3, respectively. Five The results are discussed under following sub headings. such sets were maintained for egg laying. The inner side of each Per cent parasitization : glass jar was lined with blotting paper to create favourable The data on per cent parasitization of Corcyra and conditions for egg laying. A piece of circular blotting paper was Spodoptera eggs by T. chiolis females are presented in Table 1. placed at the bottom of each glass jar. Cotton swab soaked in 10 The data revealed that among the host eggs offered, the per cent sugar solution was kept suspended in each glass jar as parasitoid accepted eggs of both the hosts for parasitization. adult food. The cotton swab was changed periodically. The egg Among the hosts accepted, maximum and significantly superior laid on blotting paper were collected by cutting away the piece per cent eggs parasitized was noticed on eggs of C. cephalonica of paper along with the egg mass and cleaned. The Cleaned (86.67 %) which was highly preferred for parasitization by the eggs were further used to maintain the S. litura culture and for parasitoid and minimum per cent eggs parasitized was noticed undertaking various research aspects. on eggs of S. litura (76.67 %) which was least preferred by the Development of T. chilonis on C. cephalonica and S. litura parasitoid. 8
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol., 6 No. 2: October 2015 ______Ram and Irulandi (1989) reported highest per cent egg Earlier work of Jalali et al. (1987) revealed that sex ratio parasitization in case of eggs of C. cephalonica (85.24 %) in T. remus was 1:1.10 from S. litura, while 1:0.86 from eggs followed by C. partellus (77.47 %) and lowest in eggs of E. of C. cephalonica. Mehendale (2009) recorded that sex ratio in lunata (52.25 %). T. chilonis was 1:1.40 and 1:1.30 in S. litura and C. cephalonica Selvaraj and Sundarababu (1995) also reported similar eggs recpectively. Present findings also revealed higher females findings of highest per cent egg parasitization (78.40 %) by T. from eggs of S. litura and lowest from C. cephalonica thus chilonis in eggs of P. operculella followed by 76.40 per cent in followed the results as above. C. cephalonica and lowest in eggs of S. litura (42.80 %) and H. Adult longevity of male T. chilonis : armigera (33.40 %). Their findings also support the present The data on adult longevity of male parasitoid emerged results. from both the host eggs are presented in Table 1. The results Per cent adult emergence: revealed significant difference in the longevity of emerged The data on per cent adult emergence of T. chilonis on parasitoid males from eggs of both host. From eggs of S. litura both the host eggs are presented in Table 1. The data revealed the male parasitoid lived much longer (3.67 days) compared to that the maximum per cent adult emergence was noticed on the shorter (2.83 days) from eggs of C. cephalonica. eggs of S. litura (90.13 %) and followed by eggs of C. Rathi and Ram (2000) reported longer (5.6 days) male cephalonica (89.48 %) which was at par with S. litura. adult longevity on H. armigera and shortest (4.6 days) on C. Rathi and Ram (2000) recorded 93.30 and 90.90 per cent cephalonica. Present findings also revealed longer male adult T. chilonis adult emergence when reared on C. cephalonica and longivity from eggs of S. litura and shorter from C. H. armigera, respectively. Their findings also in line with the cephalonica. present results. Adult longevity of female T. chilonis: Per cent T. chilonis female adults emergence: The data on adult longevity of femalr parasitoid emerged The data on per cent female adult emergence of T. from both the host eggs are presented in Table 1. The results chilonis on both the host eggs are presented in Table 1. The data revealed significant difference in the longevity of emerged revealed that the maximum per cent female Trichogramma female parasitoid from eggs of both the hosts. Female emergence was noticed on eggs of S. litura (67.35 %) and parasitoids from eggs of S. litura lived much longer (5.33 days) lowest on eggs of C. cephalonica (60.22 %). The per cent compared to shorter (4.50 days) from eggs of C. cephalonica. female Trichogramma emergence on S. litura was significantly Rathi and Ram (2000) reported longer (8.5 days) female superior over per cent female Trichogramma emergence on C. adult longevity on H. armigera and shortest (7.8days) on C. cephalonica. cephalonica. Their findings also support the present results. Rathi and Ram (2000) recovered higher female population Total development period: from emerged adults of T. chilonis from the eggs of A. moorei The data on total development period of parasitoid from (74.90 %) followed by E. vittella (73.30 %), H. armigera (71.50 both the host eggs are presented in Table 1. The results revealed %) and lowest (68.70 %) from eggs of C. cephalonica. Present significant difference in the total development period of findings also revealed the results as above. parasitoid on eggs of S. litura which was longest (11.17 days) Sex ratio (M:F): and shortest (9.33 days) on the eggs of C. cephalonica. The data on sex ratio of T. chilonis reared on eggs of C. Rathi and Ram (2000) found that the development period cephalonica and S. litura are presented in Table 1. The sex ratio was longer (11.2 days) on H. armigera eggs and shorter (9.3 was female biased on both host eggs. The maximum female days) on eggs of C. cephalonica. Present findings also revealed parasitoid recovery was noticed from S. litura eggs (1:2.1) and longer development period from eggs of S. litura and shorter less female parasitoid recovery was noticed from C. from C. cephalonica. cephalonica eggs (1:1.53).
Table: 1 Development of T. chilonis on C. cephalonica and S. litura Biological Parameters C. cephalonica S. litura S.Em ± CD @5% Per cent eggs parasitized 86.67(68.76) 76.67(61.18) 1.25 3.93 Per cent adults emerged 89.48(71.36) 90.13(72.18) 1.85 NS Per cent female 60.22(50.92) 67.35(55.18) 1.01 3.17 Sex ratio (M:F) 1:1.53 1:2.10 - - Adult longevity Male 2.83(9.69) 3.67(11.03) 0.32 1.00 (Days) Female 4.50(12.23) 5.33(13.34) 0.29 0.91 Total developmental period (Days) 9.33(17.78) 11.17(19.51) 0.25 0.77 (Figures inside the parentheses are arcsine values.)
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Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol., 6 No. 2: October 2015 ______REFERENCES
Bale, J.S., Van, L.J.C. and Bigler, R. (2008). Biological Ram, A. and V.Irulandi (1989). Influence of host eggs on control and sustainable food production. Philosophical biology of Trichogramma exiguum Pinto, Platner and Transactions of The Royal Soc. Bio. Sci., 363: 761-776. Oatman (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae). Indian J. Ent., 51(4): 361-365. Jalali, S.K., Singh, S.P., Balal, C.R. and Kumar, P. (1987). Evaluation of different insect eggs for rearing of egg Rosenheim and Jay, A. (1998). Higher order predators and the parasitoid Telenomus remus Nixon (Hymenoptera: regulation of insect behavior population. Annual Review Scelionidae). J. Biol.Control., 1(2): 138-140. of Entomology., 43: 421-443. Li, L.Y. (1994). Worldwide use of Trichogramma for biological Rathi, R.S. and Ram, P. (2000). Effect of eggs of different control of different crops: a survey. In Wainberg, E. and hosts on some biological and morphological Hassan, A. eds. Biological control with egg parasitoids characters of Trichogramma chilonis Ishii (Hymenoptera: CAB international, Wallingford. pp. 37-54. Trichogrammatidae). J. ent. Res., 24(4): 331-335. Mehendale, S.K. (2009). Nutritional aspect of factiotious host Selvaraj, A. and Sundarababu, P.C. (1995). Influence of Corcyra cephalonica (Stainton) and parasitization different hosts on the adults of Trichogramma potential of egg parasitoid Trichogramma chilonis chilonis. Madras Agric J., 82(3): 204-06. (Ishii) under South Gujrat condition. Ph.D. (Agri.) Thesis, submitted to Navsari Agriculture University, Navsari (Gujrat). Pp- 98.
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Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol., 6 No. 2: October 2015 ______Market Integration of Gram in Major Domestic Markets of Rajasthan
*HEMANT SHARMA AND **S.S. BURARK *Assistant Professor, AERC, SPUVVN, Anand, Gujrat **Prof. & Head, Department of Agril. Economics & Management , RCA, MPUAT, Udaipur, Rajasthan Received: 31.07.15 Accepted: 07.09.15 ABSTRACT Gram is the world’s third most-important food legume crop. In Rajasthan, gram is cultivated as a rainfed (Barani) crop in most of the districts. Therefore, production fluctuates year to year. The analysis of prices and market arrivals over time is important for formulating a sound agricultural price policy. Fluctuations in market arrivals largely contribute to the price instability of gram in the state. This paper conducts robust tests for market integration in wholesale gram markets in Rajasthan. The study confirmed that market price linkage and the interrelationship among the spatial markets are important in economic analysis. Inter- market price linkages and speed of adjustment to shocks showed that transportation cost has impact in determining the speed and degree of the integration The data used in the co-integration analysis consists of monthly wholesale prices of seven gram dominated markets of Rajasthan for the period from 2003 to 2012.The results of the Augmented Dickey-Fuller (ADF) unit root test for gram showed that the existing data were non-stationary but their first differences were stationary. This implies the presence of unit root in the selected market price series of gram. Hence, the gram price series were integrated of the order 1 i.e. I (1). Johansen’s co-integration test for gram at least five co-integrating equation at 5 per cent level of significance. Hence markets were having long run equilibrium relationship. The results of Granger Causality Test depicted that most of the markets had bidirectional as well as unidirectional influences on gram prices. These markets affected by prices of each other. Therefore, in order to continue the present system of market integration, there is need to establish cells to generate market information and market intelligence which would provide a better platform for guiding the farmers in marketing their produce. Key words: Co- Integration, Gram, Market and Wholesale price. Gram is the world’s third most-important food legume leading to an imperfect pricing system, in which either final crop. It is probably used in more diverse food preparations than consumer or final producer or both would be adversely affected. any other pulse crop. The world gram production has hovered in The spatial price variations are the variations in prices the range of 8-9 million tonnes and remained stable around 8 observed over different markets. They occur due to differences million tonnes in the last 10 years. It is being cultivated on 10- in location of production and consumption of commodities. In 12 million hectares across the globe, mainly in South Asian and theory, in a perfect market, the price of a good at one market is Middle Eastern countries. India is the largest producer and not expected to exceed the price at other markets by more than constitutes about 64 per cent of the world production. Other the transport cost. The degree to which wholesale prices of a major producers are Pakistan and Turkey. More than 90 per cent commodity in different markets are related to one another is an of the chickpeas (gram) are consumed in the countries where important consideration in determining the efficiency of the they are produced, and developing countries like India and marketing system. The inter-relation between the price Pakistan import to meet the shortages from countries like movements in different markets mostly depends upon the nature Australia and Canada. During 2010-11, the total production and extent of competition. An analysis of such inter- touched to 8.25 million tonnes in India. The major gram relationships helps us in understanding the efficiency of the producing states in India are Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, marketing system. Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. In The analysis of prices and market arrivals over time is Rajasthan, gram is cultivated as a rainfed (Barani) crop in most important for formulating a sound agricultural price policy. of the districts. Therefore, production fluctuates year to year. Fluctuations in market arrivals largely contribute to the price According to fourth estimates of rabi crop 2012-13 area under instability of gram in the state. The transaction in commodity gram has increased by 85.75 % to 16.42 lakh hectares as exchanges also play an important role on the spot price of gram compared to 8.84 lakh hectares in the previous year. Likewise as it gives some indication of future price. In order to reduce the production under gram has increased by 15.32 per cent to the instability in price fluctuations of gram, there is a need to 8.88 million tonnes compared to 7.70 million tonne in 2011-12. have a thorough understanding of the price behaviour over time Agricultural commodities possess more or less uniform and over space. The long run equilibrium between the market price trend overtime due to seasonality in nature. The price prices of gram are indicated by the Vector Error Correction behaviour of the agricultural commodities is based on the Model (VECM) for the non-stationary individually with a long traditional theory of supply and demand conditions. Due to run relationship in the time series data. Hence, the present study seasonal production behaviour of agricultural commodities, it is was an attempt to assess the market integration and volatility of viewed that during peak arrivals, the prices would be low and gram crop in Rajasthan. vice versa. However, the demand of agricultural produce is spread throughout the year. Under such a situation the validity MATERIAL AND METHODS of the determination of price of an agricultural commodity Market Integration in prices based on aggregate demand and supply conditions at a given Testing for market integration is central to the design of time is uncertain. In fact, this results in a hazardous situation any agricultural price policy in many developing countries and has been an area of abiding research interest. This literature can 11
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol., 6 No. 2: October 2015 ______be divided into three broad categories. Until recently three is, to be integrated to the same order with evidence of some broad approaches were used to investigate market integration: linear combination of the integrated series. (i) that devised prior to the use of cointegration techniques, (ii) Error Correction Methodology (ECM) those using cointegration methods of the Engle-Granger variety, ECM captures the short-run dis-equilibrium situations and (iii) those using Johansen maximum-likelihood techniques as well as the long-run equilibrium adjustments between prices. (Johansen, 1988). To the extent that agricultural prices tested ECM can incorporate such short-run and long-run changes in are non-stationary, the latter technique is more appropriate. the price movements. A generalized ECM formulation to The concept of co-integration developed by Engle and understand both the short-run and long-run behaviour of prices Granger (1987) was used in testing the market integration. Most can be considered by first taking the autoregressive distributed market commodity prices, whether international or domestic, lag (ADL) equation as follows: are basically non-stationary. A stochastic process is said to be stationary, if its mean and variance between any two time Yt 01 X t a11X t1 a12Yt1 t periods depend only on the distance or lag between the two time (a a ) periods and not on the actual time at which the covariance is 01 11 Yt a01X t (1 a12 ) X t1 Yt1 t computed. (1 a12 ) If the non-stationary time series data like prices are used, The generalized form of this equation for k lags and an 2 it usually would yield a high R and t ratios which are biased intercept term is as follows: towards rejecting the null hypothesis if no relationship between the variables is concerned. k1 k1 Co-integration test starts with the premise that for a long- Yt a00 ai1X ti ai2 Yti m0 [m1 X tk Ytk ] t run equilibrium relationship to exist between two variables, it is i0 i1 necessary that they should have the same inter temporal k characteristics. Thus, the first step involves testing for a k i1 stationarity for variables. Economic interest in the theory of where m (1 a ), and m i0 testing the unit roots have led to development of a variety of 0 i2 1 i1 m0 tests to test for the order of integration and the presence of unit The parameters m0 measures the rate of adjustment of roots in time series data. In econometrics, a time series that has the short-run deviations towards the long run equilibrium. a unit root is known as a random walk which is an example of a Theoretically, this parameter lies between 0 and 1. The value 0 non-stationary time series. If the original series is found to be denotes no adjustment and 1 indicates an instantaneous non-stationary, the first difference of the series are tested for adjustment. A value between 0 and 1 indicates that any stationarity. deviations will have gradual adjustment to the long-run The most widely used tests for unit roots are the Dickey- equilibrium values. Fuller (DF) test and the Augmented Dickey-Fuller test (ADF). Engle-Granger causality Both tests the null hypothesis that the series has a unit root or in An autoregressive distributed lag (ADL) model for the other words, it is not stationary. The DF test was applied by Granger-causality test was developed following the Engle and running the regression of the following form: Granger (1987) specification provided below: ΔYt = βt + δYt-1 + Ut j k Where, ΔYt = (Yt - Yt-1); Yt = In Yt 1 1 2 Pt 0T j Pt j hk Ptk t The ADF test was run with the following equation, j1 k1
n where T is the time trend, t is the error term, and other terms are as defined in earlier equations. ΔYt = βt + δYt-1 + αi + ΔYt-1+et Lags for the ADL model were selected to minimize the i 1 Akaike’s Information Criterion. Granger causality tests were Where, ΔYt = (Yt - Yt-1); ΔYt-1 = (Yt-1 - Yt-2) specified as: Co-Integration Cointegration means that despite being individually non- stationary, a linear combination of two or more time series can be stationary. The series that satisfy this requirement are said to H : h h ... h 0 be co-integrated. 0 1 2 k j k Following Granger (1988), a time series xt which has a 2 1 2 stationary, invertible, non-deterministic ARMA representation Pt 0T j Pt j k Ptk t after differencing d times is integrated of order d and is denoted j1 k1 by xt l(d). The components of the vector xt are said to be co H 0 :1 2 ... k 0 integrated of order d, b, denoted CI (d,b), if Data all the components of xt are I(d); and there exists a vector The data used in the co-integration analysis consists of ’ xt is 1(d-b), b>0 monthly wholesale prices of seven gram dominated markets i.e. The vector is then called a cointegrating vector. A Anoopgarh, Bikaner, Hanumangarh, Padampur, Pilibanga , necessary condition for cointegration is that the data series for Sriganganagar and Sangria markets of Rajasthan for the period each variable involved exhibit similar statistical properties, that from 2003 to 2012.
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Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol., 6 No. 2: October 2015 ______RESULTS AND DISCUSSION As a part of co- integration analysis, Granger Causality Test was conducted to know whether co-integration exists The Augmented Dickey Fuller based unit root test between two gram markets or not. The results for Granger procedure was done to check whether the price series of gram is causality test revealed that (Table 4) Hanumangarh granger stationary or not. It could be inferred that ADF test values were cause Anoopgarh, Pilibanga and Ganganagar markets; Bikaner above the critical value (1 per cent) given by MacKinnon market granger cause Padampur, Anoopgarh and Ganganagar statistical tables at levels implying that the series were non markets; Pilibanga market granger cause Padampur and stationary at their levels indicating the existence of unit root as Sangaria markets both, Padampur market granger cause depicted in Table 1. After taking first difference, all the series Anoopgarh, Hanumangarh and Ganganagar markets; Sangaria became stationary as the calculated values (-10.1363 to - market granger cause Bikaner, Anoopgarh, Ganganagar and 14.5809) for all the markets were less than the critical value (- Pilibanga markets and Ganganagar market granger cause 4.0397) and were free from the consequence of unit root. The Pilibanga market only. occurrence of unit root in the price data generation process of Pilibanga market granger cause Anoopgarh gram market these commodities gave a preliminary indication of shocks price and vice versa, Hanumangarh market granger cause which may have permanent or long-lasting effect. Ali (2009) Bikaner market and vice versa, Sangaria market granger cause also obtained similar results while studying the performance of Hanumangarh market and vice versa, Sangaria market granger commodity markets for pulses in India. cause Hanumangarh and Padampur markets and vice versa, Johansen’s Multiple Cointegration analysis Pilibanga market price granger cause Bikaner and Padampur Based on the Johansen’s Multiple Co- integration both the markets and vice versa. In all these cases the procedure, the integration between the markets was analysed probability value was less than 0.05. Thus, a strong integration using E- views software which indicated the presence of at least (both bi-directional and uni-directional) of different gram five integration equations at 5 per cent level of significance. markets in Rajasthan was confirmed through these results of the Hence the markets were having long run equilibrium study. relationships. The results are presented in Table 2. Summary Vector error correction model This paper conducts robust tests for market integration in Since different domestic gram markets were integrated in wholesale gram markets in Rajasthan. The study confirmed that the long run, it is important to study the short run and long run market price linkage and the interrelationship among the spatial association for equilibrium among the markets. Hence Vector markets are important in economic analysis. Inter-market price Error Correction Model (VECM) was employed to know the linkages and speed of adjustment to shocks showed that speed of adjustments among gram markets for long run price transportation cost has impact in determining the speed and equilibrium. From the results of the Vector Error Correction degree of the integration .The results of the Augmented Dickey- model, it was clearly depicted that Hanumangarh and Sangaria Fuller (ADF) unit root test for gram showed that the existing markets came to short run equilibrium as indicated by the level data were non-stationary but their first differences were of significance and the speed of adjustment was rapid as shown stationary. This implies the presence of unit root in the selected in Table 3. In long run, Anoopgarh gram market prices were market price series of gram. Hence, the gram price series were influenced by its own one and two months lag. Bikaner prices integrated of the order 1 i.e. I (1). Johansen’s co-integration test were influenced by its own one month lag and Sangaria price in for gram at least five co-integrating equation at 5 per cent level one month lag. Hanumangarh prices were influenced by of significance. Hence markets were having long run Padampur price in two months lag and Padampur prices were equilibrium relationship. The results of Granger Causality Test influenced by one month lagged price in Sangria market. depicted that most of the markets had bidirectional as well as Pilibanga market prices were influenced by one and two months unidirectional influences on gram prices. These markets lag of its own market and Sriganganagar price in two months affected by prices of each other. Therefore, in order to continue lag. Sriganganagar prices were influenced by its own one month the present system of market integration, there is need to lag and Sangria market by one month lagg prices. Similar establish cells to generate market information and market results were obtained by Ajjan et al. (2013) while studying the intelligence which would provide a better platform for guiding market integration of gram. the farmers in marketing their produce. The Pairwise Granger Causality Test
Table: 1 ADF test results of gram price series. Markets At Level First difference Mackinnon Critical value (1%) ANUG -1.740048 -14.5809 BKN -1.845031 -10.2806 HMH -0.825110 -11.0513 PDP -1.791762 -10.1363 - 4.0397 PLB -2.057039 -15.6550 SGNR -1.987129 -11.6659 SNG -2.278790 -12.2677 (MacKinnon critical value for rejection of hypothesis of a unit root) (ANUG- Anoopgarh, BKN- Bikaner, HMH- Hanumangarh, PDP- Padampur, PLB- Pilibanga , SGNR- Sriganganagar, SNG- Sangria)
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Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol., 6 No. 2: October 2015 ______Table: 2 Multiple cointegration analysis of selected gram markets. Sample (adjusted): 2003M01 2012M12 Included observations: 113 after adjustments Series: ANUG BKN HMH PDP PLB SGNR SNG Lags interval (in first differences): 1 to 3 Hypothesized No. of CE(s) Eigenvalue Trace Statistic 0.05 Critical Value Prob.** None * 0.436427 223.6599 150.5585 0.0000 At most 1 * 0.328895 158.8591 117.7082 0.0000 At most 2 * 0.295828 113.7914 88.80380 0.0003 At most 3 * 0.239673 74.15862 63.87610 0.0054 At most 4 * 0.170094 43.19589 42.91525 0.0469 At most 5 0.144226 22.12785 25.87211 0.1364 At most 6 0.039281 4.528235 12.51798 0.6649 Trace test indicates 5 cointegrating eqn(s) at the 0.05 level * denotes rejection of the hypothesis at the 0.05 level **MacKinnon-Haug-Michelis (1999) p-values
Table: 3 Speed of gram price adjustment in selected markets (VECM)
Error Correction: D(ANUG) D(BKN) D(HMH) D(PDP) D(PLB) D(SGNR) D(SNG) CointEq1 -0.070092 -0.076359 -0.148338 0.058508 -0.012031 -0.039814 -0.174027 (0.08135) (0.05799) (0.06913) (0.06975) (0.10079) (0.06895) (0.07005) [-0.86163] [-1.31678] [-2.14594] [ 0.83887] [-0.11936] [-0.57743] [-2.48435]
D(ANUG(-1)) -0.853049 -0.126157 -0.121421 -0.178783 -0.311750 -0.296190 -0.162725 (0.18478) (0.13172) (0.15702) (0.15843) (0.22894) (0.15662) (0.15912) [-4.61656] [-0.95775] [-0.77330] [-1.12850] [-1.36172] [-1.89114] [-1.02268]
D(ANUG(-2)) -0.414442 0.147179 0.189943 0.032884 0.240222 -0.018109 0.052839 (0.20234) (0.14424) (0.17194) (0.17349) (0.25070) (0.17151) (0.17424) [-2.04820] [ 1.02035] [ 1.10470] [ 0.18955] [ 0.95820] [-0.10559] [ 0.30325]
D(ANUG(-3)) -0.206117 0.145677 0.164438 0.133544 -0.316351 0.015782 0.252805 (0.18763) (0.13376) (0.15944) (0.16087) (0.23247) (0.15904) (0.16157) [-1.09852] [ 1.08913] [ 1.03135] [ 0.83013] [-1.36081] [ 0.09923] [ 1.56466]
D(BKN(-1)) -0.075084 -0.580304 -0.012198 -0.028007 -0.219242 -0.202873 -0.451730 (0.33922) (0.24181) (0.28825) (0.29084) (0.42028) (0.28752) (0.29210) [-0.22135] [-2.39979] [-0.04232] [-0.09630] [-0.52165] [-0.70559] [-1.54647]
D(BKN(-2)) 0.422293 -0.122053 0.026712 0.337645 0.401876 0.159668 -0.089229 (0.34874) (0.24860) (0.29634) (0.29900) (0.43208) (0.29559) (0.30030) [ 1.21091] [-0.49095] [ 0.09014] [ 1.12924] [ 0.93009] [ 0.54016] [-0.29713]
D(BKN(-3)) -0.099477 -0.155498 -0.355925 -0.071485 -0.520624 -0.034386 -0.327856 (0.32401) (0.23097) (0.27532) (0.27779) (0.40144) (0.27463) (0.27900) [-0.30702] [-0.67324] [-1.29276] [-0.25733] [-1.29690] [-0.12521] [-1.17509]
D(HMH(-1)) 0.118329 0.324762 0.188457 -0.194837 0.199981 0.271050 0.622216 (0.33518) (0.23894) (0.28482) (0.28738) (0.41529) (0.28410) (0.28863) [ 0.35303] [ 1.35918] [ 0.66167] [-0.67798] [ 0.48155] [ 0.95406] [ 2.15575]
D(HMH(-2)) 0.119880 0.209759 0.201013 -0.137097 0.285158 0.124224 0.451192 (0.33182) (0.23654) (0.28196) (0.28449) (0.41111) (0.28125) (0.28573) [ 0.36129] [ 0.88679] [ 0.71292] [-0.48190] [ 0.69363] [ 0.44169] [ 1.57909]
D(HMH(-3)) -0.141064 -0.050859 0.455959 -0.145920 0.493715 -0.099267 -0.058173 (0.27706) (0.19750) (0.23543) (0.23754) (0.34327) (0.23484) (0.23858) [-0.50915] [-0.25751] [ 1.93671] [-0.61428] [ 1.43827] [-0.42271] [-0.24383]
D(PDP(-1)) 0.019873 -0.146632 -0.530714 0.220167 0.207894 0.268568 -0.254224 (0.49378) (0.35200) (0.41959) (0.42336) (0.61179) (0.41853) (0.42520) [ 0.04025] [-0.41657] [-1.26484] [ 0.52005] [ 0.33982] [ 0.64169] [-0.59789]
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Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol., 6 No. 2: October 2015 ______Error Correction: D(ANUG) D(BKN) D(HMH) D(PDP) D(PLB) D(SGNR) D(SNG) D(PDP(-2)) -0.440732 -0.552124 -0.676564 -0.322595 -0.153901 -0.209351 -0.650489 (0.39532) (0.28181) (0.33592) (0.33894) (0.48980) (0.33508) (0.34042) [-1.11486] [-1.95921] [-2.01403] [-0.95177] [-0.31421] [-0.62479] [-1.91086]
D(PDP(-3)) 0.070443 0.032793 -0.484745 0.063667 0.187462 0.153899 -0.105366 (0.32830) (0.23403) (0.27898) (0.28148) (0.40676) (0.27827) (0.28271) [ 0.21457] [ 0.14012] [-1.73759] [ 0.22619] [ 0.46086] [ 0.55305] [-0.37271]
D(PLB(-1)) -0.025418 -0.025389 0.008413 0.081103 -0.549611 -0.011650 -0.027150 (0.10934) (0.07795) (0.09291) (0.09375) (0.13547) (0.09268) (0.09416) [-0.23246] [-0.32573] [ 0.09055] [ 0.86512] [-4.05696] [-0.12570] [-0.28835]
D(PLB(-2)) 0.041728 0.039367 -0.044891 0.101318 -0.311949 0.038521 -0.000246 (0.11375) (0.08109) (0.09666) (0.09753) (0.14093) (0.09641) (0.09795) [ 0.36685] [ 0.48550] [-0.46443] [ 1.03889] [-2.21348] [ 0.39954] [-0.00252]
D(PLB(-3)) -0.002369 -0.001899 -0.091268 0.029336 -0.215960 -0.000271 -0.034231 (0.09389) (0.06693) (0.07979) (0.08050) (0.11633) (0.07958) (0.08085) [-0.02523] [-0.02838] [-1.14391] [ 0.36441] [-1.85641] [-0.00341] [-0.42338]
D(SGNR(-1)) 0.314307 0.070507 0.291492 -0.146165 0.336816 -0.497934 0.349492 (0.28449) (0.20280) (0.24174) (0.24391) (0.35248) (0.24113) (0.24498) [ 1.10481] [ 0.34767] [ 1.20579] [-0.59925] [ 0.95557] [-2.06497] [ 1.42663]
D(SGNR(-2)) 0.254725 0.148627 0.111211 -0.036311 -0.857223 -0.205166 0.275164 (0.31148) (0.22204) (0.26468) (0.26706) (0.38592) (0.26401) (0.26822) [ 0.81778] [ 0.66936] [ 0.42017] [-0.13597] [-2.22125] [-0.77711] [ 1.02589]
D(SGNR(-3)) 0.249318 0.040404 0.282222 -0.009313 0.411550 -0.096475 0.209339 (0.28563) (0.20361) (0.24271) (0.24489) (0.35389) (0.24210) (0.24596) [ 0.87288] [ 0.19844] [ 1.16279] [-0.03803] [ 1.16294] [-0.39849] [ 0.85112]
D(SNG(-1)) 0.437918 0.527155 0.215523 0.423098 0.514015 0.598001 -0.197196 (0.22266) (0.15873) (0.18921) (0.19091) (0.27588) (0.18873) (0.19174) [ 1.96672] [ 3.32112] [ 1.13908] [ 2.21625] [ 1.86321] [ 3.16855] [-1.02846]
D(SNG(-2)) 0.143519 0.200595 -0.014180 0.119421 -0.014037 0.225821 -0.017645 (0.29188) (0.20807) (0.24803) (0.25026) (0.36164) (0.24740) (0.25135) [ 0.49170] [ 0.96406] [-0.05717] [ 0.47720] [-0.03881] [ 0.91277] [-0.07020]
D(SNG(-3)) 0.090088 0.019262 0.084902 -0.014414 0.165066 0.048763 0.052896 (0.22097) (0.15752) (0.18777) (0.18945) (0.27377) (0.18729) (0.19028) [ 0.40770] [ 0.12229] [ 0.45217] [-0.07608] [ 0.60293] [ 0.26036] [ 0.27799]
C 19.02234 18.33054 31.54281 15.54062 23.08763 15.21139 21.60579 (20.3261) (14.4896) (17.2720) (17.4271) (25.1836) (17.2284) (17.5030) [ 0.93586] [ 1.26508] [ 1.82624] [ 0.89175] [ 0.91677] [ 0.88292] [ 1.23440]
R-squared 0.326005 0.297247 0.215062 0.159061 0.447795 0.311127 0.331343 Adj. R-squared 0.161251 0.125462 0.023188 -0.046502 0.312812 0.142736 0.167894 Sum sq. resids 3826921. 1944720. 2763301. 2813152. 5874596. 2749374. 2837705. S.E. equation 206.2070 146.9966 175.2237 176.7972 255.4864 174.7816 177.5670 F-statistic 1.978734 1.730349 1.120851 0.773783 3.317407 1.847647 2.027192 Log likelihood -749.6454 -711.3982 -731.2470 -732.2573 -773.8600 -730.9616 -732.7482 Akaike AIC 13.67514 12.99820 13.34951 13.36739 14.10372 13.34445 13.37608 Schwarz SC 14.23027 13.55333 13.90464 13.92252 14.65885 13.89958 13.93121 Mean dependent 21.19469 21.61062 29.65487 20.58407 22.39823 21.46903 20.56637 S.D. dependent 225.1580 157.1875 177.2913 172.8245 308.1980 188.7724 194.6583
Determinant resid covariance (dof adj.) 6.29E+28 Determinant resid covariance 1.28E+28 Log likelihood -4778.932 Akaike information criterion 87.55632 Schwarz criterion 91.61120
Standard errors in ( ) & t-statistics in [ ] (ANUG- Anoopgarh, BKN- Bikaner, HMH- Hanumangarh, PDP- Padampur, PLB- Pilibanga , SGNR- Sriganganagar, SNG- Sangria) 15
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol., 6 No. 2: October 2015 ______
Table.4: Co-integration between gram markets (Pairwise Granger Causality Test)
Null Hypothesis: Obs F -Statistic Prob.
BKN does not Granger Cause ANUG 115 14.4575 3.E -06 ANUG does not Granger Cause BKN 0.42765 0.6531 HMH does not Granger Cause ANUG 115 8.37410 0.0004 ANUG does not Granger Cause HMH 1.03850 0.3574 PDP does not Granger Cause ANUG 115 14.3851 3.E -06 ANUG does not Granger Cause PDP 0.15976 0.8525 PLB does not Granger Cause ANUG 115 7.47341 0.0009 ANUG does not Granger Cause PLB 4.18470 0.0177 SGNR does not Granger Cause ANUG 115 10.4874 7.E -05 ANUG does not Granger Cause SGNR 0.41230 0.6631 SNG does not Granger Cause ANUG 115 11.5568 3.E -05 ANUG does not Granger Cause SNG 0.40069 0.6708 HMH does not Granger Cause BKN 115 3.11118 0.0485 BKN does not Granger Cause HMH 7.15623 0.0012 PDP does not Granger Cause BKN 115 1.46938 0.2345 BKN does not Granger Cause PDP 4.63526 0.0117 PLB does not Granger Cause BKN 115 3.33054 0.0394 BKN does not Granger Cause PLB 14.4682 3.E-06 SGNR does not Granger Cause BKN 115 0.01003 0.9900 BKN does not Granger Cause SGNR 6.00058 0.0034 SNG does not Granger Cause BKN 115 5.99719 0.0034 BKN does not Granger Cause SNG 2.47943 0.0885 PDP does not Granger Cause HMH 115 3.41648 0.0363 HMH does not Granger Cause PDP 1.96243 0.1454 PLB does not Granger Cause HMH 115 2.79579 0.0654 HMH does not Granger Cause PLB 8.88508 0.0003 SGNR does not Granger Cause HMH 115 2.84953 0.0 622 HMH does not Granger Cause SGNR 9.08509 0.0002 SNG does not Granger Cause HMH 115 4.25632 0.0166 HMH does not Granger Cause SNG 3.43656 0.0357 PLB does not Granger Cause PDP 115 3.36992 0.0380 PDP does not Granger Cause PLB 12.3831 1.E-05 SGNR does not Granger Cause PDP 115 0.27827 0.7576 PDP does not Granger Cause SGNR 8.76684 0.0003 SNG does not Granger Cause PDP 115 5.01078 0.0083 PDP does not Granger Cause SNG 6.76751 0.0017 SGNR does not Granger Cause PLB 115 10.4874 7.E -05 PLB does not Granger Cause SGNR 4.62161 0.0118 SNG does not Granger Cause PLB 115 11.4072 3.E -05 PLB does not Granger Cause SNG 2.86540 0.0612 SNG does not Granger Cause SGNR 115 11.6394 3.E -05 SGNR does not Granger Cause SNG 2.38095 0.0972
( ANUG- Anoopgarh, BKN- Bikaner, HMH- Hanumangarh, PDP- Padampur, PLB- Pilibanga , SGNR- Sriganganagar, SNG- Sangria )
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REFERENCES Ajjan, N., Shivkumar, K.M., Padmavathy, P. and Dickey, D.A. and Fuller, W.A. 1981. Likelihood ratio statistics Murugananthi, D. 2009. Red Chillies. CARDS for autoregressive time series with a unit root. commodity series – 2, Tamil Nadu Agricultural Econometrica,49: 1057-1072. University, Coimbatore. Engle, R.F. and Granger, C.W.J. 1987. “Co-integration and Ali, J. 2009. Performance of commodity markets for pulses in Error Correction: Representation, Estimation and India. Takshashila Academia of Economic Research, Testing,” Econometrica, 55,251-276. Mumbai, 168-182. Granger and Clive, W.J. 1988. Some Comments on Arya, A. 1996. Spatial integration of selected markets in Econometric Methodology, Economic Record, The Sabarkantha district of Gujarat. Ind. Jour. of Agril. Mktg, Economic Society of Australia, Vol. 6, No. 187: 327–30. Vol.IV.No.3, July- Sept.1996. Johansen, S. 1988. “Statistical Analysis of Cointegration Burark,.S.S., Sharma Hemant, Meena G.L. 2012. “Market Vectors”, Journal of Economic Dynamics and Control 12, Integration and Price volatility in Domestic Market of 231-254. Coriander in Rajasthan” Indian Journal of Agricultural Marketing, (27):121-131. Kumar, P. and Sharma, R.K. 2003. Spatial price integration and pricing efficiency at the farm level: A study of paddy Annonymus, 2013. Commodity Report of gram for NAIP in Haryana. Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, project on “Establishing and Networking of Agricultural 58(2): 201-217. Market Intelligence Centres in India” at MPUAT, Udaipur (Rajasthan), 2013.
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Morpho-physiological behavior and sink determining traits of tall and dwarf breeding lines in rainfed rice
ARTI GUHEY1, V.B. KURUWANSHI1, SHABNAM KHAN1, KAVITA AGRAWAL1 AND RITU R SAXENA2 1 2 Department of Plant Physiology , Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding College of Agriculture, Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidalaya, Raipur – 492 012 (C.G.) India Received: 27.03.15 Accepted: 15.07.15 ABSTRACT A segregating population of 62 lines derived from a cross between IR42253/ Abhaya-F9 and Swarna/ IR42253-F4 and improved genotypes Abhaya, IR42253, Mahamaya, Safri, Poornima, Dagad Deshi, and IR-64 were investigated during Kharif 2004. The material was divided into two sub groups i.e., tall and dwarf. Studies on evaluation of physiological and yield determinants of tall and dwarf breeding lines of rice revealed that genetic information of tall cultivars into modern semi dwarf or dwarf cultivars has led to modification in various morpho-physiological traits. Reduction in vertical growth (plant height) caused several secondary morpho-physiological traits in rice and in turn leads to higher sink potential. Yield improvement of dwarf lines was mainly due to marked improvement in their biomass conversion efficiency into grain without disturbing the biological yield. Key words: Breeding lines, Dwarf rice, Tall rice and Rainfed rice
Rice is cultivated under varying climatic conditions and advancement of technology in agriculture plant breeder rainfed rice ecosystem occupies an important place. Rainfed developed semi dwarf reproductive dominant type cultivars to condition for rice cultivation is the most severe limitation to the meet the food demand of ever increasing population. Thus productivity of rice. A prolonged dry spell can take place at dwarfism a single morphological character has played the both the vegetative and reproductive stage specifically drought crucial role in boosting the productivity. It sowed better crop at reproductive stage can delay flowering. Genotype with longer responses to agronomic management on the one hand and delay in flowering tends to experience more drought stress improvement in the conversion efficiency of the biomass on the because they flower and fill grains when the available soil water other hand, in contrast to traditional tall ones (11). The major is lower (10). Therefore, varieties with less delay in flowering objective of the present investigation was to examine the under drought can stabilize the yield. Production of higher morpho-physiological traits and their impact on yield biomass is often fundamental to higher yield, so the determinants and yield. photosynthetic activity of cell, leaves plants and whole crops has attained much attention. Being rainfed crops, drought may MATERIALS AND METHODS occur at any stage in particular leading to partial or total crop The experiment carried out at the Research Farm, IGKV, failure. To enhance the productivity of rainfed rice an Raipur (C.G.) during kharif 2004. The experiment was laid out understanding of the physiological limitation to the yield in in factorial Randomized Block Design with a segregating rainfed environment offers an important opportunity to hasten population of 62 lines derived from a cross between IR42253/ yield progress. The success of physiological approach to Abhaya-F9 and Swarna/ IR42253-F4 and improved genotypes improve the yield will depend on effective identification of the Abhaya, IR42253, Mahamaya, Safri, Poornima, Dagad Deshi, limiting traits and its genetic complexity in rice production. Dry and IR-64 were taken in the present investigation during Kharif land rice varieties generally are described as tall, low tillering, 2004. The material was divided into two sub groups i.e., tall and deep rooted, low yielding, weak stem and late maturing (3). dwarf (Table 1). Thus, tall and dwarf group had 31 lines, Their harvest index and the yield are very low when subjected respectively. These lines were transplanted under rainfed to high dose of nitrogenous fertilizers. Dwarf genotypes also condition. Each line was planted in two rows of 5.0 m length, had a number of desirable features such as profuse tillering, the row-to-row and plant-to-plant spacing was 20x15 cm, dark green and erect leaves and sturdy stems and 50% harvest respectively. The observations was recorded on 10 parameters index. A dwarf genotype includes about 20 tillers with an viz., plant height (cm), number of tillers plant-1, number of increase in the number of grains panicle-1, deeper root system, leaves plant-1, flag leaf area (cm2), total dry matter production, thicker and dark green leaves and straw stiffness (6). The relative water content, panicle length, number of filled spikelets, productivity of rice not only depends on total accumulation of number of unfilled spikelets and grain yield. The data was then dry matter but its effective partitioning to the other economic subjected to various descriptive statistics and to assess the parts. At reproductive stage, enhanced capacity to allocated dry relationship among different traits. matter from various plant parts to grain can play an important role in yield stability (8). Thus, an attempt was made to assess RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS the morpho-physiological behaviour and to determine the sink Rainfed rice faces various bio-physical stresses resulting traits in tall and dwarf rice genotypes under rainfed rice in low and unstable yield. The present investigation was carried condition. out to assess the physiological behaviour of rainfed contrast rice During the period of traditional agriculture under rainfed breeding lines (tall and dwarf) for response to drought stress and condition tall vegetative cultivars played a vital role. With the to identify the traits which are critical for higher and stable yield 18
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______in drought prone conditions. Plant water deficit affect in general is considered to be one of the desirable parameter for practically every aspect of plant growth. They are characterized photosynthetic efficiency and its partitioning. The flag leaf area by the decrease in relative water content, turgor and total plant increases the grain yield and decreases spikelet sterility in rice water potential, resulting in wilting, partial or complete closure (5). Likewise, relative water content helps in maintaining of stomata, decrease in cell enlargement, plant growth, photosynthetic efficiency under water limiting conditions. photosynthesis and disturbance of many metabolic processes Higher internal plant water status during the period of drought is and finally death of the cell (7). Although, rainfed condition is a the key to drought resistance. The number of filed grains under major problem for rice grown in lowland and upland condition. rainfed condition was observed to be maximum and minimum The progress in breeding to improve drought resistance has been depending upon the translocation of assimilates from source to slow. The major reason for slow progress in drought resistance sink when the current photosynthate supply is limiting, the is the complexity of the drought environment, which often ability to mobilize and translocated reserve would be adaptive. results in the lack of clear identification of the target Only grain yield was the trait which exhibited high values in environment. dwarf lines. The rainfed condition suffered severely due to The tall and dwarf breeding lines showed a wide range of moisture stress during flowering and gain filing stage, which variability for all the traits (Table 2). The plant height ranged leads to higher yield reduction. from 72.5 cm to 115 cm in tall and from 55.25 to 87.5 cm in Highly significant correlations among some of the case of dwarf. The plant height of all the lines was observed important traits were observed (Table 3). The trend of critically under rainfed conditions. The maintenance of plant relationship in tall and dwarf breeding lines is approximately height was related with higher leaf water status, which favors same in both the cases. In tall breeding lines, number of tillers the shoot growth through cell enlargement and cell division (2). showed negative but significant association with grain yield. The number of tillers plant-1 in tall lines ranged from 4.5 to 2 Flag leaf area showed significant negative association (in tall) and in dwarf it ranged from 5 to 17. It is generally observed that but positive association (in dwarf) with plant height. Two traits, tall genotypes/varieties have moderate tillering ability as viz., number of leaves plant-1 and total dry matter production compared to the dwarf genotypes. Similar results were also exhibited highly significant and positive association with given by (6) in rice. For number of leaves plants-1 tall lines number of tillers. Similarly, total dry matter production showed ranged from 18 to 60 and dwarf from 19 to 96. Regarding total positive significant association with number of leaves plant-1. dry matter production, the tall breeding lines showed better However, in case of dwarf breeding lines, number of filled performance ranging from 15.45 to 30.67 g plant-1. The spikelets and unfilled spikelets both exhibited significant and productivity of rice not only depends on the accumulation of positive association with panicle length but in case of tall, only total amount of dry matter, but its effective partitioning to number of filled spikelets showed positive relationship with economic parts is a key to stabilize the yield particularly under panicle length. Number of unfilled spikelets was the only reproductive stage drought stress condition (9). The result character which showed highly significant and positive showed that Safri and Swarna accumulates higher amount of dry association with number of filled spikelet. matter in stem at flowering under rainfed conditions. In general, varieties with high stem sugars resisted drought better than CONCLUSION others because sugars translocated from stem to panicle Reduction in vertical growth of rice in spite of reduction promoted normal grain filing under stress (1). in leaf area, relative water content enhanced their horizontal As compared to dwarf lines, tall breeding lines exhibited growth as tillering, accelerating the partitioning of biomass and high values for flag leaf area, relative water content, number of improved their productivity without gain in biological yield. filled spikelets and number of unfilled spikelets. Flag leaf area
Table 1: List of Tall and dwarf genotypes
Tall Genotypes S. No. Dwarf Genotypes IR42253/ Abhaya-F9-1 1 IR42253/ Abhaya-F9-7 IR42253/ Abhaya-F9-2 2 IR42253/ Abhaya-F9-11 IR42253/ Abhaya-F9-3 3 IR42253/ Abhaya-F9-12 IR42253/ Abhaya-F9-4 4 IR42253/ Abhaya-F9-13 IR42253/ Abhaya-F9-5 5 IR42253/ Abhaya-F9-24 IR42253/ Abhaya-F9-6 6 IR42253/ Abhaya-F9-25 IR42253/ Abhaya-F9-8 7 IR42253/ Abhaya-F9-26 IR42253/ Abhaya-F9-9 8 IR42253/ Abhaya-F9-27 IR42253/ Abhaya-F9-10 9 IR42253/ Abhaya-F9-28 IR42253/ Abhaya-F9-14 10 IR42253/ Abhaya-F9-29 IR42253/ Abhaya-F9-15 11 IR42253/ Abhaya-F9-30 IR42253/ Abhaya-F9-16 12 IR42253/ Abhaya-F9-31 IR42253/ Abhaya-F9-17 13 IR42253/ Abhaya-F9-32 IR42253/ Abhaya-F9-18 14 IR42253/ Abhaya-F9-33 IR42253/ Abhaya-F9-19 15 IR42253/ Abhaya-F9-34 IR42253/ Abhaya-F9-20 16 IR42253/ Abhaya-F9-35 19
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______Tall Genotypes S. No. Dwarf Genotypes IR42253/ Abhaya-F9-21 17 IR42253/ Abhaya-F9-36 IR42253/ Abhaya-F9-22 18 IR42253/ Abhaya-F9-37 IR42253/ Abhaya-F9-23 19 IR42253/ Abhaya-F9-38 IR42253 20 IR42253/ Abhaya-F9-39 Mahamaya 21 IR42253/ Abhaya-F9-40 Safri T 22 IR42253/ Abhaya-F9-41 Dagad Deshi 23 IR42253/ Abhaya-F9-42 Swarna/ IR42253/ Abhaya-F4-54 24 IR42253/ Abhaya-F9-43 Swarna/ IR42253/ Abhaya-F4-55 25 IR42253/ Abhaya-F9-44 Swarna/ IR42253/ Abhaya-F4-56 26 IR42253/ Abhaya-F9-45 Swarna/ IR42253/ Abhaya-F4-57 27 Abhaya Swarna/ IR42253/ Abhaya-F4-58 28 Swarna Swarna/ IR42253/ Abhaya-F4-59 29 Poornima Swarna/ IR42253/ Abhaya-F4-60 30 IR-64 Swarna/ IR42253/ Abhaya-F4-62 31 Swarna/ IR42223/F4-61
Table 2: Descriptive statistics of ten characters in tall and dwarf rice genotypes PH NLPP Total FLAP Tall (MS) NT (MS) (DMP) (MS) RWC PL NFS NUFS GY Mean 90.76 7.98 36.98 20.25 14.07 83.63 13.25 44.20 19.01 28.29 SE 1.63 0.33 1.50 0.71 0.47 0.91 0.25 1.06 0.38 1.39 SD 8.91 1.83 8.20 3.87 2.56 4.97 1.37 5.83 2.07 7.60 SV 79.37 3.35 67.30 14.99 6.54 24.68 1.87 34.01 4.28 57.82 Kurtosis 0.77 0.17 1.40 0.41 0.61 0.28 -0.03 -0.42 1.75 0.39 Skewness 0.38 0.43 0.33 1.01 0.48 -0.56 -0.71 0.62 -0.87 -0.19 Range 42.50 7.50 42.00 15.22 12.00 21.93 5.05 22.00 9.61 33.96 72.50 71.29 37.00 12.62 10.24 Minimum (5) 4.50 (19) 18.00 (23) 15.45 (9) 9.00 (23) (31) 10.05 (3) (22) (11) (21) 115.00 12.00 15.10 59.00 22.23 44.20 Maximum (29) (22,26) 60.00 (26) 30.67 (22) 21.00 (5) 93.22 (6) (14) (14) (12) (25) CV (%) 9.82 22.94 22.18 19.12 18.18 5.94 10.32 13.19 10.89 26.88 PH NLPP Total FLAP Dwarf (MS) NT (MS) (DMP) (MS) RWC PL NFS NUFS GY Mean 74.84 7.71 39.87 18.33 11.86 84.07 20.23 37.29 19.51 20.96 SE 1.42 0.42 2.37 0.51 0.33 0.59 2.59 1.57 0.77 2.02 SD 7.89 2.35 13.22 2.84 1.85 3.30 14.43 8.72 4.26 11.23 SV 62.25 5.51 174.65 8.06 3.41 10.91 208.09 76.01 18.15 126.07 Kurtosis 0.97 7.15 10.47 0.19 0.25 0.88 29.19 10.92 14.92 -0.03 Skewness -0.11 2.04 2.49 -0.03 -0.74 -0.63 5.31 -2.48 -3.24 -0.03 Range 39.00 12.00 77.00 12.85 7.12 15.18 90.75 52.50 25.00 45.64 55.25 74.33 Minimum (15) 5.00 (16) 19.00 (16) 12.36 (11) 7.34 (18) (24) 0.00 (21) 0.00 (21) 0.00 (21) 0.00 (21) 94.25 89.51 90.75 52.50 25.00 Maximum (8) 17.00 (28) 96.00 (28) 25.21 (28) 14.46 (12) (13) (15) (29) (19) 45.64 (2) CV (%) 10.54 30.45 33.15 15.49 15.58 3.93 71.31 23.38 21.83 53.57 Note: PH = Plant height; NT = Number of tillers; NLPP = Number of leaves per plant; Total DMP = Total dry matter production; FLAP = Flag leaf area per plant; RWC = Relative water content; PL = Panicle length; NFS = Number of filled spikelets; NUFS = Number of unfilled spikelets and GY = Grain yield; MS = Maturity stage.
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Table 3: Association analysis among ten characters in tall and dwarf rice genotypes. PH NLPP Total FLAP TALL ( MS) NT (MS) (DMP) (MS) RWC PL NFS NUFS GY PH (MS) 1.000 NT 0.148 1.000 NLPP (MS) 0.148 0.823** 1.000 Total (DMP) 0.279 0.604** 0.494** 1.000 FLAP (MS) -0.384* -0.041 -0.074 -0.110 1.000 RWC 0.022 -0.105 -0.128 0.051 0.040 1.000 PL 0.352 0.116 0.146 0.030 -0.287 -0.291 1.000 NFS 0.150 0.011 0.153 -0.108 0.184 -0.328 0.506** 1.000 NUFS -0.086 -0.050 -0.027 0.083 -0.157 -0.100 0.018 -0.073 1.000 GY 0.269 -0.369* -0.159 -0.127 -0.176 0.287 -0.030 0.135 0.007 1.000
DWARF PH (MS) NT NLPP (MS) Total (DMP) FLAP (MS) RWC PL NFS NUFS GY PH ( MS) 1.000 NT -0.104 1.000 NLPP (MS) -0.268 0.839** 1.000 Total (DMP) 0.132 0.617** 0.511** 1.000 FLAP (MS) 0.450* 0.139 0.008 0.063 1.000 RWC 0.027 -0.167 -0.028 0.155 0.128 1.000 PL 0.097 0.169 0.096 0.142 -0.001 -0.113 1.000 NFS -0.011 0.176 0.145 0.198 0.064 -0.006 0.880** 1.000 NUFS -0.203 -0.013 -0.056 -0.082 -0.001 -0.101 0.701** 0.548** 1.000 GY 0.337 -0.307 -0.344 0.029 0.202 -0.155 0.304 0.236 0.275 1.000 Note: PH = Plant height; NT = Number of tillers; NLPP = Number of leaves per plant; Total DMP = Total dry matter production; FLAP = Flag leaf area per plant; RWC = Relative water content; PL = Panicle length; NFS = Number of filled spikelets; NUFS = Number of unfilled spikelets and GY = Grain yield; MS = Maturity stage. * and ** Significant at 1 and 5% probability level.
REFERENCES
Bhattacharjee, D.P., Ramakrishnayya, G. and Paul, S.C. Kramer, P.J.K. (1983). In water relation of plant. Academic (1971). Physiological basis of drought conditions. Oryza, Press, New York. 8(2): 61-68. Kumar, R. and Kujur, R. (2003). Role of secondary traits in Boyer, J.S. (1968). Relationship of water potential to growth of improving the drought tolerance during flowering stage in leaves. Plant Physiol. 43: 1056-1062. rice. Indian J. Plant Phyiol. 8(3): 236-240. Chang, T.T. and Vergara, B.S. (1975). Varietal diversity and Kumar, R., Siopongco, J. and Ramos Wade, L.J. (2000). morpho-agronomic characteristics of upland rice. Genotypic differences in dry matter partitioning under International Rice Research Institute, major research in drought in rainfed lowland rice. Improving tolerance to upland rice. Los Bonos, Philippines. pp: 72-90. abiotic stress in rainfed lowland rice. 21-22 Oct. IRRI, Los Banos, Laguna, Philippines. De Datta S.K. and Beachell, H.M. (1972). Varietal response to some factor affecting production of upland rice. In rice Pantuwan, G., Fukai, S., Cooper, M., Rajatasereekul, S., breeding, Int. Rice Research Inst. Los Banos, Philippines. O’Toole, J.C. (2001). Field screening for drought pp: 685-700. resistance. In: s. Fukai and J. Basnayak (eds.), increased lowland rice production in the MeKong Region. ACIAR Ghosh, S. and Saran, S. (1990). Role of flag leaf on grain yield Canberra, Australia. pp: 67-77. and spikelet sterility in rice cultivars. Oryza. 27: 87-89. Swaminathan, M.S. (1996). Sustainable Agriculture: Towards Khush, G.S. (1995). Breaking the yield frontier of rice. Geo. J. an Ever Green Revolution. Konark Publication Pvt. Ltd. 35(3): 329-332. New Delhi.
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Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______
Nursery rearing of Asian seabass (Lates calcarifer) in indoor cement tanks by using artificial diet
N. D. CHOGALE1*, R. D. BONDRE1, K. S. SAWANT2, H. SINGH1 AND M. M. SHIRDHANKAR2 1Marine Biological Research Station, Zadgaon, Ratanagiri-415 612 2College of Fisheries, Shirgaon, Ratnagiri-415 629 (Dr. B. S. Konkan Agril. University, Ratnagiri.), INDIA Received: 21.04.15 Accepted: 15.07.15 ABSTRACT Seabass has been reared in brackish as well as freshwater ponds and marine cages in south-east Asian countries. High mortality is often encountered when uneven sizes of the fish are stocked. The rearing seabass fry by using artificial feed in indoor cement tanks carried out for 60 days at wadamirya hatchery. The fishes were stocked at density of 650 fish per m3 in ten cement tanks (size 2 X 1 X 1 m) and fed with artificial fish feed (48% protein) at 10% of the body weight divided into four equal rations. Water quality parameters such as temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen, salinity, ammonia and nitrite were maintained during rearing period. The growth performance was evaluated based on fish survival and growth parameters as Percent Survival (%), Specific growth rate (SGR), Protein efficiency ratio (PER) and Feed conversion ratio (FCR).
Key words: Asian seabass, Lates calcarifer, Nursery rearing, Cannibalism, high protein diet.
Lates calcarifer (Bloch), commonly called the giant sea Fingerlings of Sea bass L. calcarifer (weight: 1.65 ± 0.27 g; perch or seabass, is an economically important food fish in the total length: 52.8 ± 1.37 mm) hatchery produced at Rajiv tropical and subtropical regions of the Asia and the Pacific. Gandhi Centre for Aquaculture, Sirkazhi, Tamil Nadu were Seabass is a euryhaline and catadromous species. Seabass has used. The fingerlings were packed in aerated polythene bags been cultivated in brackish as well as freshwater ponds and (130 number/bag) containing 5 l of seawater (salinity 29 ‰; pH: marine cages in many south-east Asian countries (Cheong, 7.9:, temperature: 32 oC) and transported to the Wadamirya 1989). High mortality is often encountered when uneven sizes hatchery, Ratnagiri, Maharashtra by road. The fishes were given of the fish are stocked. This has been observed the fish at very a freshwater dip and randomly stocked in ten cement tanks (size young (1–20 cm in length), during the first two months of 2 X 1 X 1 m) at density of 650 fish per m3 and provided with rearing. To increase the survival, seabass should be reared in continuous aeration. two phases i.e. the nursery phase and the grow-out phase The fishes were fed with commercial fish feed (48% (Kungvankij et al., 1985). Traditionally, sea bass nursery is protein) at 10% of the body weight. The amount of feed per day carried out in fertilized brackish-water ponds and in floating net was divided into four equal ration and given at 0600, 1000, cages placed inside a pond or in an open coastal area and fed 1600 and 2000 h. Feeding was done slowly and continuously till chopped or ground trash fish twice daily (Kungvankij et al., fishes accepted feed. After every feeding, eighty per cent of the 1986). Elsewhere, sea bass nursery is carried out extensively in water was exchanged through 20 min flowing water. fertilized ponds with supplemental feeding of live Artemiu or Since the sea bass is cannibalistic, the larger ones eating done intensively in nursery tanks and fed live Artemia or wild up the smaller, it is essential to grade them from the fry stage zooplankton then gradually weaned to live or frozen Ascetes and onwards into different size groups. This is done by using plastic minced trash fish (Rimmer and Rutledge, 1991). crates with PVC pipes of the desired gap at the bottom, for The open sea cage culture has been expanding in recent selecting the larger sizes and for leaving out the smaller ones. years on a global basis and it is viewed by many stakeholders in The fishes were graded every 15 days with a grader and grouped the industry as the aquaculture system of the millennium. Cage into three different sizes. After grading, representative samples culture has made possible the large-scale production of were collected for studying growth parameters. commercial finfish in many parts of the world and can be Water quality parameters such as temperature, pH, considered as the most efficient and economical way of rising dissolved oxygen, salinity, ammonia and nitrite were recorded fish. The common practice in seabass nursery rearing is to stock at daily. The water analysis was carried out following the the early juveniles directly in brackishwater ponds, resulting in procedures described by APHA (1998). inconsistent survival rates of 34–60% (Chou et al. 1994; Liao The growth performance was evaluated based on fish 1994; Triño and Bolivar 1993). survival and growth parameters described as follows: The present study was demonstrated the feasibility of Percent Survival (%) = [number of fish at a given rearing seabass juveniles in indoor cement tanks, fed on time/original number of fish stocked] x 100 artificial diets. There were experiment conducted on growth performance and survival of seabass during nursery rearing in Specific growth rate (SGR) = [Ln average final weight – Ln cement tanks, fed on artificial diets. average initial weight] / days of culture x 100 MATERIAL METHODS Protein efficiency ratio (PER) = Gain in weight of fish/ [dry The experiment was conducted at Wadamirya hatchery of weight of feed given x % protein in the Marine Biological Research Station, Ratnagiri, Maharashtra. feed] 22
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______Feed conversion ratio (FCR) = dry weight of feed given/gain al. (2010) also reported attaining a mean weight of 11.50 ± 0.88 in weight of fish g seabass juveniles in 45 d from an initial ABW of 2.01 ± 0.53 g RESULTS AND DISCUSSION using formulated diet with 38.43% CP and 3.18% CF. The water quality parameters values recorded were as The survival (85%) of seabass juveniles were obtained in temperature - 32.4 to 28.6 °C, pH - 7.7 to 8.3, salinity - 33.2 to this system was comparable to the 90% survival reported by 35.6 ‰, dissolved oxygen - 5.6 to 6.6 mg l-l, ammonia -0.0 to Hassan (1992) in a tank experiment, and better than the survival 0.02 mg l-l, and nitrite 0.0 to 0.02 mg l-l. Proximate composition of 60% (Chou et al. 1994) and 34–51.4% (Triño and Bolivar of the feed was given in Table 1. The average total lengths (TL) 1993) obtained from direct pond stocking where as Philipose et and body weights (BW) of graded sea bass sampled 15 days al. (2010) also recorded 100%. interval were presented in Table 2. Mean weight, mean length, The water quality parameters were within the limit ADGR, SGR, survival and FCR of the seabass juveniles reared prescribed by Rimmer and Russel (1998) for nursery rearing of in indoor cement tanks, at 15 days interval are shown in Table Asian seabass. Major problems that are commonly encountered 3. Average length and weight at the end of the 60 days' during culture period are cannibalism during juvenile stage experimental period was 107.1 mm and 13.1 g, respectively. (Katavic et al., 1989). Survival and FCR at the end of the experimental period were Since seabass fingerling production technology is the 85% and 1:1.09 respectively. most critical phase in seabass culture, the present study has Sakaras et al. (1989) evaluated practical diets that used established that Asian seabass juveniles can be reared in indoor three dietary protein levels of 45, 50 and 55% and two lipid cement tanks fed on artificial fish feed. It will directly benefit levels of 10 and 15% at each protein level in 7.47 g seabass. nursery operators and grow-out culturists. Shrimp hatchery Salama and Al-Harbi (2007) observed that the FCR of operators during shutdown period can enhance their earnings by fingerlings of L. calcarifer reared in hyper saline conditions engaging in fingerling production as a business enterprise. increased with increase in feeding rate while better FCR and Nursery as part of the farming system will shorten the duration PER were achieved with increase in feeding frequencies. of grow-out culture and produce fish of less variable marketable Highest FCR (1.34) was achieved with 4% feeding rate while size. highest FCR (1.74) and PER (1.65) were achieved with 4 times ACKNOWLEDGMENTS feeding. The authors also reported 100 % survival at the above The work was carried out under funding from feeding rate and feeding frequency. Harpaz et al. (2005) Maharashtra Fisheries Development Corporation, Government reported that L. calcarifer reared in freshwater in plastic tanks of Maharashtra. Thanks are also due to the Director, Central showed reduced growth rate at 2% feeding level and no Marine Fisheries Institute, Karwar for providing necessary improvement in growth when fed at 6% feeding level while technical guidance to conduct this work. optimum growth was obtained at 4% feeding level. Philipose et
Table 1. Proximate composition (%) of the feed on dry matter basis Proximate composition Percentage Protein 48 Moisture 15 Lipid 8.0 Crude fiber 2.5 Ash or total minerals 2.0
Table 2: The average total lengths (TL) and body weights (BW) of graded sea bass sampled 15 days interval Days Grade I Grade II Grade III Weight Length Weight Length Weight Length (g) (mm) (g) (mm) (g) (mm) 0 1.65± 0.27 52.8± 1.37 - - - - 15 1.85± 0.13 53.9± 0.24 - - - - 30 2.13± 0.114 57.0± 0.31 6.34± 0.72 78.6± 0.54 - - Survival percentage 55% 45% - 45 3.73± 0.42 67.7± 0.15 5.74± 0.42 80.1± 0.60 11.6± 0.15 98.0± 0.42 Survival Percentage 15% 50% 35% 60 6.5± 0.05 80.1± 0.15 9.97± 0.62 92.3± 0.47 15.69± 0.5 110.2± 0.4 Survival Percentage 15% 50% 35% Table 3. Mean growth, Average daily growth rate (ADGR), Specific growth rate (SGR) Protein efficiency ratio (PER), Survival rate (SR) and Feed conversion ratio (FCR) of Asian seabass at 15 days interval Days L W ADGR SGR PER Surivial FCR 0 52.8 1.65 - - - - - 15 61.3 2.12 0.03 1.67 0.01 100 1.64 30 67.8 4.23 0.14 4.6 0.03 100 1.26 45 81.93 7.02 0.19 3.37 0.03 95 1.24 60 107.1 13.1 0.41 4.15 0.5 85 1.09 23
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______
REFERENCES APHA. 1998. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water NACA Training Manual Series No. 3 SEAFDEC and Waste Water. 20th ed., American Public Health Aquaculture Department and FAO-UN. 70. Association, Washington DC, 1134. Liao I.C. 1994. A review of the nursery and grow out Cheong, L. 1989. Status of knowledge on farming of seabass techniques of high-value marine fishfishes in Taiwan. In: (Lates calcarifer) in South-east Asia. Advances in Main KL, Rosenfeld C, editors. Culture of High Value Tropical Aquaculture, Tahiti, 421-428. Marine Finfishes in Asia and the USA. Proceedings of a workshop in Honolulu; August 8 – 12, 1994. Honolulu, Chou R., Lee H. B. and Lim H. S. 1994. Fish farming in Hawaii: The Oceanic Institute. 121–137. Singapore: A review of seabass (Lates calcarifer), mangrove snapper (Lutjanus argentimaculatus) and snub- Madrones-Ladja J.A. and Catacutan M.R. 2012. Netcage nose pompano (Trachinotus blochii). In: Main KL, Rearing of the Asian Seabass Lates calcarifer (Bloch) in Rosenfeld C, editors. Culture of High Value Marine Brackishwater Pond: The Technical and Economic Finfishes in Asia and the USA. Proceedings of a Efficiency of Using High Protein Diets in Fingerling workshop in Honolulu, August 8–12, 1994. Honolulu, Production. Philipp Agric Scientist, 95(1): 79-86. Hawaii: The Oceanic Institute. 57–62. Philipose K.K., Krupesha Sharma S.R., Sadhu N., Vaidya Harpaz, S., Hakim Y., Barki A., Karplus I., Slosman T., and N.G. and Syda Rao G. 2010. Some aspects of nursery Erolodogan T. O. 2005. Effects of different feeding rearing of the Asian seabass (Lates calcarifer, Bloch) in levels during day and/or night on growth and brush-border indoor cement tanks. Indian J Fish 57(4): 61–64. enzyme activity in juveniles Lates calcarifer reared in freshwater re-circulating tanks. Aquaculture, 248: 325- Rimmer M. and Rutledge B. 1991. Extensive rearing of 335. barramundi larvae. Queensland Department of Primary Industries Information Series Q191012, Brisbane, Hassan I A. 1992. Feeding trial on seabass (Lates calcarifer, Quecnsland, Australia, 5. Bloch) with formulated diet and trash fish in brackishwater ponds. In: Ng CK, Abdullah AR, editors. Sakaras, W., Boonyaratpalin M., Unpraser N. and Proceedings of the Seminar on Fish/Shrimp Nutrition and Kumpang P. 1989. Optimum dietary protein energy ratio Feed Technology; February 29, 1992. Selangor Darul in seabass feed II. Technical Paper No. 8. Thailand: Ehsan, Malaysia: Malaysia Fisheries Society. 61–69. Rayong Brackishwater Fisheries Station. 22. Salama, A.J. and Al-Harbi M.A. 2007. Response of the Asian Kungvankij P., Tiro L. B., Pudadera B. J. and Potesta I. O. 1985. Training Manual :Biology and Culture of Sea Bass seabass Lates calcarifer fingerlings to different feeding (Lates calcarifer) Regional Lead Centre in the Philippines rates and feeding frequencies reared in hyper saline Aquaculture Department, Southeast Asian Fisheries condition. J.K. A. U. Mar. Sci., 18: 63-81. Development Centre, Network of Aqua Culture Centers In Triño A. T, and Bolivar Mec. 1993. Effect of stocking density Asia Bangkok, Thailand and feed on the growth and survival of sea bass fry Lates calcarifer (Bloch). Int J Trop Agr 11:163–167. Kungvankij P., Tiro L. B., Pudadera B. J. and Potesta I. O. 1986. Biology and culture of sea bass (Lates calcarifer).
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Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______
Optimization of elevated CO2 levels and nutrient management for lowland rice ecosystem
R.K.KALEESWARI Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore Received: 28.01.15 Accepted: 02.07.15 ABSTRACT
Experiments were conducted to assess the optimum CO2 levels and nutrient management strategy for enhancing the rice yield and soil fertility status with rice (var.CO. 50) as test crop in open top chambers (OTC). The treatments comprised of three levels of CO2 enrichment viz., Atmospheric CO2 (C0): 370 ppm (Control); OTC I (C1): 550 ppm and OTC II (C2): 750 ppm. Both the OTC chambers were connected to a control monitoring system and the each chamber has a regulator to adjust CO2 flow. Rice crop was fertilized with four varying nutrient management techniques viz., inorganic (150:50:50 kg -1 -1 rd rd rd N, P, K ha +25 kg ZnSO4 ha ), organic (1/3 FYM+ 1/3 Vermicompost + 1/3 Neem cake on N equivalent basis), IPNS -1 -1 -1 (Integrated Plant Nutrient System) (150:50:50 kg N, P, K ha +25 kg ZnSO4 ha +FYM @ 12.5 t ha + Azospirillum @ 2 kg ha-1) and untreated control. Maximum grain and straw yields were recorded due to the application of Integrated Plant -1 -1 -1 -1 Nutrient System (150:50:50 kg N, P, K ha +25 kg ZnSO4 ha +FYM @ 12.5 t ha + Azospirillum @ 2 kg ha ) in the CO2 concentration of 750 ppm. Highest acid phosphatase activity was registered at the CO2 concentration of 750 ppm followed by 550 ppm and 370 ppm. Acid phosphatase activity was the highest due to the application of organics (1/3rd FYM+ 1/3rd Vermicompost + 1/3rd Neem cake on N equivalent basis) followed by the application of 150:50:50 kg N, P, K ha-1 +25 kg -1 -1 -1 ZnSO4 ha +FYM @ 12.5 t ha + Azospirillum @ 2 kg ha . With increase in CO2 concentration an increase in CO2 emission and microbial biomass were observed.
Key words: CO2 emission, Elevated CO2 level, Microbial biomass, Nutrient management, Rice and Soil enzyme.
Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is one of the most important crops (Integrated Plant Nutrient System) (150:50:50 kg N, P, K ha-1 + -1 -1 in the world and the primary staple food in Asia. Cultivation 25 kg ZnSO4 ha + FYM @ 12.5 t ha + Azospirillum @ 2 kg practices such as crop rotations, soil tillage, fallow periods, and ha-1) and untreated control. Mean monthly climatic variables at water management have been known to affect crop yields and different stages of crop growth viz., active tillering, panicle soil carbon sequestration. Among the GHG s CO2 is the main initiation, flowering and harvest stages were meseaured. Grain one, the effect of which should be related to the crop and straw yields were recorded. Field moist soil samples were production. Carbon serves as the primary substrate for analyzed for acid and alkaline phosphomonoesterase activity photosynthesis and is the one to contribute to the yield with a buffered disodium p-nitrophenyl phosphate tetrahydrate formation in plants. Rice responses to climate change vary with solution (Tabatabai, 1982). Soil dehydrogenase and urease region and rice cultivars. There is a need for more experiments activities were measured (Von Mersi and Schinner, 1991; on various cultivars of rice under global warming situation in Tabatabai and Bremner, 1972). Soil CO2 emissions (Carter and many areas. Hence this study was conducted with the objectives Gregorich, 2008) by alkali trap method , soil organic carbon to determine the effect of elevated CO2 levels on growth, yield (Walkely and Black, 1934),microbial biomass C in soil by and soil fertility status under lowland rice ecosystem. chloroform fumigation method ( Beck et al., 1997) and water Depending on population growth and energy use scenarios, soluble carbon were analysed. atmospheric CO2 concentration is expected to rise from about 370 µ mol mol -1currently to about 485 to 1000 µ mol mol -1 by RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 2100 (Prentice et al., 2001). Elevated CO2 typically increases The mean monthly climatic variables recorded at different plant photosynthesis and biomass production, whereas stages of crop growth indicated that air temperature was the increasing temperatures might either decrease or increase highest at harvest stage and humidity per cent was the highest at photosynthesis and production (Baker et al., 1993). active tillering stage (Table 1). Maximum grain and straw yields were recorded due to the MATERIALS AND METHODS application of Integra ted Plant Nutrient System (150:50:50 kg -1 -1 -1 Pot experiments were conducted with rice (var.CO. 50) as N, P, K ha +25 kg ZnSO4 ha + FYM @ 12.5 t ha + -1 test crop in open top chambers (OTC). The treatments Azospirillum @ 2 kg ha ) in the CO2 concentration of 750 ppm. comprised of three levels of CO2 enrichment viz., Atmospheric Application of inorganics alone recorded higher yield than the rd rd CO2 (C0): 370 ppm (Control); OTC I (C1): 550 ppm and OTC II application of organics (1/3 FYM + 1/3 Vermicompost + rd (C2): 750 ppm. Both the OTC chambers were connected to a 1/3 Neem cake on N equivalent basis). The untreated control control monitoring system and the each chamber has a regulator recorded the lowest yield of 33.6 g pot-1 (Table 2). Baker et al. to adjust CO2 flow. Rice crop was fertilized with four varying (1992) showed that shoot and root biomass increased under nutrient management techniques viz., inorganic (150:50:50 kg increasing CO2 concentration. According to Yang et al. (2006), -1 -1 rd rd N, P, K ha + 25 kg ZnSO4 ha ), organic (1/3 FYM + 1/3 the final total biomass of rice was increased by 16% under rd Vermicompost + 1/3 Neem cake on N equivalent basis), IPNS elevated CO2 . 25
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______Highest acid phosphatase activity was registered at the increase in CO2 concentration, an increase in organic C content CO2 concentration of 750 ppm followed by 550 ppm and 370 was observed. The labile soil C pools, namely microbial ppm. Acid phosphatase activity was the highest due to the biomass C, readily mineralizable C, and potassium application of organics (1/3rd FYM+ 1/3rd Vermicompost + 1/3rd permanganate oxidizable C were increased by 27, 38 and 37% - Neem cake on N equivalent basis) followed by the application respectively under elevated CO2 concentration of 550 μmol mol -1 -1 1 -1 of 150:50:50 kg N, P, K ha +25 kg ZnSO4 ha +FYM @ 12.5 than ambient CO2, 394 μmol mol (Bhattacharya et t ha-1 + Azospirillum @ 2 kg ha-1. Application of inorganics al.2013).Application of organics (1/3rd FYM+ 1/3rd alone recorded higher acid phosphatase activity than the Vermicompost + 1/3rd Neem cake on N equivalent basis ) untreated control. A similar pattern of results was obtained with recorded higher organic carbon content followed by the -1 -1 alkaline phosphatase, dehydrogenase and urease activity also application of 150:50:50 kg N, P, K ha +25 kg ZnSO4 ha (Table 3). Larson et al. (2002) and Lipson et al. (2005) found a +FYM @ 12.5 t ha-1 + Azospirillum @ 2 kg ha-1. Application of significant stimulation of soil extracellular enzyme activities inorganics alone and untreated control recorded lowest organic under elevated CO2. carbon content. Water soluble carbon content was not With increase in CO2 concentration an increase in CO2 remarkably changed due to the treatmental effects (Table 5). emission was observed. At flowering stage the emission was With increase in CO2 concentration, an increase in microbial more followed by tillering and harvest stages. Application of biomass C was observed. Soil microbial biomass C under organics (1/3rd FYM+ 1/3rd Vermicompost + 1/3rd Neem cake elevated CO2 was significantly larger (by 18.9–25.2%) than that on N equivalent basis) recorded higher CO2 emission followed under ambient CO2 (Inubushi et al., 2010). Application of -1 rd rd rd by the application of 150:50:50 kg N, P, K ha +25 kg ZnSO4 organics (1/3 FYM+ 1/3 Vermicompost + 1/3 Neem cake ha-1 +FYM @ 12.5 t ha-1 + Azospirillum @ 2 kg ha-1. The on N equivalent basis) recorded higher microbial biomass C application of organic substances or manure at high rates in the content followed by the application of 150:50:50 kg N, P, K ha-1 -1 -1 fields caused the deposition of soil and organic substances. The +25 kg ZnSO4 ha +FYM @ 12.5 t ha + Azospirillum @ 2 kg organic substances reacted with soil particles to form complex ha-1. Application of inorganics alone and untreated control compounds that were hardly decomposed into carbon dioxide recorded lowest microbial biomass C content (Table 5). With (Suwannarit, 2008). The optimum application rates of manure CO2 enrichment of 750 ppm and application of 150:50:50 kg N, -1 -1 -1 are between 3.13-6.25 t ha-1 because those application rates P, K ha +25 kg ZnSO4 ha +FYM @ 12.5 t ha + have the least effect on quantities of greenhouse gas emissions Azospirillum @ 2 kg ha-1 enhanced the growth, yield and soil (Sampanpanish, 2012). Application of inorganics alone and fertility status under lowland rice ecosystem. untreated control recorded lowest CO2 emission (Table 4). With
Table 1 Mean monthly climatic variable during crop growing stages Variables Stage of the crop Active tillering Panicle Initiation Flowering Harvest Air temperature o C 35.1 33.0 35.5 40.2 Humidity % 49.9 48.6 35.3 34.2 Soil temperature o C 36.8 33.8 28.8 35.7 Canopy temperature o C 32.2 29.6 28.5 32.2
-1 Table 2 Effect of elevated CO2 and nutrient management on grain and straw yield of rice (g pot ) Treatments Grain Straw C0: 370 ppm S1 33.6 48.6 S2 54.3 68.6 S3 42.0 63.6 S4 81.0 98.6 Mean 52.7 69.9 C1: 550 ppm S1 46.6 65.3 S2 73.3 110.6 S3 67.0 71.6 S4 96.6 128.0 Mean 70.9 93.9 C2: 750 ppm S1 54.0 79.3
S2 98.3 144.3 S3 69.0 98.6 S4 142.6 167.6 Mean 91.0 122.5 CD(P:0.05) C N CXN C N CXN 23.4** 27.0** NS 17.5** 20.2** NS
26
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______-1 Table 3 Effect of elevated CO2 and nutrient management on Soil enzyme activity: Acid and alkaline phosphatase activity (µg PNP g ); -1 -1 -1 dehydrogenase activity (DHA) (µg TPF g day and urease activity (µg NH3 g ) (Harvest stage) Treatments Acid phosphatase Alkaline phosphatase DHA Urease C0: 370 ppm S1 60.75 132.45 27.20 10.25
S2 60.66 142.13 30.75 12.12 S3 74.50 154.50 36.83 13.85 S4 63.17 162.29 37.51 14.03 Mean 64.62 147.84 33.07 12.56 C1: 550 ppm S1 67.16 151.27 25.09 11.57 S2 75.32 158.61 28.66 12.78 S3 86.62 161.29 28.81 17.03 S4 76.13 162.76 30.11 21.85 Mean 76.31 158.48 28.00 15.81
C2: 750 ppm S1 72.15 157.97 28.76 12.59 S2 77.80 162.10 35.53 14.29 S3 91.66 166.25 36.92 22.54 S4 80.20 175.00 39.13 27.10 Mean 80.45 165.33 35.09 19.13 CD (P:0.05) C N CXN C N CXN C N CXN C N CXN 4.0 4.7 NS 8.1 9.3 NS 2.9 3.5 NS 3.0 3.5 6.0
-2 -1 Table 4 Effect of elevated CO2 and nutrient management on CO2 emission (mg CO2 m day ) Treatments Tillering Flowering Harvest C0: 370 ppm S1 16.0 39.0 11.0
S2 14.8 33.2 8.7 S3 17.6 41.5 15.6 S4 14.8 35.0 10.2 Mean 15.8 37.2 11.4 C1: 550 ppm S1 31.2 55.4 26.5
S2 19.2 36.2 12.1 S3 53.2 76.1 44.3 S4 26.4 48.5 20.2 Mean 32.5 54.0 25.8 C2: 750 ppm S1 58.2 78.7 50.7 S2 29.2 49.2 23.2 S3 87.0 98.0 66.7 S4 36.8 53.4 27.6 Mean 52.8 69.8 42.0 CD (P:0.05) C N CXN C N CXN C N CXN 1.5** 1.7** 3.0 2.1** 2.4** 4.2 1.4** 1.7** 2.9
-1 -1 Table 5 Effect of elevated CO2 and nutrient management on organic C, water soluble C (g kg ) and microbial biomass C (µg kg ). Treatments Organic C Microbial biomass C Water soluble C C0: 370 ppm S1 5.1 275 12.3 S2 5.5 437 12.4 S3 6.5 520 12.6 S4 6.2 464 12.5 Mean 5.8 424 12.4 C1: 550 ppm S1 6.2 390 12.3
S2 6.6 545 12.4 S3 7.3 688 12.5 S4 6.8 626 12.5 Mean 6.7 562 12.4 C2: 750 ppm S1 6.6 437 12.3
S2 7.2 680 12.3 S3 7.5 931 12.5 S4 7.4 807 12.4 Mean 7.2 714 12.4 CD (P:0.05) C N CXN C N CXN C N CXN 0.16** 0.18** 0.31 11.61** 13.40** 23.22 NS NS NS 27
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______
REFERENCE Baker, J.T., Allen, L.H., Boote, K.J., Jones, P.and Jones, Prentice, I.C., Farquhar, G.D., Fasham, M.J.R., Goulden, J.W. 1992. Rice photosynthesis and evapotranspiration in M.L., Heimann, M., Jaramillo, V.J., Kheshgi, H.S., subambient, ambient, and superambient carbon dioxide LeQuere, C. Scholes, R.J. and Wallace, D.W.R. 2001. concentration. Agron. J. 82:834–840. The carbon cycle and atmospheric carbon dioxide. p. 183– 237. In J.T. Houghton, Y. Ding, D.J. Griggs, M. Noguer, Baker, J.T., Allen, L.H. and Boote, K.J. 1993. Temperature P.J. van der Linden, X. Dai, K. Maskell, and C.A. Johnson effects on rice at elevated CO2 concentration. J. Exp. Bot. (ed.) Climate Change 2001: The scientific basis. Report of 43(7): 959-964. the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Beck, T., Joergensen, R.G., Kandeler, E., Makeschin, F., Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge Nuss, E., Oberholzer, H.R. and Scheu, S. 1997. An Sampanpanish, P. 2012. Effect of organic fertilizer on CO2, inter-laboratory comparison of ten different ways of CH4 and N2O emissions in a paddy field. Modern Applied measuring soil microbial biomass C. Soil Biol. Biochem. Science, 6(12): 13-21. 29(7):1023-1032. Suwannarit, A. 2008. Fertilizer for agriculture and the Bhattacharyya, P., Roy, K.S., Neogi, S., Dash, P.K., Nayak, environment (2nd ed.). Kasetsart University, Bangkok. A.K., Mohanty, S., Baig, M.J., Sarkar, R.K., and Rao, K.S. 2013. Impact of elevated CO2 and temperature on Tabatabai, M. A. 1982. Soil enzymes. In: Page, A. L.,Miller, soil C and N dynamics in relation to CH4 and N2O R. H., Keeney, D. R. Methods of Soil Analysis. Part 2. emissions from tropical flooded rice (Oryza sativa L.). Chemical and Microbiological Properties.American Sci. total environ. 6(1):461-462. Society of Agronomy; Soil Science Society of America. Madison, WI. Carter, M.R. and Gregorich, E.G. 2008. Soil Sampling and Methods of Analysis. 2nd Edition, Canadian Society of Tabatabai, M. A. and Bremner, J. M. 1972. Assay of Urease Soil Science, Taylor & Francis Group, LLC, Boca Raton. activity in soils. Soil Biol. Biochem. 4: 479-487. Inubushi, K., Cheng, W., Mizuno, T. Lou, Y. Hasegawa, T. Von Mersi, W. and Schinner, F. 1991. An improved and Sakai, H. and Kobayashi, K. 2010. Microbial biomass accurate method for determining the dehydrogenase carbon and methane oxidation influenced by rice cultivars activity of soils with iodonitrotetrazolium chloride. Biol. and elevated CO2 in a Japanese paddy soil. European Fertil. Soils, 11: 216-220. Journal of Soil Science, 62(1)69-73 Walkley, A. and Black, I.A. 1934. An Examination of Larson, J.L., Zak, D.R., and Sinsabaughb, R.L. 2002. Degtjareff Method for Determining Soil Organic Matter Extracellular enzyme activity beneath temperate trees and a Proposed Modification of the Chromic Acid growing under elevated carbon dioxide and ozone. Soil Titration Method. Soil Sci. 37:29-37. Sci Soc Am J, 66:1848-1856. Yang L., Huang J., Yang H., Dong G., Liu G., Zhu, J. and Lipson, D.A., Wilson, R.A. and Oechel, W.C. 2005. Effects of Wang, Y. 2006 .Seasonal changes in the effects of free- elevated atmospheric CO2 on soil microbial biomass, air CO2 enrichment (FACE) on dry matter production and activity and diversity in a chaparral ecosystem. distribution of rice. Field Crops Research 98: 12-19. ApplEnviron Microbiol, 71: 8573-8580.
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Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______Effect of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) varieties and weed management practices on quality parameters, nutrient content and uptake by crop and weed
SHIV CHANDRAKAR1, AKANKSHA SHARMA2 AND DINESH KUMAR THAKUR3 1Department of Agronomy, N.M. College of Agriculture, N. A. U. Navsari (Gujarat)-396 450 2Department of Horticulture I.G.K.V., Raipur (C.G.) 492012, 3Department of Genetics & Plant Breeding I.G.K.V., Raipur (C.G.) 492012, Received: 28.01.15 Accepted: 04.07.15 ABSTRACT A field experiment was carried out at the Navsari agricultural university, Navsari during 2011-2012 to study the effect of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) varieties and weed management practices on quality parameters, nutrient content and uptake by crop. The result indicated that significantly maximum protein content (21.35 %) and protein yield (385 kg ha-1) as well as nutrient content in seed N (3.42%), P (0.72%) and K (0.87 %) in stover N (1.41 %), P (0.25 %) and K (1.42 %) -1 -1 -1 and uptake of nutrient by seed N (61.65 kg ha ), P2O5 (13.06 kg ha ) and K2O (15.76 kg ha ) were recorded by treatment W2 (Weed free upto harvest- H.W. 20, 40 & 60 DAS.) as compared to unweeded (control) respectively. All varieties of chickpea found equally suitable for cultivation.
Key words: Chickpea, nutrient content, uptake and quality parameters.
Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is an important pulse crop NPK/ha. Herbicide spraying was done through a flat fan nozzle of India. It occupies prime position among pulses by virtue of attached with the hood of sprayer. Depletion of nutrient its short growth period, huge tonnage capacity and outstanding elements (Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium) by weed and nutrient value as food, feed, and forage. Weed competition for crop was worked out on the basis of concentration of weeds and qualitative growth and nutrient in general and for nitrogen in final grain and haulm yield of the crop. particular has been reported to be most serious factor in limiting the crop yield reported from crop weed competition studies in RESULTS AND DISCUSSION chickpea, weeds removed 132.2 kg nitrogen, 17.6 kg The experimental field was infested by predominant phosphours and 130.1 kg potassium/ha in unweeded control, monocot weeds viz., Echinochloa crusgalli (L.) Beauv, whereas the crop could utilize only 12.4 kg nitrogen, 5.3 kg Digitaria sanguinalis (L.) Scop., Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers., phosphours and 10.3 kg potassium/ha (Kumar, 1985). Fertilizers Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. and Bracharia spp., dicot weeds, being warrent their judicious use for obtaining maximum viz., Amaranthus viridis (L.), Alternanthera sessilis, Digera efficiency. Control of weeds can increase fertilizer use arvensis Forsk, Convolvulus arvensis (L)., Trianthema efficiency of the crop by way of checking wasteful removal of portulacastrum, Euphorbia hirta (L.), Euphorbia nutrients by weeds. The present investigation, therefore, carried madurasptiensis and Physalis minima (L). and sedges Cyperus out to study the effect of various weed management practices rotundus (L.) were predominantly present in unweeded control such as manual weeding, chemical weeding and cultural plot during the course of experimentation. practices in chickpea on protein and nutrient utilization by the The results (Table 1) revealed that various weed crop and associated weeds. management practices significantly influenced the protein content and protein yield of chickpea. The higher protein MATERIAL AND METHODS content (21.35 %) was noted under treatment W2 (Weed free A field experiment was conducted during rabi season of upto harvest- H.W. 20, 40 & 60 DAS.) being at par with W4 -1 2011-2012 at the College Farm, Navsari Agricultural (Pendimethalin @ 0.75 kg ha + H.W. at 45 DAS) and W3 University, Navsari entitled, “Response of chickpea (Cicer (Pendimethalin @ 1.00 kg ha-1) . While significantly the lowest arietinum L.) cultivars to weed management practices under protein content was observed in W1 (Unweeded control). South Gujarat conditions”. The soil of the experimental field Significantly higher protein yield was recorded under treatment -1 was clayey in texture, low in available nitrogen (254.00 kg ha ), W2 (Weed free up to harvest- H.W. 20 ,40 & 60 DAS.) being at -1 -1 medium in available phosphorus (P2O) (32.83 kg ha ) and fairly par with W4 (Pendimethalin @ 0.75 kg ha + H.W. at 45 DAS) -1 rich in available potash (K2O) (349.00 kg ha ). than unweeded control. The increase in protein content and Eighteen treatment combinations consisting of three yield with these treatments might be due to better nourishment varieties viz., Dahod yellow (V1), GG-2 (V2) and BGD -72 (V3) reputed from effective reduction in competition reflected in and six weed management treatments viz., Unweeded control higher protein content in seed and their yield under respective (W1), Weed free up to harvest (H.W. at 20, 40 & 60 DAS) (W2), weed management treatments. Similar findings were also -1 Pendimethalin @ 1.00 kg ha (W3), Pendimethalin @ 0.75 kg reported by (Balyan, 1987, Gediya et al., 1989, Lalakiya, 1980, -1 -1 ha + 1 H.W. at 45 DAS (W4), Imazythapyr @ 0.1 kg ha at 15 Chauhan, 2000). DAS (W5), and Quizalofop-p-ethyl @ 0.05 kg ha at 15 DAS W2 (weed free up to harvest- H.W. 20, 40 & 60 DAS.) (W6) were tested by employing factorial randomized block recorded significantly the highest content and uptake of major design (FRBD) with three replications. Chickpea varieties were nutrients i.e N, P and K but it was remained at par with -1 sown at 30 cm apart from rows during third week of October. treatment W4 (Pendimethalin @ 0.75 kg ha + H.W. at 45 DAS) The crop was fertilized with recommend dose of 25-50-0 kg in nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium content and nitrogen 29
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______uptake by seed and stover. This might be due to better Similar results were also reported by singh et al. (2004), Legere development of crop and lesser crop weed competition. Further, et al. (1989) and Vengris et al. (1953) in chickpea crop. the higher dry matter production (seed and stover) of crop under The results clearly indicated that effective weed these treatments boosted the nutrient content and uptake. These management under W 2, W 3 and W 4 resulted in minimum results were supported by singh et al (2004), Vengris et al depletion of nutrients by weeds and maximum content and (1953), Gediya et al. (1989), Balyan (1987), Lalakiya (1980) uptake by chickpea crop, which reflected in better growth and and Chauhan (2000). development ultimately higher seed and stover yield of chickpea Significantly the highest removal of major nutrients by crop. The results concluded that higher profitable and weeds were registered under W1 (unweeded control) (Table 2 & qualitative yield of chickpea on vertisols of South Gujarat can 3), where as significantly the lowest nutrient depletion was be obtained by using either Dahod yellow, GG-2 or BGD-72 noted under treatment W2 (weed free upto harvest-H.W.20, 40 variety of chickpea and by keeping them weed free by hand & 60 DAS.) in content and uptake of major nutrients i.e. N, P weeding at 20, 40 and 60 DAS interval or by pre-emergence and K. This might be due to reduced crop weed competition application of Pendimethalin @ 0.75 kg ha-1 coupled with one under these treatments which resulted in lesser dry matter hand hoeing at 45 days after sowing. production by weeds and ultimately nutrient content and uptake.
Table-1: Protein content in seed (%), protein yield (kg ha-1), seed yield (kg/ha) and dry weight of weeds are influenced by various treatments in chickpea. Treatment Protein Protein yield Seed Yield Dry weight of weeds (kg/ha) content in (kg ha-1) (kg/ha-1) 60 DAS At harvest (kg/ha-1) seed (%) (kg/ha-1) Varieties (V) V1 = Dahod yellow 19.98 309 1534 19.33 24.35 (593.17) V2 = GG-2 20.31 324 1585 18.93 23.81 (567.17) V3 = BGD-72 20.18 316 1545 19.17 24.15 (583.33) S. Em.+ 0.31 6.90 41 12.88 14.50 C. D. (0.05) NS NS NS NS NS Weed management (W) W1 = Unweeded Control 18.31 209 1140 26.13 31.39 (985.67) W = Weed free up to harvest ( H.W. 20, 40 & 60 21.35 385 1804 10.14 2 16.15 (261.00) DAS) W3 = Pendimethalin @ 1.00 kg/ha (PE) 20.44 343 1680 15.15 20.40 (416.33) W4 = Pendimethalin @ 0.75 kg/ha (PE) +1 H.W. at 45 20.94 360 1720 12.91 17.67 (312.33) DAS W5 = Imazethapyr @ 0.1 kg/ha at 15 DAS 19.77 289 1461 23.62 27.67 (765.67) 20.07 311 1545 21.43 W6 = Quizalofop-p-ethyl @ 0.05 kg/ha at 15 DAS 26.19 (686.33) S. Em.+ 0.43 9.75 57.99 18.22 20.50 C. D. (0.05) 1.25 28.02 166.63 52.36 58.91 Interaction V x W NS NS NS NS NS C. V. % 6.47 9.25 11.16 14.91 10.58 H.W. = Hand weeding, H.H. = Hand hoeing, DAS = Days after sowing, Data of weed dry weight are after x transformed value, the data in parentheses indicate original value.
Table-2: N, P and K content (%) by seed and stover of chickpea and weeds as influenced by various Treatments.
Chickpea Seed Chickpea Stover Weeds Treatments N P K N P K N P K Varieties (V)
V1 = Dahod yellow 3.20 0.60 0.75 1.25 0.20 1.29 1.40 0.26 1.63 V2 = GG-2 3.25 0.63 0.77 1.29 0.21 1.30 1.37 0.25 1.61 V3 = BGD-72 3.23 0.61 0.76 1.26 0.20 1.29 1.38 0.24 1.62 S. Em. ± 0.03 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.03 C.D. (P=0.05) NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS Weed management (W) W1 =Unweeded Control 2.93 0.43 0.66 1.04 0.14 1.20 1.81 0.36 1.81 W2 =Weed free up to harvest (H.W. 20, 40 & 60 DAS) 3.42 0.72 0.87 1.41 0.25 1.42 0.82 0.17 1.23 W3 =Pendimethalin @ 1.00 kg/ha (PE) 3.27 0.66 0.79 1.31 0.21 1.30 1.35 0.23 1.62 W = Pendimethalin @ 0.75 kg/ha (PE) +1 H.W. at 45 4 3.35 0.69 0.81 1.35 0.23 1.33 1.33 0.20 1.58 DAS W5 = Imazethapyr @ 0.1 kg/ha at 15 DAS 3.16 0.57 0.71 1.22 0.19 1.25 1.52 0.28 1.72
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Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______W6 =Quizalofop-p-ethyl @ 0.05 kg/ha at 15 DAS 3.22 0.60 0.72 1.28 0.20 1.27 1.48 0.25 1.75 S. Em. ± 0.05 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.01 0.03 0.03 0.01 0.04 C.D. (P=0.05) 0.14 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.02 0.09 0.09 0.02 0.12 Interaction V X W NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS C.V.% 4.47 7.30 8.70 6.85 9.95 7.19 6.97 9.89 7.54 NS = Non significant, HW = Hand weeding, PE = Pre emergence DAS = Days after sowing.
Table-3: N, P and K uptake (kg ha-1) by seed and stover of chickpea and weeds as influenced by various treatments
Chickpea seed Chiakpea Stover Weeds Treatments N P K N P K N P K Varieties V1 = Dahod yellow 49.57 9.32 11.66 29.45 4.65 30.15 9.23 1.66 10.22 V2 = GG-2 51.86 10.14 12.38 32.04 4.97 32.12 8.67 1.51 9.69 V3 = BG-72 50.55 9.66 11.95 30.30 4.84 30.93 8.97 1.55 9.97 S. Em. ± 0.99 0.25 0.27 0.99 0.16 0.88 0.30 0.06 0.31 C.D. (P=0.05) NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS Weed management (W) W1 = Unweeded Control 33.43 4.95 7.49 20.19 2.67 23.21 17.84 3.52 17.87 W2 = Weed free up to harvest ( H.W.20, 40 & 60 61.65 13.06 15.76 39.15 6.82 39.42 3.46 0.49 3.99 DAS) W3 = Pendimethalin @ 1.00 kg/ha (PE) 54.94 11.15 13.22 34.19 5.21 33.75 5.62 0.93 6.76 W4 = Pendimethalin @ 0.75 kg/ha (PE) +1 57.96 11.58 13.99 36.00 5.81 35.46 5.03 0.77 5.93 H.W. at 45 DAS W5 = Imazethapyr @ 0.1 kg/ha at 15 DAS 46.22 8.28 10.33 25.95 4.00 26.58 11.67 1.89 13.17 W6 = Quizalofop-p-ethyl @ 0.05 kg/ha at 49.77 9.22 11.18 28.11 4.43 27.96 10.14 1.85 12.03 15 DAS S. Em. ± 1.40 0.36 0.39 1.40 0.23 1.25 0.43 0.08 0.43 C.D. (P=0.05) 4.01 1.03 1.11 4.01 0.67 3.60 1.23 0.24 1.25 Interaction V X W NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS C.V.% 8.27 11.13 9.69 13.70 14.41 12.08 14.36 15.78 13.09
NS = Non significant, HW = Hand weeding, PE = Pre emergence DAS = Days after sowing.
REFERENCES Balyan, R. S. 1987. Weed control in rabi pulse, Farmer and the vertisols of South Gujarat. M.Sc. (Agri.) thesis Parliament 22(1): 17-18. submitted to Gujarat Agricultural University, Navsari. Chauhan, H.A. 2000. Effect of spacing weeds and phosphorus Legere, A. and Schneiber, M. M. 1989. Competition and management on chickpea. M.Sc. (Agri.) thesis canopy architecture as affected by soybean (Glycine submitted to Gujarat Agricultural University, Navsari. max) row width and density of red root pigweed (Amaranthus retorflexus). Weed science. 37: 84-92. Gediya, K.M., Malavia, D.D., Payel, J.C. and Baldha, N.M. 1989. Nodulation and nutrient accumulation of chickpea Singh, M.K., Singh, R.P. and Singh, R.K. 2004. Influence of as influenced by weed management. Indian J. Agron., crop geometry, cultivar and weed-management practice 34(2): 234-236. on crop-weed competition in chickpea (Cicer arietinum). Indian J. Agron., 49(4): 258-261. Kumar, S. 1985. Weed management studies in summer mung. Ph.D. Dissertation submitted to Haryana Agricultural Vengris, J., Darke, M., Cloby, W.B. and Bart, J. 1953. University, Hissar, India. Chemicla composition of weed and accompanying crop plant. Agronomy Journal 45: 213-218. Lalakiya, A.J. 1990. Responses of gram (Cicer arietinum L.) to different weed management practices and phosphorus in
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Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______
Performance of acid lime cultivars for hasth bahar under semi arid condition of Vidarbha
MAHANTESH KAMATYANATTI*, VIKAS RAMTEKE, MURLI MANOHAR BAGHEL AND D.H. PAITHANKAR Department of Horticulture, Dr. P.D.K.V., Akola – 444104, Maharastra, INDIA
Received: 14.02.15 Accepted: 06.07.15 ABSTRACT An experiment was conducted during 2013 and 2014 to evaluate the “Performance of different acid lime (Citrus aurantifolia Swingle) cultivars for hasta bahar was conducted at “All India Co-ordinated Research Project on Tropical Fruits” (Citrus) Dr. PDKV, Akola . Observations on growth parameters, fruit set, yield attributes and quality parameters were recorded. The plant growth parameters in respect of plant height (4.28 m) and plant volume (67.60 m3) was found maximum in cultivar ‘PDKV lime’ in hasta bahar, first flowering was observed in cultivar ‘Chakradhar’ while lastly flowering was noted in cultivar ‘Tenali’. Number of flower/shoot noted maximum in cultivar ‘Vikram’ (146.33), while fruit set percentage was more (30.97 %) and duration of flowering was less (25.43 days) in cultivar ‘PDKV lime’. Fruit yield on the basis of number of fruits per plant (661.33) and 37.73 kg/plant was recorded highest in cultivar ‘PDKV lime’ also superior fruit quality in respect of maximum fruit weight (58.24 g), fruit volume (54.27 cm3), fruit diameter (3.79 cm), T.S.S (8.25 ⁰Brix), Acidity percentage (8.66) Ascorbic acid (32.8 mg/100ml) was recorded in variety ‘PDKV lime’ whereas maximum juice content (49.57 %) and minimum number of seeds per fruit (1.50) was observed in cultivar ‘Chakradhar’.
Key words: Acid lime, Cultivars, Juice content, Fruit set, Performance, Quality and Yield.
Citrus in India is grown in an area of 10, 42,000 to select proper cultivar which will be highly priced in this hectare with a total production of 100.90 lakh tonnes (Anon., region. Hasta bahar flowering is observed in September-October 2011). The most important commercial citrus groups in India month and is initiated after completion of rainy season and are the mandarin (Citrus reticulata Blanco) followed by sweet starting of winter i.e. in October. The fruit of hasta bahar are orange (Citrus sinensis Osbeck) and acid lime (Citrus ready for harvesting at April-May. Fruits having more demand aurantifolia Swingle) sharing 41, 23 and 23 per cent, due to non availability of other fruits in this season. The price of respectively. India is the largest producer of acid lime in the hasta bahar fruits are 6 to 8 times more than ambia bahar and 3 world (Chadha, 2002). It is generally grown under both tropical to 4 times than mrig bahar. So, it is beneficial to cultivar in and subtropical climatic conditions in the plains and up to an Akola region. Various varieties have good performance for elevation of 1200 MSL. In India, it is commercially cultivated hasta bahar. But it is essential to study performance of acid lime in the states of Maharastra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil varieties for hasta bahar under Vidarbha conditions. Nadu, Gujarat and Bihar. Acid lime fruits have great medicinal value being acidic. Lime is appetizer, stomachic, antiscorbutic, MATERIAL AND METHODS antihelmintic and it checks biliousness (Thirugnanavel et al. The investigation to assess the performance of acid lime 2007). It is used in omitting and gaster etc. Lime used in making cultivars was carried out at the AICRP on tropical fruits candy, chocolate, ice-cream, pastries and 100 gram fruit juice (Citrus), PDKV, Akola. The budded plants of eight acid lime content 80 percent of water, (26 IU carotene), 20 mg Vit. B1, 0.1 cultivars viz. ‘Pramalini’, ’Vikram’, ’Tenali’, ’Sai Sharbati’, mg Riboflavin, 63 mg Vitamin C, 1.83 mg iron (Fe), 0.16 mg ’Kagzi lime’, ‘Mangali Pattu’, ’PDKV lime’ and ‘Chakradhar’ Copper (Cu), oxalo-acetic acid 0.30%, malic acid 8.2% and were planted 2005 in the field at 6 m apart under square system alkaline salt therefore it is an essential for human health of planting. Three plants of each variety were planted under (Decuypere’s, 2000). Introduction of promising acid lime field repository of acid lime for assessing their performance. cultivars in region is an option for increasing the production and The uniform management practices with respect to nutrition and productivity. But performance varied significantly with irrigation were adopted for all the cultivars. To assess the vigour cultivars, location, agro-climate and soil type etc. The variation of different cultivars the growth parameters, like plant height, with regard to growth and bearing habits, yield, colour and plant volume, number of flowers per shoot, fruit set, duration of quality among different acid lime cultivars were also reported flowering, fruits per plant and yield per plant were recorded at by Singh and Lal (1982), Ranpise et al (1995) and Ingle et al. the end of investigation. The fruit yield and quality attibutes (2000) in different parts of the country. Good numbers of were recorded during hasth bahar season of 2013 and 2014 and varieties of acid Lime with desirable qualities are now available pooled data were presented in the Table 1 and Table 2 in Maharashtra. This includes varieties Chakradhar, Tahiti, respectively. The quality and fruit characters, like fruit weight, Pramalini, Vikram, Tenali, Sai Sharbati, Mangai Pattu, PDKV fruit volume, number of seeds per fruit, fruit diameter, juice Lime, etc. It is known that yielding ability and quality of fruit is content, peel thickness, T.S.S., acidity and ascorbic acid were considerably influenced by the climatic condition of the region. recorded and presented based on pooled data of 2 year when all Studies on performance of varieties of acid lime have been the varieties came in fruiting. Fruit diameter and peel thickness scanty in Maharashtra. There seems to be not studies on the was recorded with the help of vernier calliperse. TSS was varietal performance in this region. It is therefore felt necessary determined with the help of hand refractometer. Titrable acidity 32
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______was estimated against N/10 NaOH and ascorbic acid content of cm), Vikram (3.76 cm) and Chakradhar (3.52 cm) were at par fruit was determined with the help of method given by with each other showing semi- spreading growth. However A.O.A.C. 1995. The agroecological region comes under semi plant height recorded minimum in ‘Kagzi lime’ (3.21 m). Plant arid hot ecosystem where experimentation was done. The soil volume vary from 29.15 to 67.60 m3 with the maximum in ‘Sai was heavy clay with medium fertility status and good water- Sharbati’ (75.16 m3) followed by ‘PDKV lime’ (67.62 m3), holding capacity. The data on various parameters were analyzed ‘Mangali Pattu’ (60.12 m3), and minimum was recorded in by method of analysis of variance using randomized block ‘Tenali’ (29.15 m3). Variation of plant growth characters in design having three replications as described by Panse and different cultivars may be attributed to genetic feature of Sukhatme (1985). individual variety (Dhandar and Shukla 2004). The maximum number of flowers per shoot was recorded in ‘Vikram’ (146.33 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION cm) which was closely followed by ‘Mangali Pattu’ (143.20), Growth and yield parameters ‘PDKV lime’ (136.28) and ‘Pramalini’ (134.94) and minimum Data on plant vigour of different cultivars were recorded to was recorded in ‘Tenali’ (96.94). Fruit set was recorded observe the relative growth behaviour of these cultivars under maximum in ‘PDKV lime’ (30.97 %) closely followed by uniform management situation. Data pertaining to plant height ‘Tenali’ (29.53 %), ‘Vikram’ (27.86 %) and minimum in (Table 1) revealed that it was maximum in ‘Sai Sharbati’ (4.33 ‘Chakradhar’ (21.60 %). Duration of flowering in acid lime m), followed by ‘PDKV lime’ (4.28 m), ‘Mangali Pattu’ (4.22 was observed maximum in ‘Tenali’ (40.43 days) and minimum m) showing upright growth habit. The cultivars Pramalini (3.81 in ‘PDKV lime’ (25.43 days).
Table 1. Plant growth and fruit yield attributes of acid lime cultivars. (Pooled data of 2 years) Cultivars Plant height Plant volume Number of *Fruit set Duration of flowering Fruits per Yield per plant (m) (m3) flowers per shoot (%) (days) plant (kg) Pramalini 3.81 37.45 134.94 26.18 (30.77) 26.18 602.67 28.51 Vikram 3.76 47.68 146.33 27.86 (31.86) 27.86 518.00 27.35
Tenali 3.24 29.15 96.94 29.53 (32.95) 29.53 454.67 25.00
Sai Sharbati 4.33 75.16 117.18 27.47 (31.61) 27.47 608.00 33.68
Kagzi lime 3.21 43.17 115.16 27.57 (31.67) 27.57 617.67 32.24
Mangali Pattu 4.22 60.12 143.20 26.55 (31.02) 26.55 483.33 22..00
PDKV lime 4.28 67.60 136.28 30.97 (33.81) 30.97 661.33 37.73
Chakradhar 3.52 42.46 134.06 21.60 (27.69) 21.60 280.00 12.86
S.E(m) ± 0.11 0.69 2.09 0.73 0.75 5.83 0.74 CD (P=0.05) 0.34 2.09 6.30 2.27 2.274 17.61 2.22 * Figures in parentheses are arc sign transformed values.
Significantly highest number of fruit was recorded in ‘PDKV Quality parameters lime’ (661.33) followed by ‘Kagzi lime’ (617.67) and ‘Sai Table 2 indicated that fruit weight was maximum in ‘PDKV Sharbati’ (608.00). Kagzi lime, Sai Sharbati and Pramalini were lime’ (58.24 g), followed by ‘Sai Sharbati’ (55.53 g) and ‘Kagzi at par with each other. However lowest no. of fruits per plant lime’ (52.68 g) whereas minimum was found in ‘Chakradhar’ was recorded in ‘Chakradhar’ (280.00) for hasta bahar. This (46.19 g). The maximum fruit volume was observed in ‘PDKV type of variation may be due to phenotypic and genotypic lime’ (54.27 cm3) which was closely followed by ‘Sai Sharbati’ interactions among cultivars under test condition. Highest fruit (51.06 m3), ‘Kagzi lime’ (50.36 m3) and minimum in yield were recorded in ‘PDKV lime’ (37.73 kg/plant) found ‘Chakradhar’ (42.51 m3). Sai Sharbati (51.06 m3) ‘Kagzi lime’ significantly superior over other followed by ‘Sai Sharbati’ (50.36 m3) showed at par value. From the mean results, the (33.68 kg/plant). While the lowest fruit yield per tree was found number of seeds per fruit was maximum in cultivar ‘Kagzi lime’ in ‘Chakradhar’ (12.86 kg/plant). Higher fruit yield in ‘PDKV (12.11) closely followed by ’Pramalini’ (11.38), ‘Sai Sharbati’ lime’ is mainly due to more number of flowers and fruit/ cluster (10.61), ‘PDKV lime’ (10.26) and minimum in ‘Chakradhar’ and more number of productive branchlets. The fruit yield/tree (1.50). Similar results were reported by Shinde et al. (2004) in was increase with the increasing age and canopy of the tree but kagzi lime (11.6), Pramalini (9.02) and Vikram (7.12). did not follow any trend. This was due to difference in cropping However, fruit diameter were recorded maximum in ‘PDKV load of two consecutive years as well as fruit dropping lime’ (3.79 cm) and minimum in ‘Chakradhar’ (3.01 cm). The behaviour of cultivar, Saroj et al. (2008) have also observe variation in fruit weight, fruit volume, number of seeds per fruit similar fact in bael (Aegle marmelos). The variation in number and fruit diameter might be due to genetic behavior of different of fruits per tree and fruit yield due to cultivar in acid lime was cultivars with bigger or smaller sizes varying with weight. also reported by various workers viz., Jature and Chakrawar These results were in accordance to the Bagde and Patil (1989) (1981), Jawaharlal et al. (1989) and Desai et al. (1994). Prasad and Rao (1989) and Athani et al. (2009).
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Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______The results with respect to juice content, peel thickness, total the T.S.S. content (Hulme, 1970). Acidity percentage in acid soluble solids, acidity percentage and Ascorbic acid are depicted lime was varied from 6.95 to 8.66 % in different cultivars with in Table 2. The highest juice content was recorded in maximum in ‘PDKV lime’ (8.66 %) followed by ‘Sai Sharbati’ ‘Chakradhar’ (49.57 %), followed by ‘Pramalini’ (48.20%), (8.41%) and minimum was recorded in ‘Mangali Pattu’ (6.95 ‘PDKV lime’ (46.63 %) and minimum in ‘Tenali’ (41.67%). %). The maximum ascorbic acid is observedin in ‘PDKV lime’ Peel thickness was varied from 1.41 mm to 2.23 mm with (32.8 mg/100ml) followed by ‘Sai Sharbati’ (31.43 mg/100ml), maximum in ‘Mangali Pattu’ (2.23). The maximum T.S.S was ‘Chakradhar’ (30.22 mg/100ml) and minimum in ’Mangali recorded in ‘PDKV lime’ (8.25 ⁰Brix), followed by ‘Sai Pattu’ (25.42 mg/100ml). The variation in ascorbic acid content Sharbati’ (8.20 ⁰Brix), ‘Pramalini’ (7.83 ⁰Brix) and minimum in may be attributed as a varietal character and due to favorability ‘Mangali Pattu’ (7.33 ⁰Brix). The increase in T.S.S. might be of seasonal conditions. Thus, it can be concluded that ‘PDKV due to conversion of starch and there insoluble carbohydrate lime’, ‘Sai Sharbati’ and ‘Kagzi lime’ can be recommended for into soluble form of sugar which are responsible for increasing commercial cultivation in semi arid ecosystem of Vidarbha.
Table 2. Fruit quailty attributes of acid lime cultivars. (Pooled data of 2 years) Cultivars Fruit Fruit Number of Fruit Juice Peel T.S.S *Acidity Ascorbic acid weight volume seeds per diameter content thickness (⁰Brix) (%) (mg/100 ml (g) (cm3) fruit (cm) (%) (mm) juice) Pramalini 48.23 45.33 11.38 3.63 48.20 1.57 7.83 7.97 29.13 (2.82) Vikram 51.74 48.32 8.35 3.48 46.30 1.77 7.67 7.53 28.17 (2.74) Tenali 46.89 43.42 8.44 3.69 41.67 1.45 7.46 7.40 27.45 (2.72) Sai 55.53 51.06 10.61 3.56 45.21 1.79 8.20 8.41 31.43 Sharbati (2.91) Kagzi lime 52.68 50.36 12.11 3.58 43.73 1.41 7.51 7.60 28.53 (2.76) Mangali 45.52 42.33 9.80 3.44 44.30 2.23 7.33 6.95 25.42 Pattu (2.64) PDKV lime 58.24 54.27 10.26 3.79 46.63 1.72 8.25 8.66 32.8 (2.94) Chakradhar 46.19 42.51 1.50 3.01 49.57 1.67 7.75 7.41 30.22 (2.73) S.E(m) ± 0.22 0.31 0.48 0.08 0.29 0.01 0.03 0.02 0.36 CD 0.65 0.93 1.45 0.24 0.87 0.03 0.08 0.05 1.10 (P=0.05) * Figures in parentheses are square root transformed values.
Plant height (m) Fruits per plant 5 700 600 4 500 3 400 300 2 200 100 1 0 0
Figure 1. Plant height of acid lime cultivars under semi arid Figure 2. Fruits per plant of acid lime cultivars under semi condition arid condition
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Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______
100 Fruit weight (g)
50
0
Figure 3. Fruit weight of acid lime cultivars under semi arid Figure 4. Number of seeds per fruit of acid lime cultivars condition under semi arid condition
REFERENCES Anonymous 2011. Area and production of Citrus in India and Jature, S.D. and Chakrawar, V.R. 1981. Studies on certain Maharashtra. http//www.nhb.gov.in. strains of Kagzi lime (Citrus aurantifolia Swingle) fruits for their yield and physic-chemical characters. J. A.O.C.A. 1995. Offical method of analysis. Association of Maharashtra agric. Univ 6 (2): 91-93. Official Agricultural Chemists, 16th Edn., Washington D.C. Allahabad Safeda. Haryana J. Hort. Sci 26(1-2): 89- Jawaharlal, M.I., Irulappa, and Azhakiamuanavalan, R.S. 91. 1989. Performance of acid lime selection (Citrus aurantifolia Swingle). South Indian Horti 37(3): 176-177. Athani, S.I., Revanappa, and Allolli, T.B. 2009. Variability of physical characters, quality and yield of kagzi lime (Citrus Panse, V.G. and Sukhatme, P.V. 1985. Statistical method for aurantifolia). Journal of Ecobiology 25 (3): 259-262. agricultural workers. 4th ed. ICAR, New Delhi. Bagde, T.R. and Patil, V.S. 1989. Chakradhar lime a new thorn Prasad, M.B.N.V. and Rao, G.S.P. 1989. Genetic variability, less and seedless selection in lime (Citrus aurantifolia correlation and biochemical and path coefficient analysis Swingle). Ann. Plant Physiol 3(1): 95-97 for some morphological constituent of acid lime fruit. Scientia Horticulture, 41: 43-53. Chadha, K.L. 2002. Hand book of Horticulture. ICAR publication, New Delhi, pp. 209. Ranpise, S.A., Desai, U.T., Kale, P.N., Musmade, A.M., Choudhari, S.M. and Raijadhav, S.B. 1995. Decuypere’s 2000. Nutrient Charts. Performance of acid lime selection from western www.healthalternatives2000.com. Maharashtra. Indian J. Horti 52(3): 167-169. Desai, U.T., Musmade, A.M., Ranpise, S.A., Kale, P.N., Saroj, P.L., More, T.A. and Singh, U.V. 2008. Performance of Chaudhari, S.M. and Kulkarni, S.R. 1994. Studies on bael cultivars under hot arid ecosystem of Rajasthan. variability in kagzi lime. J. Maharashtra agric. Univ., Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 78 (12): 1071–4. 19(1): 97-99. Shinde, N.N., Jature, S.D., Patil, M.B. and Shinde, V.N. Dhandar, D.G. and Shukla, A.K. 2004. Varietal improvement 2004. Seedless lime a promising mutant of acid lime. J. in aonla. Amla in India, pp 44. Mehta and Singh (Eds), Maharashtra agric. Univ 29(2): 227-228. Amla Growers Association of India. Singh, A.K. and Lal, M. 1982. Performance of citrus fruits in Ganvir, P.K. 2009. Effect of nitrogen and potassium levels on the North Genetic Plains. Punjab Hort. J., 13(4): 29-34. yield and fruit quality of acid lime. M.Sc. Thesis submitted to Dr. PDKV, Akola Maharashtra (Unpub.). Thirugnanavel, A., Amutha, R., Baby Rani, W. and Indira, K. 2007. Studies on regulation of flowering in Acid lime. Hulme AC 1970. The Biochemistry of fruit and their product, (Citrus aurantifolia swingle). Res. J. of Agri. And Bio. Academic Press, New York vol. 1 and 2. Sci., 3(4):239-241. Ingle, H.V., Athawale, R.B., Tayde, G.S., and Pakhare, G.B. 2000. Studies on sexuality and fruit set in various cultivar of Acid Lime tree. Agric. Sci. Digest 20(4): 273-274.
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Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______
Economics of ginger marketing in Ri-Bhoi district of meghalaya
GYATI RIKU, A. K.TRIPATHI, N. U. SINGH, A ROY AND S. PETER SINGH ECONOMICSCONOMICS OF GINGER MARKETING IN RI-BHOI DISTRICT OF MEGHAYA Received: 19.03.15 Accepted: 01.07.15 ABSTRACT
The present study has been carried out in Ri-Bhoi district of Meghalaya to work out the marketing patterns of ginger and also to identify the major constraints in the production and marketing and to suggest suitable measures to overcome the problems using multistage random sampling. Four marketing channels were identified in Ri-bhoi district and found that channel I was the most effective channel in case of quantity transaction while channel iii was most efficient channel with marketing efficiency of 8.11%. producer incurred the highest marketing cost in all the channels and observed that price paid by the customer was the lowest in channel iii and the highest in channel I while the price received by the producer was the highest in channel iii and the lowest in channel i. the producer’s share in customer’s rupee was the highest in channel iii (53.42%) and the lowest in channel (36.36%). Thus the total marketing cost was directly related to the number of intermediaries involved in that channel. The most important constraints of ginger marketing were inadequate transportation facilities and small marketable surplus due to which farmers preferred to sell their produce through channels I at village level through it was most inefficient among all the channels.
Key words: Ginger, constraints, marketing, channel and marketable surplus
India is blessed with a wide range of agro-climatic 2. Estimate the price spread in different channels. conditions from tropical to temperate zones, coastal plains to 3. To identify the major constraint in marketing and to high altitudes and semi-arid to highly humid evergreen forests. suggest suitable measures Therefore, it has a unique position in the global spice scenario as the largest producer, customer and exporter of spice so called MATERIAL AND METHODS “Home of spices” because on country in the world grows as The study was conducted in Ri-bhoi district of the many kind of spices as India grows. Meghalaya to work out the economics of ginger during crop Ginger (Zingiber officinale), is one of the oldest and season of 2009-2010. Meghalaya was selected purposefully as herbaceous perennial spice grown as annual crop and is its diverse agro climate condition is highly suitable for ginger esteemed for its aroma and pungency. The most important crop and also ICAT for NEH region and College of Post criteria in assessing suitable of ginger rhizomes are fibre, Graduate Studies (CAU) are located in Ri-Bhoi district. Using volatile oil and pungency level. Ginger root is widely used multistage random sampling, Umsning Block was selected around the world as a spice or food additive. It is used in fresh randomly at the first stage from the three stage blocks of the condition or as processed product. district. At the second stage six circles of Umsning block were Ginger originated from South East Asia, widely grown all randomly selected and at the third stage ten villages were over the world and approximately 387.30 thousand hectares is selected randomly from the block. At the fourth and final stage under this crop, with production of 1476.90 thousand tons in the six farmers were selected randomly from each village for world. India is a leading producer of ginger in the in the world collection of data making total respondent to sixty. For market and ranked first in both area (105.50 thousand ha) and information, data were collected from four important markets of production with production of 35.05% (517.80 thousand tons) RI-Bhoi district i.e. Umroi, Bhoirymbong, Umsning and of world production level are Assam, Meghalaya, Arunachal Nongpoh market and data were collected from five village Pradesh and Sikkim. Ginger is an important crop of this region traders, five retailers and five wholesalers each from reach occupying 49.86 thousand hectares and produces 297.59 market by using random sampling technique. Data were thousand tons (Spices Board of India, 2008-09). Ginger is an collected through a prepared structure schedule after being important cash crop of the Meghalaya State which plays an tested. Objectives were estimated using the equation given important role in the economy of farmers of the state. below. Meghalaya is the second largest producer of ginger in the 1. Marketing Channels and price spread North-Eastern region and ranks third in the country by The price spread was calculated by using the formula given contributing 7.93% to the national production (Spice Board of below (Acharya and Agarwal, 1978). India, 2008-09). Understanding the farmers’ perspective on the Producer’s share I consumer’s rupees = crop and post-harvest disposal of the produce will help to Producer’s Price develop suitable marketing frame work so that remunerative ………………… X 100 proce can be attainable to the growers. Thus it is essential to Consumer’s Price have an in-depth analysis of marketing of this crop to provide appropriate guidelines for the promotion of ginger in Meghalaya 2. Marketing Efficiency in order to protect the interest of the farmers. Keeping these Marketing efficiency was calculated using Shepherd’s method points in view the present study was conducted in Ri-Bhoi Retailer Sale Price Marketing Efficiency = ………………………….. district of Meghalaya with the following specific objectives; Total Marketing Price 1. To identify the marketing channels
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Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______RESULTS AND DISCUSSION From the study it was revealed that the average yield Marketing of ginger was 76.53 quintal per ha. For the seed and other purpose 25.72 Ginger is products which need high value addition and percent (19.68q) of the total produce was kept. It was also clear efficient marketing system for making ginger cultivation that total marketable surplus was 74.17 percent (56.76q) of total profitable. Therefore along with resources efficiency analysis is produce. The total marketed surplus was worked out to ne 81.02 equally important. In the following paragraph the aspects of percent (62.01q) of produce (Table 2). It is evidence from the marketing channels, marketable and marketed surplus, Table that marketed surplus much higher than the marketable marketing cost, margins and price were discussed. surplus which was due to lack of proper storage facilities and Marketing Channel the farmers were compelled to sell their produce within short From the study it was found that mostly private agencies time. Thus the distress sale was observed and marketed surplus such as communication agent, village traders and wholesalers’ become higher than the marketable surplus. were involved in marketing of ginger in study area and no Marketing cost, margins and price spread: government organization was involved. There also exist whole The study of price in the marketing of product gives an sale marketing transactions idea about the marketing costs, profits, margins and ultimate In Ri-Bhoi district four major channels of marketing were share of producer in the consumers’ rupee. Moreover, studies on identified as given below. Marketing margins and costs are important as they reveal many Channel l: Producer – village traders---Wholesaler---Retailer— facets of marketing and price structure as well as efficiency of consumer the system (Acharya and Agarwal, 1999). Channel II: Producer – Commission agents at local market--- It was observed that the highest cost was observed in Wholesaler – Retailer –Consumer channel l (Rs. 2100/q) followed by channel II (Rs. 1800/q) Channel lll: Producer – Commission agent at market---Retailer--- consumer which was due to involvement of more number of Channel lV: Producer – Small Traders—Commission agent – intermediaries and the lowest cost was observed in channel III Retailer—Consumer (Rs.1360/q) followed by channel lV (Rs. 1480/q) where In respect of quantity transaction channel I was most producer selling their product to consumer through commission effective channel which transected 48%, channel li 38%, agent and retailer without involvement of traders. The Channel lll 6% and channel lV 8%, respectively of total market marketing cost per quintal at producer level was Rs.210, Rs.215, surplus. The farmers preferred to sell their produce through Rs.214, and Rs.202 in channels I, II, III, IV respectively. It was channel l at village level because of their small marketable observed that the producer incurred Rs. 165 and Rs. 124 in surplus and inadequate transportation facilities. Therefore channels l and ll while in channel lll and lV they were not channel lll was the least effective among all the channels involved. Retailer incurred Rs.135, Rs. 115, Rs.146 and Rs. 178 through the producer share was the highest in consumer rupee. in channel l, ll, lll, and lV, respectively (Table 3). Market and Marketable surplus
Table 2: Disposable pattern of ginger in Ri-Bhoi district of Meghalaya (q) Total Production Home consumption Kept for seed Marketable surplus Marketed Surplus 76.53 0.02 19.68 56.76 62.01
Table 3: Channels wise marketing Costs of Ginger Particulars Marketing Channels Channels l Channels ll Channels lll Channels lV Rs./q % Rs./q % Rs./q % Rs./q % Transportation 193 9.19 165 9.17 85 6.25 88 5.95 Loading/Unloading charge 110 5.24 105 5.83 25 1.84 35 2.36 Packaging 35 1.67 35 1.94 10 0.74 15 1.01 Weighing 50 2.38 50 2.78 10 0.74 20 1.35 Quantity loss in marketing 192 9.14 155 8.61 65 12.13 157 4.39 Deduction charge 120 5.71 130 7.22 165 12.13 157 10.61 Commission 1400 66.67 1160 64.44 1000 73.53 1100 74.32 Total 2100 100 1800 100 1360 100 1480 100
The channel wise producer share and margins of different by different intermediaries in different channels. The village functionaries in marketing of ginger are represented in Table 4. traders earned Rs. 465/q in channel I and 425/q in channel II, It was observed that the price paid by the consumer was the wholesaler earned Rs. 510/q and 380/q in channel I and II while lowest in channel III and highest in channel I, the price received retailer earned Rs. 425/q in channel I and II, Rs. 1100/q in by the producer was the highest in channel III and the lowest in channel II and IV, respectively. channel I. This table also shows the marketing margins earned
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Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______
Table 4: Channel wise producer and Marketing Margins of Ginger Particulars Marketing Channels I II III IV Rs./q % Rs./q % Rs./q % Rs./q % Producer Shares 1200 36.36 1300 41.94 1560 53.42 1520 50.67 Village Traders Margins 465 14.09 425 13.71 - - - - Wholesaler Margins 510 15.45 380 12.26 - - - - Retailer Margins 425 12.88 355 11.45 1000 34.25 1100 36.67 Marketing Cost 700 21.21 640 20.65 360 12.33 380 12.67 Consumer Price 3300 100 3100 100 2920 100 3000 100
The channel wise price spread of ginger marketing given in The highest marketing efficiency was observed in channel III Table 5. From the study it was evident that the producer’s share in (8.11%) and the lowest was worked out for channel I (47.71%). the consumer’s rupee was the highest in channel III (53.42%) where From the above analysis it was observed that the total only three intermediaries are involved. The lowest amount of marketing cost was directly related to the number of intermediaries producer’s share in consumer’s rupee (36.36%) was observed in involved in that channel. Higher the number of intermediaries, channel I where the maximum numbers of the intermediaries were higher would be the cost. The marketing margin was also found to involved. In channel II and channel IV, the producer share in the have a direct relationship with the number intermediaries. consumer rupee was found to be 41.94% and 50.67%, respectively.
Table 5: Channel wise price spread of ginger marketing Particulars Channels I II III IV Rs./q % Rs./q % Rs./q % Rs./q % Marketing cost incurred by Producer level 210 6.36 215 6.95 214 7.33 202 6.73 Village traders 190 5.76 186 6.00 - - - - Wholesaler level 165 5.00 124 4.00 - - - - Retailer level 135 4.09 115 3.71 146 5.00 178 5.93 Total Marketing Cost 700 21.21 640 20.65 360 12.33 380 12.67 Margins Earned by different Intermediaries Village traders 465 14.09 437 14.10 - - - - Wholesaler level 510 15.45 373 12.03 - - - - Retailer level 425 12.88 350 11.29 1000 34.25 1100 36.67 Total 2100 63.64 1800 58.06 1360 46.58 1480 49.33 Price paid by the consumer 3300 100 3100 100 2920 100 3000 100 Price received by producer 1200 - 1300 - 1560 - 1520 - Price spread 2100 - 1800 - 1360 - 1480 - Gross producer share in consumer rupee - 36.36 - 41.94 - 53.42 - 50.67 Net price received by producer 990 - 1085 - 1346 - 1318 - Net producer share in consumer rupee - 30.00 - 35.00 - 46.10 - 43.93 Marketing Efficiency - 4.71 - 4.84 - 8.11 - 7.89
Constraints of Ginger Marketing: deduction which was 1 kg/10 kg of ginger were reported by the In the present study an attempt was made to identify different respondents. The next problem was lack of regulated market facility problems encountered during ginger marketing so that appropriate in Meghalaya. Farmers had to perform their market under the open solutions could be suggested to increase producers share in sky. Absence of processing unit in the nearby areas was another consumer’s rupee and bring higher profits by resolve the problems. problem as ginger is highly value adding products. The problems faced by the farmers were collected through an CONCLUSIONS opinion survey conducted. The most important constraints of ginger The conclusions are made based on the study which has marketing were inadequate transportation facilities and small bearing on policy. It was observed that owing to the lack of proper marketable surplus due to which farmers preferred to sell their and inadequate roads, transportation of produced were costly and produce through channel I at village level through it was most farmers were compelled to sell their produced channel I (Producer inefficient among all the channels. Another problem was lack of Village traders Wholesaler Retailer Consumer) for marketing storage facilities and processing industries due to which farmers through it was the lowest marketing efficiency. Thus cheaper and were compelled to sell their produce just after the harvest at low proper transportation facilities should be made available by the price due to heavy arrival in the market and faced huge losses. It Government. Government should improve the marketing facilities was observed that most of the farmers expected Government to increase the producer share in consumer rupee. Finaly ginger intervention for their transportation and marketing facilities so that required value addition thus more ginger processing industries they could get proper facilities. The problems of unnecessary should be established near the production centers.
REFERENCES
Acharya, S. S. and Agarwal, N. L. (1999). Agricultural marketing in FAO. (2006-07). Production Year Book, Rome. India (3rd Edition), Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd. Spice Board of India. (2008-09). Production Year Book, Kochi, kerala. New Delhi, pp-311. 38
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______
Comparative study of the Internet Utilization pattern of male and female Sardarkrushinagar Dantiwada Agricultural University students
MOHMMAD YUNUS , A.S. SHEIKH2 , I. M. KHAN3 AND D.S. BHATI4
1 Post Graduate, Department of Extension Education, C.P. College of Agriculture, Sardar Krushinagar Dantiwada Agricultural University, Sardarkrushinagar 2 Associate Professor and Head, Department of Veterinary Extension Education,CVSAH, SDAU, S.K. NAGAR 3 Professor, Department of Extension Education, S.K.N. COA, SKN Agriculture University, Jobner-Jaipur (Rajasthan) 4 Assistant Professor, KVK (SKN Agriculture University), Tabiji, Ajmer Received: 05.02.15 Accepted: 19.08.15 ABSTRACT Internet has become a way of life for majority of higher education students all around the world. For most college students, the internet is a functional tool, one that has greatly changed the way they interact with each other and with information as they go about their studies. With internet many students prepare course assignments, make study notes, tutor themselves with specialized multimedia, and process data for research projects. Most students exchange e-mails with faculty, peers, and remote experts. They keep up to- date in fields on the internet, accessing newsgroups, bulletin boards, and websites posted by professional organizations. Most students access library catalogs, bibliographic databases, and academic resource in text, graphics and imagery on the World Wide Web. The present study was conducted in Sardarkrushinagar Dantiwada Agricultural University, Sardarkrushinagar, by personally interviewing the randomly selected 100 internet utilizing students from Chimanbhai Patel College of Agriculture and 100 internet utilizing students from College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry. For measuring the internet utilization pattern of the SDAU students, a schedule was developed by the investigator in light of the suggestion of the experts. The finding reveal that most of the internet utilizing male SDAU students (47.86%) and majority of female SDAU students (60.00%) had 1 to 2 years experience of internet use. Majority of the internet utilizing male SDAU students (MPS 94.64) and female SDAU students (MPS 98.33) preferred hostel for internet use. The finding reveal that most of the internet utilizing male SDAU students (43.57%) and female SDAU students (36.67%) did not spent any money expenditure incurred to use internet. Majority of internet utilizing male SDAU students (66.42%) and (63.33%) female SDAU students had used internet facility every day. Key words: Communication, Internet Utilization pattern and Students.
The 21st century is witnessing a communication revolution with To explore an enormous scope of using internet information processing and retrieving which are being reliably facilities in all research and academic institutions students, done at incredible speeds. The most striking invention in the research scholars can link themselves to remote computer via field of education is the integration of Information and the internet and gain access to the data, information and Communication Technology (ICT) in education. One of the programs stored on it and they can do almost anything like most significant developments in this technology is the growth sending and receiving messages, receiving news update about of the “Internet”. The word internet is derived from the words specific events or topics, reading or copying information stored “global” and “network”. The internet can be defined as network on other computers, reading newspapers, magazines and of networks and is the world’s largest and most widely used newsletters, downloading computer software, sharing of network. According to Oxford dictionary “Internet is an expensive hardware, centralized administration of all international computer network connecting other networks and computers, posting and reading public messages to exchange computers from companies, universities, NGOs etc.” The news and information about certain topics or area of interest. internet is a useful tool for all in a technologically sophisticated The adoption of internet facilities into the research, world. education and extension is to use the potential of the new The internet has reshaped the way we communicate, work, information and communication tools to revolutionize an play, and how we understand the world around us. With the rise outmoded NARS, to better prepare students and scientists for of the internet as a digital highway for messages and images, the information age and accelerate national development efforts. people now have a fast, convenient and reliable means to Keeping all these views in mind the present investigation transmit and receive information. Internet use is spreading “Comparative study of the Internet Utilization pattern of male rapidly into daily life and has an impact in many areas including and female Sardarkrushinagar Dantiwada Agricultural the higher education system. Internet heralded the development University students” was undertaken. and implementation of new and innovative teaching MATERIAL AND METHODS strategies in higher education institutions. It is now widely used as a research tool for news, education, entertainment and The present study was conducted in Sardarkrushinagar informal web-based education. Dantiwada Agricultural University (SDAU), Sardarkrushinagar (Gujarat), which was purposively, selected. SDAU, has eight 39
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______constituent Colleges, out of which two colleges i.e. C. P. College collected were classified, tabulated and inferences were drawn of Agriculture (CPCA) and College of Veterinary science and after subjecting the data to appropriate statistical analysis which Animal Husbandry (CVS&AH) were selected purposively due to led to the following major findings. the reason that all the students of these colleges have been provided internet facility at free of cost. A lists of boys and girls students RESULTS AND DISCUSSION from Under Graduate, Post Graduate and Doctor of Philosophy For measuring the internet utilization pattern of the degree, registered in 2011-12 were prepared with the help of SDAU students 19 indicators were identified on the basis of records of students sections of the selected colleges and from review of literature and discussion with the subject experts as these lists 100 internet utilizing students from CPCA and 100 describe in the chapter methodology. The findings regarding internet utilizing students from CVS&AH were selected for this these indicators have been presented under following heads: study by using simple random sampling method in such a way 1. Experience of internet use that internet utilizing boys and girls students from different A perusal of Table 1 indicated that majority of internet colleges were selected in the ratio of 70:30. Hence, from each utilizing male SDAU students (39.28%) and female SDAU college a sample of 70 male and 30 female internet utilizing students (23.33%) were using the internet from more than two students were selected by using simple random sampling. In this years. In case of male SDAU students 47.86 per cent internet way a total sample comprised of 200 internet utilizing students users were using the internet from 1 to 2 years and 12.86 per (140 boys and 60 girls students) from Under Graduate, Post cent were using from one year, whereas in case of female Graduate and Doctor of Philosophy degrees. SDAU students 60.00 per cent internet users were using the For measuring the internet utilization behaviour of internet from 1 to 2 years and 16.67 per cent were using the internet utilizing agricultural students an interview schedule was internet from the last year only. developed by the investigator by getting the experts opinion. The data were collected by personal interview method. The data
Table 1: Experience of internet use of internet utilizing male and female SDAU Students. N = 200
Category Male Students (N=140) Female Students Calculated value (N=60) F. % F. % X2 Up to 1 year 18 12.86 10 16.67 From 1-2 years 67 47.86 36 60.00 4.73 NS More than two years 55 39.28 14 23.33 Total 140 100.00 60 100.00 X2 –tab value at 5 per cent level of significance = 5.99 d.f. = 2 NS = Non significant F= Frequency
The calculated value of chi-square (4.73) is less than their 2. Preference of access to internet tabulated value of chi-square (5.99) at 5 per cent level of The data in table 2 depicted that the male SDAU students significance. Thus the null hypothesis is accepted and mostly preferred hostel (MPS 94.64) which was ranked first alternative hypothesis is rejected which meant that there is no followed by college library (MPS 49.64), own house (MPS significant agreement between male and female SDAU students 28.57), division / department (MPS 28.21), friends and relative with regard to their experience of internet use. homes (MPS 19.29) and private cyber café (MPS 18.21) which The results implied that respondents who had more years were ranked second, third, fourth, fifth and sixth, respectively. of internet usage might have acquainted themselves well with Whereas, in case of female SDAU students mostly preferred the new medium, and might have realized the easy access and hostel (MPS 98.33) which was ranked first followed by college usefulness of latest information while exploring the latest library (MPS 46.67), division/department (MPS 31.67), private information. cyber café (MPS 25.00), own house (MPS 23.33), friends and These findings are in line with the finding of the relative homes (MPS 20.00) which were ranked second, third, Krishnatray and Kulshrestha (2002), Anonymous (2004) and fourth, fifth and sixth,respectively. Garwhal (2010). However these findings are not in conformity with the findings of Patel (2007) and Moussa (2012).
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Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______Table 2: Preference of access to internet of internet utilizing male and female SDAU students N =200 Category Male students (N =140) Female students (N=60) Mostly Some time Never MPS Rank Mostly Some time Never MPS Rank (2) (1) (0) (2) (1) (0)
36 67 37 12 32 16 College library 49.64 II 46.67 II (25.71) (47.85) (26.42) (20.00) (53.33) (26.66) 22 36 82 6 16 38 Own house 28.57 III 23.33 V (15.71) (25.71) (58.57) (10.00) (26.66) (63.33) 33 13 94 14 10 36 Division / department 28.21 IV 31.67 III (23.57) (9.28) (67.14) (23.33) (16.66) (60.00) 0 51 89 0 30 30 Private cyber cafe 18.21 VI 25.00 IV (0.00) (36.42) (63.57) (0.00) (50.00) (50.00) 132 1 7 58 2 0 Hostel (own) 94.64 I 98.33 I (94.28) (0.71) (5.00) (96.66) (3.33) (0.00) 2 50 88 0 24 36 Friends and relatives home 19.29 V 20.00 VI (1.42) (35.71) (62.85) (0.00) (40.00) (60.00) rs = Rank correlation rs = 0.71* *significant at 5% level t = 2.0 Figures in parenthesis indicate percentage 3. Expenditure incurred to use internet (Rs. per month) perceived the hostel as the best source/ place for using internet. The value of rank order correlation (rs) between male and However these findings are not in conformity with the findings female SDAU students, was found to be 0.71 for which the of Patel (2007) Garhwal (2010) and Moussa (2012). calculated values of ‘t’ was found lower than the tabulated value The table 3 indicated that majority of internet utilizing at 5 per cent level of significance which indicates a non- male SDAU students (43.57 per cent) and female SDAU significant correlation between male and female SDAU students (36.67 per cent) has not spent any money to use students. Hence, the null hypothesis (Ho) was accepted and internet. In case of male SDAU students 30.72 per cent spent alternate hypothesis was rejected. This leads to the conclusion 101 to 200 Rs. per month, 18.57 per cent and 7.14 per cent were that there is no significant correlation between the internet spending Rs. 50 to 100 Rs. per month and 201 to 300 Rs. per utilizing male and female SDAU students in perceiving the month respectively, and not a single student was spending more preference of access of internet. than 300 Rs. per month. In case of female SDAU students 33.33 The findings might be so due to the reason that in SDAU per cent spent Rs. 50 to 100 Rs. per month, 26.67 per cent and the students have been providing internet facility in hostels at 3.33 per cent were spending 101 to 200 Rs. Per month and free of cost from 7.00 P.M. to 10.00 A.M. at which time the spending 201 to 300 Rs. Per month respectively, and not a students are free and relaxed from classes and library reading single student was spending more than 300 Rs. per month. and have enough time to access internet, hence the students
Table 3: Expenditure incurred in using internet (Rs. Per month) by internet utilizing male and female SDAU students N= 200 Category Male Students (N=140) Female Students (N=60) Calculated value F. % F. % X2 Nil 61 43.57 22 36.67 Rs 50-100 26 18.57 20 33.33 Rs 101-200 43 30.72 16 26.67 5.71NS Rs 201-300 10 7.14 2 3.33 Rs 301-400 0 0.00 0 0.00 Total 140 100.00 60 100.00 X2 –tab value at 5 per cent level of significance = 9.49 d.f. = 4 NS = Non significant F= Frequency The calculated value of chi-square (5.71) is less than alternative hypothesis is rejected which meant that there is no their tabulated value of chi-square (9.49) at 5 per cent level of significant agreement between male and female SDAU students. significance. Thus the null hypothesis is accepted and .
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Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______Table 4: Frequency of Internet use of internet utilizing male and female SDAU students N =200 Male students (N =140) Female students (N=60) Category Upto 1 Upto 2 to 3 Above 3 Upto 1 Upto 2 to 3 Above 3 Total Total hours hours hours hours hours hours 15 53 25 93 4 26 8 38 Everyday (10.71) (37.85) (17.85) (66.42) (6.66) (43.33) (13.33) (63.33)
2 0 12 14 2 0 12 14 Once in a week (1.42) (0.00) (8.57) (10.00) (3.33) (0.00) (20.00) (23.33) 1 13 3 17 0 8 0 8 Twice in a week (0.71) (9.28) (2.14) (12.14) (0.00) (13.33) (0.00) (13.33)
Once in 3 2 0 5 0 0 0 0 fortnight (2.14) (1.42) (0.00) (3.57) (0.00) (0.00) (0.00) (0.00)
3 3 0 6 0 0 0 0 Once in a month (2.14) (2.14) (0.00) (4.28) (0.00) (0.00) (0.00) (0.00) 0 5 0 5 0 0 0 0 On occasions (0.00) (3.57) (0.00) (3.57) (0.00) (0.00) (0.00) (0.00) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Never (0.00) (0.00) (0.00) (0.00) (0.00) (0.00) (0.00) (0.00) Calculated X2 = 12.30 NS X2 –tab value at 5 per cent level of significance = 12.59 d.f. = 6 NS= Non significant Figures in parenthesis indicate percentage
Majority of the respondents not spent any money to use The calculated value of chi-square (12.30) is less than internet. It might be because of the reason that, most of the their tabulated value of chi-square (12.59) at 5 per cent level of students belong from hostel and internet facility was available at significance. Thus the null hypothesis is accepted and free of cost in hostel and college library. However these alternative hypothesis is rejected which meant that there is no findings are not in conformity with the findings of Patel (2007) significant agreement between male and female SDAU students Garhwal (2010) and Moussa (2012). with respect to their frequency of internet use. 4. Frequency of Internet use The findings might be so due to reason that the internet The table 4 indicated that majority of internet utilizing provided variety of information at low cost and have update male SDAU students (66.42 per cent) had used internet facility information in very short period of time, thus more hours spent every day out of which 10.71 per cent, 37.85 per cent and 17.85 at internet may be attributed to browsing of latest information per cent used internet for up to 1 hours, 2-3 hours and above 3 among respondents. hours respectively, whereas in case of female SDAU students about (63.33 per cent) had used internet facility every day out of CONCLUSION which 6.66 per cent, 43.33 per cent and 13.33 per cent use The finding reveal that most of the internet utilizing male internet up to 1 hours, 2-3 hours and above 3 hours respectively. SDAU students (47.86%) and majority of female SDAU In case of male SDAU students 12.14 per cent had used internet students (60.00%) had 1 to 2 years experience of internet use. facility twice in a week, 10.00 per cent had used internet facility Majority of the internet utilizing boys SDAU students (MPS once in a week, 4.28 per cent had used internet facility once in a 94.64) and girls SDAU students (MPS 98.33) preferred hostel month, 3.57 per cent students had used internet facility on for internet use. It was further found that most of the internet occasions and 3.57 per cent had used internet facility once in utilizing boys SDAU students (43.57%) and girls SDAU fortnight. In case of female SDAU students 23.33 per cent had students (36.67%) did not spent any money expenditure used internet facility once in a week, 13.33 per cent had used incurred to use internet. Majority of internet utilizing boys internet facility twice in a week and no single students used SDAU students (66.42%) and (63.33%) girls SDAU students internet facility once in fortnight, once in a month, on occasions had used internet facility every day. (Fig. 4).
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Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______
REFERENCES Anonymous, 2004. National seminar on ICTS for agricultural Mishra, O.P., Yadava, N. and Bhist, K. 2005. "Internet development, 9-10th September. Paper presented on utilization pattern of undergraduate students". Internet use by teacher and their students at NARM University News, 43(13): 8. Rajendranagar, Hyderabad-500030. Mishra, O.P., Kumar, S., Dash, D.K. and Kumar, R. 2011. Chauhan, N.B. 2004. Use of internet by research scholars of “Undergraduate agriculture students and usage of the the Agriculture College, Anand. Times of India, Anand internet: case of Banaras Hindu University”. JCS, vol 29 Plus: 2. April 2011. Garhwal, S. 2010. “Internet utilization behaviour of Agricultural Moussa, A.K. 2012. “ Attitude and Usage Behaviour of students of Swami Keshwanand Rajasthan Agricultural Agricultural Research Scholars towards Internet in University, Bikaner” M.Sc. (Ag.) Thesis submitted to SKN College of Agriculture, Jobner, Jaipur (Rajasthan)” SKN College of Agriculture Jobner, SKRAU Bikaner. M.Sc. (Ag.) Thesis submitted to SKN College of Agriculture Jobner, SKRAU Bikaner. Hanauer D., Dibble E., Fortin, J., and Col, NF. 2004. “Internet use among community college students: Implications in Patel, M.C. 2007. “A study on factors affecting the level of designing healthcare interventions”. Journal of Internet exposure of research scholars of Anand American College Healt, 52(5), 197-202. Agricultural University” Ph.D. Thesis submitted to The School of Agricultural Sciences,Yashwantrao Chavan Krishnatray, P. and Kulshrestha, A. 2002. Internet use among Maharashtra Open University, Nashik - 422222, youth. Available : http://www.mica- Maharashtra, India india.net.OUTPUT/Pk.pdf. Safdar, M., Mahmood, K. and Outab, S. 2010. “Internet Usage Hermann, J., Carson, A., Muske, G. and Keim, K. 2005. Behaviour and Attitude of College Students: Survey of "Using a nutrition Web site as a resource for county Leadership Colleges Network”. Library philosophy and educators: evaluating Oklahoma Cooperative Extension practice, (e-journal), may, ISSN 1522-0222, posted at Service's experience". Journal of Extension, 43(4): digitalcommonos@university of Nebraska-Lincoln. 4RIB4. http://digitalcommonos.uni.edu/libphilprac/366.
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Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______
Antidiabetic potential of bioactive extracts from fruits and vegetables: A review
CHANDER BHAN1, PANKAJ KUMAR KANNAUJIA2, A.K. SHRIVASTAVA3, S.K. BAIRWA4 SANDEEP DUHAN5, HEERENDRA PRASAD6 AND DASHARATH PRASAD7 1,3, 4&7 Asstt. Professor, Agricultural Research Station (SKRAU), Sriganganagar (Rajasthan) 2&5Division of Post Harvest Technology, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi 6Ph.D scholar Dr.Y.S.P.U.H. & F., Solan -173230
Received: 22.04.15 Accepted: 14.09.15 ABSTRACT Diabetes mellitus is a condition in which glucose levels in the blood are much higher than normal and hence this condition is also commonly referred as sugar disease (hyperglycaemia). The defect in this condition is that either the pancreas does not produce enough insulin or it produces sufficient insulin, but the cells of the body are unable to use the insulin properly. Insulin is a chemical (a hormone) made in a part of the body called the pancreas. Insulin helps the glucose get into your cells from food. Diabetes is diagnosed by blood sugar (glucose) testing. Types of diabetes; Type 1 diabetes is sometimes called insulin-dependent, immune-mediated or juvenile-onset diabetes. Type 2 diabetes is sometimes called non-insulin dependent diabetes or adult-onset diabetes, and accounts for at least 90% of all cases of diabetes. Bioactive extracts from fruits and vegetables may recover the disorder in carbohydrate metabolism noted in diabetic state by protecting the oxidative stress induced tissue damage for such disorder and or by stimulating the carbohydrate regulatory enzyme activities in target organ and/or stimulate or regenerating β cells in pancreas. Administration of aqueous extract of pulp of S. cumini and bark of C. zeylanicum in composite manner exhibited better antidiabetic activity than when compared to the individual extract of the plants. Administration of composite extract of E. jambolana and M. paradisiaca is more effective than individual extract to challenge the diabetic state. Methanolic and aqueous extracts of Terminalia catappa fruit exhibited significant antihyperglycemic activities in alloxan-induced diabetic rats. A water extract of Momordica charantia powder at doses as low as 20 mg/kg body weight can reverse alloxan induced hyperglycemia in rats with no toxicity to liver and kidneys up to a period of 4 weeks. Ethanolic extract of Terminalia chebula fruit has potential hypoglycemic action in streptozotocin (STZ) induced diabetic rats and the effect was found to be more effective than glibenclamide (a standard diabetic drug). The advantage of this natural preparation lies in its ability not only to control hyperglycemia at low dosages but can also be taken for longer periods.
Key words: Bioactive extract, Diabetes mellitus, Fruits, glucose levels and Vegetables.
Diabetes mellitus is the most severe metabolic pandemic postprandial hyperglycemia. Sulphonylureas, the most widely of the 21st century, affecting essential biochemical activities in used class of drugs act by closure of ATP dependent channel. almost every cell in the body and increasing the risk of cardiac Metformin, a biguanide oral antibiotic limits intestinal glucose problems. It has been estimated that the global burden of type 2 absorption. These drugs have certain effects like causing diabetes mellitus for 2010 would be 285 million people which is hypoglycaemia at higher doses, liver problems, lactic acidosis projected to increase to 438 million in 2030; a 65 % increase and diarrhea. It is apparent that due to the side effects of the Similarly, for India this increase is estimated to be 58%, from currently used drugs, there is a need for a safe agent with 51 million people in 2010 to 87 million in 2030 (Snehalatha and minimal adverse effects, which can be taken for long durations. Ramachnadaran, 2009) The impacts of type 2 diabetes mellitus TYPES OF DIABETES: There are three main types of are considerable as a lifelong disease, it increases morbidity and diabetes- mortality and decreases the quality of life (Hoskote and Joshi, Type 1 diabetes: It is sometimes called insulin-dependent, 2008). immune-mediated or juvenile-onset diabetes. It is caused by an Diabetes mellitus is a condition in which glucose levels in auto-immune reaction where the body’s defence system attacks the blood are much higher than normal and hence this condition the insulin-producing cells. The reason why this occurs is not is also commonly referred as sugar disease (hyperglycaemia). fully understood. People with type 1 diabetes produce very little The defect in this condition is that either the pancreas does not or no insulin. The disease can affect people of any age, but produce enough insulin or it produces sufficient insulin, but the usually occurs in children or young adults. People with this cells of the body are unable to use the insulin properly. Insulin form of diabetes need injections of insulin every day in order to is a chemical (a hormone) made in a part of the body called the control the levels of glucose in their blood. If people with type 1 pancreas. Insulin helps the glucose get into your cells from diabetes do not have access to insulin, they will die. food. Diabetes is diagnosed by blood sugar (glucose) testing. Type 2 diabetes: It is sometimes called non-insulin dependent Besides the use of insulin for the treatment of insulin dependent diabetes or adult-onset diabetes, and accounts for at least 90% diabetes mellitus (IDDM), other approaches for the control of of all cases of diabetes. It is characterised by insulin resistance hyperglycemia include the use of amylin analogues which and relative insulin deficiency, either of which may be present regulate gastric emptying and inhibitors of intestinal alpha at the time that diabetes becomes clinically manifest. The glucosidases like acarbose, miglitol and voglibiose which delay diagnosis of type 2 diabetes usually occurs after the age of 40 44
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______but can occur earlier, especially in populations with high Frequent infections diabetes prevalence. Type 2 diabetes can remain undetected for Slow-healing wounds many yearsand the diagnosis is often made from associated The onset of type 1 diabetes is usually sudden and dramatic complications or incidentally through an abnormal blood or while the symptoms can often be mild or absent in people with urine glucose test. It is often, but not always, associated with type 2 diabetes, making this type of diabetes gradual in onset obesity, which itself can cause insulin resistance and lead to and hard to detect. If you show these signs, consult a health elevated blood glucose levels. Type 2 diabetes accounts for at professional. least 90% of all cases of diabetes. Management of diabetes: Today, there is no cure for diabetes, Gestational diabetes (GDM): It is a form of diabetes but effective treatment exists. If you have access to the consisting of high blood glucose levels during pregnancy. It appropriate medication, quality of care and good medical develops in one in 25 pregnancies worldwide and is associated advice, you should be able to lead an active and healthy life and with complications in the period immediately before and after reduce the risk of developing complications. Good diabetes birth. GDM usually disappears after pregnancy but women with control means keeping your blood sugar levels as close to GDM and their offspring are at an increased risk of developing normal as possible. type 2 diabetes later in life. Approximately half of women with In India, use of herbal drugs based on ayuraveda is very a history of GDM go on to develop type 2 diabetes within five commonly practiced from long past and is less expensive. to ten years after delivery. Other specific types of diabetes also Bioactive extracts from fruits and vegetables may recover the exist such as genetic, malnutrition related, drug induced etc. disorder in carbohydrate metabolism noted in diabetic state by Risk factors: protecting the oxidative stress induced tissue damage for such The risk factors for type 1 diabetes are still being disorder and or by stimulating the carbohydrate regulatory researched. However, having a family member with type 1 enzyme activities in target organ and/or stimulate or diabetes increases the risks for developing the condition, as do regenerating β cells in pancreas. The advantage of this natural the presence of some genetic factors. Environmental factors, preparation lies in its ability not only to control hyperglycemia increased height and weight development, increased maternal at low dosages but can also be taken for longer periods. age at delivery, and exposure to some viral infections have also Treatment goals: been linked to the risk of developing type 1 diabetes. Physical Activity: A goal of at least 30 minutes of moderate Several risk factors have been associated with type 2 physical activity per day (e.g. brisk walking, swimming, diabetes and include: cycling, dancing) on most days of the week. Obesity Body weight: weight loss improves insulin resistance, blood Diet and physical inactivity glucose and high lipid levels in the short term, and reduces Increasing age blood pressure. It is important to reach and maintain a healthy Insulin resistance weight. Family history of diabetes Healthy Eating: avoiding foods high in sugars and saturated Ethnicity fats, and limiting alcohol consumption. Changes in diet and physical activity related to rapid Avoid tobacco: tobacco use is associated with more development and urbanisation have led to sharp increases in the complications in people with diabetes. numbers of people developing diabetes. Pregnant women who Monitoring for complications: monitoring and early detection are overweight, have been diagnosed with Impaired Glucose of complications is an essential part of good diabetes care. This Tolerance (IGT), or have a family history of diabetes are all at includes regular foot and eye checks, controlling blood pressure increased risk of developing Gestational diabetes (GDM). In and blood glucose, and assessing risks for cardiovascular and addition, having been previously diagnosed with gestational kidney disease. diabetes or being of certain ethnicities puts women at increased Anti-diabetic Potentials of Fruits and vegetables: risk of developing the condition. In addition to the above drugs of synthetic origin, Warning signs of diabetes: Individuals can experience many agents of plant origin are also in use particularly for the different warning signs, and sometimes there may be no obvious treatment of non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM). warning, but some of the signs of diabetes are commonly Various medicinal plants like Momordica charantia L., experienced: Azardiracta indica and Ficus racemosa are known to possess Frequent urination antihyperglycemic activity (Atta-ur-Rahman, 1989). Extracts of Excessive thirst the leaves of Gymnema sylvestris have been shown to induce Increased hunger beta cell regeneration (Baskaran et al., 1990). A galactomannan has been identified as the major constituent of the blood glucose Weight loss lowering extract from Trigonella foenum-graecum (Ali et al., Tiredness 1995). The hypoglycaemia producing molecule of Pandanus Lack of interest and concentration odorus roots has been shown to be 4-hydroxy benzoic acid Vomiting and stomach pain (often mistaken as the flu) (Peungvicha et al., 1998). A pectin from the fruit of Coccinia A tingling sensation or numbness in the hands or feet indica significantly lowered blood glucose (Kumar et al., 1993). Blurred vision
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Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______
Figure1: Comparative effect of different extract of fruits of Terminalia catappa on blood glucose level in alloxan (150 mg/kg)- induced diabetis in rats.
Review: weight and regeneration of β -cells of pancreas and so might be Diabetes mellitus was induced by injecting streptozotocin of value in diabetes treatment (Nagappa et al., 2003). Ethanolic (STZ) and administration of aqueous extract of pulp of S. extract of T. chebula fruit has potential hypoglycemic action in cumini and bark C. zeylanicum in composite manner exhibited STZ-induced diabetic rats. The effect was found to be more better antidiabetic activity than when compared to the individual effective than glibenclamide (Kumar et al., 2006). extract of the plants (Rekha et al., 2010). A water extract Administration of composite extract of E. jambolana and M. powder at doses as low as 20 mg/kg body weight can reverse paradisiaca is more effective then individual extract to alloxan induced hyperglycemia in rats with no toxicity to liver challenge the diabetic state. The active ingredient(s) present and kidneys up to a period of 4 weeks. Higher doses may not here may recover the disorder in carbohydrate metabolism noted only be ineffective but may also cause toxicity. The advantage in diabetic state by protecting the oxidative stress induced tissue of this natural preparation lies in its ability not only to control damage for such disorder and or by stimulating the carbohydrate hyperglycemia at low dosages but can also be taken for longer regulatory enzyme activities in target organ or stimulate or periods. Thus bitter melon, a widely consumed vegetable could regenerating β cells in pancreas (Mallick et al., 2006). Oral be safely prescribed to diabetic patients on a long term basis administration of the aqueous seed extract of Jamun to alloxan (Virdi et al., 2003). Methanolic and aqueous extracts of induced diabetic rats at 5 g/kg body weight for six weeks Terminalia catappa fruit exhibited significant showed significant reduction in blood glucose and elevated total antihyperglycemic activities in alloxan-induced diabetic rats and haemoglobin (Prince et al., 1998). these extracts showed improvement in parameters like body
Table1: Effect of separate and composite aqueous extract of pulp S. Cumini and bark of C. zeylanicum on blood glucose in STZ induced diabetic rats. Treatments Fasting blood glucose level (mg/dL) Initial th th th th 1 day 5 day 10 day 15 day Normal control (Group 1) 85.61 88.25 86.52 88.92 87.42 Diabetic control (Group 2) 86.29 236.14 254.38 286.48 317.56 Diabetic + S. cumini 200mg/kg, p.o (Group 3) 85.12 237.76 189.29 156.32 119.54 Diabetic + C. zeylanicum 200mg/kg, p.o (Group 4) 85.71 235.63 216.39 163.18 131.62 Diabetic + S. Cumini and C. zeylanicum Coadministrated group 200mg/kg (Group 5) 86.29 234.54 161.25 114.42 98.29 (Source: Rekha et al., 2010) Table2: Changes in level of glucose, plasma insulin, hemoglobin, glycosylated hemoglobin and urine sugar in control and experimental group of rats. Group Blood glucose Plasma insulin Hemoglobin Glycosylated hemoglobin Urine (mg/dl) (µU/ml) (g/dl) (%Hba c) sugar 1 Control 85.43 16.54 13.52 6.24 Nil Diabetic control 265.08 5.27 9.25 12.36 +++ Diabetic + T. chebula 92.30 15.26 15.26 6.72 Nil Diabetic + 102.40 13.86 13.86 6.95 + glibenclamide (+) indicate 0.25 % sugar and (Source: Kumar et al., 2006) (+++) indicate more than 2 % sugar. 46
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______
CONCLUSION Aqueous extract in composite manner exhibited better Drugs (metformin, glibenclamide) have certain effects antidiabetic activity than compared to the individual like causing hypoglycaemia at higher doses, liver extract of the plants. problems, lactic acidosis, diarrhea and some allergic Future thrust: problems such as vomiting, nausea etc. Need to isolate, identify, and characterize the active Diabetes mellitus was induced by injecting streptozotocin principles of novel traditional medicinal plants having (STZ) or alloxan. anti-diabetic potentials. Bioactive extracts from fruits and vegetables may recover Long-term experimentations should be conducted. the disorder in carbohydrate metabolism noted in diabetic Actual mechanism of antidiabetic potential of bioactive state by protecting the oxidative stress induced tissue extracts from fruits and vegetables is not clear and further damage for such disorder and or by stimulating the biochemical and pharmacological investigations are carbohydrate regulatory enzyme activities in target organ needed to isolate and identify the active ingredient(s) in or stimulate or regenerating β cells in pancreas. the composite extract. REFERENCES Ali, L., Azad Khan, A.K., Hassan, Z., Mosihuzzaman, M., albino rats: a comparative study. International J. of Nahar, K., Nasreen, T., Nur-e-Alam Rokeya, B., 1995. Pharmacology. 2(5): 492– 503. Characterization of the hypoglycaemic effects of Trigonella foenum graecum seed. Planta Medica. 61: Nagappa, A.N., Thakurdesai, P.A. Rao, N.V. and Singh, J. 358–360. 2003. Antidiabetic activity of Terminalia catappa L. fruits. J. of Ethnopharmacology. 88: 45-50. Atta-ur-Rahman, Zaman, K., 1989. Medicinal plants with hypoglycaemic activity. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. Peungvicha, P., Thirawarapan, S.S., Watanabe, H. 1998. 20: 553–564. Hypoglycemic effect of water extract of the root of Pandanus odorus. J. of Ethnopharmacology 62: 70– Baskaran, K., Kizhar Ahamath, B., Shanmugasundaram, 84.Prince, P. S., Menon, V. P., and Pari, L. 1998. R., Shanmugasundaram, E.R.B. 1990. Antidiabetic Hypoglycaemic activity of Syzigium cumini seeds: effect effect of a leaf extract from Gymnema sybestre in non on lipid peroxidation in alloxan diabetic rats, J. insulin dependent diabetes mellitus. Journal of Ethnopharmacol., 61(1): 1–7. 1998 Ethnopharmacology. 30: 295–300. Rekha, N., Balaji, R. and Deecaraman, M. 2010. Hoskote, S.S and Joshi, S.R. 2008. Are Indians Destined to be Antihyperglycemic and antihyperlipidemic effects of Diabetic? Journal of Associations of Physicians of India. extracts of the pulp of Syzygium cumini and bark of 56: 225–226. Cinnamon zeylanicum in streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic rats. J. of Applied Biosciences. 28: 1718-1730. Kumar, G.P., Sudeesh, S., Vijayalakshmi, N.R. 1993. Hypoglycemic activity of Coccinia indica mechanism of Snehalatha and Ramachnadaran 2009. Insight into the action. Planta Medica 59: 330–332. Mechanism of Primary Prevention of Type 2 Diabetes: Improvement in Insulin Sensitivity and Beta cell function. Kumar, G.P.S., Arulselvan, P., Kumar, D.S. and “Genetic and Epigenetic Basis of Complex Diseases Subramanian, S.P. 2006. Antidiabetic activity of fruits of “Conference in Centre for Cellular and Molecular Terminalia chebula on streptozotocin (STZ) induced Biology; December, 2009. diabetic rats. Journal of Health Science. 52(3): 283-291. Virdi, J., Sivakami, S., Shahani, S., Suthar, A.C. Mallick, C., Maiti, R. and ghosh, D. 2006. Antidiabetic effects Banavalikar, M.M. and Biyani, M.K. 2003. of separate and composite extracts of seed of jamun Antihyperglycemic effects of three extracts from (Eugenia jambolana) and root of kadali (Musa Momordica charantia. J. of Ethnopharmacology. 88: 107- paradisiaca) in streptozotocin-induced diabetic male 111.
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Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______Integrated nutrient management on the growth, quality, yield of Brinjal in lower gangetic plain of India
UMALAXMI THINGUJAM*, RUBINA KHANAM, DIPA KUNDU, SAJAL PATI AND KALLOL BHATTACHARYYA Department of Agricultural Chemistry and Soil Science Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidya, Mohanpur, Nadia, West Bengal – 741252
Received: 28.06.15 Accepted: 19.07.15 ABSTRACT A field experiment was carried out during 2010-11, at the Central Research Farm, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, West Bengal, India to study the effect of Integrated Nutrient Management on the growth, quality and yield attributing characters in Brinjal plant .The result indicated that application of 75% of 125:100:50:: N:P:K kg ha-1 +Azospirillum + Phosphate solubilising bacteria(PSB) (root dipping) each @ 125 g ha-1 and Borax @ 10 kg ha-1 (soil application) recorded significantly higher basal girth (11.46 cm), plant height (176.97cm), and total no. of shoots per plant(12.67), no. of fruits per plant(182.33), average fruit weigh(66.49g/plant), yield (14.96 t ha-1) , fruit protein content (14.83%) and economic return ( i.e 60% over control). Key words: Azospirillum, brinjal, borax, nutrient management and yield.
Brinjal, also known as eggplant belonging to the family the soil health. Hence, an attempt was made to evaluate the “Solanaceae”, is a vegetable commonly grown by the farmers response of egg plant to the application of biofertilizers and throughout the world. It originated in India, as subcontinent inorganic fertilizers on the growth, quality characteristics and people are used to grow brinjal since last 4000 years (Dunlop, yield in the lower Gangetic plain of West Bengal, India. 2006). Among all summer grown vegetables with semi- perennial nature, brinjal is almost available throughout the year MATERIAL AND METHODS and consumed in various forms by all classes of people. The experiment was conducted in the Central Research Farm of Eggplant possesses the highest nutritive value, providing an Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Gayeshpur, West energy of 24 cal. Apart from the huge domestic consumption in Bengal, India during the year 2010-11 which comes under the various forms, dry shoots of brinjal is a source of fuel in rural new alluvial zone. The field is located between 22058’162’’ N areas. White brinjal is used in many ayurvedic medicines latitude, 88030’651’’ E longitude, experiencing a hot and humid (Gopalam et al., 1996). Several factors are responsible for the climate with mean annual rainfall of 1310 mm, minimum and low productivity of brinjal in India; these include biotic factors maximum temperature of 21 ± 1 and 32 ± 2° C, respectively. as insect pests and pathogens, improper nutrient management The soil was typic endoaquepts with silty clay loamy texture, etc. and abiotic factors like temperature and humidity etc. Now- slightly alkaline in reaction. The physical and chemical a-days demand for brinjal as a fruit vegetable is increasing properties of the experimental soil are presented in Table 1 rapidly among the vegetable consumers in view of its better Experiment details fruit color, size and taste. Average productivity of brinjal crop is The experiment was laid out in a factorial design with each quite low and there exists a good scope to improve its average treatment being replicated three times using Brinjal (cv F1- productivity in India to fulfill the national needs. Only one hybrid VNR -60) as test crop. There were 48 (4 x 4 x 3) plots source of nutrients like chemical fertilizers, organic manures (size 5m x 2m).The experiment consisted of eight treatment and biofertilizers cannot improve the productivity or maintain combinations comprising of four levels of fertilizer and the production sustainability and soil health. The integrated biofertilizers viz; (1) F1= recommended dose of fertilizer -1 nutrient management is very useful in this context. Integrated (RDF)N:P:K:: 125:100:50 kg ha , F2= 75% RDF + -1 plant nutrient management is the intelligent use of optimum Azospirillum (root dipping) @ 250 g ha , F3= 75% RDF +PSB -1 combination of organic, inorganic and biological nutrient (root dipping) @ 250 g ha , F4= 75% RDF +Azospirillum + sources in a specific crop, cropping system and climatic PSB (root dipping) each @ 125 g ha-1 and four levels of -1 situation so as to achieve and to sustain the optimum yield and micronutrients viz; S1= control, S2= ZnSO4 @ 25 kg ha (soil -1 to improve or to maintain the soil’s physical, biological and application), S3= FeSO4 @ 50k g ha (soil application) and S4= chemical properties. Such a crop nutrition package has to be Borax @ 10 kg ha-1 (soil application). Recommended dose of technically sound, economically attractive, practically feasible inorganic fertilizers @ 125:100:50 (N:P:K) kg ha-1 were applied and environmentally safe (Hedge and Rudragouda, 2003). in the along with bio-fertilizers like Azospirillum @ 250 g ha-1 Under these circumstances, integrated use of organic manures and phosphate solubilizing bacteria (PSB) @ 250 g ha-1, and inorganic fertilizers remains the alternative choice of Azospirillum + PSB each @ 125g ha-1 were applied in selected growers for maintaining the sustainable production and soil plots as root dip treatment before transplanting of brinjal health (Singh and Pandey, 2006). Biofertilizers not only seedling. The entire amount of phosphorus (SSP), potassic supplement macro- and micronutrients, but also improves the fertilizer (MOP) and half of total nitrogenous fertilizer (urea) soil physical, chemical and biological health and acts as miracle were applied during the final land preparation. The other half of growth promoter and protector to plant .Egg plants require both the nitrogenous fertilizer were applied in two equal split doses organic manures and inorganic fertilizers in adequate amounts (one quarter each) at 20-25 DAS and at 40-45 DAS and in right combination to produce better yield and to conserve respectively. Micronutrients fertilizers were applied as soil 48
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______application (SA) four days before transplanting of brinjal long term integrated nutrient management practice significantly seedlings. Fruits were harvested at their edible maturity stage increased available major and micronutrient contents in soil. i.e. when they are not fully ripened and have a bright purple Although, the performances of management protocols colour and harvested at 3 days interval at peak fruiting stage. accommodating NPK + micronutrients + bacterial fertilizers Statistical conclusions were drawn by factorial analysis of the always excelled over others throughout the study, boron (Borax database. All statistical computations were done through SPSS @ 10 kg ha-1) fertilization emerged throughout to make V.16.0. significant differences in yield and nutritional parameters over others. This may be so as boron is associated in development of RESULTS AND DISCUSSION cell wall, cell differentiation, root elongation and shoot growth. Yield and selected growth parameters of Brinjal It has better role in carbohydrate synthesis, uptake of Ca2+ and The yield and selected growth parameters of Brinjal cultivated absorption of NO-3. Boron is essential not only for the formation with interventions of selected nutrient management protocols of the pollen and ovary, but also for the subsequent are recorded in Table 2. Brinjal yields supported by different development of the seed. The maturation of seeds is impaired in INM protocols ranged from 9.35 (control) to 14.96 t ha-1 (75% the absence of boron. Deficiency also hampers flowering, fruit RDF i.e. N:P:K:: 125:100:50 + Azospirillum + PSB + Boron @ setting by retarding pollen germination and pollen tube 10 Kg ha-1).Managing the nutrient requirement of Brinjal development (Halfacre and Barden, 1979). through a combined application of 75% RDF + Azospirillum + The yield increases associated with B application have PSB + Boron @10kg ha-1 recorded the highest yield followed been already established over a number of trials in a wide range by the treatment combination of 75% RDF + Azospirillum + of crops. Vegetables and fruits gave very high increases of over -1 PSB + FeSO4 @ 50 Kg ha .The fruit protein content also 20 % but also the cereals, mustard, cotton and potato yields followed the same trend with the treatment 75% RDF + were substantially increased (Phillips, 2006). Field trials with Azospirillum + PSB + Boron @10 kg ha-1 recording the highest boron also highlighted that the foliar application of borax (14.83%). Observations relating to growth parameters like (0.5%) at 35, 50 and 65 DAT was found to be best in terms of basal girth and plant height showed significant variations with number of flowers per plant, number of productive flowers per interventions of different INM protocols and such values ranged plant, number of fruits per plant, individual fruit weight and from 8.42 cm (control) to 11.46 cm (75% RDF + Azospirillum + yield (Karuppaiah, 2005).There have been a many examples in PSB + Boron @ 10 Kg ha-1) for basal girth and from 146.45 cm the experiments of an increase in the vigour, greenness and (control) to 176.97 cm (75% RDF + Azospirillum + PSB + general health of crops when applied with B. This is also Boron @ 10 Kg ha-1) for plant height respectively. Yield substantiated by evidence from field application (Phillips, attributing characters like number of shoots/plant at harvest and 2006). There have been a number of reported cases in average fruit weight/plant were obtained maximum with 75% experimental work of boron treatments increasing the uptake of RDF + Azospirillum + PSB + Boron @ 10 Kg ha-1. other nutrients. A trial by Marathwada Agricultural University, Brinjal plant height, no. of branches per plant recorded at Parbhani, India in 2003 on cotton illustrates the increase in harvest with the application of 100: 100: 50 kg NPK ha-1 + uptake of other nutrients after foliar application of boron. Azotobacter + PSB (root dipping) each at 125 gha-1 was Solubar (soluble boron) sprayed on cotton at three different dose reported by Kiran et al; 2010. Similar results were reported by rates increased the uptake of N, P and K by 78 % (N) 91 % (P) Anburani et al; 2003 where combined application of FYM at 25 and 96% (K) in the best treatment (Phillips, 2006). t/ha along with 100% NPK + Biofertilizers recorded the highest Economic feasibility of different INM systems adopted in fruit set percentage (65%) number of fruits (26.64), fruit yield this study per plot (62.92 kg) and estimated fruit yield (31.67 t ha-1) in The efficiencies of different systems of integrated Brinjal cv. Annamalai. The highest yield was recorded with management of nutrients in Brinjal, in delivering economic 75% RDF + Azo + PSB + Boron @ 10 Kg ha-1. Similar results benefits to stakeholders, had also been assessed through the were reported by Kiran et al., (2006) where treatment present experiment (Table no.3). It has been found that combination of 75% RDF + Azotobacter + PSB + ZnSO4 management of nutrients in Brinjal through integrated (0.2%) recorded the highest fruit yield of 1.47 Kg/plant. administration of chemical (major + micronutrients) and Ravankar et al., (2003) in an experiment with inorganic and bacterial fertilizers led to a substantial remunerative return as organic sources of fertilizer reported that application of organics compared to conventional chemical fertilizers (NPK). This is and inorganics increased the fertility status of soils as well as due to yield of crops over control. Bellakki et al., (1998) reported that augmented yield supported by combined nutrient inputs through NPK, bacterial and micronutrients fertilizers. Nutrients input CONCLUSION through the package of 75% RDF + Azospirillum + PSB + From the above study it is recoreded that the treatment Borax @10 kg ha-1 emerged to deliver maximum economic consisting of 75% RDF i.e. N:P:K:: 125:100:50 + Azospirillum return (60% over control) followed by the systems supported by + PSB + Boron @ 10 Kg ha-1 recorded the highest yield (14.96 t 75% RDF + Azospirillum + PSB + FeSO₄ @ 50 kg ha-1 > 75% ha-1) and other growth parameters in brinjal. This treatment also RDF + Azospirillum + FeSO₄ @ 50 kg ha-1 having returns of brought significantly higher yield promoting parameters and 59.58% and 50.34% over control respectively. economic return ( i.e 60% over control).
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Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______
Table-1 Physico-chemical properties of initial soil.
Properties Value Methods followed Sand (%) 61.24 Silt (%) 14.00 Hydrometer method (Bouyoucos,1962) Clay (%) 24.76 Textural class Sandy clay loam pH 6.7 (in 1:2.5:: Soil : Water) Jackson (1967) E.C. (dSm-1) 0.278 Jackson (1967) Organic carbon (g kg-1) 4.5 Walkley and Black method (Jackson, 1967) Total nitrogen (g kg-1) 0.67 Modified micro kjeldahl method (Jackson, 1973)
Available N (kg ha-1) 178.0 Hot alkaline permanganate method (Subbiah and Asija,1956)
-1 Available P (kg ha ) 51.0 0.5 M NaHCO3 extraction (Olsen et al.,1954) -1 Available K (kg ha ) 137.0 Neutral N NH4OAc (Brown and Warncke,1988) Available Fe (kg ha-1) 25.30 DTPA extraction method (Lindsay and Norvell, 1978) Available Zn (kg ha-1) 4.56 Available B (kg ha-1) 0.43 Berger and Truog (1939)
Table-2: Growth and yield parameters of Brinjal observed under different nutrient management protocols. Plant height Basal girth Number of Number of Average fruit Total yield Protein
(cm) (cm) shoot/plant fruits/plant weight/plant (g) (t/ha) (%) F1 155.46b 8.72b 6.83b 157.75a 45.58b 10.93c 10.68b F2 158.35b 10.13a 8.75ab 161.92 58.96a 13.27b 11.89ab F3 157.68b 9.87a 8.33ab 172.00a 59.49a 13.39b 13.34a F4 166.80a 10.16a 10.00a 150.08a 62.86a 14.14a 12.71a
S1 152.68c 9.08c 8.25a 154.17a 53.89a 12.12b 11.25a S2 158.66b 9.60b 7.58a 169.00a 59.14a 13.31a 12.54a S3 162.60ab 10.13a 9.42a 153.17a 58.04a 13.06a 12.56a S4 164.34a 10.07ab 8.67a 165.42a 58.83a 13.24a 12.27a
e F1S1 146.45 8.42f 5.67a 163.00a 41.56d 9.35g 10.23bc F1S2 153.21cde 9.05def 6.33a 160.33a 53.04abcd 11.93def 10.40bc F1S3 162.18bcd 8.66ef 9.33a 149.67a 49.52cd 11.14fg 11.75abc F1S4 160.00bcd 8.77ef 6.00a 158.00a 50.21bcd 11.30ef 10.35bc F2S1 156.78cde 9.09def 10.67a 139.33 55.30abcd 12.44cdef 11.66abc F2S2 155.00cde 9.46def 6.33a 165.33a 61.01abc 13.73abcd 11.92abc F2S3 164.67abc 11.15ab 10.33a 163.67a 61.44abc 13.82abc 11.92abc F2S4 156.94cde 10.83abc 7.67a 179.33 58.08abc 13.07bcde 12.04abc F3S1 152.04de 9.63cdef 10.67a 179.33a 59.81abc 13.46abcd 13.14abc F3S2 155.00cde 9.77cde 6.67a 207.00a 61.51abc 13.84abc 14.53ab F3S3 160.22bcd 10.82abc 7.67a 159.67a 56.09abcd 12.62cdef 13.84abc F3S4 163.44bcd 9.25def 8.33a 142.00a 60.55abc 13.62abcd 11.85abc F4S1 155.45cde 9.16def 6.00a 135.00a 58.87abc 13.25abcd 9.97c
F4S2 171.44ab 10.14abcd 11.00a 143.33a 60.99abc 13.72abcd 13.32abc
F4S3 163.33bcd 9.87bcde 10.33a 139.67a 65.10ab 14.65ab 12.74abc F4S4 176.97a 11.46a 12.67a 182.33a 66.49a 14.96a 14.83a F₁ - 125:100:50(RDF); F₂ -75% RDF+ Azo ; F₃ -75%RDF+ PSB ;F₄ -75% RDF+ Azospirillum +PSB; S₁ - Control; S₂ - ZnSO₄ @ 25 kg ha-1; S₃ - FeSO₄ @ 50 kg ha-1; S₄ - Borax @10 kg ha-1.
Table-3. Economic feasibility of different INM systems followed in this study. Cost of nutrient Retail Total cost of (TCP-CNM) Economics Treatment management Yield kg/ha Price produce (TCP) (INR) (%) (CNM) (INR) (INR) Control 8470.00 9350.00 20.00 187000.00 178530.00 F1S2 10720.00 11933.00 20.00 238660.00 227940.00 27.68 F1S3 9962.50 11143.00 20.00 222860.00 212897.50 19.25 F1S4 11345.00 11297.00 20.00 225940.00 214595.00 20.20 F2S1 6550.00 12443.00 20.00 248860.00 242310.00 35.73 F2S2 8800.00 13727.00 20.00 274540.00 265740.00 48.85 50
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______Cost of nutrient Retail Total cost of (TCP-CNM) Economics Treatment management Yield kg/ha Price produce (TCP) (INR) (%) (CNM) (INR) (INR) F2S3 8050.00 13823.00 20.00 276460.00 268410.00 50.34 F2S4 9425.00 13067.00 20.00 261340.00 251915.00 41.11 F3S1 10675.00 13457.00 20.00 269140.00 258465.00 44.77 F3S2 12925.00 13840.00 20.00 276800.00 263875.00 47.80 F3S3 8050.00 12620.00 20.00 252400.00 244350.00 36.87 F3S4 13550.00 13623.00 20.00 272460.00 258910.00 45.02 F4S1 10675.00 13247.00 20.00 264940.00 254265.00 42.42 F4S2 12925.00 13723.00 20.00 274460.00 261535.00 46.49 F4S3 8050.00 14647.00 20.00 292940.00 284890.00 59.58 F4S4 13550.00 14960.00 20.00 299200.00 285650.00 60.00 The economics has been calculated on the basis of per cent increase of the value of (TCP – CNM) over control F₁ - 125:100:50(RDF); F₂ -75% RDF+ Azo ; F₃ -75%RDF+ PSB ;F₄ -75% RDF+ Azospirillum +PSB; S₁ - Control; S₂ - ZnSO₄ @ 25 kg ha-1; S₃ - FeSO₄ @ 50 kg ha-1; S₄ - Borax @10 kg ha-1.
REFERENCES Anburani, A., Manivannan, K. and Shakila. A. (2003). Kiran, J. (2006). Effect of fertilizer, biofertilizer and Integrated nutrient and weed management on yield and micronutrients on seed yield and quality of brinjal yield parameters in brinjal (Solanum melongena L.) cv. (Solanum molongena L.). M.Sc. (Agri.) thesis submitted Annamalai. Plant Archives, 3(1): 85-88. to University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad. Bellakki, M.A., Badanur, V.P. and Setty, R.A. (1998). Effect Kiran, J., Vyakaranahal, B.S., Raikar, S.D., Ravikumar, of long-term integrated nutrient management on some G.H. and Deshpande, V.K. (2010). Seed yield and important properties of a vertisols. Journal of Indian quality of brinjal as influenced by crop nutrition. Indian Society of Soil Science, 46(2): 16-180. Journal of Agricultural Research, 44 (1): 1 – 7. Chaudhary, D.R. and S. D. Sharma, 2000. Screening of some Kuruppaiah, P. (2005). Folair application of micronutrients on brinjal cultivars againstbacterial wilt and fruit borer. growth, flowering and yield characters of brinjal cv. Agricultural Science Digest. 20(2): 129-130. Annamalai. Plant Archives, 5(2): 605-608. Chen. N. C. and M. H. Li, 1990. Vegetable production training Phillips, M.R. (2006). Economic benefits from using manual, Asian Vegetable research and development micronutrients for the farmers. In: Proc. IFA Center, Shanhua, Taiwan. pp. 447 Agriculture Conference on Optimizing Resource Use Efficiency for Sustainable Intensification of Agriculture. Dunlop, F., 2006. Revolutionary Chinese cookbook. Recipes Kunming, China, pp. 7-14 from Hunan Province, EburyPess, pp.202. Ravankar, H.N.; Patil, R.T. and Sarap, P.A. (2003). Impact Gopalan, G., B. V. Ramasastari and Balasubramanian, S.C. of inorganic fertilizers and organic manures on soil 1996. Nutritive value ofIndian Foods. National Institute of properties and crop yields under soyabean-wheat system. Nutrition: I. C. M. R. Hyderabad India: pp. 156. Res. on Crops, 4(3):301-304. Halfacre, R.G. and Barden, J.A. (1979). Horticulture. Mc Singh, V. and Pandey, M. (2006). Effect of integrated nutrient Graw Hill Book Co.USA. management on yield of and nutrient uptake by onion and Hedge, R. and Rudragouda, (2003). Integrated plant nutrient on soil fertility. J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci. 54: 365-367. Management. Principle and Practices. Employment News, 21-27: 3.
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Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______Complementarity between public and private capital formation in agriculture in Uttar Pradesh
POONAM SINGH ICSSR Doctoral Fellow and Assistant Professor, Dept. of Economics, SRS Girls PG College, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh India
Received: 20.07.15 Accepted: 16.09.15 ABSTRACT The agrarian economy of Uttar Pradesh continues to grapple with low productivity and lack of proper infrastructure. A lot has been said and discussed about the disparities across the state by several scholars. The concern on poor investment and the emerging regional and sectoral inequalities in Uttar Pradesh was also highlighted by some scholars and expressed concern over the declining public and private investment and increasing regional disparity in the state. So the `rediscovery’ of Uttar Pradesh is needed to bring out it from the level of BIMARU. This study has prepared a time series of capital expenditure in agriculture of state government of Uttar Pradesh including major heads associated with investment ‘in” agriculture or investment ‘for’ agriculture , examines the compositional shifts in capital formation in state agriculture on public account and deals with complementarity issue between public and private investment in agriculture in Uttar Pradesh. The study also concluded that the compound growth rate of gross capital formation in the state agriculture is declining continuously. The ratio of gross capital formation in state agriculture to net state domestic product at constant prices declined since 1980-81. The decline in plan expenditure in its turn can be traced to the sharp deterioration in the fiscal situation in the state of Uttar Pradesh witnessed since early nineties. This fiscal crisis has negative impact on public investment of economy, particularly in agriculture sector.
Key words: Agriculture, capital expenditure, decline, Private Capital Formation, Public Capital Formation, time series and Uttar Pradesh.
The agrarian economy of Uttar Pradesh continues to rural electrification, and market, etc. The present study has grapple with low productivity and lack of proper infrastructure. prepared a time series of capital expenditure in agriculture of A lot has been said and discussed about the disparities across state government of Uttar Pradesh including major heads the state by several scholars. The concern on poor investment associated with investment ‘in” agriculture or investment ‘for’ and the emerging regional and sectoral inequalities in Uttar agriculture. Pradesh was highlighted by some scholars. They expressed 1.1. Data Sources and Method concern over the decline in investment and increasing regional The CSO series of investment does not provide state level disparity in the state and stated that the `rediscovery’ of Uttar estimates of public and private investments corresponding to Pradesh is needed to bring out it from the level of BIMARU national estimates (Chand, 2000; Roy and pal, 2001; Gulati and states (Misra 1979; Subbarao1980; Singh, 1987, 1996). In this Bathla 2002). Three major attempts have been made to develop study trends in public investment private investment in broad investment data series at state level. Chand (2000) has agriculture in Uttar Pradesh since 1980-81 at current and developed investment series called broad series using the data constant prices (1993-94 prices) have been analyzed available in Financial Accounts of Union and State enormously. Governments for 23 years (1974/75 – 1996/97). These series The paper is divided in to five sections. Section one deals includes capital expenditure in public sector under 23 heads. with data sources and methods adopted by the study to prepare Roy and Pal (2001) have also developed broad investment series time series of capital formation in agriculture in Uttar Pradesh on public investment by considering capital expenditure under and presents a time series of public investment, including major 21 heads and 50% of revenue expenditure on rural development heads relevant for agriculture, in Uttar Pradesh since 1980-81, at and agricultural research and education. Gulati and Bathla current and constant prices (1993-94 prices). Section two (2002) have evaluated the major issues of declining public examines the compositional shifts in capital formation in state investment in 1980’s, complementarity hypothesis using three agriculture on public account. Ratio of public investment in concepts of public investment in agriculture viz., concept-I as agriculture to NSDPtotal in Uttar Pradesh has been discussed in used by CSO covering basically Government investment in section three. Section four presents trends of private investment irrigation schemes, and plantations in the forestry sector; in agriculture in Uttar Pradesh with complementarity issue and concept-II comprising components of concept I plus part of the section five summarizes the main findings. investment in power sector that goes to agriculture, as estimated 1.0. Trends in Public Capital Formation in Agriculture in by Central Electricity Authority/Planning Commission, concept Uttar Pradesh III comprising components of concept II plus investment in This study has built a time series of public investment in agriculture and allied sectors under 11 items of expenditure (as agriculture in Uttar Pradesh since 1980-81 for the first time, per budgetary classification) under centrally sponsored schemes. based on the Finance Accounts of the U.P. Government for Various sources were explored by this study to construct a various years. As observed by some scholars (Chand 2000, Roy new investment series at the state level that includes and Pal 2002 etc.) CSO series on public investment does not investments in all major heads intended for agriculture. It was include investments in several important heads like rural roads, found that the data published in Finance Accounts of the state of 52
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______Uttar Pradesh provides comprehensive information on head The time series of capital expenditure of Uttar Pradesh wise capital expenditure during each year. Thus, this was used government including major heads relevant for agriculture at a as the source of basic data for investment in agriculture in Uttar constant price (1993-94 prices) shows declining trend since Pradesh on public account. The time series has been constructed 1980-81 till 1995-96 with small fluctuations (Chart 1). for the period 1980-81 to 2009-10. The series includes capital After 1995-96 it showed a rising trend, but at a very slow expenditure in agriculture under 15 major heads. Yearly data on rate. After 2000-01 there was a sharp increase in public capital capital expenditure termed as public investment of Uttar expenditure in agriculture in Uttar Pradesh with a slight Pradesh have been compiled for this period. The study could not fluctuation in 2002-03, mainly on account of increasing include data of capital expenditure on rural electrification and expenditure in rural roads and rural development. A large fertilizer industries because in these heads no data has been fluctuation can be seen in 2001-02 in the capital expenditure in available in all the finance accounts of Uttar Pradesh agriculture on public account in Uttar Pradesh due to huge government. The series has also been prepared at constant investment by state government on plantations in Vriksharopan (1993-94) prices by deflating the current price series by implicit programmes. But public spending for agriculture shows price index of construction sector. declining trend in the state after 2006-07 whether a larger no. of 1.2. Public Capital Expenditure in Agriculture of Uttar flagship programmes has been launched by government for Pradesh rural development in Uttar Pradesh
Chart 1: Public Capital Expenditure in Agriculture in Uttar Pradesh at 1993-94 Prices.
Table .1: Compound Annual Growth Rate of Public Capital Expenditure in Agriculture and NSDPag in Uttar Pradesh at 1993-94 Prices. Periods GCFup NSDPag 1980-81 to 1989-90 -1.31 2.50 Periods GCFup 1990-91 to 1999-00 -3.81 2.36 1980-81 to 1998-99 -5.10 2000-01 to 2009-10 14.57 1.63 1999-00 to 2006-07 15.68 1980-81 to 2009-10 -1.56 2.37 2006-07 to 2009-10 -2.47
A negative compound growth rate of gross capital formation of domestic product in agriculture further declined to 1.63 % in – 1.31% was observed in the state agriculture in eighties. It this period. Declining growth in public capital expenditure in further came down to –3.81 % in 1990s persistently. The effect past two decades still has its lag effect on the growth of net state of declining investment is reflected in growth rate of net state domestic product in agriculture. Compound annual growth rate domestic product in agriculture of Uttar Pradesh. The annual of public capital expenditure in agriculture in Uttar Pradesh at compound growth rate of net state domestic product in 1993-94 prices for whole study period was quite low and was agriculture declined to 2.36% in the nineties from 2.50% in the only 1.56 %. The growth rate of net state domestic product in eighties (Table 1) agriculture of Uttar Pradesh was 2.37 % during all periods. There was considerable improvement in the half decade of 2000s. Compound annual growth rate of public capital 2.0 Composition of Public Investment in Agriculture in expenditure in agriculture in Uttar Pradesh at 1993-94 prices Uttar Pradesh was 14.57% during this period. The growth rate of net state 53
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______Distribution of total capital expenditure on agriculture over declining relative importance till the IV period. Annual important heads at 1993-94 prices is shown in Table.4. expenditure for capital formation in animal husbandry remained Compositional shifts in public investment in agriculture could below Rs.7.1 crore during all the periods. Aannual capital be examined with the investment series at constant prices expenditure on rural development and special area programmes developed by the study. For the sake of clarity, data has been increased in all the periods except IV and V respectively. The grouped in six periods (I-1981-85; II-1986-90; III-1991-95; IV- public investment in special area programme was the third 1996-2000; V-2001-2005 and VI -2006-2010). largest item during all the periods. The real annual investment in public sector has In I period food storage and ware housing received significantly declined during the I period to IV period. Public investment of Rs. 65.1 crore per year at 1993-94 prices. investment in irrigation schemes continued to be the most Importance accorded to create infrastructure for this head dominant item of capital expenditure in agriculture in the state. declined sharply after that period. Annual Public investment in Even though there was a decline in annual investment in this rural roads also continued to increase its importance. Annual item in other periods except the V period. Annual capital public investment in rural roads and turned out to be the second expenditure on crop husbandry and agricultural research and most important item during all the periods. Agricultural education increased and became an important item of capital research and education received very little attention but the expenditure during the II period and the V period with Rs. 21.7 share is rising in the recent years. In period V annual public crore and Rs. 67.1 crore. Its importance started diminishing investment in all major heads increased significantly except subsequently in the other periods. Animal husbandry, dairy cooperation and dairy development. A substantial amount has development, fishery and forestry & wildlife are found to show been invested in plantation during this period.
Table 2: Head wise Distribution of Annual Capital Expenditure on Agriculture by U.P.Govt. at 1993-94 prices, Rs Crore Heads 1980-81 1985-86 1990-91 1995-96 2000-01 2006-07 to to to to to to 1984-85 1989-90 1994-95 1999-00 2005-06 2009-10 I II III IV V VI Crop husbandry 2.7 21.7 6.0 5.6 67.1 26.9 Soil and water conservation 0.0 0.8 -2.6 0.0 3.0 2.7 Animal husbandry 3.5 4.3 4.5 2.6 7.1 9.8 Dairy development 10.5 4.7 6.4 4.0 1.4 4.1 Fishery 0.6 -0.3 0.0 0.4 10.1 5.2 Forestry and wildlife 0.0 0.6 0.3 -0.8 21.7 3.7 Plantations 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 73.0 52.1 Food storage/warehousing 65.1 -28.2 9.2 -42.3 3.6 6.3 Agricultural research and education 0.0 8.5 2.6 0.0 6.7 2.4 Cooperation 77.5 30.6 25.9 23.1 4.3 1.9 Other Agricultural services 0.0 0.0 0.5 0.0 108.4 0.0 Agriculture and allied activities 159.9 42.7 52.8 -7.4 306.5 115.10 rural development 1.3 16.3 18.3 9.3 162.2 184.2 special area programmes 146.0 149.7 148.4 171.2 123.4 84.3 Irrigation and Flood Control 637.1 555.4 319.6 270.9 563.0 289.5 Rural roads 234.8 238.1 221.9 200.5 483.1 523.1 Total 1179.2 1175.9 761.0 644.6 1638.2 1081.1 Source: compiled and computed from Finance Accounts of Uttar Pradesh Government, Various issues.
Likewise, compositional shifts in public investment in of storage and warehousing constituted about 14 % and 11% of agriculture in Uttar Pradesh could also be examined with ratio total capital expenditure on agriculture during 1980-81 and of different heads to total investment in agriculture at constant 1982-83 respectively. It was negative during most of the 1980s prices. During all the periods, irrigation projects with flood and 1990s. In 2000s this ratio was zero and revealed less control received highest share of total capital expenditure on interest of state government for investment on this head. agriculture. Since 1980-81, irrigation projects with flood control Share of rural roads fluctuated during the study period. accounted about more than 50% of capital expenditure on Ratio of crop husbandry, plantation, animal husbandry, and agriculture before the reform period. During the reform period dairy development to total public capital expenditure in this share has declined significantly. The share of rural agriculture was very low during the study period. Share of development programmes increased from a little more than 0.1 plantation in to the total capital expenditure in agriculture by % of total public investment to about 1.6 % during 1980s. But state government was almost zero till 2000-01. Expenditure on during seven years of 2000s it improved considerably. The plantation was incurred from revenue account of the share of special area programme has also increased government till 2000-01(Finance Accounts of Uttar Pradesh continuously till 1999-00. After separation of Uttaranchal from Govt.). After that state government invested a good proportion the state, amount spent on this head particularly in hill area of capital expenditure under this head. programmes became negligible and the ratio has declined. Share
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Table 3: Decadal Compositional Shift of Public Investment in Agriculture (%) Heads 1980s 1990s 2000s Crop husbandry 1.15 0.63 4.56 Soil and water conservation 0.04 -0.23 0.19 Animal husbandry 0.38 0.51 0.36 Dairy development 0.68 0.81 0.13 Fisheries 0.02 0.04 0.71 Forestry and wild life 0.02 -0.05 0.97 Plantations 0 0 5.36 Food storage /warehousing 1.17 -5.43 0.24 Agri. research and education 0.41 0.14 0.43 Cooperation 4.78 3.57 0.33 Other Agricultural services 0 0.04 7.46 Agriculture and allied activities 8.64 0.01 20.73 Rural development 0.88 2.07 9.26 Special area prog. 13.77 23.74 6.99 Irrigation and Flood Control 55.01 42.63 34.19 Rural roads 21.71 31.56 28.81 Total 100 100 100
It can also be noticed from the table that the share of separation of Uttaranchal from the state. Analysis of public investment in irrigation in Uttar Pradesh was declined compositional shifts in public capital expenditure in agriculture after 1992-93. It was again reduced after 2000-01. While the and allied activities showed that direct investment in agriculture share of capital expenditure into total capital expenditure in was very low in 1980s and 1990s. It has declined in 1990s from agriculture on rural development increased considerably. The 1980s, though the ratio has increased significantly in 2000s. It most important item of capital expenditure in agriculture is can also be noticed that agricultural research & education and irrigation. Hence, any decline in public investment refers food storage & warehousing has remained neglected over the basically to declining public investment in major and medium years. irrigation schemes. Analysis of compositional shifts in public 3. Ratio of Public Investment in Agriculture to NSDP total capital expenditure in agriculture with investment series in Uttar Pradesh suggests that investment in irrigation schemes, and flood control Proportion of Gross capital formation in agriculture in would form around 50% of the total investment in the 1980s. Uttar Pradesh to Net State Domestic Product of the state at Even though the irrigation schemes continued to enjoy constant prices (1993-94 prices) is demonstrated in Table 8. and dominant share in public investment, its share came down from chart 4. The ratio continuously declined till 1999-00 with more than 55% during eighties to 42.63% during nineties and fluctuations. It attained lowest position in 1991-92 with 0.7 % 34.19% in 2000s (Table 3). and stagnated below the level of 1% ratio of capital expenditure Capital expenditure on rural roads was the next in agriculture to net state domestic production in agriculture important item. Public investment by state government in rural during whole periods of nineties. However, the declining trend roads continued to maintain its importance over the years. The in public investment in state agriculture seems to be arrested in rural development programmes have experienced hike in their the half decade of 2000s. The Table pointed out that after 2000- share in 1990s but special area programmes lost its significance 01 ratio of public investment showed increasing trends. and showed declining trends in its ratio after 2001 due to
Table5: Gross Capital Formation In Agriculture in U.P. in Relation to Net State Domestic Product (At 1993-94 prices) Rs. Crore Years GC Fup NSDP total GC Fup as % of NSDP 1980-81 1399 41953 3.3 1981-82 1148 42959 2.7 1982-83 1156 46315 2.5 1983-84 948 48132 2.0 1984-85 1245 48896 2.5 55
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______Years GC Fup NSDP total GC Fup as % of NSDP 1985-86 884 50812 1.7 1986-87 1907 53013 3.6 1987-88 908 55408 1.6 1988-89 1161 62633 1.9 1989-90 1019 64375 1.6 1990-91 1098 68204 1.6 1991-92 505 68483 0.7 1992-93 908 69219 1.3 1993-94 649 70935 0.9 1994-95 645 74635 0.9 1995-96 503 77046 0.7 1996-97 605 85597 0.7 1997-98 694 84686 0.8 1998-99 646 85310 0.8 1999-00 774 91201 0.8 2000-01 1044 91690 1.1 2001-02 1411 94293 1.5 2002-03 1226 100101 1.2 2003-04 1567 104728 1.5 2004-05 1587 109768 1.4 2005-06 2060 112854 1.8 2006-07 2574 111848 2.3 2007-08 1661 116732 1.4 2008-09 1433 124035 1.2 2009-10 1229 132432 0.9 Source: Reserve bank of India, Hand Book of Statistics, various years.
Chart. 3: Public Capital Expenditure in Agriculture in U.P. in Relation to Net State Domestic Product (At 1993-94 prices).
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Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______A glance of chart 3 clearly indicates that ratio of public basis for compilation of capital formation in agriculture in the investment in agriculture with net state domestic product private sector at state level. The RBI-NSSO have been showed declining trend since 1980-81 to 1999-00 with some conducting country–wide survey of debt and investment fluctuations. The ratio of public investment with net state (AIDIS) at decennial intervals. In order to prepare time series domestic product was below the level of 1% during almost all data on private agricultural investment in Uttar Pradesh, state’s the nineties. However there was significant improvement in this share was interpolated and extrapolated within the data relation that can be observed in the half decade of 2000s. It available for three decadal years, 1981-82, 1991-92 and 2002- showed increasing trend after 2001-02 but declined after2006- 03. The time series on private agricultural investment in Uttar 07. Pradesh at current prices and constant prices (1993-94 prices) 4.0 Private Investment in Agriculture of Uttar Pradesh are presented in Table 6. As stated earlier that there are no direct data available on annual
Table 6: Private Fixed Capital Formation in Agriculture in Relation to NSDP ag in Uttar Pradesh. Year GCFagPvt GCFagPvt GCFag Pvt GCFagPb as % GCFag Pvt as % (Current Prices) (1993-94 Prices) Per Hectare of NSDPag of NSDPag 1980-81 242.63 533 14089 7.04 2.68 1981-82 266.63 534 30546 5.66 2.63 1982-83 293.00 600 34736 5.44 2.82 1983-84 321.98 601 34845 4.28 2.71 1984-85 353.82 595 34491 5.63 2.69 1985-86 388.81 636 36908 3.95 2.85 1986-87 427.27 658 38401 8.32 2.87 1987-88 469.52 689 40037 3.89 2.95 1988-89 515.96 677 39287 4.50 2.62 1989-90 566.99 697 40291 4.02 2.75 1990-91 623.06 693 42179 4.04 2.55 1991-92 684.68 669 40605 1.81 2.40 1992-93 745.44 672 40821 3.33 2.46 1993-94 811.59 812 49203 2.29 2.86 1994-95 883.60 678 40819 2.20 2.31 1995-96 962.01 660 39549 1.68 2.21 1996-97 1047.37 736 43988 1.85 2.25 1997-98 1140.31 795 47319 2.29 2.62 1998-99 1241.50 879 52318 2.10 2.86 1999-00 1351.66 869 51723 2.31 2.59 2000-01 1471.60 943 56091 3.17 2.87 2001-02 1602.18 962 57221 4.22 2.88 2002-03 1744.35 1079 64180 3.46 3.04 2003-04 1899.14 1148 68285 4.34 3.18 2004-05 2067.66 1221 72627 4.64 3.57 2005-06 2251.13 1310 77921 5.78 3.67 2006-07 2399.12 1422 82346 7.7 4.25 2007-08 2523.45 1516 87112 4.4 3.99 2008-09 2711.09 1667 91988 3.7 4.31 2009-10 2893.43 1722 96234 3.4 4.72 Sources: PVTupag= Interpolated and extrapolated from the data at three decadal years provided by- 1. RBI (1988), Household Capital Expenditure during 01.07.1981 to 30.06.1982: All India Debt & Investment Survey 1981-82 Reserve Bank of India, Bombay 2. NSSO (1998), Household Capital Expenditure during 01.07.1991 to 30.06.1992: Debt and Investment Survey, 48th round, Ministry of Planning & Programme Implementation, Govt. of India 3. NSSO (2005), Household Capital Expenditure during 01.07.2002 to 30.06.2003: Debt and Investment Survey, 58th round, Ministry of Planning & Programme Implementation Govt. of India
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Complementarity Issue: It can be noticed that Public sector and Private sector Though there was paucity of data regarding private capital formation in agriculture at constant prices were moving investment in agriculture at the state level, this study tried to in opposite directions in 1980s and most of the 1990s, but explain the relationship between private and public investment similar to all india trends, pace of rise in capital formation in in agriculture. As shown in the chart-4, the two series are private account was slower in the 1980s and 1990s. It gained moving in completely opposite direction up to 1991-92. Public better momentum after 2000-01, when capital formation in investment in real terms shows an absolute decline with some public sector also showed increasing trend. This trend again fluctuation in the eighties. Private sector capital formation in supports the hypothesis of complementarity between private and agriculture in real terms shows increasing trends continuously, public investment in agriculture at all India level as well as state since 1980-81, which continued into the nineties. Private level. Ratio of capital formation in private sector to Net State investment shows a spurt since 1996-97. After 2000-01, public Domestic Product in agriculture in Uttar Pradesh increased, and private sector capital formation at constant prices (1993-94 while ratio of gross capital formation in public sector to Net prices), were moving in upward direction. Private capital State Domestic Product in agriculture declined in the 1980s and formation per hectare of net sown area was also increased 1990s with some fluctuations. It increased after 1997-98 and throughout the period. stood at 5.78 % in 2005-06.
Chart 4: Private and Public Capital Expenditure in Agriculture in Uttar Pradesh.
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CONCLUSION Private sector capital formation in agriculture in real terms shows increasing trends continuously, since 1980-81, With perceptible decline in public sector investment which continued into the nineties. Private investment shows a in agriculture in state of Uttar Pradesh during the decades of sharp increase since 1996-97. After 2000-01, public and private 1980s and 1990s, the agrarian economy of Uttar Pradesh sector capital formation at constant prices (1993-94 prices), continues to struggle with low productivity and lack of proper were moving in upward direction. Private capital formation per infrastructure. Public investment in agriculture by state hectare of net sown area was also increased throughout the government showed diminishing trends at constant prices period. (1993-94 prices), since 1980-81 to 1995-96. A negative Many scholars have explored the reasons for the compound growth rate of gross capital formation of was declining trend in public investment in agriculture. According to observed in the state agriculture in the eighties and the nineties. them decline in public investment in agriculture was due to the Ratio of public investment in agriculture to net state domestic bias against agriculture in the policy and rising subsidies in product in the agriculture of the state at constant prices also agriculture ( Alagh,1994 & 1996; Misra,1998; Gulati and declined till 1995-96. Similarly proportion of GCF in Bathla,2001). Hardening resources and increasing pressure on agriculture in Uttar Pradesh to net state domestic product at revenue expenditure in payments of salaries and interest have constant prices declined since 1980-81. Public and private crowded out capital expenditure in public account since 1980s. investment in agriculture in Uttar Pradesh however shows a The deteriorating trend in central tax-GDP ratio started right clear positive increase after 1999-2000. But after 2006, both from the mid 1980s was a major source of fiscal imbalances series depicts opposite movement. Due to lag impact of (Ahluwalia 2000; Rao, 2003). The decline in plan expenditure increasing public investment, private investment in agriculture in its turn can be traced to the sharp deterioration in the fiscal is continuously shows increasing trends. situation in the state of Uttar Pradesh witnessed since early The most important items of capital expenditure were nineties. Due to mounting pressure of non-developmental irrigation and rural roads. Investment in irrigation schemes, and expenditure on salaries, pensions and interest payments, the flood control would form around 50% of the total investment in government budgets have been running into continuous and the 1980s. Even though the irrigation schemes dominated in high revenue deficit (Singh,2006). public investment, its share came down from more than 55% Thus the state government is not in the position to raise its during eighties to 42.63% during nineties and 34.19% in 2000s. expenditure on development plans and other priority sectors like Capital expenditure on rural roads by state government education, health and infrastructure. This fiscal crisis has continued to maintain its importance over the years. The rural negative impact on public investment of economy, particularly development programmes have experienced hike in their share in agriculture sector. To rejuvenate agricultural sector and step in 1990s but special area programmes lost its significance and up its growth rate the following areas will require much higher showed declining trends in its ratio after 2001 due to separation public investments- irrigation, agricultural research and of Uttaranchal from the state. The direct investment in development and rural infrastructure including roads, cold agriculture was very low in 1980s and 1990s. It has declined till storages, market infrastructure etc. Success in these areas will 1990s, though the ratio has increased significantly in 2000s. It stimulate private investment in agriculture and contribute to a can also be noticed that agricultural research & education and revival of growth. food storage & warehousing has remained neglected over the years. REFERENCES Ahluwalia, Montek, S. (2000). “Economic Performances of Misra, V.N. (1979). “Anatomy of Agriculture Growth” in T.S. States in Post Reforms Period”, Economic and Political Papola (ed.), Studies on Development of Uttar Pradesh, Weekly, Vol.35, May 6. Giri Institute of Development Studies, Lucknow. Alagh, Y.K. (1994). “Macro Policies for Indian Agriculture” in Misra, V.N. (1998). “Economic Reforms, Terms of Trade, G.S. Bhalla (ed.), Economic Liberalisation and Indian Aggregate Supply and Private Investment in Agriculture: Agriculture, Institute for Studies in Industrial Indian Experience”, Economic and Political Weekly, Development, New Delhi. Vol.33, No.31, August 1. Alagh, Y.K. (1997). “Inaugural Address: Agricultural NSSO (1998), Household Capital Expenditure During Investment and Growth”, Indian Journal of Agricultural 01.07.1991 to 30.06.1992: Debt and Investment Survey, Economics, Vol.52, No.2, April-June. 48th round, Ministry of Planning & Programme Implementation, Government of India Government of Uttar Pradesh, (Various Years): Finance Accounts of State Government, Ministry of Finance. NSSO (2005), Household Capital Expenditure during 01.07.2002 to 30.06.2003: Debt and Investment Survey, Gulati, Ashok and Seema Bathla (2001). “Capital Formation 58th round, Ministry of Planning & Programme in Indian Agriculture: Re-visiting the Debate”, Economic Implementation, Government of India. and Political Weekly¸Vol.36, No.20, May 19.
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Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______Rao, C.H. (2003). “Reform Agenda for Agriculture”, Economic Singh A.K. (1987). Rural Poverty and Agricultural and Political Weekly, Vol.38, No.7, pp.615-620, February Development, Ashish Publishing House, New Delhi. 15. Singh A.K, (1997). Land Use, Environment and Economic Reserve Bank of India (1977). Household Capital Expenditure Growth in India, M.D. Publications, New Delhi. during 01.07.1971 to 30.06.1972: All India debt and th Singh, AK. (2006). “Plan Financing, Resource Mobilization investment survey, 38 Round, Reserve Bank of India, th Mumbai. and Private Investment’ in Mid-Term Appraisal of X Five Year Plan, 2006. Reserve Bank of India (1988). Household Capital Expenditure during 01.07.1981 to 30.06.1982: All India Debt & Singh J.P (1987). Role of Institutional Finance in Agriculture, Investment Survey 1981-82, Reserve Bank of India, Ashish Publishing House, New Delhi. Mumbai. Singh, Shrinath (1976). Modernization of Agriculture: A Case Reserve Bank of India (2005). “Report of the Expert Group on Study in Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Heritage Publishers, New Investment Credit,” Mumbai, June. Delhi. Roy, B.C. and Suresh Pal (2002). “Investment, Agricultural Subbarao, K. (1980). "Institutional Credit Uncertainty and Productivity and Rural Poverty in India: A State Level Adoption of HYV Technology: A Comparison of East UP Analysis”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, with West UP”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Vol.57, No.4, October-December. Economics, Vol.35, No.1, January-March.
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Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______’S Measure the knowledge level of trained farm women by KVK about different enterprises
H.N. PRASAD* AND R.K. KUSHWAHA** *Ph. D. Scholars, ** Associate Professor, Department of Agricultural Extension C.S.A. University of Agriculture and Technology Kanpur (U.P.)-208002
Received: 27.07.15 Accepted: 18.09.15 ABSTRACT The knowledge level of 160 (Trainee) farm women towards selected enterprises i.e. crop production, livestock and home science were studied. The results revealds that maximum 65.63 percent trained farm women were having medium level of knowledge about crop production technology and remained 24.37 and 10.00 percent were having low and high level of knowledge, respectively. As regards the livestock technology 49.37 percent trained farm women were having low level of knowledge followed by 35.00 and 15.63 percent were having medium and high level of knowledge, respectively. In case of home science activities 58.75 percent trained farm women were having low level of knowledge, remained 29.75 and 11.88 percent trained farm women were having medium and low level of knowledge, respectively. The results indicate that the knowledge level of trained farm women towards crop production was improved while in livestock and home science were very low. Key words: Crop Production, Home Science, Knowledge, Live stock production and Trainee.
Women constitute almost half of the country’s population etc. and terminates in the discussion assembly. The training which has been deprived of self respect and subjugated into programme take into account all methods and means which will existence at the whim and mercy of the male. Over the years result in skill development in trainees in the areas of their women has accepted her role in society as house wife and interest. It can be formal, informal and non-formal or a mother as well as inferior expendable commodity whether sold combination of all the three, depending upon the needs and off to strangers or a source of dowry for her husband’s family. resources of the farmers. Each kvks has been provided with a The need for empowering rural women in agriculture through training organizer about adzone scientific technical staff and an effective training and extension services arise from the gradual equal number of office and supporting staff. The discipline of decrease in the availability of arable land increasing population agricultural extension, agronomy, horticulture, veterinary, pressure and growing environmental degradation which have for animal science, home science and plant protection are normally reaching implications for food and nutritional security in future. provided training in the kvks. Krishi Vigyan Kendra are grass root level vocational training Institutions designed for bridging the gap between available MATERIAL AND METHODS technology at one end allied area as both at institutional (on- The study was carried out in central Uttar Pradesh. Krishi campus) and non-institutional (off-campus) training conducting Vigyan Kendra Dileepnagar under the jurisdiction areas method and result demonstration at institutional farms as well as Chandra Shekhar Azad University of Agriculture & on the farmers field and also organizing a large number of Technology, Kanpur was selected purposively. Out of ten extension activities for rapid adoption of new agricultural blocks in districts two blocks were selected randomly and five technology among the farmers, farm women, fishermen and villages from each block were selected randomly and sixteen rural youth.The kvks organize composite training programme of respondents from each villages selected randomly. Thus a total short and long duration based on systematic study of the of 160 farm women selected for the investigation. The data were training needs and technology gaps by each krishi vigyan collected through personal interview method with the help of kendra through a scientific survey of villages. The concept of structural schedule. The entire data were transformed in to vocational training in agriculture through kvks grew different categories. The knowledge of farm women toward substantially owing to the greater demand for advancement of selected different enterprises was studied under three heads viz. agricultural technology and the growing progressiveness of the crop production, live stock production and home science. The farmers. They need not only knowledge and understanding but knowledge level of trained farm women on the different also progressively more skill in various complex agricultural enterprises i.e. agriculture, livestock and home science activities operations. This is imperative for the rapid transfer of was measured with the help of two point scale i.e. known and technology. It is designed to impart need based and skill- unknown with corresponding numerical value 1 & 0 on the oriented vocational training to the practicing farmers, in service basis of jury opinion the obtained minimum and maximum field level extension workers and to those who wish to go in for score were classified with the following categories. self-employment.The training start from fields farms, dairy units, poultry units, sheep units, goat units, pig units, workshop
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Table 1. The knowledge level of trained farm women. Particular Crop production Live stock Home Science Low level 0-4 0-1 0-2 Medium level 5-8 2-3 3-4 High level 8-12 4-5 5-6
Percentages were used in the description analysis form a kind compression single nature with following formula.
No. of known farm women about facts Percentage= X 100 Total no. of farm women
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Analysis the knowledge of farm women about crop production. Score Interval Respondents Number percentage 0-4 (Low knowledge) 39 24.37 5-8 (Medium knowledge) 105 65.63 8-12 (High knowledge) 16 10.00 Total 160 100.00
It is clear from the above table that 65.63 farm women has above table that maximum trained farm women were having either good or medium knowledge, whereas 24.37 percent farm medium level of knowledge about improved crop production women were having low level of knowledge and only 10 technology. percent farm women were possessing high level of knowledge 2. Analysis the knowledge of farm women about live stock about crop production technology. Thus it is clear from the possessed. Score Interval Respondents Number percentage 0-1 (Low knowledge) 79 49.37 2-3 (Medium knowledge) 56 35.00 4-5 (High knowledge) 25 15.63 Total 160 100.00
From the above table it is obvious that maximum 49.37 percent respectively. Thus it is clear from the above table that maximum farm women were having low level of knowledge followed by trained farm women were having low level of knowledge about 35 percent farm women having medium level of knowledge and live stock production. 15.63 percent farm women were having high knowledge level
3. Analysis the knowledge of farm women about home science programmes. Score Interval Respondents Number percentage 0-2 (Low knowledge) 94 58.75 3-4 (Medium knowledge) 47 29.37 5-6 (High knowledge) 19 11.88 Total 160 100.00
The above table states that maximum 58.75 percent farm live stock production and home science. In crop production women were having low level of knowledge in home science nearly 75% farm women were with medium or high knowledge activities followed by 11.88 percent farm women were having level while nearly 25% farm women were possessing low high level of knowledge and 29.37 percent farm women were knowledge level. In live stock production about 50% farm having medium knowledge level about home science activities. women were having less knowledge level while about 50% farm Thus it clear from the above table that maximum trained farm women were familiar with improved practices. In home science women were having low level of knowledge about home nearly 60% farm women were having low knowledge level science activities. while about 40% were with medium or high knowledge level. CONCLUSION This high knowledge level about home science was in higher The overall results indicate that the knowledge level of class family. farm women was studied under tree heads viz. crop production,
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Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______REFERENCES Vijayraghavan and Somsundaram (1979). Factors associated Masur, S.B. and Ashalata, K.V. (2001). "K.V.K. training for with the knowledge of high yielding varieties of paddy farm women : an analytical study" Karnataka Journal of by marginal farmers. Indian Journal of Ext. edu. Agricultural Sciences 14(3): 839-842. 20(1&2):1-15. Abed, L.T.A., (2005). Developing a scale for attitude of rural Prajapati, M.R., Ashok and Patel, A. (1984). Knowledge women towards small agricultural project (Arabic). extension worker towards some selected components of Annals of Agricultural Science, Moshtohor 43(4):15–35. T&V system. Indian Journal of Ext. edu., 20(1&2): 25- 30. Singh, A., Prasad, A., Daya Ram, Sharma, R., and Tamhpasana, K., (2009). Attitude of Ex. Trainees towards vocational Bakery training. Indian Res. J. Ext. Edu. 9(3):11-17.
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Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______Biodiversity in North East India and their Conservation
ANIRUDDHA ROY1*, SHAON KUMAR DAS2, A. K. TRIPATHI1, N. UTTAM SINGH1 AND H. K. BARMAN3
1ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Umroi Road, Umiam, Meghalaya-793103 2ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Sikkim Centre, Gangtok, Sikkim-737102 3University of North Bengal, Siliguri, West Bengal-734013
Received: 19.03.15 Accepted: 12.06.15 ABSTRACT Northeast States of India is blessed with a wide range of physiographic and ecoclimatic conditions and the geographical ‘gateway’ for much of India’s endemic flora as well as fauna. It is a home of 17 crop species that represent 47% of the crop species diversity available in the country. The region receives an annual average rainfall of 2000 mm accounting for about 10 % (42.5 mhm) of the country’s total precipitation of 420 mhm. Forest cover in the region is 14.2 million ha which is about 54.16 % of total geographical area which is higher than the national average (19.39 %). By and large, the region is characterized by fragility, marginality, inaccessibility, cultural heterogeneity, ethnicity and rich in biodiversity. Floristically, the region covers 43% of the total plants species that are occurring in India. The rate of endemic species percentage is also high (39%). Two primitive variety of maize, Sikkim Primitive 1 and 2 have also been reported from Sikkim. The region is rich in medicinal plants and many other rare and endangered taxa. Key words: biodiversity, flora, fauna, species, medicinal plant
Biodiversity is the variety and differences among living North-East India, along with the neighboring countries of organisms from all sources, including terrestrial, marine, and Bhutan, southern China and Myanmar. Northeast India is other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which geographically nestled in one of the most biodiversity-rich they are a part. This includes genetic diversity within and regions of the world. During the past three decades, the region between species and of ecosystems. Thus, in essence, has been through several priority-setting processes on the biodiversity represents all life. India is one of the mega initiative of the national and international conservation biodiversity centres in the world and has two of the world's 18 agencies. These have highlighted the species and sites of ‘biodiversity hotspots’ located in the Western Ghats and in the conservation concern. The region is not a homogenous entity Eastern Himalayas. The North East India comprising of eight but a highly diverse mosaic of ecological, social and states namely Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Manipur, physiological landscapes and thus needs intensive analysis and Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim and Tripura has a total attention to conservation. The region is endowed with geographical area of 262180 km2 which is about 8 % of the diversities of economic plants. Interspecific diversities among country’s total area with a population of about 40 million. the among the various crops are also too high due to the Because of its vast diversity in soil, slope, altitudes and occurring of such variability, perhaps the region has been ecological conditions, it hosts diverse life forms, the plant identified as one of the ‘HOT SPOT’ of India. Recent biodiversity primarily forms the basis of existence of human life discoveries of new species and range extensions of many others on earth, which concern agriculture production systems existing demonstrate that efforts taken to date need further among farming communities. WWF has identified the entire strengthening, particularly now that the region is under Eastern Himalayas as a priority global 200 ecoregion while tremendous pressure to unleash its resources to pave the way for Conservation International has upscaled the Eastern Himalaya development. However, the region also provides an immense Hotspot which initially covered the states of Arunachal Pradesh, opportunity to its stakeholders to exhibit a strong willingness to Sikkim, Darjeeling Hills, Bhutan, and Southern China to the balance conservation and development so as to reflect the Indo Burma Hotspot which now includes all the eight states of sustainable use of its resources and ensure livelihood security. Strength of the Region
Table 1: One of the 12-mega biodiversity hot spot areas. Abundant natural resources Forest 17.11 (million ha) Agricultural land 3.91 (million ha) Rivers 19976 km Indigenous crop germplasm 3000 Nos. Orchids 600 (175 rare spp.) Medicinal plants 119 Species belonging to 09 genera Aromatic plants 05 genera Livestock population 22.62 million Fish germplasms including ornamental 247 fish species Source: Vision 2025, ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Umiam, Meghalaya
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Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______Diverse Agro-climatic conditions duration type, while wetland varieties mature early. Perhaps due The region has the climatic situation between tropical to to the political problem the state was not included under PL-480 alpine environment ranges, the soil is rich in organic meter scheme for rice germplasm collection. However, NBPGR having pH in between 4.5 to 5.0. Regional Station, Shillong has collected 362 rice accessions so 1. Alpine Zone ( 3500m) far from the state. 2. Temperate Sub-Alpine (1500-3500 m) Nagaland state is very prosperous as the Nagas are 3. Sub tropical Hill Zone (1000-1500 m) hardworking people. Zabo system (Sonowal et al., 1989) is a 4. Sub Tropical Plain Zone: (800-1000 m) traditional practice among the farmers of Chakehsang 5. Mild Tropical Hill Zone: (200-800 m) community in Phek district of the state. At least 489 accessions 6. Mild Tropical Plain Zone: (0-200 m) of rice germplasm were collected under PL480 scheme, while Rice diversity of the region NBPGR Regional Station, Shillong has collected 460 Rice is the staple food of this region. There are so many accessions. cultivars belonging to indica and japonica race exists in this Topography of Tripura comprises hills, hillocks and flat region and some cultivars have some special feature. Based on valley. Deep-water rice cultivation is also done in flood prone the exploration and collection of rice germplasm diversity, some submerged areas. About 10 tribal and 22 sub-tribal communities examples are cited below. inhabit this small state. Migrated Bengali community from In Arunachal Pradesh rice is the principal crop, which Bangladesh from a major population in the state. Besides that it grows up to 2000 m, beyond which millets, buckwheat and is used in preparation of parched and flaked rice. Assam rice other temperate fruits and Cole crops are grown. Indigenous collections (PL-480) have indicated that 246 accessions were methods of water harvesting and use for irrigation were seen in collected from this state. Apatani plateau of upper Subansiri district. Seventeen diverse Sikkim hilly and falls within the contiguous stretch of rice landraces are used to grown a limited area. Some of the Himalaya. Rice crop is grown in hardly 20,000 h of land area in landraces resemble Japonica plant type in respect of their culm, the state annually. Most of the landraces grown in the state tillering, panicle and grain characters. In Lohit District where annually. Directly sown varieties – Buidhan, Lama and “Khamati” tribe is still cultivating their own landraces, hapachini. Transplanted varieties - Attey, Mansara, Jhapaka, following transplanting method, which gives higher yield than Dut-kalami, Basmati, Krishna-Bhog, Talasi, Poudal and other available varieties. Brimphul. Attey, Marshi are early maturity type and suited up to The topography of Assam constitutes both hills and 1500 m altitude, while Phudange, Takmaru and Darmali grows plains. Under PL-480 scheme, 493 collections of rice beyond 1500 m. (Source: Conspectus of rice diversities of germplasm have been made from Mikir hills and North Cachar Northeast region: Development approach through ecosystem hills, which 1118 accessions were collected from five plain based, NBPGR Shillong centre) districts of Assam. The NBPGR Regional Station, Shillong has Diversity of Maize Landraces in NE India collected 1580 accessions of rice including their wild relatives, 1250 accessions from the NEH region, predominantly till 2008. from Meghalaya (303), Mizoram (220), Sikkim (210), In Manipur except the Imphal valley area, the rest of the Arunachal Pradesh (187) and Nagaland (135). These accessions state is hilly in topography. Both upland and lowland rice are available in National Gene Bank. (Source: Diversity of cultivation exists at different eco-environment. At higher Maize Landraces in India by B.M. Prasanna) elevation of Ukhrul district, the black kernelled rice locally Diversity of Pulses Landraces in NE India called “Chahao” is a novelty of the state. The variety is Thirty land races of the legume Vigna umbellata, aromatic but contributes less yield and thus limited in collected from the hilly state of Nagaland, North-East India cultivation. Due to the invasion of HYV in the valley areas, were screened for nutritive value by Department of most of the indigenous rice varieties are gradually becoming Biotechnology, Guwahati University, Guwahati and found that obsolete and are disappearing from cultivation. However, 40 Crude protein content varied from 14.66% to 26.88%. Lentil, local rice landraces were collected and evaluated by the rice bean, chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) are the major pulse scientists (Asthana and Majumdar, 1981) of ICAR Research crops grown in NE India. Complex for North Eastern Hill Region, Shillong from this Citrus Genetic Diversity in North Eastern Region state. North Eastern India is considered to be the natural home Though the Meghalaya state receives high rainfall, the of different citrus species. Favourable climatic conditions aiding large hill tracts are unsuitable for rice cultivation due to acidic in easy hybridization amongst different species and genera has soil, rocky plateau, forest cover, grassland and mining brought in about numerous forms of citrus growing wild and operations of coal and limestone. Soft varieties are both used as semi-wild condition. Around 18 different citrus species viz. flaked or in raw form and served as breakfast in Khasi-Mikir Citrus reticulata Blanco, Citrus sinensis Osbeck, Citrus Hills border areas. The notable indigenous rice varieties are Jambhiri Lush., Citrus Medica L., Citrus Karna Ratin., Citrus Mirikrak, Chanmouri, Kbathugmaw, Batlong, Rvllobed, aurantifolia Swingle, Citrus limetta (Risso.) Lush., Citrus Kbaswarit, Abor red, Khonorullu, Ngoba, dullo, Thermeru red, indica Tanaka, Citrus aurantium L., Citrus grandis Osbeck, Lyngsi, Kuki, Tongla, Nonglwai and Maiku Tsuk (Asthana and Citrus megaloxycarpa Lush., Citrus assamensis. Bhattacharya Majumdar, 1981). and Dutta (1956) described 17 citrus species, their 52 cultivars Mizoram state is completely hilly with steep slops where and a few probablenatural hybrids from this region. In lemon wetland cultivation is limited only in valley and flatland areas of alone, as many as 32 strains are available. The species C.limon, Champhai district. Most of the Jhoom rice cultivars are long C. medica, C. jambhiri, C. ichangensis, C. latipes, C. 65
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______macroptera, C. assamensis, C. indica and C. aurantium are to this region (Seshadri and Srivastava, 2002). Germplasm of considered indigenous to this region. The Indian wild orange C. wild species of tomato L. pimpinellifolium, has been found in indiaca is found in the Naga Hills and Meghalaya. (Source: NE region. Chilies are usually grown in warm to hot and humid Various publications of ICAR Research Complex for NEH climate in Manipur, Mizoram, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Tripura, Region, Umiam, Meghalaya). Though production of citrus in and Arunachal Pradesh in that order with respect to area under Indian plains is high, it is reduced to a great extent in North the crop. Due to the long history of cultivation, outcrossing Eastern region due to lack of quality planting materials and poor nature and popularity of the crop, large genetic diversity orchard management, which necessitates to explore for advance including local landraces have evolved. In hot chili great range techniques that can manage higher demand of this crop (Rabha of variability for several attributes (fruit shape, size, colour and et al., 2013). North-Eastern region is considered as one of the bearing habit and semi-perennial, perennial and pungency) bio-diversity hot spot, has a good diversity of citrus species occur throughout the North Eastern region. (Hazarika, 2012). The state of Arunachal Pradesh is one of the Cucurbitaceous vegetables major centres of diversity of citrus in the North eastern region of Consisting of more than 15 kinds, these vegetables are India (Singh, 2010). grown and consumed within the region. In North East many Banana and mango species of cucurbits are found as vegetables and fruits; these Maximum genetic variability of Musa acuminata and M. include Cucurbita, Momordica, Luffa and several lesser known balbisiana occurs in NE India. M. flaviflora is localized to cucurbitaceous crops. Manipur and Meghalaya. There are other species found in Leguminous vegetables Sikkim and Khasi Hills, which need systematic collection and A wide variability of French bean, cowpea and Indian conservation. Some native Mangifera spp. are found in Tripura, bean is found in the various parts of the region. In French bean, Manipur, Mizoram and South Assam. Wild form of M. indica climbing or pole type is popular among the tribals since it is and its allied species M. sylvetica occur in Arunachal Pradesh, used for mix cropping with maize, the stem of which act as the M. khasiana and M. pentandra in Assam. (Source: Diversity of support for the bean. One of the interesting species of Vigna horticultural crops in north eastern region, B.S. Asati and D.S. namely V. vexillata is grown by the tribals of Tripura. It is a Yadav, ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region) legume cum tuber crop with much variation in edible tubers Temperate fruits (Arora and Pandey, 1996). Sword bean (Canavalia ensiformis Rich diversity occurs in Pyrus, Rubus, Ribes and Prunus. (L) DC) of papilionaceae family is also cultivated on limited The Shillong plateau of Khasi hills in Meghalaya has many scale in the North Eastern region (CSIR, 1950). Winged bean is Prunus species such as P. napalensis, P. undulata and P. confined in humid sub tropical parts of NE region. cerasoides. Pyrus pyrifolia var. cubha makai (P. serotina Red) Spices are grown semi commercially in Meghalaya, Manipur and other A wide range of variability has been found in ginger and places. Wild kiwi (Actinidia callosa and A. stragosa) is found turmeric. Lakadong the local variety of turmeric is grown in growing in the natural forests of Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim. Jowai area of Meghalaya. Poona and Thinglaidon performed Tropical and sub tropical fruits better in most of the states except Tripura and Sikkim indicating A large number of other tropical and subtropical fruits suitability for large scale cultivation for green ginger belonging to the genera Garcinia, Artocarpus, Phyllanthus, production. Nadia variety of ginger is well adopted in North Annona, Averrhoa, Persia, Aegle, Passiflora, etc., are found East region. A type of ginger having rhizomes with bluish black growing wild in the region. One of the indigenous fruits that tinge inside called Black ginger is grown by the inhabitants of require attention is jackfruit, which grows abundantly in Mizoram. Wild relatives of large cardamom (Amomum Tripura, Assam and Meghalaya with a large number of subulatum) and cinnamon are available in the forests of this cultivars. region. Under utilized fruits Ornamental Plants Of the 300 edible plant species found in the NE region, The ornamental plants, which are found in NEH region, some of them are really worth consuming by various ethnic include species of Mannolia, Rhododendron, Cassia, Erythrina, groups of tribals. Two species of Elaegnus, viz E. latifolia and Calustemom, Dacasenda, Myrica, Bauhinia, etc. About 600 E. pyriformis are known to be grown in NE region (Pandey, species of orchids are naturalized in great proportion in this 2002). It is quite common in Sibsagar (Dikho valley), Naga region. Wide range of variability has been found in Sikkim, Hills, Khasi and Jaintia Hills. Docynia indica and D. Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya and Manipur. hookeriana are commonly found in the region. Pyrus pashia is a Medicinal and Aromatic Plants medium sized deciduous fruit tree also found in NE region. Medicinal plants of known use like Rauvolfia serpentina, Solanum group Solanum khasianum, Dioscorea proceri, Coptis teeta are widely There is wide range of Solanum spp. found in the various available in the region. Orchids as medicinal agent have been parts of the region The local tribals grow a vegetable having red used by the tribals of NE states like Arunachal Pradesh, tomato like fruits slightly bitter in taste but related to brinjal and Nagaland, Meghalaya and Mizoram. belonging to the genus Solanum. In Manipur another kind of Germplasm Evaluation brinjal having roundish fruit and intermediate in appearance In order to facilitate effective utilization of plant genetic between tomato and brinjal is grown. resources, it is important that the plant genetic resources are Tomato and chili evaluated for productivity including components, crop duration, Tomato is an introduced crop roughly in 18th century and resistance to biotic and abiotic stress and quality of produce. A most of the introductions are bred varieties, which have adapted dwarf and late maturing polyembryonic mango cultivar Moresh 66
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______bears sweet fruit with high pulp content within 2 years from having traditional rights over land, water and forests within their planting and is free from stone weevil. The locally available jurisdiction. The Adi tribal community exercises control over species like Malus baccata is widely used as rootstock of apple the natural resources within their surroundings. There are no while Pyrus pashia is a common rootstock of pear. The ripe written land records of ownerships in the state of Arunachal fruits of Elaegnus, viz E. latifolia and E. pyriformis are edible Pradesh however, they are playing crucial role in maintaining and used for making refreshing drink (Pandey, 2002). The fruits biodiversity, natural resources, streams, hills and other land of Docynia indica and D. hookeriana acidic, greenish with red marks. tinged are eaten fresh and in pickles as well as in jelly Major constraints preparation. Some of the brinjal varieties have excellent quality Land tenure issues in having large size, soft flesh and less seeds. An important Land tenure systems vary widely among different North- species of medicinal importance (solasodine content) is S. Eastern states, which are quite different from the rest of India. khasianum. Another species S. torvum is extensively used in The complexity in land ownership and tenurial rights makes it Ayurvedic medicine system.Three tomato varieties namely difficult for survey, demarcation and consolidation of land. Manileima, Manikhamnu and Manithoibi were released by State Therefore, cadastral survey and land demarcation are Variety Release Committee, Manipur and found suitable for completely absent in the hill areas of northeast. rice-based cropping system. L. pimpinellifolium is also good Gender and equity issues in natural resources and diversity source of resistance to late blight and tomato leaf curl virus management (Seshadri and Srivastava, 2002). In chilli, a collections from Unequal distribution of land resources is responsible for Tezpur (Assam) has been found to have the highest capsaicin increasing dependence on forests by certain sections of the content recorded so far anywhere in the world. Cho-Cho society leading to diversity degradation. Resolving the gender (Sechium edule) produce large starchy edible roots in addition to and equity issues concerning natural resource management is fruits. The National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, equally important in North-East as in the other parts of the Regional Station, Shillong is maintaining more than 10 country. germplasms of Indian bean. Winged bean has excellent Inter-departmental coordination nutritional qualities particularly being very rich in protein (Rao Inter-departmental coordination is essential to the and Dora, 2002). The native species of orchids having sustainable management of horticultural resources in the region. ornamental value and market potential usually belong to Smuggling of timber across the international border Aerides, Anachnantha, Arundina, Cymbidium, Dendrobium, The illicit felling of trees and timber smuggling across the Paphiopedillium, Phaius, Renanthera, Phycostyllus and Vanda international borders has been the most important cause of etc. (Borthakur, 1992). The juice from cut leaves of Cymbidium horticulture areas/forest degradation in border. giganteum is used by Khasis for clotting of blood while the Shifting cultivation juice of Vanda flower is used as eye drop for cure of glaycoma. Unregulated shifting cultivation by the local tribal There is immense scope of medicinal and aromatic plants for populations has been a major threat to sustainable diversity possible use of local germplasm in the improvement of management particularly in unclassed and community forests of vegetable crops for the use in Agricultural industry. (Source: the region. Diversity of horticultural crops in north eastern region, B.S. Inter-state border dispute Asati and D.S. Yadav, ICAR Research Complex for NEH There exist a lot of inter-state border disputes among the Region) northeastern states. Most of these border areas are forest lands Conservation of Diversity in NEH Region and because of boundary disputes, such lands are often declared Role of Women and Tribal people in Biodiversity as ‘no man’s land’ and hence, do not come under any form of conservation for North East Region management. This leads to the degradation of diversity in such In agrarian set up, duties of women are crop cultivation, areas. vegetable production, animal husbandry, marketing, fishery and Insurgency little more skilled job such as dying and household industries. The long insurgency problem in some states such as Tribal people particularly women in general and North East hill Assam and Tripura has considerable impact on diversity region in particular play predominant role in various agricultural conservation. activities by keeping biodiversity in concern. North East region Prospects in NEH Region is unique in providing a provision of habitats, which features Although there are not many agencies/organizations diverse biota with high level of endemism. The region is also working exclusively for diversity conservation in north-east per the abode of approximately 225 tribes in India out of 450 in the se, the activities taken up by many organizations including country as a whole, the culture and customs of which have an nongovernmental and traditional institutions, government important role in understanding biodiversity conservation and departments and scientific institutions have direct or indirect management issues. The North Eastern region has been in focus implications for diversity conservation. for its high biodiversity and this region has been a priority for State Government Agencies leading conservation agencies of the world. The richness of the Many state agencies are now involved in such diversity region’s avifauna largely reflects the diversity of the habitats conservation activities as establishment of germplasm banks for associated with wide attitudinal range. (Source: Prospects and horticultural crops. Retrospects of Women in Biodiversity for North East Region, Research Organizations Anupam Mishra, Seeralan.S and S.V.Ngachan, ICAR RC for Many state and central government research organizations NEH Region). The Adi tribe of eastern Himalaya is unique in including universities of the region are engaged in research, 67
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______inventory and conservation of diversity in the region. Such the availability of many hybrid and high yielding varieties these organizations are Botanical Survey of India, Shillong, G.B. Pant farmers have been cultivating the traditional varieties for Institute of Himalayan Environment and Development, (North- generations. East Unit, Itanagar and Sikkim Unit, Panthang), Indian Council Why Conservation of Biodiversity is Important? of Agricultural Research for North-Eastern Hill Region, Biodiversity is the very foundation for all the Earth’s Barapani, Shillong with campuses through out the north-east, essential goods and services. The air we breathe, water we State Forest Research Institute, Itanagar, NBPGR, Shillong, drink, and the food we eat all depend on the Earth’s rich North-Eastern Hill University, Shillong, Nagaland University, biodiversity. Plants and animals provide people with food and Kohima, Mizoram University, Aizawl, Arunachal University, medicine. Forty percent of all prescriptions written today are Itanagar, Tripura University, Agartala, Assam University, composed from the natural compounds found in different Silchar, Tezpur University, Tezpur, Gauhati University, species. An estimated 80,000 edible plants are found in the Guwahati, Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat, Regional world, and one in every three mouthfuls of the food you Research Laboratory, Jorhat, Dibrugarh University. swallow is prepared from plants pollinated by wild insects and Non-Governmental Organizations animals. While plants and animals keep you well fed and Many non-governmental organizations are now working healthy, trees play an important role in absorbing greenhouse for the conservation of diversity in north-east, although most of gases. Forests also control soil erosion and purify water. Every them are local and grassroots level. aspect of our life is sustained by the Earth’s biodiversity. International Donor Agencies Biological resources must be conserved if they are to continue International donor agencies in Meghalaya, Manipur and supporting life on Earth. USAID supports biodiversity Assam, and Nagaland have been playing crucial role in conservation principally through habitat conservation and conserving the diversity through their respective projects. supports limited species specific conservation efforts as well. International and National Policies and Conventions (source: www.usaid.gov.in). Although some people dislike the All the international treaties and national policies have thought of trying to put an economic value on biodiversity there significant impact on the conservation of diversity in the north- have been attempts to do so in order for people to understand east. the magnitude of the issue. In a recent report, The Economics of Academic Institutions Including Schools and Colleges Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB) for National and The educational curriculum in the universities, colleges International policy makers 2009, provided the following and schools has an important role to play in diversity example of sectors dependent on genetic resources. TTEB is an conservation. organization backed by the United Nation and various European Shifting Cultivators Governments attempted to compile, build and make a The shifting cultivators and other traditional farming compelling economics case for the conservation of ecosystems communities of northeast have played a key role in conserving and biodiversity. the rich horticultural crops germplasm of the region. In spite of
Table 2: Example of market sectors dependent on genetic resources. Sector Size of Market Comment Pharmaceutical US$ 640 bn. (2006) 25-50% derived from genetic resources US$ 70 bn. (2006) from public companies Many products derived from genetic Biotechnology alone resources (enzymes, microorganisms) Agricultural seeds US$ 30 bn. (2006) All derived from genetic resources US$ 22 bn. (2006) for herbal supplements Some products derived from genetic Personal care, Botanical and food & US$ 12 bn. (2006) for personal care resources represents ‘natural’ component Beverage industries US$ 31 bn. (2006) for food products of the market. Source: The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB), UNEP, Switzerland.
What should be done? 2. Identification and classification of threatened species need Long-term planning based on sustainable development to be done. strategies and integration of diversity conservation issues with 3. Richness of diversity of agricultural and horticultural crop development planning is the need of the hour. The wrong species should be fully inventoried and documented. conservation policies with focus on economically important 4. There is a conspicuous gap between research and field species only, have been harmful to diversity. Such policies needs. The established formal institutions like university should be introduced cautiously. They have not only decreased departments, departmental research stations and others the species diversity in natural/ rehabilitated forests but have rarely consult the farmers and local communities about their also resulted in accelerated soil erosion and loss of soil problems while pursuing research. Need-based research moisture. needs must be encouraged in public private partnership 1. Regeneration and cultural practices for many species need (PPP) mode. to be researched and standardized for their cultivation. 5. Through the Public Distribution System only HYV are Threatened species need immediate action for ensuring their distributed. There is a need to include distribution of continued existence. indigenous varieties too.
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Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______6. The planners have not considered the role and value of traditional management practices have resulted have resulted diversity in preparing developmental plans. Such ignorance into low productivity and low cropping intensity. Adoption of has been responsible for depletion diversity. improved agro-techniques can improve the crop productivity 7. Most of the problems are related to increase in population. substantially in the region. Adoption of watershed approach, The rate of population growth in the north-east is unusually Integrated farming system approach, land configuration for high. This causes tremendous strain on the natural resources increasing cropping intensity, organic farming, conservation and adoption of certain policies that are not very friendly to tillage etc. are identified as potential resource conservation conserve diversity. No population policy has been adopted measures for the region for sustainability in agriculture. for future planning so there is a need for proper population Modernization of agriculture is one of the cause of genetic policy. erosion and extinction of germplasms, since the region 8. Education policy does not include teaching on diversity possesses a high degree of rice genetic resources in relation to conservation. The school curriculum should be able to area and population. In order to conserve rice germplasm, a mould the young minds in favour of diversity conservation. farmers based approach i.e. in-situ conservation will be most suitable. The tribal farmers of northeastern region maintained CONCLUSION higher varietal diversity of rice than the availability in the Making this region self sufficient in all the aspect a holistic plan market. They must be encouraged to continue the planting of is needed and definitely conservation of biodiversity and their native landraces, as they are conversant with that. Based entrepreneurship development will play a major role in on different germplasm collection, varieties and technologies changing the socio economic condition of the people. Crops development on partnership mode can help this region to production in the North Eastern Region of India is mostly establish different agro based industry. The sui generis system consumption oriented to meet the needs of the farmers. Use of for protection of plant varieties was developed at national level local varieties, low consumption of fertilizers and pesticides low integrating the rights of breeders, farmers and village moisture retention capacity of upland soil, undulating terrain communities, and taking care of the concerns for equitable with varying altitudes and slopes low temperature, poor sharing of benefits so biodiversity conservation can be a tool to drainage in valley land during monsoon and lack of irrigation make this region self sufficient in all the aspect. facilities during winter months, low sunshine hours along with
REFERENCES Cairns, M. and D.P. Garrity. 1999. Improving shifting Kothari, A. 1997. Agro-biodiversity: the future of india’s cultivation in Southeast Asia by building on indigenous agriculture, Article for MCAER Book; 7 February, 1999. fallow management strategies. Agro forestry System, 47: 37-48. Kothari, A. 2005. The khonoma Magic. The Hindu Survey of the Environment 2005: 125-129. Chakraborty, S.K. 2005. “Protect jhumlands, jhumia right,”Grassroots Options, Spring, 24-26. Loreau, M., Naeem, S. and Inchausti, P. 2002. Biodiversity and Ecosystem Functioning CSIR. 1970. Wealth of India: Raw Materials Vol. VI-Livestock (including Poultry). Council of Scientistific and Industrial Mertz O. 2002. Rethinking the fallow-yield relationship in Research, New Delhi shifting cultivation? Agroforestry System 55(2): 149-159. De Jong, W. 1997. “Developing swidden agriculture and the Rabha, A., Wangchu, L. and Singh, B. 2013. Studies on treat of biodiversity loss”, Agriculture, Ecosystems and genetic diversity of citrus in east Siang district of Environment, 62: 187-197. Arunachal Pradesh. International Journal of Agriculture, Environment & Biotechnology 6(1): 131-137. Hazarika, T.K., 2012. Citrus genetic diversity of north-east India, their distribution, ecogeography and ecobiology. Singh, I.P., 2010. Exploration, collection and characterization Genetic Resource and Crop Evolution 59: 1267 – 1280 of Citrus germplasm from Meghalaya, Assam and Arunachal Pradesh. Progressive Horticulture, 42: 39-43. Kinzing, A.P., Pacala, S.W. and Tilman, D. 2001. The Functional Consequences of Biodiversity. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.
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Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______Extent of integration of potato markets in West Bengal: A case study of five markets
ANIRUDDHA ROY1 AND AMIT KAR2 1&2 Division of Agricultural Economics, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi-110012
Received: 19.03.15 Accepted: 05.05.15 ABSTRACT
In the wake of globalization of agriculture, area under potato in India has increased significantly and its product has started playing a very crucial role in its sustainable marketing. The supply of potato one hand and the demand for them on the other, at a particular time and market, will determine the wholesale price. The changes in these determinants over a period of a year will affect the price which will lead to seasonality effect in price series with high magnitude depending on the change in the magnitude of demand and supply. The presence of many intermediaries and concentration of potato trade in a few hands have resulted in exploitation of growers and consumers. It is believed that poor efficiency in the marketing channels and poor marketing infrastructure leading to high and fluctuating consumer prices and only a small portion of the consumer rupee reaching the producer farmers. The semi perishable nature of the product, inadequacy of appropriate storage facility, inadequate and slow transportation leads to reduction in the degree of integration among different potato markets. This paper examines these aspects in some selected regulated wholesale markets for potato in West Bengal. It was showed that major potato markets are well integrated while less important markets are weakly integrated.
Key words: Integration, Impulse, Speed of adjustment and stationarity.
Potato a Solanecious tuber crop has a rich history of variety and other requirements for processing. There has been contributing towards food and nutritional security of the country great concern in recent years regarding the efficiency of by alienating the poverty and hunger. Running with the global marketing of different vegetables in India. It is believed that economic trend, in which agricultural crop production is poor efficiency in the marketing channels and poor marketing witnessing a rapid transition to more commodity production, infrastructure leading to high and fluctuating consumer prices potato is appearing as a frontrunner crop, poised to sustain and and only a small portion of the consumer rupee reaching the diversify food production. In developing countries, particularly producer farmers. Regulated markets are established to improve in India, it has substantially contributed to sustaining the food the marketing efficiency. The system of sale followed in these production over the past five decades in the last millennium. markets indicated that open auction as a system of sale is yet to However, this new millennium, which is characterized by take roots in these markets and the marketing system was increasing globalization, growing concern on environment, dominated by open auction or secret bidding resulting to added importance to food safety and rising importance of significant erosion of marketing efficiency. The study suggests intellectual property rights (IPR), sets enormous challenges for that regulated wholesale markets can help in improving the potatoes not only to connect the millions of poor small/marginal marketing efficiency by promoting direct contact with the farmers to the international market, but also to provide safety farmers, increasing the number of buyers and sellers in the nets for poor households struggling to avoid poverty and market, promoting open auction system of marketing and hunger. India is placed 3rd in the list of major potato producing strengthening or introducing facilities and services such as go- countries of the world. It produces around 25 million metric down, cold storage, transparency and access to internal and tons of potatoes that contribute to approximately 8 % of the external market environment. Markets separated by long world's total produce. This crop is grown in 1.69 million distances had lower degrees of integration than close proximity hectares of land in India ranking 4th among the countries having markets. A series of price changes would spread across spatial maximum area cultivated for potatoes. The yield rate per markets with a degree of lag. It was observed that co-integration hectare in India is quite low, about 19 tons per hectare as had increased over time in the markets analysed. compared to the productivity in the European countries that In India, West Bengal is the largest producer of vegetables ranges between 30-40 tons per hectare. Three of the major and second largest producer of potato after Uttar Pradesh. In producing regions are UP, West Bengal and Bihar, accounting West Bengal .37 million hectares area is under potato for about 72% of the national production. Other major production which yields 8.35 million MT of potato in 2007-08. producing states are Punjab, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Assam Again the Pepsi Co. is globally recognized for its chips products and Karnataka. About 80% of the potato in India is grown in and for this the company extends its potato contract farming winter months (Rabi crop). In some states, the potato is planted system in this state.Market arrivals of potato have shown in monsoon season - Karnataka, Maharashtra, Himachal significant increase in the recent years and expected to Pradesh, and Jammu and Kashmir. Processing of potato is also accelerate further in coming years. State Marketing Regulation very low, since most of the potatoes are used as table potatoes. Acts have been passed by the West Bengal Government and the Processors involved in chip-making and other forms of State has formulated by-laws for regulating markets practices as processing have to work closely with farmers to ensure specific per the Act. Marketing of potato continues to take place in 70
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______disorganized manner in haats and bazaars. The State has possible to choose coefficients which make yt-α-βxt appear to be established wholesale markets at every district headquarters. stationary. But such an empirical result tells little of the short Generally producers will individually or collectively transport run relationship between yt and xt. To be a long run relationship the produce by any available means (light motorized vehicles or between the variables they must be co-integrated. The following head loads) to the nearest market site. The APMCs yards set up cases illustrate the discussion. One can examine yt and xt I (1) by the WBSMB are of recent origin and are not yet fully i.e. whether or not they contain unit roots provided they are both operationalised. Potato of this State is marketed in traditional I (1), and estimate the parameters of the co- integration relation retail and wholesale markets run by the different market yt=β0+β1x2+μt and test whether the least squares residual ut committees. The produce of the farmers in the production appears to be I (0) or not. centres are mostly market driven and it is transported to nearest Augmented Dickey –Fuller (ADF) Test for Unit Root test: big markets like Guwahati, Delhi and Mumbai etc To illustrate the use of Dickey–Fuller test, consider first an AR (1) Process: MATERIAL AND METHODS Yt = μ+pyt-1+ε1 To analyse the integration of different potato markets in Where μ and p are parameters and ε is assumed to be white West Bengal secondary data were collected from various noise for stationary series y if -1 71 Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______ Table 1: The Trends in Prices and Arrival of different Potato Trend Markets equation Behrampur Howrah Kolkata Malda town Siliguri Price (P) P=449+29.64T P=511.8+37.2T P=531.2+42T P=480.4+18T P=463.4+43.2T Arrival (A) A=4787.7+32.4T A=12066+48.4T A=29807+121.2T A=1258.4+75.72T A=18173+43.3T Potato is an important crop and is produced in all the indicates that the demand for potatoes outweighs its supply, districts of west Bengal. As it can be stored for long time in the having positive net effect on price. Trend in wholesale potato cold storage, its arrival is continuous throughout the year. Like price was highest in Siliguri market compared to the other onion, trends in potato prices and arrivals were positive during markets in the state. Highest trend of arrivals during the the period 2002-08. The increasing trends in wholesale prices reference period was observed in case of Kolkata market. Out of may be due to increased demand for potatoes as a result of five markets studied Kolkata is the biggest market, and serves increasing population, general price rise and increasing per the metropolitan city where per capita income is high, therefore capita income of the country. The positive trend in prices increase in monthly arrival is high. Table 2: The Seasonality of Prices of potato Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Behrampur 63.5 60.2 60.5 70.4 86.6 105 127.8 140.1 132.2 158.4 124.7 70.1 Howrah 91.8 94.1 94.5 97.1 86.6 105 127.8 140.1 132.2 158.4 124.7 70.1 Kolkata 94.7 82.9 85.8 90.6 89.8 109.4 114.9 128.0 132.7 114 103 97.9 Malda town 61 60.2 63.5 70.4 86.6 105 127.8 140.1 132.2 158.4 124.7 70.1 Siliguri 94.7 82.9 85.8 90.6 102.5 109.4 114.9 93.1 132.7 104 103 97.9 Table 3: The Seasonality of Arrivals of potato Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Behrampur 122.3 129.6 155.0 83.05 91.6 71.09 78.5 81.6 89.22 104.4 138.5 140.2 Howrah 100.3 190.8 149.8 83.05 91.6 71.09 78.5 81.6 89.22 104.4 110.8 129.8 Kolkata 122.6 126.6 135.5 105.1 104.4 86.09 82.4 103.8 101.1 97.3 128.0 119.8 Malda town 136.3 139.6 142.3 83.5 91.6 71.09 78.5 81.6 89.22 104.4 130.8 131.8 Siliguri 103.6 101.6 105.5 95.1 84.4 86.09 82.4 103.8 101.1 97.3 131.4 127.1 The indices of seasonal price variation of potato was the of previous month’s price and increased demand for fresh lowest in February followed by the month of January and March potatoes. The index of arrivals remained above average from respectively in all the markets except Howrah, where seasonal November to March. From March it declined and continued index was lowest in January followed by February. The below average till August. This happened because of the fact seasonal price index for potato was below the average (100) in that the remaining is kept in cold storage for release in lean the months of January, February, March, April and December period. The wholesale price index crossed the average from and above the average in the rest of the months of the year. May till November. The highest level, however, reached in Farmers may get a good return if they are able to retain and sell October owing to greater demand during these months on their product in the months of June to November. The main account of the festivals, etc. reason for this variation in the prices was the pattern of market Knowledge of market integration allows different personnel to arrivals and the influence of previous month’s price. The monitor the price movements. The relationships among prices of arrivals of potato fall below average in the months of April to different markets were studied through co-integration September. April to September is lean season period. Even procedure. The results of the Johansson’s co-integration though heavy arrivals are received in the market in October, yet regressions for Potato are given below. the prices remained above the average because of the influence 72 Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______ Table 4. Johansson’s co-integration regressions for Potato (2002-03). KOLKATA HOWRAH MALDA BEHRAMPUR SILIGURI KOLKATA(-1) 0.54 0.27 0.01 0.01 0.23 (4.45) (2.13) (0.09) (0.11) (2.01) KOLKATA(-2) 0.22 0.12 0.07 0.49 0.08 (1.83) (1.04) (0.78) (4.84) (0.69) HOWRAH(-1) 0.02 0.46 0.21 0.12 0.18 (0.15) (3.06) (2.09) (0.86) (1.26) HOWRAH(-2) 0.15 0.01 0.68 0.08 0.09 (1.04) (0.11) (6.71) (0.62) (0.69) MALDA(-1) 0.09 0.12 0.36 0.10 0.16 (0.60) (0.85) (2.95) (0.75) (1.14) MALDA(-2) 0.21 0.02 0.07 0.32 0.01 (1.45) (0.16) (0.65) (3.21) (0.11) BEHRAMPUR(-1) 0.24 0.11 0.20 0.27 0.18 (1.91) (0.84) (1.86) (2.34) (1.48) BEHRAMPUR(-2) 0.10 0.03 0.15 0.14 0.13 (0.84) (0.02) (1.50) (1.29) (1.14) SILIGURI(-1) 0.09 0.29 0.31 0.36 0.47 (0.63) (2.01) (2.68) (2.74) (3.46) SILIGURI(-2) 0.06 0.02 0.05 0.06 0.05 (0.45) (0.01) (0.44) (0.50) (0.35) R-squared 0.72 0.64 0.59 0.72 0.74 Adj. R-squared 0.68 0.59 0.54 0.69 0.71 Table 5. Johansson’s co-integration regressions for Potato (2007-08) KOLKATA HOWRAH MALDA BEHRAMPUR SILIGURI KOLKATA(-1) 0.33 0.63 0.50 0.20 0.16 (2.05) (6.22) (0.59) (1.14) (0.91) KOLKATA(-2) 0.35 0.33 0.08 0.47 0.18 (3.72) (0.59) (0.51) (2.81) (1.06) HOWRAH(-1) 0.32 0.09 0.07 0.06 0.04 (2.90) (0.90) (2.20) (2.02) (1.40) HOWRAH(-2) 0.31 0.05 0.36 0.59 0.01 (0.19) (0.43) (0.10) (0.17) (0.49) MALDA(-1) 0.29 0.17 0.71 0.41 0.47 (2.31) (0.37) (5.12) (2.97) (3.28) MALDA(-2) 0.08 0.23 0.18 0.09 0.22 (0.66) (0.47) (1.25) (0.65) (1.53) BEHRAMPUR(-1) 0.22 0.25 0.27 0.36 0.12 (1.76) (0.54) (1.94) (2.60) (0.90) BEHRAMPUR(-2) 0.02 0.47 0.06 0.07 0.12 (0.17) (0.97) (0.44) (0.49) (0.84) SILIGURI(-1) 0.65 0.44 0.45 0.44 0.88 (5.18) (0.95) (3.24) (3.16) (6.17) SILIGURI(-2) 0.18 0.34 0.19 0.05 0.08 (1.40) (0.72) (1.33) (0.40) (0.61) R-squared 0.95 0.52 0.93 0.93 0.93 Adj. R-squared 0.94 0.47 0.93 0.92 0.93 From the above table it showed that Co-integration model pairs were per perfectly integrated. If we compare the 2 explained (R ) more than 47% of price variation in all the integration of potato prices in different markets between two markets. It is observed from the table that may important periods, the integration has increased in the second period. Long run equilibrium relationships between these prices were also markets such as Kolkata, Howrah have integration with the lag observed, even though there can be disequilibrium in the short price of Behrampur & Siliguri markets. Similarly Siliguri, Malda & Behrampur brinjal price associated with lag price of run. For this, the error term can be treated as equilibrium error Kolkata, Howrah. and also the intertwined relationship in the short run giving way to a long run association. The error correction mechanism Kolkata potato price is associated with the lag price of (ECM) was used to estimate the acceleration speed of the short Howrah. Other markets did not show strong integration with the lag price of the other markets. The value of all the selected run deviation to the long run equilibrium. The advantage of markets pairs of West Bengal were positive & ranged between ECM is that it allows for the short run dynamics as well as an 0.01 to 0.99. This showed the existence of integration in the assessment for the degree towards the long run relation as shown by co-integration. The lagged values and lag residual of selected market pair but was not very high. None of the market the long run model and the difference of the different prices 73 Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______series were used to estimate the error correction to determine equilibrium for potato prices. The coefficients of the lag the short run deviation from the equilibrium. The coefficients of residual were found to be negative as desired these coefficients the error correction estimate indicated the speed of adjustment are referred to as the speed of adjustment (converges) factors at which the price series returns to the equilibrium. All the error and measure the short run deviation from the long run correction coefficients were significant and their sign were equilibrium. negative which implied that the series converges to the long run Table 6. Speed of adjustment of price for equilibrium 2002-03 2007-08 KOLKATA -0.04 -0.25 HOWRAH -0.05 -0.09 MALDA -0.11 -0.08 BEHRAMPUR -0.07 -0.14 SILIGURI -0.15 -0.24 It was evident from Table 6 that the error correction term Behrampur, Siliguri and Malda town. On the other hand, the for potato has exhibited the expected negative sign and strongly price of potato in the Howrah market was affected by one lag indicates the convergence of Kolkata, Behrampur, Siliguri, price of Kolkata, Behrampur, Siliguri and Malda town. Howrah and Malda town prices in the long run. The estimated Similarly, the price of potato in the Siliguri market was affected coefficients of error correction were -0.07, -0.08, -0.06, -0.14 by one lag price of Behrampur and Malda town. The strong and -0.06 for Kolkata, Behrampur, Siliguri, Howrah and Malda market integration observed between Kolkata and Howrah town price respectively in case of potato during first period markets revealed that markets are competitive and hence (2002-03). The values of coefficients have increased during necessitates free market operation for efficient market second period (-0.11, -0.18, -0.39, -0.21 and -0.08). It showed mechanism. Good infrastructure facilities for packaging, that the speed of adjustment for long run equilibrium was higher storage, transportation and information technology would boost in the second period. better market integration in existing vegetable markets. Big markets were found to be well interlinked but smaller markets CONCLUSION AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS need to be integrated for price stability. This can be done by Potato is predominantly a rabi crop and bulk of its arrival improving infrastructure like roads, transport, market yard, in market is during October to March but the consumption is market information etc. the poor integration between few spread throughout the year. Due to inelastic demand and markets revealed that these markets are quite uncompetitive. seasonal production of potato, the price for potato is not stable This necessitates strong and extensive governmental throughout the year. Day by day the potato price is being intervention designed to improve competitiveness to enhance serious problem to consumer as well as producer. Now a days it marketing efficiency. becomes one of the highly price fluctuating crop in India. The Speed of adjustment of price for equilibrium has improved seasonal nature of potato production itself leads to price over the years may be because of infrastructure improvement. fluctuations. It is believed that for stability of price the market Government may use this information to prioritize its should be integrated. It was observed that the major vegetable infrastructure budget and allocate more funds to increase the markets of west Bengal are integrated. Price of potato in degree of integration. Kolkata market is affected by the APMC markets of Howrah, REFERENCES Acharya, S.S., Agarwal, N.L. (1992). Agricultural Prices Analysis and district, West Bengal”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics Policy. Oxford and IBH Publishing Company. New Delhi. 58(4): 742-751. Basu, J.P., Soumyananda, D. (2003). Market integration: An Behura, D. and Pradhan, D.C. (1998). Co-integration and market application of error correction model to potato market in Hooghly integration: An application to the marine fish markets in Orissa, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, 53(3): 344-350. Dave, P.K. and Anita, A. (1988). Price Spreads and Price Variability in Goodwin, B.K., Schroeder Ted C., (1991). Co-integration tests and the Marketing of Potato in Gujarat. Indian Journal of spatial price linkages in regional cattle markets”, American Journal Agricultural Marketing, 2(1): 129-130. of Agricultural Economics, 73(2): 452-464. Debdult, B. and Pradhan, D.C. (1998). Co-integration and market Goswami, S.N. (1991). Price spread of tomato in vegetable market of integration: An Application to the marine fish markets in Orissa, Kamrup district. Assam. Agricultural marketing, 34(4): 13-15. Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, 53(3): 344-350. Kainth, G.S. and Mehra, P.L. (1988). Seasonality Pattern of Market Shah, D. (1999). An economic evaluation of onion production and Arrival and Prices of Potatoes in Punjab. Indian Journal of marketing in Maharashtra, Indian Journal of Agricultural Agricultural Marketing, 2(1): 113-120. Marketing, 13(3): 11-20. Kar A., Atteri, B.R. and Kumar, P. (2004) Marketing infrastructure in Dhillon, P.K., and Goel, V. (1993). An Analysis of the Seasonal Himachal Pradesh and integration of the Indian apple market, Pattern of Market Arrivals and Prices of Onion in Ludhiana Indian Journal of Agricultural Marketing, 18(3): 243-252. Market of Punjab. Indian Journal of Agricultural Marketing, 7 (2): 193-200. 74 Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______Effect of Boron Nutrition on Physico-Chemical Properties, Nutrient Uptake and yield of Bt Cotton Y.V.TEKAM, JAYSHREE KHUSPURE*AND S. G. WANKHADE Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Dr. PDKV, Akola Received: 16.03.15 Accepted: 10.07.15 ABSTRACT The field study was conducted during kharif season of 2011-12 at Research Farm of Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh Krishi Vidyapeeth, Akola. The experiment was laid out in Randomized -1 Block Design with eight treatments and three replications. Common dose of RDF (60:30:30 kg N P2O5 K2O ha ) to cotton was applied to all the treatments except control. The results indicated the application of RDF through boronated suphala -1 (15:15:15 kg N P2O5 K2O ha + 0.2 per cent B) and remaining N through urea significantly increased organic carbon, available nutrient status in soil, seed cotton and cotton stalk yield and uptake of N, P, K . However, it was found at par with -1 the application of RDF through boronated suphala (15:15:15 kg N P2O5 K2O ha + 0.1 per cent B), non boronated suphala -1 (15:15:15 kg N P2O5 K2O ha ) + borax equivalent to 0.1 per cent B and 0.2 per cent B. Hence, it can be concluded that -1 application of RDF through boronated suphala (15:15:15 kg N P2O5 K2O ha + 0.1 per cent B) and remaining N through urea was found to be beneficial in respect of increasing soil fertility, nutrient uptake and yield of Bt cotton. Key words: Boron, fertility, uptake India rank first in area under cotton cultivation having decrease in pH, EC, organic carbon and clay content of soil 121.91 lakh ha-1 with production of 345.00 lakh bales and results in decline in soil available boron (Sakal et al. 2001). productivity of 481 kg lint ha-1 per year (Anonymous, 2012). Maharashtra is one of the major cotton growing states of India MATERIAL AND METHODS having 40.95 lakh ha area with productivity of 286 kg lint ha-1 Climate and weather condition and production of 69 lakh bales. Vidarbha region contribute Akola is situated at an elevation of 307.42 meter above large share in area under cotton (15.60 lakh ha) as well as cotton mean sea level at 20°42' North latitude and 70°02' East production (35.50 lakh bales) in the state (Anonymous, 2012). longitude and has a subtropical climate. Akola has subtropical The nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium have been climate with annual average rainfall of 764.7 mm which is utilized in relatively large amount and they are designated as mainly confined to south west monsoon extending from June to macronutrients. These nutrients viz., N, P and K are utilized by September in the region. During the kharif season of 2011, the plant in considerable quantities however in certain cases uptake total rainfall received (24th MW to 52nd MW) at Akola centre of potassium exceeds that nitrogen (Sharma and Singh, 2007). was 464.3 mm in 34 rainy days as against normal rainfall of Further, micronutrient plays an important role not only in 740.1 mm in 37.5 rainy days (1971-2010). Rainfall received growth but also in quality of crops. Cotton removes good during the season was 37.26 percent less (275.8 mm) than amount of plant nutrients from the soil. The choice of normal distribution of rainfall during growth stage. appropriate micronutrient fertilizer under different soils and Soil of experimental site crop rotation determines the efficiency of micronutrient. Hence, Soil of experimental site was moderately alkaline in there is need to apply nutrients on proper ratio i.e. through reaction, medium in organic carbon content and having swell inorganic fertilizer (Kaur et al. 2008). Moreover, boron is one of shrink property. The soil is low in nitrogen, medium in the seven essential micronutrient required for normal growth phosphorus and high in potassium. The soil is sufficient in and development of plants. The original source of boron in most DTPA extractable micronutrients and deficient in available soil is tourmaline, which contains 3-4 per cent B. It is quite boron. resistant to weathering, hence release of boron from it is quite The soil at the experimental site is very fine, smectitic, slow. Boron is normally present in soil solution as non-ionized hyperthermic family of Typic Haplustert. molecule (H3BO3) over pH range suitable for plant growth. In general increase in calcium carbonate and sand percent and Initial soil properties of experimental site at the start of experiment Soil properties Value Chemical properties pH (1:2.5) 8.1 EC (dSm-1) 0.26 Organic carbon (g kg-1) 5.2 CaCO3 (%) 6.10 Available N (kg ha-1) 203 Available P (kg ha-1) 14.70 Available K (kg ha-1) 314 Available B (mg kg-1) 0.42 75 Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______ Treatment details: Treatment Treatment Details T1 Absolute Control T2 RDF -1 T3 RDF + borax @ 5 kg ha T4 RDF through boronated suphala (A) + remaining N through urea T5 RDF through boronated suphala (B) + remaining N through urea T6 RDF through suphala (non-boronated) + remaining N through urea T7 RDF through suphala (non-boronated) + remaining N through urea + borax equivalent to suphala (A) T8 RDF through suphala (non-boronated) + remaining N through urea + borax equivalent to suphala (B) Collection and processing of soil samples for analysis with the application of inorganic fertilizer on cotton growing soil The surface (0-20 cm) soil samples were collected before was also reported by Rao and Janawade (2009). The electrical sowing and at harvest of crop. Soil samples were air dried passed conductivity of soil was ranged between 0.265 to 0.283 dSm-1 through 2 mm diameter sieve and used for further chemical (Table 1).. The EC of soil due to various treatments were also not analysis. reached to the level of statistical significance. However, the Preparation of plant sample extract application of RDF through suphala (non-boronated) + remaining N Finely ground and well mixed plant samples of different through urea recorded highest electrical conductivity (0.283 dSm-1). stages were weighed accurately (0.2 g) transferred into micro The lowest electrical conductivity (0.265 dSm-1) was recorded in digestion tube and 10 ml di-acid mixture was added and digested on control. Similar results in respect of electrical conductivity were microprocessor based (KES-12L) digester. After completion of also reported by Devraj et al. (2008). digestion (clear) the extract was diluted and filtered through Organic carbon Whatman No. 42 filter paper. These extracts were used for The significant increased organic carbon content was determination of phosphorus, potassium, calcium and magnesium. observed where RDF alone or through boronated suphala was Statistical Methods applied. The lowest organic carbon was recorded in control Experimental data were analysed by adopting standard treatment (5.27 g ha-1), which was at par with RDF (5.53 g ha-1). statistical methods of analysis of variance as given by Panse and The results are close proximity with the findings of Yadav and Sukhatme (1985). Meena (2009). The organic carbon content of soil after harvest of Results and discussion cotton significantly influenced under all the treatments except Effect of boron on physico-chemical properties of soil control. The initial organic carbon content was 5.20 g kg-1. The pH and Electrical conductivity application of RDF through boronated suphala-B (0.2%B) + The soil pH varied from 8.07 to 8.12 and numerically higher remaining N through urea recorded significantly highest organic -1 pH values were recorded with the treatment T8 (Table 1). However, carbon content to the extent of 5.73 g kg followed by all other the difference were found non significant. The slight increase in pH treatments (Table 1). Table 1: Soil chemical properties after harvest of cotton as influenced by various treatments. EC Organic Carbon, g Treatments pH CaCO % dSm-1 kg-1 3 Absolute Control 8.11 0.265 5.27 6.06 RDF 8.09 0.268 5.53 6.13 RDF+ borax @ 5 kg ha-1 8.07 0.267 5.65 6.20 RDF through boronated suphala (A) + remaining N through urea 8.06 0.279 5.70 6.16 RDF through boronated suphala (B) + remaining N through urea 8.09 0.277 5.73 6.22 RDF through suphala (non-boronated) + remaining N through urea 8.07 0.283 5.63 6.21 RDF through suphala (non-boronated) + remaining N through urea + borax 8.11 0.278 5.73 6.23 equivalent to suphala (A) T4 RDF through suphala (non-boronated) + remaining N through urea + borax 8.12 0.267 5.70 6.19 equivalent to suphala (B) T5 SE (m) ± 0.020 0.005 0.095 0.089 CD at 5% NS NS 0.28 NS Initial value 8.1 0.26 5.20 6.10 CaCO3 particles. The results are in agreement with findings of Shaaban Numerically highest CaCO3 was recorded almost in all the et al. (2004). treatments except to slight variation in control. Addition of Effect of boron on soil fertility calcium carbonate to soil increase pH value of soil. Calcium Available nitrogen carbonate was found to be acts as sink for boron in soil, where it The soil available nitrogen was found to be significantly adsorbs great portion of soluble boron on surface of their influenced due to various treatments. The content varied from 201 to 212 kg ha-1(Table 2). 76 Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______Table 2. Nutrient Status after harvest of cotton as influenced by various treatments. Available Nutrients, kg ha-1 Treatments N P K Absolute Control 201 14.35 317 RDF 206 15.00 323 RDF+ borax @ 5 kg ha-1 209 16.74 324 RDF through boronated suphala (A) + remaining N through urea 211 18.13 327 RDF through boronated suphala (B) + remaining N through urea 212 19.66 330 RDF through suphala (non-boronated) + remaining N through urea 207 17.70 325 RDF through suphala (non-boronated) + remaining N through urea + borax equivalent 210 18.10 326 to suphala (A) T4 RDF through suphala (non-boronated) + remaining N through urea + borax equivalent 211 18.87 328 to suphala (B) T5 SE (m) ± 2.26 0.58 1.95 CD at 5% 6.85 1.77 5.92 Initial Value 203 14.70 314 The data revealed that available nitrogen content correlation of available boron with available phosphorus and it increased significantly with RDF alone or through boronated was associated with mutually synergistic effect of each other suphala and it varied from 201 to 212 kg N ha-1. However, the was also recorded by Hadwani et al., (1989). highest available nitrogen (212 kg N ha-1) was observed in Available potassium treatment RDF applied through boronated suphala-B (0.2%B) + The significantly highest (330 kg K ha-1) available remaining N through urea followed by RDF applied through potassium was recorded in treatments T5-RDF through boronated suphala-A (0.1%B) + remaining N through urea boronated suphala-B (0.2%B) + remaining N through urea and which were found at par with each other. The application of the lowest available potassium (317 kg K ha-1) was recorded in RDF through suphala (non-boronated) and were found control (Table 2).. The available potassium under T2-T8 beneficial in improving of nitrogen status and recorded treatments varied between 323-330 kg K ha-1 and was found at -1 respectively to extent of 210 and 211 kg N ha .The lowest par with each other. The magnitude of response was T5 >T8 >T4 value of available nitrogen was found in control. Brar et al., >T7 >T6. These results are in close proximity with the earlier (1983) reported that the presence of applied boron, there was a findings reported by Sankarnarayanan et al., (2010). significant response to the increased level of applied nitrogen. Available boron in soil Similarly at the both the levels of applied nitrogen increased The highest value for available boron (0.49 mg kg-1) of levels of boron significantly increased the cotton yield. was recorded in treatment RDF through boronated suphala-B Available phosphorus (0.2%B) + remaining N through urea and lower value (0.41 mg The data presented (Table 2) showed that available kg-1) was recorded in control treatment (Table 3). The phosphorus varied from 14.35 to 19.66 kg P ha-1. However, the availability of boron after harvest of cotton was significantly available phosphorus (19.66 kg P ha-1) was significantly increased in all treatments except control. The experiment site increased with the application of RDF through boronated was deficient in available boron which further might pose suphala-B (0.2%B) and lowest value (14.35 Kg P ha-1) of problem in decreasing the availability of boron in soil where available phosphorus was recorded in control. RDF through alone RDF was applied devoid of boron. It indicates the need of non-boronated suphala (18.10 kg P ha-1) and RDF through micronutrients especially boron nutrition in cotton crop. The boronated suphala A (0.1%B) (18.13 kg P ha-1) at par with each results are in close agreement with Roselem and Costa (2000) other. All treatments significantly improved available who have reported reduced cotton dry matter yield and plant phosphorus over control may be due to RDF which provides height due to boron deficiency. sufficient quantity of phosphorus. Significant positive Table 3: Effect of various treatments on available boron in soil after harvest of cotton. Treatments Available B, (mg kg-1) Absolute Control 0.41 RDF 0.43 RDF+ borax @ 5 kg ha-1 0.45 RDF through boronated suphala (A) + remaining N through urea 0.47 RDF through boronated suphala (B) + remaining N through urea 0.49 RDF through suphala (non-boronated) + remaining N through urea 0.42 RDF through suphala (non-boronated) + remaining N through urea + borax equivalent to suphala (A) T4 0.46 RDF through suphala (non-boronated) + remaining N through urea + borax equivalent to suphala (B) T5 0.46 SE (m) ± 0.004 CD at 5% 0.014 Initial Value 0.42 77 Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______ Nutrient uptake by cotton as influenced by various The total uptake of nitrogen (cotton seed + cotton stalk) treatments was found to be significant due to various treatments. The The highest N uptake (17.94 kg ha-1) by cotton seed was highest total N uptake (57.76 kg ha-1) was recorded in treatment recorded in treatment RDF through boronated suphala-B RDF through boronated suphala-B (0.2%B) + remaining N (0.2%B) + remaining N through urea which was significant over through urea followed by RDF through suphala (non-boronated) -1 -1 -1 T1 (12.74 kg ha ), T2 (15.53 kg ha ) and T6 (15.46 kg ha ). The + remaining N through urea + borax. However, these treatments lowest N uptake (12.74 kg ha-1) by cotton seed was observed in were also found at par. The lowest total N uptake (34.93 kg ha- control. In respect of cotton stalk, highest uptake (39.82 kg ha-1) 1) was recorded in control. The results are in accordance with of N was recorded in treatment RDF through boronated suphala- the finding of Nehra, (2007) and Ahmad et al., (2011). They B (0.2%B) + remaining N through urea followed by T8 (40.26 concluded that application of 100% RDF + ZnSO4 + boron two kg ha-1). However, these treatments were found at par. The foliar spray @ 0.1 per cent to cotton crop recorded maximum N lowest N uptake (22.19 kg ha-1) by cotton stalk was recorded in uptake. control (Table 4). Table 4: Nutrient uptake by cotton as influenced by various treatments Nutrient uptake ( kg ha-1) Total uptake (kg ha-1) Treatments Cotton seed Cotton stalk N P K N P K N P K Absolute Control 12.74 4.30 12.55 22.19 12.14 34.96 34.93 16.44 47.51 RDF 15.53 5.39 16.44 26.18 15.09 43.51 41.71 20.48 59.95 RDF + borax @ 5 kg ha-1 16.59 6.38 18.52 32.12 17.27 53.87 48.71 23.65 72.39 RDF through boronated suphala (A) + remaining N through urea 16.92 6.50 20.43 35.82 19.54 58.43 52.74 26.04 78.86 RDF through boronated suphala (B) + remaining N through urea 17.94 7.19 21.96 39.82 21.71 58.31 57.76 28.90 80.27 RDF through suphala (non-boronated) + remaining N through urea 15.46 5.87 17.59 29.32 15.91 45.54 44.78 21.78 63.13 RDF through suphala (non-boronated) + remaining N through urea + 16.36 6.18 18.28 34.14 18.24 54.57 50.50 24.42 72.85 borax equivalent to suphala (A) T4 RDF through suphala (non-boronated) + remaining N through urea + 16.73 6.56 19.15 40.26 20.08 59.40 56.99 26.64 78.55 borax equivalent to suphala (B) T5 SE (m)± 0.54 0.15 0.90 1.38 0.84 3.74 1.59 0.89 4.17 CD at 5% 1.65 0.45 2.73 4.18 2.56 11.37 4.84 2.72 12.65 Phosphorus uptake The total uptake of K significantly influenced with the different The significantly highest P uptake (7.19 and 21.71 kg ha-1) in treatments. The uptake of potassium significantly increased with the cotton seed and cotton stalk, respectively, were recorded in application of RDF through boronated suphala-B (0.2%B) + -1 treatment T5- RDF through boronated suphala-B (0.2%B) + reaming N through urea (80.27 kg ha ) followed by RDF through -1 -1 - remaining N through urea and lower uptake (4.30 and 12.14 kg ha ) boronated suphala-A (0.1%B) (78.86 kg ha ) and T8 (78.55 kg ha were observed in control (Table 4). The highest total uptake of 1). However these treatments were found at par. The application of -1 phosphorus (28.90 kg ha ) was observed in treatment T5- RDF RDF only caused significant decline in the uptake of potassium and through boronated suphala-B (0.2%B) + remaining N through urea recorded 59.96 kg K ha-1. The lowest uptake was registered in -1 -1 followed by treatment T8 (26.64 kg ha ). However, these treatments control treatments (47.51 kg ha ). were found at par. The lowest uptake was observed in control Similar results were also reported by Nehra (2007) who has treatment. noticed more K uptake with application of 100 % RDF + 25 kg The results are in proximity with Patil et al., (1999). They ZnSO4 + boron two foliar spray @ 0.1 per cent to cotton crop .The reported higher uptake of phosphorus in sunflower and mustard due increases in potassium uptake with RDF along with boron through to boron application through boronated superphosphate. Similar borax were also reported by Ahmad et al., (2011). They reported results were also reported by Nehra (2007) in cotton and observed highest concentration of K in cotton with boron application @ 3 kg -1 that, application of 100% RDF + ZnSO4 + boron two foliar spray @ ha . 0.1 per cent recorded maximum P uptake. These results also Seed cotton and stalk yield corroborate the finding of Gaur et al., (2010). The seed cotton yield was varied between 11.14 to 14.83 q Potassium uptake ha-1.The application of RDF through boronated suphala-B (0.2%B) The significantly highest uptake (21.96 kg ha-1) by cotton + remaining N through urea recorded highest seed cotton yield to seed was observed in treatment RDF through boronated suphala-B the extent of 14.83 q ha-1. This increase in the seed cotton yield was (0.2%B) + remaining N through urea followed by RDF through 11.26 per cent more as compared to recommended dose of fertilizer boronated suphala-A (0.1%B) + remaining N through urea (20.43 whereas, 24.88 per cent more as compared to control (Table 5). kg ha-1). However, these treatments were found at par. The lower However, it was at par with the application of RDF through non uptake of cotton seed (12.55 kg ha-1) was recorded in control. boronated suphala + borax equivalent to boronated suphala-B In respect of cotton stalk, significantly highest uptake (59.40 (0.2%B), RDF through boronated suphala (0.1%B) and RDF -1 kg ha ) of K was recorded in treatment T8- RDF through suphala through non boronated suphala + borax equivalent to boronated -1 - (non-boronated) followed by T4 (58.43 kg ha ) and T5 (58.31 kg ha suphala-A (0.1%B). 1). The lowest uptake of K (34.96 kg ha-1) was observed in control. 78 Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______Table 5: Yield of cotton as influenced by various treatments Seed Cotton Cotton Stalk Treatments (q ha-1) (q ha-1) Absolute Control 11.14 39.13 RDF 13.16 44.20 RDF+ borax @ 5 kg ha-1 13.89 48.51 RDF through boronated suphala (A) + remaining N through urea 14.25 52.81 RDF through boronated suphala (B) + remaining N through urea 14.83 55.60 RDF through suphala (non-boronated) + remaining N through urea 13.33 45.47 RDF through suphala (non-boronated) + remaining N through urea + borax equivalent to suphala (A) T4 14.20 49.77 RDF through suphala (non-boronated) + remaining N through urea + borax equivalent to suphala (B) T5 14.64 53.70 SE (m)± 0.43 2.18 CD at 5% 1.31 6.64 The results clearly indicated the favourable effect of boron to control. Rattan et al., (2008) observed that application of application through boronated suphala or non-boronated suphala boron @ 0.5 to 2.5 kg ha-1 to cotton crop resulted in + borax. However, the boronated suphala has added advantage significantly positive response of cotton. The increase in seed of fertilizer application in the field. The application of RDF cotton yield with the application of borax @ 5 kg ha-1 and borax through boronated suphala-A (15:15:15 kg NPK + 0.1%B) + @ 2 kg ha-1 were also reported by Sankaranarayanan et al., remaining N through urea, RDF through boronated suphala-B (2010) and Abid et al., (2002). (15:15:15 kg NPK + 0.2%B) + remaining N through urea and RDF through suphala (non-boronated) + remaining N through CONCLUSION urea + borax equivalent to suphala-B (0.2%B) recorded the The application of RDF through boronated suphala -1 -1 cotton stalk yield of 52.81, 55.60 and 53.70 q ha respectively. (15:15:15 kg N P2O5 K2O ha + 0.1per cent B) and remaining RDF through boronated suphala-B (0.2%B) + remaining N N through urea found beneficial in increasing soil fertility, seed through urea recorded 20.50 per cent higher cotton stalk yield as cotton and stalk yield and uptake of nutrients in Bt cotton. compared to RDF; whereas, 29.62 per cent higher as compared REFERRENCES Abid, N., Ibrahim M., Ahmad N. and Anwar, S.A. (2002). Boron Panse, V.G. and Sukhatme, P.V. (1985). Statistical Methods for contents of light and medium textured soils and cotton plants. Int. Agricultural Workers, ICAR, New Delhi. J. Agri. Biol. 4(4):532-536. Patil, K.D., Chavan L.S. and Gokhale, N.B. (1999). Response of Ahmed N., Abid, M., Ahmad, F., Ullah, M.A., Javaid Q. and Ali, sunflower, mustard and cowpea to boronated superphosphate in M.R. (2011). Impact of boron fertilization on dry matter lateritic soils. J. Maharashtra. Agric. Univ. 24(2): 130-132. production and mineral constitution of irrigated cotton. Pak. J. Bot. 43(6): 2903-2910. Rao, S. and Janawade, A.O. (2009). Influence of integrated nutrient management practices on physico-chemical properties of cotton Anonymus. (2012). All India Cottonseed Crushers Association, News growing soil. J. Cotton Res. Dev., 23(1):62-63. letter, pp.1-7. Roselm, C.A. and Costa, A. (2000). Cotton growth and boron Brar, M.S., Sindhu B.S. and Singh, B. (1983). Response of cotton to distribution in plant as affected by a temporary deficiency of application of boron and copper in Punjab. Fert. News. 28(6):31- boron. J. Pl. Nutr. 23(6):815-825. 32. Sakal, R., Singh, A.P., Choudhary B.C. and Shahi, B. (2001). Devraj, A. Sharma, P. Singh V.V. and Duhan, B.S. (2008). Studies Sulphur status Ustifluvents and response of crops to sulphur on fertility status of cotton growing soils of Haryana. J. Cotton application. Fertil News. 46(10):61-65. Res. Dev. 22(1):81-84. Sankaranaryanan, K. and Praharaj, C.S.P. (2010). Nalayini, Gaur M. and Singh, V. (2010). Effect of phosphorus and boron on Bandyopadhyay K.K. and Gopalakrishnan, N. Effect of yield and uptake of nutrients by wheat. Ann. Agric. Res. 31(3 & magnesium, zinc, iron and boron application on yield and quality 4): 119-122. of cotton (Gossypium hirsutum). Indian J. Agric. Sci. 80(8):699- 703. Hadwani, G.H., Gandhi, A.P., Patel M.S. and Yadav, B.S. (1989). Depth wise distribution of boron in relation to soil properties in Shaaban, M.M., El-Fouly M.M. and Abdel-Maguid, A.A. (2004). medium calcareous soil of Gujarat. J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci. Zinc-Boron relationship in wheat plants grown under low or high 37(20):295-300 (1989). levels of calcium carbonate in the soil. Pakistan J. Biol. Sci. 7:633-639. Kaur, M., Kaur, M. and Brar, A.S. (2008). Effect of NPK with and without farm yard manure on growth and yield of hirsutum cotton Sharma, S.K. and Singh, S. (2007). Yield, yield attributes and quality (Gossypium hirsutum L.). J. Cotton Res. Dev. 22(1): 34-37. of cotton as influenced by foliar application of potassium. Cotton Res. Dev. 21(1): 51-54. Nehra, P.L. (2007). Integrated nutrient management (INM) for hirsutum cotton under cotton-wheat cropping system in canal Yadav, R.L. and Meena, M.C. (2009). Available micronutrient status command area of North West Rajasthan, India. World Cotton and their relationship with soil properties of Degana soil series of Research Conference-4, 10-14 Sept. Lubbock, TX. Rajasthan. J. Indian Soc. 57(1):90-92. 79 Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______ Cytogenetic profile of Black Bengal Goats BANANI MANDAL*&, L.B.SINGH#, ALOK BHARTI** AND NANDANI KUMARI$ *Veterinary officer Baif, #Chairman and head, Deptt.of Animal Breeding and Genetics, Ranchi veterinary college, Kanke, Ranchi- 834006 **Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Bikramganj, Rohtas, Bihar-802212 $Ph.D. scholar, Deptt.of Animal Breeding and Genetics, Ranchi veterinary college,Ranchi- 834006 Received: 15.03.15 Accepted: 02.07.15 ABSTRACT Black Bengal goats from Instructional Farm Small ruminants, Birsa agricultural university were utilized by short term lymphocyte culture technique. The diploid chromosome no was found to be 60, XY consisting of 29 pairs of acrocentric autosomes and a pair of allosomes. The X chromosome was the longest and Y chromosome was suspected to be sub metacentric. The mean relative length of autosome ranged from5.22±0.03 to 1.92±0.02 percent and relative length of X and Y chromosomes were 5.76±0.05 and 1.47±0.03, respectively. The effect of sex was significant on relative length of some of the autosome. Key words: Black Bengal goat, Cytogenetic, Karyotype, Chromosome number. Goat rearing is the best choice for the rural people in taking the chromosome number on X-axis and the relative developing countries like India because of their wider length (%) on the Y- axis. adaptability, low investment, high fertility and fecundity, low 3. Arm ratio: Arm ratio was calculated as the ratio of feed and management needs, high feed conversion efficiency, length of the long arm (q) to the length of the short arm (p) for quick pay off and low risk involved (P.Uma Devi et. al, the X-chromosome. 2011).Black Bengal goat is small sized predominantly black 4. Centromeric indices: Centromeric index was coloured breed of goat native of North east India. It is a famous calculated as the ratio of length of the short arm (p) to the length breed known for high prolificacy, superior chevon quality, best of the chromosome (p + q) for the X-chromosome. quality Skin, early sexual maturity, low kidding interval and 5. Morphological index: Morphological index was very good adaptability. Goat possesses a fundamental calculated by dividing the total chromosome length by the arm chromosome number of 60 (58 autosome and 2 allosome). The ratio. Study of chromosomal profile in livestock provide a useful tool to evaluate reproductive health and fertility status of breeding RESULTS AND DISCUSSION animals even at an early age (Basumantary 2003). Research The results have been summarized in Table I and Table II. strategies involving cytogenetics hold the promise of yielding The diploid chromosome number of Black Bengal goat was 60 insight into the mechanisms underlying chromosome instability which consisted of 58 autosome and 2 sex chromosomes. The in embryos (King, 2008).Cytogenetic offer a simple and easy findings are in agreement with the observation of Nicodemo et method to characterize a breed, which is the first step towards al. (2008). The length of autosomes of male Black Bengal goat conservation. It enables correct identification of individual varied from 0.96±0.01 to 2.78±0.04µm in autosome while chromosomes and establishes standard Karyotype which is among allosomes, the X chromosome was largest essential for breed characterization (Stranzinger and (3.19±0.05µm) and Y chromosome was smallest (0.79±0.02) Fechheimer, 1989). Keeping this in view the technique of short similar to the findings of Devi et al.(2011). All the 29 pairs of term lymphocyte culture for black Bengal breed of goat was autosome of Black Bengal goat were found to be acrocentric standardised and various morphometric measurement were which was in agreement with the findings of Bhatia and noted with the objective to characterise the breed Shankar (1993, 1994), Kasabe et al. (2009) and Devi et al. cytogenetically. (2011). The X chromosome was found to be acrocentric and longest which is in agreement with the observations of Hancock MATERIAL AND METHODS and Jacobs (1966). The Y-chromosome was found to be The present study was undertaken on A maintaining the smallest, dot like structure and suspected to be sub-metacentric proper cold chain. The culture was carried out as given by in the present investigation which is similar to the findings of Moorehead et al. (1960) with slight modifications. Bhatia and Shankar (1992) in Marwari goat and Ford et al. Parameters taken for study (1980) and Berardino et al. (1987), while Bunch et al. (1977) 1. Length: The chromosomes in the karyotypes was reported that the Y chromosome may be metacentric or measured in millimetre with an accuracy of 0.01 mm, using the submetacentric but not acrocentric. The relative length of X Software IKRYOS Karyotyping system V5.15 chromosome was found to be 5.95±0.05, 5.57±0.05 and 2. Relative length: Relative length is represented as the 5.76±0.05 % in male, female and pooled over sex respectively, ratio of the length of a chromosome to the total length of and the relative length of Y chromosome was 1.47±0.03% the haploid set of chromosome containing the X- chromosome and values were presented in Table I. which was in agreement with the ratio is expressed in percentage. The idiogram was drawn by the findings of Pattnanyak and Patre (1986). Comparison of 80 Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______relative lengths of chromosomes between sexes were presented Shankar observed non-significant differences between the in Table 2 revealed that the relative length of chromosome pair relative length of middle and shorter chromosomes in both the 3, 19, 23, 27, 28 and X were significantly (p<0.01) higher in sexes. Pattnanyak et al. (1986) also reported no significant male than female goat of Black Bengal breed while relative differences in relative length of chromosome between sexes of length of chromosome pair 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 and 16 were Ganjam, Black Bengal and Ganjam X Black Bengal goats. significantly (p<0.01) lower in male than that of female Black Acknowledgements Bengal goat. These findings are in agreement with the findings The author is highly thankful to the BAU, Ranchi for of Bhatia and Shankar (1992) who observed the significant supporting the work financially and morally. He feels the work (p<0.05) difference between the relative length of longer had not been completed without the warm and priceless chromosome (chromosome pair 2 to 4) and X chromosome technical support of the honourable guide and helpful between the sexes but contrary to our observation Bhatia and colleagues. a. Mitotic-metaphase spread b. Karyotype Figure 1. Mitotic-metaphase spread of Chromosome, b. Karyotype of Black Bengal (female ) Goat no. 50/08 a. Mitotic-metaphase spread b. Karyotype Figure 2.Mitotic-metaphase spread of Chromosome, b. Karyotype of Black Bengal (male ) Goat no. 57/07 81 Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______Table 1. Mean ± SE of the relative length (%) of the chromosomes in male and female Black Bengal goat. Chr. Pair number Mean ± SE Mean ± SE 1 5.19±0.03z’’ 5.25±0.04z 2 5.00±0.02z’ 4.96±0.03y 3 4.78±0.03z 4.70±0.03w 4 4.52±0.02y 4.55±0.03x 5 4.28±0.02x 4.44±0.03v 6 4.13±0.01w 4.26±0.03u 7 4.02±0.01v 4.05±0.03t 8 3.87±0.01u 3.95±0.01s 9 3.74±0.01t 3.79±0.01r 10 3.62±0.01s 3.74±0.02r 11 3.52±0.01r 3.60±0.01q 12 3.37±0.01q 3.44±0.01p 13 3.31±0.01p 3.35±0.01o 14 3.24±0.01o 3.23±0.01n 15 3.09±0.01n 3.16±0.01m 16 2.99±0.01m 3.06±0.01l 17 2.93±0.01l 2.94±0.02k 18 2.87±0.01k 2.87±0.01j 19 2.81±0.01j 2.75±0.01i 20 2.65±0.02i 2.63±0.01h 21 2.57±0.01h 2.59±0.01h 22 2.51±0.01h 2.47±0.02g 23 2.42±0.02g 2.36±0.02f 24 2.32±0.02f 2.32±0.02f 25 2.26±0.02f 2.26±0.02e 26 2.15±0.02e 2.14±0.03d 27 2.09±0.02d 1.94±0.03c 28 1.98±0.02c 1.86±0.03b 29 1.79±0.02b 1.78±0.03a X 5.95±0.05z’’’ 5.57±0.05z’ Y 1.47±0.03a **P0.01, Value having same superscript in column did not differ significantly.;N=100 Table 2. Effect of sex on relative length of chromosomes in Black Bengal Goat. Chr. Pair Number Male Female t-value 1 13.17±0.03 13.24±0.05 1.142NS 2 12.91±0.03 12.86±0.04 1.108NS 3 12.63±0.03 12.51±0.04 2.014* 4 12.28±0.02 12.32±0.03 0.843NS 5 11.94±0.02 12.15±0.04 4.477** 6 11.72±0.02 11.90±0.04 4.279** 7 11.57±0.02 11.61±0.02 1.677NS 8 11.34±0.01 11.46±0.01 5.750** 9 11.15±0.02 11.23±0.02 3.044** 10 10.97±0.02 11.15±0.02 5.814** 11 10.82±0.02 10.94±0.02 4.364** 12 10.58±0.02 10.69±0.01 4.010** 13 10.47±0.02 10.54±0.02 2.080* 14 10.37±0.02 10.35±0.02 0.393NS 15 10.13±0.02 10.23±0.02 0.3622NS 16 9.95±0.02 10.08±0.02 4.620** 17 9.85±0.02 9.87±0.03 0.374NS 18 9.75±0.02 9.76±0.02 0.159NS 19 9.65±0.02 9.54±0.02 4.051** 20 9.37±0.03 9.32±0.02 1.304NS 21 9.22±0.02 9.26±0.03 0.804NS 82 Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______Chr. Pair Number Male Female t-value 22 9.12±0.03 9.04±0.03 1.868NS 23 8.95±0.03 8.82±0.03 2.708** 24 8.76±0.04 8.75±0.03 0.096NS 25 8.63±0.04 8.64±0.04 0.062NS 26 8.43±0.04 8.40±0.05 0.501NS 27 8.30±0.04 7.99±0.06 4.393** 28 8.07±0.04 7.81±0.06 3.910** 29 7.69±0.03 7.63±0.06 0.813NS X 14.11±0.06 13.64±0.06 5.662** Y 6.93±0.07 **P0.01,*P0.05,Values having same superscript in column did not differ significantly, NS- Non significant REFERENCES Basumantary, R. (2003). Cytogenetic studies on cows with King, W.A. (2008). Chromosome variation in the embryos of fertility disorder. M.V.Sc thesis submitted to Assam domestic animals. Cytogenetics and Genome Research, agricultural University, Guwahati, Assam, India. 120:81-90. Berardino, D., Ronne, M., Burguette, I., Lioi, M. B.,Taibi, L. Kasabe, S. S., Ali, S. Z., Sawane, M. P., Kuralkar, S. V. and Metassino, D. D (1987). R banding pattern of the (2009). Chromosome morphology of Berari goats with prometaphase chromosomes of the goats. Journal of special reference to mitotic drive and mitotic index. The Heredity, 78: 225-230. Indian journal of Small Ruminants, 15(2):88-92. Bhatia, S. and Shankar, V. (1992). Cytogenetic analysis of Moorehead, P.S., Nowell, P.C., Mellman, W.J., Battips, Gaddi goats. Indian Journal of Animal Sciences, D.M. and Hungerford, D.A. (1960). Chromosome 62(10):993-96. preparation of leucocytes cultured from human peripheral blood. Exerimental. Cell.Research, 20:613-616. Bhatia, S. and Shankar, V. (1993). Somatic chromosomes of Marwari goats. Indian Journal of Animal Sciences, Nicodemo, D., Paucicello, A., Castello, A., Soysal, I., Aytac, 63(12):1302-304. M. and Di Berardino, D. (2008). A cytogenetic study on the Angora Breed of goat (Capra hircus) Reared in Bhatia, S. and Shankar, V. (1993). Y-chromosome Turkiye. Tekirdag Ziraat Fakultesi Dergisi. Journal of polymorphism in Bengal goats (white variant). Small Tekirdag Agricultural Faculty 5(3):11-17. Ruminant Research, 13. 55-61. Pattnanayak, G.R. and Patro, B.N. (1986). Chromosomes of Bhatia, S. and Shankar, V. (1994). Cytogenetic characteristics Ganjam, Black Bengal and F1 (Ganjam X Black Bengal) of Beetal goats. Indian Journal of Animal Sciences, goats. Indian Journal of heredity. 18(3-4):37-46. 65(5):592-595. Devi, P., Uma., Gupta, B.R., Devi, S. and Lakshmi K.D. Bunch, T.D., Rogers, A. and Foote, W.C. (1977). G band and (2011). Cytogenetic Characterization of Mahboobnagar transferrin analysis of aoudad goat hybrids. Journal of goats.Tamilnadu J.Veterinary & Animal Science, Heredity, 68: 210 -212. 7(6):268-276. Ford, C.E., Pollock, D.L. and Gustavsson (1980). Proceeding Stranzinger, G.F. and Fechheimer, N.S. 1989. of the first international conference for the standardization Standardization of banded chromosomes in farm animals: of Banded Karyotypes of Domestic animals. Hereditas, Present stage, ISCN (1985) standard and further 92: 145-62. developments. In proceedings of the 8th European Hancock, J. L. and Jacobs, P.A. (1966). The chromosome of colloquium on cytogenetics of domestic animals, Bristol. goat X sheep hybrids, J.Reprod.Fert.12:591-92. 1-18. 83 Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______Effect of different sources of silica on nutrient content of leaves and fruit at different stages of alphonso Mango (Mangifera indica L.) in lateritic soil S.S. MORE1, N. B. GOKHALE2, S.E. SHINDE3 AND G. N. KORAKE4 1&3Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Soil Science and Agril Chem., 2Head of Plant Biotech Unit., 4Asst Project Officer, Indo Israel Project Horticulture Department College of Agriculture, Dr. Balasaheb Sawant Konkan Krishi Vidhyapeeth, Dapoli, Ratnagiri. Received: 04.03.15 Accepted: 09.07.15 ABSTRACT The study was conducted to know the effect of application of chemical fertilizer in combination with silicon on yield and quality parameter of mango (Mangifera indica L.) in Lateritic soil of Konkan region. Four sources of silicon were used for study with three different concentrations. There were total thirteen treatments viz., T1(RDF i.e, FYM 10 kg, 3 kg urea:3 -1 -1 kg SSP : 2 kg and Sulphate of potash kg per tree ), T2 (T1 + 2t calcium silicate hectare ), T3 (T1 + 3t calcium silicate -1 -1 -1 hectare ),T4 (T1 + 4t Calcium Silicate hectare ), T5 (T1 + Rice husk ash @ 1.0 kg tree ),T6 (T1 + Rice husk ash @ 1.5 kg -1 -1 -1 -1 tree ), T7 (T1 + Rice husk ash @2.0 kg tree ), T8 (T1 + Silixol spray @ 0.5 ml L ), T9 (T1 + Silixol spray @ 1.0 ml L ), T10 -1 (T1 + Silixol spray @ 1.5 ml L ), T11 (T1 + Potassium silicate spray @ 0.5 per cent), T12 (T1 + Potassium silicate spray @ 1.0 per cent) and T13 (T1 + Potassium silicate spray @ 1.5 per cent) replicated thrice in RBD design. Two trees for each treatment were selected. The spraying schedule of crop protection was followed and the recommended dose of fertilizer applied during month of June both years of experimentation through urea, single super phosphate, sulphate of potash and FYM, respectively. During the course of investigation the nutrient content in mango leaves and nutrient content in mango fruit pulp at mature and ripe stage were studied. It is revealed from the study that use of foliar spray of 1.5 ml L-1 stabilized silicic acid i.e, Silixol showed beneficial effect on nutrient content in mango leaves and fruit pulp at various stages. Key words: calcium silicate, potassium silicate, rice husk ash and silicon, stabilized silicic acid, titratable acidity, total sugar and TSS. Mango (Mangifera indica L.) belongs to family 10x10 m spacing with uniform vigour and growth. These trees Anacardiaceae is universally accepted as the finest tropical fruit of were manured uniformly with 3 kg Urea, 3 kg SSP and 1 kg the world and has been called, in the orient, “King of the fruits”. SOP and 10 kg FYM per tree for the first trial and same dose Mango is rightly known as ‘National Fruit of India’, owing to its was applied for the second experimental trial. Total nitrogen, nutritional richness, unique taste and flavour, religious and phosphorous, potassium and silicon were determined by medicinal importance. It is the third widely produced fruit crop of appropriate standard methods. The plant samples were digested the tropics after banana and citrus. It is originated from South East in 1:1 conc. H2SO4:30 % H2O2 and the total nitrogen content Asia, the Indo-Burma region, in the foothills of the Himalayas were determined by Kjeldhalplus apparatus (Tandon, 1993). 1.0 Mukherjee, 1951. Plants can only absorb Si in the form of soluble g of plant sample was digested in diacid mixture of HNO3 and mono silicic acid, a non-charged molecule. Mono silicic acid, or HClO4 in the ratio of 3:1 and cooled digested material plant available silicon is a product of slicon-rich mineral transferred to 100 ml volumetric flask and final volume was dissolution. Plant available silicon deposits of amorphous silica, made to100 ml with distilled water with repeated washing of known as phytoliths, in the plant tissues. Phytoliths from litter may digestion flask. The P and K concentration in prepared samples contribute 1-2 per cent of the weight of the soil and they normally were determined by appropriate standard methods Singh et al., degrade slowly to return soluble Si to the soil. Although silicon is 1999. The silica was determined by rapid micro-determination beneficial for plant growth it plays a vital role as a physio- method. The silica was converted into molybdenum reactive mechanical barrier in most plants. Despite its deposition on cell form with 10 per cent ammonium molybdate solution, which walls, its active involvement in a multitude of physiological and was estimated colorimetrically using ascorbic acid, on metabolic processes is also evident. Plants deprived of silicon often spectrophotometer at 660 nm wavelength Nayar et al., 1975. show poor development and reproduction, but it depends on the type of plant species. In general, plants belonging to the family RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Gramineae accumulate much more silicon than that by other Nutrient contents of leaves: The data presented in the species belonging to other families. It has also been reported that Table 1 indicated that significant differences observed on total most dicot plants absorb silicon passively but legumes can nitrogen content in leaf of alphonso mango during different efficiently exclude silicon from their roots Ma et al., 2001. stages of fruit development in both the years of experimental However, in rice, a known silicon accumulator, uptake and trial. The total N content varied from 1.21 to 1.45 per cent at transport of silicon takes place through active process Ma et al., flowering stage, from 0.83 to 1.28 per cent at egg stage and 2006. from 0.91 to 1.48 per cent at harvesting indicated that N concentration decreased with fruit development stages from MATERIAL AND METHODS Seventy eight uniformly grown alphonso mango trees flowering to egg stage there after it was increased at harvest were selected for the experiment. These 25 years old trees are at stage. During second year 2012-13 the N content varied from 84 Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______0.93 to 1.60 per cent at flowering stage, from 0.77 to 1.27 per flowering stage, 0.41 to 1.02 per cent at egg stage and from 0.40 cent at egg stage and from 0.88 to 1.49 per cent at harvesting to 1.14 per cent at harvest. indicated that N concentration decreased with fruit development Nutrient content of fruit pulp: At all stages, N content stages but it was increased at harvest stage. The N content in in mango fruit pulp was observed to be graded from lowest mango leaves during all fruit development stages found concentration of silica to highest concentration of silica. There -1 statistically significant and T10 (1.5 ml L Silixol spray) was was sharp increase in N content of mango fruit pulp observed recorded highest in total nitrogen content in mango leaves with stage of fruit development during both the year of research during development of fruit. trial. During first year 2011-12 nitrogen content of mango fruit The total P content of the mango leaves (Table 2) pulp was found to be statistically significant with the indicated that there was increase in phosphorous content of applications of silica sources with various concentrations at mango leaves with different sources of silica application. The flowering stage. The treatment T10 (0.79 per cent) found to be results showed that phosphorous content in mango leaves highest nitrogen content in mango fruit pulp which was declined with development stages of fruit i.e, from flowering to significantly superior over all other treatments except T7 (0.72 harvesting of fruit. Total P content ranging 0.054 to 0.123 per per cent), T9 (0.73per cent). At harvest stage treatment T10 (1.5 cent at flowering stage, 0.049 to 0.105 per cent at egg stage and ml L-1 Silixol) recorded highest nitrogen content in mango fruit from 0.046 to 0.112 per cent at harvest. Same trend was also pulp with value of 1.21 per cent which was significantly observed in second year trial with increase in concentration of superior over all the other treatments except T9 (1.13 per cent), silica application phosphorous content in mango leaves T8 (1.09 per cent), T3 (1.14 per cent) and T4 (1.12 per cent). increased and phosphorous content in mango leaves decreased During second year 2012-13 the N content in fruit pulp of with all development stages of fruit. The phosphorous content in mango as influenced by silica application Table 5 showed that mango leaves ranging 0.052 to 0.188 per cent at flowering its content varied from 0.63 to 0.91 per cent at egg stage and stage, 0.052 to 0.159 per cent at egg stage and from 0.044 to 0.67 to 1.44 per cent at harvesting. 0.175 per cent at harvest. During first year 2011-12 phosphorous content of mango Total potassium content in mango leaves gradually fruit pulp was statistically significant at all stages of fruit declined from flowering to egg stage but there after it was development. The data presented in Table 6 indicates that P increased in potassium content at harvest stage during both the content varied from 0.043 to 0.061 per cent at egg stage, from experimentation. The data presented in the Table 18 indicated 0.046 to 0.068 per cent at harvesting. The treatment T7 (0.061 that there were significant differences obtained on potassium per cent) found to be highest phosphorous content in mango content of mango leaves with the application of various sources fruit pulp which was significantly superior over T1 (0.043per of silica and with different concentrations during all cent), T5 (0.050 per cent), T2 (0.049 per cent), T3 (0.050 per development stages in both the years of experimental trials. cent) and T11 (0.048 per cent) rest of the treatments were found Potassium content in mango leaves was observed highest in at par. At harvest stage, the highest phosphorous content in treatment T13 during all the fruit development stages in both the mango fruit pulp was observed in T7 (0.068 per cent) which was year of experimentation. significantly superior over T1 (0.049 per cent), T2 (0.051 per During first year 2011-12 potassium content of mango cent), T3 (0.051 per cent) and T11 (0.046 per cent) rest of the leaves ranged 0.49 to 1.07 per cent at flowering stage, 0.35 to treatments were at par. Same trend was also observed in second 0.88 per cent at egg stage and 0.52 to 1.21 per cent at year trial to that of first year where with increase in harvesting. The potassium content in mango leaves ranged 0.58 concentration of silica application phosphorous content in to 1.44 per cent at flowering stage, 0.48 to 1.11 per cent at egg mango fruit pulp increased and phosphorous content in mango stage and 0.53 to 1.41 per cent at harvest. Similar trend was also fruit pulp increased with development stages of fruit. The noticed in second year trial with increase in concentration of phosphorous content in mango fruit pulp was varied from 0.055 silica increased the potassium content in mango leaves. to 0.113 per cent at egg stage and from 0.059 to 0.117 per cent However, it was declined from flowering to egg stage thereafter at harvest. it was declined with fruit development stages except at harvest During first year 2011-12 potassium content of mango stage which was increased. fruit pulp was statistically significant at all stages of fruit Silica content in mango leaves gradually declined with all development. The data presented in Table 26 indicated that K fruit development stages with the exception at harvest stage of content varied from 0.429 to 0.497 per cent at egg stage, from second year experimentation it was increased instead of 0.475 to 0.677 per cent at harvesting. The treatment T13 (0.497 declining. During first year 2011-12 silica content of mango per cent) was recorded highest K content in mango fruit pulp leaves was statistically significant at all stages of fruit and found significantly superior over T1 (0.429 per cent) rest all development. The silica content ranged from 0.52 to 1.10 per other treatments found at par. T1 (control) was found to have cent at flowering stage, from 0.40 to 0.79 per cent at egg stage lowest K content mango fruit pulp with value of 0.429 per cent. and from 0.37 to 0.71 per cent at harvesting due to application At harvest stage, the highest K content in mango fruit pulp of different sources of silica (table 4). Similar trend was observed in T13 (1.5 per cent foliar application of Potassium observed in second year trial as in first year trial except at Silicate) having value of 0.677 per cent which was recorded harvest stage instead of declining silica content in leaves it significantly superior over T1 (0.475 per cent), T2 (0.494 per increased. Silica content in mango leaves increased as increase cent), T3 (0.518 per cent), T5 (0.521 per cent), T6 (0.555 per in concentration of silica application increased. The silica cent), T8 (0.603 per cent), T9 (0.612 per cent), T11 (0.609 per content in mango leaves varied 0.42 to 1.17 per cent at cent) rest of the treatments were found at par. The K content in mango fruit pulp was found statistically significant at egg stage. 85 Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______The treatment T13 (1.5 per cent foliar application of Potassium concentration of silica application Si content in mango fruit pulp Silicate) obtained highest K content in mango fruit pulp having increased and as fruit goes to maturity concentration of silica value 0.601 per cent which was significant over T1 (0.449 per gradually increased. The Si content in mango fruit pulp was cent) rest of the treatments were at par. At harvest stage, the varied from 0.032 to 0.069 per cent at egg stage and from 0.039 treatment T13 (1.5 per cent foliar application of Potassium to 0.081 per cent at harvesting. silicate) reported highest K content in mango fruit pulp having value 0.790 per cent which was significantly superior over all CONCLUSION treatments except T4, T7, T10 and T12 which were at par. Use of foliar application of silica during initial stages of During first year (2011-12) Si content of mango fruit pulp fruit growth (before flowering, pea, marble and egg stage) were statistically significant at all stages of fruit development. increased nutrient content in leaves of mango at various stages The data presented in Table 8 indicated that Si content varied and nutrient content in mango fruit pulp. However, amongst the from 0.026 to 0.063 per cent at egg stage, from 0.026 to 0.070 various treatments tried, the application of Stabilized silicic acid -1 per cent at harvesting. Silica content in leaves showed sharp i.e, silixol @ 1.5 ml lit (T10) with five sprays during initial change with the application of stabilized silicic acid as compare stages of fruit growth (before flowering, 15 days after to control and other sources of silica. The treatment T13 found to flowering, 30 days after flowering, 45 days after flowering and be highest during egg stage and at harvest on first year trial. 60 days after flowering) was found to be good. Similar trend was observed in second year trial with increase in Table 1: Effect of silica application on pH of pulp at different stages of fruit growth in alphonso mango. pH (2011-12) pH (2012-13) Treatments At egg At ripe At end of At egg At ripe stage At end of shelf At harvest At harvest stage stage shelf life stage life T1 2.76 2.98 4.12 4.34 2.59 2.81 3.95 4.52 T2 2.64 3.08 4.26 4.70 3.16 3.60 4.78 5.22 T3 2.69 3.08 4.30 4.72 3.21 3.60 4.82 5.24 T4 2.71 3.15 4.34 4.73 3.23 3.67 4.86 5.24 T5 2.68 3.04 4.19 4.71 3.05 3.41 4.56 5.08 T6 2.76 3.03 4.22 4.75 3.13 3.41 4.59 5.08 T7 2.76 3.07 4.28 4.76 3.20 3.45 4.65 5.09 T8 2.77 3.30 4.30 4.76 3.19 3.67 4.67 5.05 T9 2.77 3.63 4.73 4.79 3.29 4.00 5.13 5.18 T10 2.81 3.62 4.76 4.80 3.33 4.24 5.28 5.22 T11 2.74 3.14 4.27 4.67 3.11 3.51 4.64 5.04 T12 2.74 3.19 4.29 4.70 3.18 3.56 4.66 5.07 T13 2.74 3.27 4.30 4.74 3.19 3.64 4.67 5.11 Mean 2.74 3.20 4.33 4.70 3.14 3.58 4.71 5.09 SEm ± 0.017 0.102 0.111 0.060 0.121 0.102 0.110 0.039 C. D at 5% 0.049 0.297 0.324 0.176 0.353 0.297 0.321 0.115 Table. 2 Effect of silica application on titratable acidity of pulp at different stages of fruit growth in alphonso mango. Titratable acidity (%) (2011-12) Titratable acidity (%) (2012-13) Treatments At egg At ripe At end of At egg At ripe At end of shelf At harvest At harvest stage stage shelf life stage stage life T1 3.99 3.56 0.49 0.23 4.28 3.48 0.45 0.28 T2 3.81 2.85 0.39 0.21 3.97 2.77 0.39 0.24 T3 3.81 2.75 0.37 0.20 3.71 2.66 0.37 0.21 T4 3.81 2.71 0.33 0.19 3.70 2.65 0.34 0.20 T5 3.68 3.18 0.47 0.21 3.85 2.83 0.43 0.23 T6 3.67 2.94 0.45 0.21 3.78 2.75 0.41 0.22 T7 3.71 2.74 0.44 0.19 3.60 2.62 0.41 0.21 T8 3.66 2.22 0.32 0.18 3.58 2.33 0.33 0.18 T9 3.58 1.93 0.29 0.17 3.49 2.06 0.30 0.17 T10 3.56 1.78 0.27 0.16 3.42 1.86 0.28 0.16 T11 3.72 2.81 0.39 0.19 3.70 2.70 0.37 0.20 T12 3.72 2.34 0.36 0.18 3.65 2.44 0.34 0.19 T13 3.72 2.25 0.35 0.18 3.47 2.33 0.33 0.18 Mean 3.73 2.62 0.38 0.19 3.71 2.58 0.37 0.21 S. Em ± 0.048 0.102 0.012 0.007 0.15 0.16 0.02 0.02 C. D at 5% 0.139 0.297 0.035 0.020 0.43 0.48 0.07 0.06 86 Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______ Table 3: Effect of silica application on TSS of pulp at different stages of fruit growth in alphonso mango. TSS (OBrix) 2011-12 TSS (OBrix) 2012-13 Treatments At egg At ripe At end of At egg At ripe At end of At harvest At harvest stage stage shelf life stage stage shelf life T1 7.64 7.72 17.00 10.20 7.26 7.41 18.22 9.42 T2 7.73 7.77 18.17 12.27 7.74 8.30 18.26 11.80 T3 7.80 8.17 18.30 12.80 7.86 8.55 18.46 12.87 T4 7.94 8.30 18.43 13.20 8.05 8.74 18.83 13.10 T5 7.74 7.77 17.77 10.73 7.86 8.53 18.31 10.90 T6 7.79 8.00 18.10 10.87 7.94 8.57 18.59 11.20 T7 7.80 8.07 18.33 12.47 8.05 8.69 19.06 12.97 T8 8.09 8.37 19.27 15.15 8.15 8.77 18.70 14.68 T9 8.12 8.90 19.37 15.70 8.32 8.86 19.45 15.30 T10 8.19 8.93 20.22 16.00 8.44 9.02 21.43 15.47 T11 7.71 7.90 18.33 11.70 7.71 8.21 18.68 11.83 T12 7.75 8.10 18.53 12.50 7.83 8.40 18.95 12.97 T13 7.76 8.40 18.60 13.17 8.10 8.63 19.15 13.43 Mean 7.85 8.18 18.49 12.83 7.95 8.49 18.93 12.76 S.Em ± 0.061 0.255 0.509 0.449 0.199 0.298 0.555 0.498 C. D at 5% 0.178 0.744 1.486 1.310 0.582 0.870 1.620 1.454 Table 4: Effect of silica application on total sugar of pulp at different stages of fruit growth in alphonso mango. Total sugar (%) 2011-12 Total sugar (%) 2012-13 Treatments At egg At ripe At end of At egg At ripe At end of shelf At harvest At harvest stage stage shelf life stage stage life T1 3.21 3.33 11.11 10.56 2.94 3.35 14.27 12.16 T2 3.31 3.43 11.75 10.72 3.31 3.75 15.70 13.34 T3 3.26 3.82 12.31 10.56 3.64 4.26 15.99 13.57 T4 3.28 3.74 12.76 10.77 3.73 4.43 16.49 14.09 T5 3.19 3.57 11.04 10.67 3.69 4.00 15.71 13.55 T6 3.22 3.37 11.77 10.59 3.80 4.50 15.99 13.80 T7 3.25 3.49 12.10 10.76 4.16 4.80 16.36 13.93 T8 3.10 3.80 14.34 10.58 3.70 4.50 17.08 14.48 T9 3.35 3.98 15.49 10.68 4.13 5.00 17.55 14.82 T10 3.20 3.97 16.50 10.76 4.36 5.22 18.27 15.77 T11 3.27 3.50 12.79 10.87 3.27 3.72 15.36 13.58 T12 3.32 3.70 13.60 10.65 3.61 4.11 16.05 13.96 T13 3.25 3.66 14.39 10.78 3.92 4.40 16.84 14.53 Mean 3.25 3.64 13.07 10.69 3.71 4.31 16.28 13.97 S. Em ± 0.02 0.14 0.24 0.02 0.15 0.17 0.55 0.47 C. D at 5% 0.05 0.41 0.70 0.06 0.42 0.50 1.60 1.36 Table 5: Effect of silica application on ascorbic acid of pulp at different stages of fruit growth in alphonso mango. Ascorbic acid (mg 100 g-1) 2011-12 Ascorbic Acid (mg 100 g-1) 2012-13 Treatments At egg At ripe At end of At ripe At end of At harvest At egg stage At harvest stage stage shelf life stage shelf life T1 83.13 78.07 54.73 43.27 79.15 76.66 43.97 36.98 T2 83.36 77.70 51.34 38.22 83.69 78.31 52.45 37.43 T3 83.92 77.83 54.96 41.24 84.14 78.38 54.96 37.55 T4 84.08 78.50 53.20 38.87 84.33 79.11 55.94 37.62 T5 84.54 79.42 55.08 38.61 83.61 79.05 52.64 38.61 T6 85.44 79.48 50.75 38.74 83.86 79.48 53.74 38.74 T7 87.16 77.14 52.84 37.62 87.17 79.81 55.11 38.87 T8 87.88 77.70 54.31 37.70 87.40 80.03 53.75 41.24 T9 88.24 78.45 50.44 37.43 89.03 83.06 56.24 41.81 T10 88.33 79.82 50.75 37.55 89.20 86.69 59.04 43.27 T11 86.08 78.35 54.73 38.19 84.90 78.35 51.33 38.19 T12 86.52 78.57 56.44 41.81 86.58 78.89 53.50 41.81 T13 86.51 80.32 53.72 38.76 87.23 81.22 55.82 38.76 Mean 85.78 78.57 53.33 39.08 85.41 79.93 53.73 39.30 S. Em ± 0.44 0.73 0.68 0.29 0.80 1.47 1.85 0.25 C. D at 5% 1.27 2.14 1.99 0.85 2.33 4.29 5.39 0.72 87 Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______ Table 6: Effect of silica application on fruit yield of alphonso mango. Fruit yield (2012) Fruit yield (2013) Treatments Number of fruits Av. Wt. of Number of Av. Wt. of Pooled t ha-1 t ha-1 tree-1 fruit (g) fruits tree-1 fruit (g) t ha-1 T1 69.67 206.00 1.44 108.67 213.67 2.32 1.88 T2 125.67 229.20 3.04 151.33 225.67 3.56 3.30 T3 134.67 267.40 3.60 196.33 251.67 4.94 4.27 T4 161.33 223.60 3.61 199.00 251.00 4.99 4.30 T5 94.00 245.00 2.30 156.33 239.33 3.74 3.02 T6 117.33 232.20 2.72 189.33 245.67 4.65 3.69 T7 132.33 251.60 3.33 215.33 262.33 5.65 4.49 T8 221.67 303.20 6.72 234.33 308.67 7.23 6.98 T9 233.00 288.80 6.73 274.67 322.67 8.86 7.80 T10 252.67 315.60 7.97 283.67 336.67 9.55 8.76 T11 132.67 251.20 3.33 189.33 263.00 4.98 4.16 T12 147.67 203.20 3.00 191.33 230.00 4.40 3.70 T13 157.00 226.40 3.55 197.67 246.33 4.87 4.21 Mean 141.40 249.49 3.67 199.03 261.28 5.37 4.51 S. Em ± 12.37 9.37 0.37 28.36 20.710 0.75 0.58 C. D at 5% 36.11 27.36 1.09 82.78 60.45 2.19 1.69 REFERENCES Ma, J.F., Tamai, K., Miatani, N., Konishi, S., Katsuhara, M., Nayar, P.K., Misra, A.K. and Patnaik, S. 1975. Rapid micro- Ishiguro, M., Murata, Y. and Yano, M. 2006. A silicon determination of silicon in rice plant. Plant and Soil, 42: transporter in rice. Nature, 440:668-691. 491-494. Ma, J.F., Miyake, Y. and Takahashi, E. 2001. Silicon as a Singh, M.K., Verma, U.N., Pal, S.K. and Thakur, R. 1999. beneficial element for crop plants. In: Silicon in Efficacy of slow release nitrogen fertilizers for rice and Agriculture. (Eds.): L.E. Datnoff and G.H. Snyder. their residual effect on wheat. Indian J. of Agron. 44(2): Elsevier, New York, USA. 216 – 218. Naik, S.K. 1985. Studies on physico-chemical changes in Tondon, H.L.S. 1993. Methods of Analysis of Soils, Plant, Alphonso and Ratna mango (Mangifera indica L.) fruits Waters and Fertilizers., fertilizer Development and during growth, development and storage. M. Sc. (Agri.) Consultation Organisation 204-204 A Bhanot Corner, 1-2 thesis submitted to Dr. Balasaheb Sawant Konkan Krishi Pampesh Enclave New Delhi : 54-55. Vidyapeeth, Dapoli, Dist. Ratnagiri (M.S.). Mukherjee, S.K. 1951. The origin of mango. Indian J. Genet., 2: 49. 88 Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______ Effect of fly ash combination with and without organic fertilizer on physico-chemical properties of vertisol THANESHWAR KUMAR*,K.TEDIA, R.G.GOSWAMI,A.K.SINGH,VENUREDDY CHALLA AND CHETAN KURREY Department of Soil Sciences & Agricultural Chemistry, Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Raipur - 492012 (C.G), Received: 19.11.14 Accepted: 09.04.15 ABSTRACT Field experiment were conducted in farmer field around National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC) Sipat, Bilaspur (C.G.) during kharif season 2013 to evaluate different doses of fly ash(20,40,60 t ha-1) combination with and without organic fertilizer on physico-chemical properties of soil. The results generated showed that fly ash integrated with recommended fertilizers and FYM imprinted significant positive effect on major nutrient availability in soil. Higher soil organic carbon content of soil recorded in fly ash applied with organic fertilizer. Application of increasing doses fly ash with and without FYM was found to increase water holding capacity and the highest recorded under application of 75 % GRD + 60 t ha-1 fly ash + 5 t FYM ha-1 and tended to marginal decrease bulk density and particle density of soil and there effect was non significant. Key words: Available nutrients, Fly ash, FYM, Physical properties and Rice. Fly ash, chemically an amorphous ferro-alumino silicate treatment before transplanting the rice. The plough layer 0 – 15 generated from coal-feed power plants, is a loose waste cm of the soil and fly ash was characterized for various material. The generation of fly ash depends on type and ash parameters and data are presented in Table 1.The use of fly ash content of the coal being used. In India, the coal used thermal in the experiment collected from National Thermal Power power generation of fly ash may exceed 175 million tonnes (mt) Corporation (NTPC), Shipat, and Bilaspur (C.G.). 2012, which would require about 40,000 hectares land for the The pH was measured with pH meter using 1:2.5 soil construction of ash ponds. Though there has been a constant water suspensions (Black, 1965). The clear suspension extract increase in the fly ash utilization yet the unutilized fraction is obtained from pH was also utilized for EC measurement using growing considerably, increasing 39 Mt in 1993-94 to 70 Mt in conductivity bridge (Black, 1965). Soil texture was determined 2006-2007 (Singh, 2010). by International Pipette Method as described by Piper (1966). Presence of essential plant nutrients such as N, P, K, Ca, Available N was determined by alkaline permanganate method Mg, S and micronutrients make it a source of plant nutrients as described by Subbiah and Asija (1956). Available P was (Pandey and Singh, 2010) and increases yield of several crops determined by Olsen method using 0.5 M sodium bicarbonate by its application. In combination with organic manure, fly ash (pH 8.5) as an extractant (Jackson, 1978). Available K was can enhance soil microbial activities, nutrient availability and determined by flame photometer using 1N neutral ammonium plant productivity (Sikka and Kansal, 1995). acetate method described by Jackson (1978).Organic carbon Fly ash utilized in the cement and construction industries, was determined by Walkley and Black rapid titration method as with the remainder trucked to landfills or piped to setting ponds, described by Black (1965).Particle density, porosity and bulk however the rate of production is greater than consumption. The density of soil was estimated by Core Sampler method (Piper, disposal of such huge amount of fly ash is one of the major 1966).The water holding capacity (WHC) of soil was measured problems of developing countries. Dumping of fly ash affect the by a WHC apparatus as described in Piper (1944). quality of surface and ground water, soil and vegetation of the Statistical analysis area. Beside these, the use of fly ash in agriculture fields is a The recorded data were subjected to statistical analysis by good alternative. Fly application in agricultural soil has shown the standard analysis of variance technique (Gomez & Gomez, promising results in crop production due to its high mineral 1984). contents and unique physicochemical properties (Khan and RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Bhardwaj, 2002). The application of fly ash changes the soil Properties of studied materials (Soil, fly ash and FYM) properties and it may increase or decrease crop yield (Pandey et. Physio-chemical properties of coal fly ash depend on their al., 2009). origin and the composition of coal used for combustion. Fly ash MATERIAL AND METHODS used in the study in sandy loam in texture. Low value of its A field experiment was carried out at farmer field, Village particle density established its potential for dust formation and Dawndih, Block Masturi, District Bilaspur (C.G.) with medium water holding capacity. The soil in was clay in texture, Randomized Block Designin three replications during the year neutral in reaction, normal in soluble salts. The soil was low in 2013. The experiment comprised of eight treatment available nitrogen and phosphorus and high in potassium. The combinations with three levels of fly ash (20, 40 and 60 t ha-1) physical and chemical properties of soil fly ash and FYM is and FYM (5 t ha-1).Fly ash and FYM applied as per the given in Table 1 and 2. 89 Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______ Table 1. Initial properties of soil. Properties Soil Fly ash Sand (%) 17 68 Silt (%) 32 28 Clay (%) 51 4 Textural Class Clay Sandy Loam Table 2. Initial physico- chemical properties of soil, fly ash and FYM. Properties Soil Fly ash FYM pH 7.60 8.1 8.2 EC( dS m-1) 0.23 0.18 0.2 Available N (kg ha-1) 148.60 0.028(%) 0.98(%) Available P (kg ha-1) 5.04 0.018(%) 0.174(%) Available K (kg ha-1) 301.48 0.106(%) 0.833(%) Organic carbon (%) 0.60 3340 1086 Bulk density( gm cm-3) - 0.83 0.55 Particle Density(g cm-3) 2.45 1.93 - Water Holding Capacity (%) 33.84 49.04 60.56 Effect of fly ash on available nutrient (N, P and K) contents of Available K status of soil increased when application of fly soil ash bended with organic and inorganic fertilizer over control and The effect of different doses of fly ash combined with and GRD. All the treatment combinations showed in increases available without FYM on available nutrients in soil at harvest in presented in K as compare to control. The hydroxide and carbonate salts give fly Table 3 & Fig. 1. Application of 20 t Fly ash ha-1 combined with ash one of its principle beneficial chemical characteristics and organic and inorganic fertilizer recorded highest available nitrogen provide available nutrients (Cetin and Pehlivan, 2007). Application (179.80 kg ha-1), followed by 40 and 60 t fly ash ha-1 combination of chemical fertilizer and other organic wastes in an integrated with organic and inorganic fertilizer while absolute control showed manner may bring changes in decomposition process and hence the lowest (137.98 kg ha-1). Application of 75% GRD + 20 t ha-1 likely to altered the nutrient release pattern of the soil. Similar effect fly ash, 75% GRD + 40 t ha-1fly ash, 75% GRD + 40 t ha-1 fly ash + of fly ash on soil available K was also reported by Bhople et al., 5 t ha-1 and 75% GRD + 60 t ha-1 fly ash + 5 t ha-1 FYM showed (2011). similar soil available nitrogen. FYM stimulate growth and activity Effect of fly ash on organic carbon content of the soil of micro-organisms (Babhulkar et al., 2000) which is turned soil The organic carbon content (Table 3) was found to be conserved soil nitrogen and increased the availability of other improved significantly in different fly ash treatments when applied nutrients as being constituents as well as mineralized native source with addition of FYM over control because FYM contains from the soil (Kwakye, 1988). Simlar finding are also observed by considerable amount of organic matter. Application of 20, 40 and Rautaray et al., (2003) and Maiti, (2003). 60 t ha-1 fly ash combination with organic and inorganic fertilizer The application of different doses fly ash combination with was significantly increased organic carbon content of soil as organic and inorganic fertilizer at harvest increased significantly compare to control. The faster decomposition of organics under the available phosphorus content of the soil as compare to GRD. influence of chemical fertilizer, because fly ash opens the pore Application of 75% GRD + 20 t ha-1fly ash + 5 t ha-1 FYM recorded space of soil, ultimately enhancing the rate of organic matter highest phosphorus content of the soil. Calcium in fly ash readily decomposition. The increase in organic carbon content rice might reacts with acid component in soil and release nutrients beneficial to be due to improved physical conditions there by higher root growth crop plants and soil. Fly ash improves nutrients status of the soil which might have added organic carbon. A similar result was also (Rautray et al., 2003, Yadava et al., 2005). A similar result was also found by Das et al., 2013, Bhople et al., 2011. reported by Lee et al., (2007). Table 3. Effect of fly ash doses and in combinations with and without organic fertilizer on organic carbon and available major nutrients (N, P, K) contents of soil. Treatments Available Nutrients (kg ha-1) Organic Carbon (%) N P K T1-Control 0.65 137.31 5.02 289.30 T2-GRD (100:60:40) 0.72 154.04 5.35 323.94 -1 T3-75%GRD + 20 t fly ash ha 0.71 166.59 5.08 313.94 -1 T4-75% GRD + 40 t fly ash ha 0.69 170.77 5.76 326.95 -1 T5- 75% GRD + 60 t fly ash ha 0.68 162.41 5.84 330.55 -1 -1 T6-75% GRD + 20 t fly ash ha + 5 t FYM ha 0.77 179.10 7.55 347.47 -1 -1 T7- 75% GRD + 40 t fly ash ha + 5 t FYM ha 0.78 175.28 7.23 346.16 -1 -1 T8-75% GRD + 60 ton fly ash ha + 5 t FYM ha 0.76 171.10 6.42 336.49 SEm± 0.01 4.86 0.31 7.93 CD (P=0.05) 0.05 14.76 0.94 24.07 90 Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______Effect of fly ash on physical properties of the soil. The water holding capacity of soil is significantly The changes in bulk density, particle density, porosity and increased in increasing doses of fly ash combination with and water holding capacity of the top (0-15 cm) soil as affected by without FYM. Among the treatments applied 75% GRD + 60 t different treatments are presented in Table 4.The bulk density ha-1fly ash + 5 t ha-1 FYM recorded highest and control lowest was decreased in the increasing doses of fly ash with and water holding capacity of soil. Application of fly ash in clay soil without FYM. Application of 20 and 40 t ha-1 fly ash improved the soil structure which is turn improve porosity, combination with and without organic fertilizer showed similar workability, root penetration and moisture retention capacity of bulk density was observed. Decrease in bulk density with the soil (Kene et al. 1991).Similar finding also reported by increasing fly ash addition has also been reported in other Bhople et al.2011.The results of porosity indicated that effect of studies and leads to improve soil, workability of the soil, root the different treatments was non significant. However, it slightly penetration and increased moister retention capacity of the soil. increased with fly ash application with and without FYM as This ultimately results in better availability of plant nutrient and compare to control and GRD. Similar observation also reported enhances plant root proliferation in the soil(Jala and Goyal by Aggarwal et al. (2009).The soluble calcium of the fly ash 2010).Similar observation are also reported by and Yeledhalli et provides congeal atmosphere for the for the dispersed alkali soil al. (2008) and Sharma and Kalra (2006).The particle density of particles and organic matter content of this ash provides much soil showed that the increasing doses fly ash applied in needed protective action to stabilize the physical environment combination with and without organic fertilizer in marginal improved by the calcium. decrease. The particle density was varied between 2.37 to 2.50 g cm-3 in different treatments. Table 4. Effect of fly ash doses and in combinations with and without organic fertilizer on bulk density, particle density, porosity and water holding capacity of soil. Treatments Bulk density Particle density Porosity Water holding (g cm-3) (g cm-3) (%) capacity (%) T1-Control 1.49 2.50 56.45 39.06 T2-GRD (100:60:40) 1.39 2.48 57.24 39.55 -1 T3-75%GRD + 20 t fly ash ha 1.44 2.43 58.38 41.11 -1 T4-75% GRD + 40 t fly ash ha 1.43 2.41 58.43 41.53 -1 T5- 75% GRD + 60 t fly ash ha 1.33 2.39 54.52 42.44 -1 T6-75% GRD + 20 t fly ash ha + 5 t FYM 1.44 2.41 58.80 43.31 ha-1 -1 T7- 75% GRD + 40 t fly ash ha + 5 t FYM 1.43 2.39 59.07 44.29 ha-1 -1 T8-75% GRD + 60 t fly ash ha + 5 t FYM 1.40 2.37 58.20 46.15 ha-1 SEm± 0.04 0.04 1.83 0.85 CD (P=0.05) NS NS NS 2.59 CONCLUSION Fly ash very widely in its chemical and physical physicochemical properties of soil and thereby the agriculture composition, therefore, the mode of use in agriculture in productivity of land. different depends on the characteristics of soil and soil type. The integrated use of fly ash with farm yard manure and chemical ACKNOWLEDGEMENT fertilizer improves physical and chemical properties, yield and The authors thankful to Dr. K. Tedia, Principal Scientist, nutrient content of soil. Such integrated plant nutrition systems Deptt. of Soil Science & Agricultural Chemistry, IGKV Raipur not only improve the soil health but also result in saving of (C.G.) for his constant inspiration and support. The authors also fertilizer to a considerable extent in rice production. Keeping in thankful to Dr. R.K. Bajpai, Prof & Head, Deptt. of Soil Science mind the acceptability and ease of application, the treatment & Agricultural Chemistry, IGKV, Raipur (C.G.) for providing consisting of combination of fly ash organic and inorganic necessary facilities. fertilizer was revealed to be the best treatment with respect to 91 Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______REFERENCES Aggarwal, S., Singh, G.R and Yadav, B.R. 2009. Utilization of Fly Kwakye, P.K. 1988. The influence of organic matter in combination ash for Crop Production: Effect on the Growth of Wheat and with mineral fertilizer on crop yield and soil properties on a Sorghum Crops and Soil Properties. J. Agric. Phy., 9: 20-23. Savana soil in Ghana under continuous cropping. J. Troep. Agri. 6:56-57. Black, C.A. 1965. Methods of Soil Analysis. Amer. Soc.of Agro. Inc. Publ. Madison, Wisconsin, USA. Lee, C.H., Lee, Y.B., Lee, H. and Kim, P.J. 2007. Reducing phosphorus release from paddy soils by a fly ash gypsum Bhabhulkar, P.S.,Wandile,M. Badole, W.P. and Palpande, S.S. mixture. Bioresource Technol, 98:1980-1984. 2000. Residual effect of long term application of FYM and fertilizers on soil properties (Vertisols) and yield of soybean. Maiti, S.K. 2003. Handbook of methods in environment studies, Vol. 1. J.Indian Soc.Sci., 48:89-92. Air, Noise and Overburden Analysis, ABD Publishers, Jaipur, India. Bhople, B.S., Bhoyan, S.M. and Nimje, A.M. 2011. Impact of fly ash on physical and chemical properties of black cotton soil and yield Olsen, S.R., Cole, C.V., Watnable, F.S. and Dean, L.A. 1954. of sunflower crop. Journal of Soils and Crops., 21(2): 234-238. Estimation of available Phosphorous in soils by extraction with sodium carbonate. U.S.D.A. Cir. 933:1-10. Cetin, S. and Pehlivan, E. 2007.Use of fly ash as a low cost, environmentally friendly alternative to activated carbon for the Pandey, V.C., Singh, N., 2010. Impact of fly ash incorporation in soil removal of heavy metals from aqueous solution. Colloids systems. Agric.Ecosyst. Environ.136:16–27. Surface: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects., 298:83-87. Pandey, V.C., Abhilas, P.C. and Upadhyay, R.N. 2009. Application Das, B.K., Choudhury, B.H. and Das, K.N. 2013. Effect of Integration of fly ash on the growth performance and translocation of toxic of Fly Ash with Fertilizers and FYM on Nutrient Availability, heavy metals within Cajanus cajan L. Implication for safe Yield and Nutrient Uptake of Rice in Inceptisols of Assam, India. utilization of fly ash for agriculture production . J. Hajard. Int. Jour. Advanc. Res. Tec., 2(11): 2278-7763. Mater., 166,255. Gomez, K.A and Gomez, A.A. 1984. Stastical Prosedure for Piper, C.S. 1966. Soil and plant analysis, Inter-Science Publishers Agricultural Research, John Wiley and sons. publication 2nd INC.7, New York. edition. Piper, C.S. 1944. Soil and plant analysis. Interscience, New York. pp. Jackson, M.L. 1978. Soil chemical analysis. Pentice Hall of India Pvt. 270. Ltd. New Delhi Sharma, S.K. and Kalra, N. 2006. Effect on fly ash incorporation on Jala, S. and Goel, D. 2010. Effect of fly ash application on some soil soil properties and plant productivity- a review. J. Sci. Indus. physical properties and microbial activities. Acta Agrophysica., Res., 65:383-390. 16 (2):327-335. Singh,Y. 2010. Fly Ash utilization in India. 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Effect of fly ash, Yadava,R.B.,Das,S.K.,Pathak,P.S.,Bhatt,R.K.,Suresh,G.,Mojumdar organic wastes and chemical fertilizers on yield, nutrient uptake, ,A.B.and Kareemulla, K. 2005. Effect of fly ash application on heavy metal content and residual fertility in a rice–mustard soil physico-chemical properties. In: Proceeding Internation cropping sequence under acid lateritic soils. Bioresource Congress on Fly Ash Utilization held at New Delhi, Dec.4-7, Technology., 90: 275–283. pp.XII 24.1-24. Walkley, A. and Black, C.A., 1934. An examination of method for Yeledhalli, N.A. Prakash, S.S. Ravi, M.V and Narayana Rao, K. determination of soil organic matter and a proposed modification 2008. Effect of flash/pond ash in irrigated vertisols on grain yield of the chromic acid titration method. Soil Science., 37:29-38. and micronutrient content in maize and sunflower. Asian Jour. Environ Sci., 3(1): 29-32. 92 Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______Agricultural development and inclusive growth in India: A case study of Gujarat DEEPAK KUMAR BEHERA Research Scholar, Department of Humanities and Social Science, IIT Madras, Chennai-600036 Received: 24.02.15 Accepted: 09.07.15 ABSTRACT Inclusive growth approach came into being since the launching of the 11th five year plan and is going to stay as a critical aspect determining the sustainability of future agricultural growth in India. Agricultural development is an important component of inclusive growth approach. The broad objective of this paper is to link agriculture development and inclusive growth through farm sector growth driven rural transformation. It has found that agricultural sector growth has increased at a higher rate in Gujarat during 2001-02 to 2010-11 than the India. The growth has been sown higher production of cotton and wheat. It has also influenced some exogenous factors i.e. increased gross cropped and net irrigated area, increase in fertilizer consumption and more use of modern agricultural implements etc. The overall analysis on the growth performance of agriculture and allied activities of Gujarat and India, it seems that Gujarat has facilitated inclusive development in agriculture through the path of livestock and horticulture sector in the view of increasing farm income and farm sector growth. Key words: Agriculture, Economic Growth, Farm Sector, Inclusive Growth and Non-Farm Sector. In India, the Inclusive growth approach got currency ever 1. To examine the GDP growth performance of Gujarat since the launching of the 11th five year plan and it is quite and India across industry groups. likely that the approach is going to stay as a critical strategy of 2. To analysis the sources of agricultural growth development driving the future growth and sustainability of performance of Gujarat since 2000. agriculture in India. While the approach paper of the 11th five 3. To discuss the recent policy initiatives of the year plan (2007-08 to 2011-12) prepared by the Planning government for the agriculture growth and the rural Commission had aimed at achieving faster and more inclusive development in the perception of inclusive growth. growth, the 12th plan (2012-13 to 2017-18) approach paper aims The first section of this paper will examine the economic at achieving faster, sustainable and more inclusive growth. growth performance across various sectors in India and Gujarat Agricultural development is an important component of from 1997-98 to 2010-11. The section two analyses the sources inclusive growth approach. According to the Socio-Economy of agricultural growth performance in Gujarat since 2000. Review of 2011-12 of Gujarat, the gross state domestic product Section three discusses the recent policy initiatives of the (GSDP) of factor cost at constant prices in 2010-11 has been government aimed at the growth of agriculture and rural estimated at Rs. 3652950 million which registered a growth of development in the broader perspective of inclusive growth. 10.5 per cent during the year. On the contrary, in India the GDP Section four concludes the paper highlighting the major of factor cost has been estimated at Rs. 48, 85, 9540 million at outcomes of the agricultural development programmes and the constant prices in 2010-11, registering a growth of 8.4 per cent policy imperatives emerging from the analysis. during the year. The growth of agriculture and allied sectors is Data Sources and Methodology still a critical factor in the overall growth performance of the The data used for analysis in this paper has been drawn Gujarat economy, as agriculture sector still continue to be the from the relevant official reports published by the Government mainstay of almost half of the rural population. During the of Gujarat and the available literature on the performance of the period 2004-05 to 2010-11, the growth of GSDP for agriculture state’s agriculture sector. For examining the performance of sector including animal husbandry has averaged at 10.9 per cent growth in terms of changes in sectoral composition of the gross (Socio Economic Survey of Gujarat 2011). This performance of domestic product (GDP/ GSDP) at the national and state levels, the agricultural sector in Gujarat has been highlighted as a the paper uses the data from the government sources for the miracle driven by several innovative agricultural development period 2001-02, 2007-08 and 2011-12. The paper has also used programmes and interventions launched by the state over the the time series data for the last 14 years i.e., for the period 1997- past one decade (Gulati et al. and shah et al. 2009). 98 to 2010-11 at constant 2004-05 prices through the splicing In this backdrop, this paper examines the issues and techniques. Other data sources are the Directorate of Economic aspects of agriculture development and its implications on and Statistics of Gujarat and India, Ministry of Agriculture of inclusive growth the broader context of India with special focus Gujarat and India etc, planning commission report on 11th and on Gujarat agriculture. This paper assumes significance in the 12th five year plan etc. The paper uses descriptive statistical context of the ‘miracle agricultural growth performance’ methods for the analysis of data, such as Annual Average reported in Gujarat over the past decade one and a half decades. Growth Rate, percentage and splicing method for convert data The broad objective of this paper is to establish a close link into a single base year. between agriculture development and Inclusive Growth. The Relationship between agriculture and inclusive growth specific objectives are:- Inclusive growth is an all encompassing concept, which includes aspects, such as agriculture development, employment 93 Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______generation, poverty reduction and reduced regional inequality. The tables 1 and table 2 show the economic growth Agriculture development may be deemed as the critical aspect performance of Gujarat and India in terms of sectoral growth. of inclusive growth and proves to be a smooth path for In Period-1, Average Annual Growth Rate (AAGR) of achieving social and economic inclusion. The following total Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP) of Gujarat was 3.24 paragraphs present an overview of some of the existing per cent in comparison to India which was 5.73 per cent, much literature on inclusive growth concept. better than Gujarat. In Primary sector the AAGR was -2.32 per Richard Bolt (2004) explained that agriculture growth and cent and where India was in 2.65 per cent. The growth rate rural development have significant potential to achieve inclusive agriculture including animal husbandry was also in negative, - growth among the Asian countries. Hasan and Quibria (2004) 2.17 per cent while in India the growth was 2.48 per cent which also argued that rural poverty generally dominates in most was better than Gujarat’s performance. Both secondary and countries where agriculture is the main source of livelihood. tertiary sectors AAGR were 3.33 per cent and 8.09 per cent in Thus growth of agriculture sector is the key for poverty Gujarat and 4.60 per cent and 8.13 per cent in India. reduction and inclusive growth. Agriculture growth will In Period -2, AAGR of total GSDP of Gujarat was 10.99 enhance economic growth and reduce rural poor by increasing per cent and 7.61 per cent in the case of India which are higher their productivity and incomes. So, agriculture connects than the previous period and Gujarat rapidly overcame India in economic growth and the rural poor (OECD 2006). this period in the matter of growth. The AAGR of primary Sharma et al. (2010) examines that the inclusive growth is sector of Gujarat was 8.62 per cent where as India lies on just essential to develop agriculture on sustainable manner by 2.73 per cent. In agriculture the growth was 11.01 per cent in reducing disguised unemployment in the farm sector in the way Gujarat and only 2.41 per cent in India. This period witnessed of shifting labour to the non-farm sector and increase average higher growth in agriculture than India. The AAGR of both size of land holding resulting marginal productivity of labour secondary and tertiary sector also higher than previous period and land increases. Birthal et al. (2012) examined that which were 13.05 per cent and 10.86 per cent where as the diversification of the agriculture through livestock production growth of India were 9.66 per cent and 8.82 per cent. will accelerate the agriculture growth and it provide livelihood In Period -3, the AAGR of GSDP was 9.58 per cent and support to the small and marginal land holders. Agriculture 8.20 per cent in both Gujarat and India. In the case of primary growth and rising farmers income is important aspect for sector the growth was just 3.34 per cent in Gujarat and 3.58 per inclusive growth in agriculture sector. This can be addressed to cent in India. Agriculture growth performance was not good reduce supply side constraints in agriculture sector (Dev 2010). than previous period, it was 4.80 per cent in Gujarat and 3.17 Economic growth scenarios of India as well as the major per cent in India. The AAGR of Secondary and tertiary sector growing states have not been successful in combining growth are 11.06 per cent and 10.82 per cent in Gujarat and 7.71 per with equity and making growth inclusive. The trickle-down cent and 10.01 per cent in India respectively. process of growth has by passed sectors like agriculture where The Period-4 shows the decadal growth performance of labour is concentrated (Bhalla 2008). Rao (2009) observed that various macro-economic indicators of both Gujarat and India. regional disparity, rising income inequality, inequality of land The AAGR of GSDP of Gujarat is 7.11 per cent and AAGR of holdings and high dependency of workforce are important GDP of India is 6.67 per cent. The growth of primary sector obstacle for inclusive growth in agriculture or equitable was 3.15 per cent and 2.69 per cent in Gujarat and India development in the all sectors of the economy. respectively. This phase did not perform better in agriculture Dixit (2009) explains that agriculture is playing a major sector both in Gujarat and India which was 4.41 per cent and role in Gujarat’s high growth story during the last decade. The 2.44 per cent respectively, though the growth of agriculture in economic growth and its performance depend on the positive Gujarat was more than growth at the national level. In the case correlation between three sectors such as primary, secondary of secondary and tertiary sector, the growth rate was 8.19 per and tertiary. Shah et al. and Gulati et al. (2009) represent that cent and 9.47 per cent in Gujarat and 7.13 per cent and 8.47 per the Gujarat has high and steady growth since 2000 and this cent in India respectively. growth has driven by endogenous factors and role of Period-5 reflects the decadal growth performance of government. Shah et al. (2009) observe that the regional growth different macroeconomic indicators of Gujarat and India. The in agriculture after 2000 was driven by massive expansion in growth rate of the Gujarat economy was more than 10 per cent Rabi wheat cultivation and rapid expansion in BT cotton area where as in the case of India it was 7.64 per cent. This period is and yield. Dholakia and Amey (2011) argued that high growth a miracle phase of Gujarat economy because all the three sector rate of agriculture sector has achieved by structural shifts within growths were higher than India’s growth average. The growth the primary sector in the form of significant diversification of of primary sector was 8.44 per cent for Gujarat and only 3.35 cropping pattern from low value to high value commercial crops per cent for India. This period achieved miracle performance in and with rapid increase in allied activities such as dairying, Gujarat agriculture growth as well which was 10.92 per cent in animal husbandry, fishing and horticulture. comparison to India which was just 3.10 per cent. Growth in Economic Growth and Sectoral Contribution of Gujarat vs. other sectors including secondary and tertiary sector were 11.08 India (1997-98 to 2010-11) per cent and 10.47 per cent in Gujarat and 8.18 per cent and 9.10 per cent in India respectively. 94 Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______Table: 1 AAGR of GSDP among Industry Groups of Gujarat at Constant 2004-05 Prices Year Primary Agriculture Secondary Tertiary Total GSDP 1997-98 to 2001-02 (Period-1) -2.32 -2.17 3.33 8.09 3.24 2002-03 to 2006-07 (Period-2) 8.62 11.01 13.05 10.86 10.99 2007-08 to 2010-11 (Period-3) 3.34 4.80 11.06 10.82 9.58 1997-98 to 2006-07 (Period-4) 3.15 4.41 8.19 9.47 7.11 2001-02 to 2010-11 (Period-5) 8.44 10.92 11.08 10.47 10.21 Note: AAGR = Annual Average Growth Rate, GSDP = Gross State Domestic Product Sources: Data Computed from various years Socio-Economic review of Govt. of Gujarat; Department of Economic and Statistics, Gandhinagar. Table: 2 AAGR of GDP among Industry Groups of India at Constant 2004-05 Prices Year Primary Agriculture Secondary Tertiary Total GDP 1997-98 to 2001-02 (Period-1) 2.65 2.48 4.60 8.13 5.73 2002-03 to 2006-07 (Period-2) 2.73 2.41 9.66 8.82 7.61 2007-08 to 2010-11 (Period-3) 3.58 3.17 7.71 3.58 3.17 1997-98 to 2006-07 (Period-4) 2.69 2.44 7.13 8.47 6.67 2001-02 to 2010-11 (Period-5) 3.35 3.10 8.18 9.10 7.64 Sources: Data Computed from Economic Survey of 2011-12, Govt. of India. Sources of Agricultural Growth Performance of Gujarat (2001- of various crop and non-crop sectors between Gujarat and India 02 to 2010-11) after 2000. Agriculture is a state subject and its development and Production of Crops and Non Crops of Gujarat and India achievement is based on the policies and approaches taken by In the year 1991-92 to 2000-01, total food grains production respective state Governments. In Gujarat, the agriculture growth was 2.02 per cent and in 2001-02 to 2010-11 is 17.90 per cent. As has been rapidly increasing than India as a whole since 2000’s. The compared to India the total food grains production was only 1.34 sources of agriculture growth performance may be explained in per cent since 2000. In Gujarat all food crop production such as terms of exogenous and endogenous variables. The production and total cereals, Wheat, total pulses and non-food crop such as total productivity of food crops, non-food crops and non-crops are oilseeds, cotton, groundnut and tobacco etc have rapidly increased endogenous and exogenous variables like land utilization, land in the period 2001-02 to 2010-11 than the previous decades 1991-92 irrigation, other inputs and Government’s innovative agricultural to 2000-01. As compared to Gujarat, the performance of India was policies. very less or marginal. In the case of high value agriculture such as The table 3, 4 and 5 have shown the agricultural performance milk production increased from 4.51 per cent to 5.79 per cent in the of Gujarat are determined by the growth rate of production, period 1991-92 to 2000-01 and 2001-02 to 2010-11. In case of productivity and area coverage of various crops and non-crops of fruits and vegetable production Gujarat has achieved massive two time periods from 1991-92 to 2000-01 and 2001-02 to 2010-11. growth from 5.15 per cent in 1991-92 to 2000-01 to 12.53 per cent It has also compared the growth rate of production, yield and area in 2001-02 to 2010-11 (see table 3). Table: 3 AAGR of Production of Major crops and non-crops sectors Production Variables 1991-92 to 2000-01 2001-02 to 2010-11 2001-02 to 2010-11 (India) Total Cereals 2.58 18.08 1.20 Total pulses -1.40 16.56 3.53 Total Food grains 2.02 17.90 1.34 Wheat 2.56 28.02 1.80 Total oilseeds 18.03 33.89 5.03 Cotton 7.18 26.65 23.43 Groundnut 47.99 224.85 0.72 Tobacco -2.12 18.58 1.59* Milk 4.51 5.79 4.43 Fruits and Vegetables 5.15 12.53 - Total Horticulture 5.04 12.85 - Sources: Computed from the Data of Directorate of Economic and Statistics and Ministry of Agriculture, Government of Gujarat, Gandhinagar; Agricultural Statistics Report of Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. of India. Productivity of Crops and Non-Crops of Gujarat and India 2001-02 and 2010-11 but India is only 0.63 per cent. The The Productivity Growth of total food grains has productivity oilseeds is equal both Gujarat and India after increased from 0.08 per cent in 1999-2000 to 5.08 per cent in 2000’s. The cotton was in negative before 2000 in Gujarat but 2001-10 in Gujarat, where as productivity of food grains growth achieved massive growth as 28.60 per cent after 2000’s where in India was only 1.07 per cent during the period 2001-10. So it as the figure is good in India too. The yield of milk has shows that Gujarat performance in food grains production and increased to 1.29 per cent during 2001-02 to 2010-11. The productivity is higher in 2001-10 than the 1991-2000. Between productivity of tobacco was negative before 2000’s and has 1991-92 and 2000-01, the growth rate of productivity of wheat increased to 1.71 per cent after 2000 in Gujarat (see table 4). was 0.11 per cent and it has increased to 3.45 per cent between 95 Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______ Table: 4 AAGR of Productivity of Major crops and Non-crops Sectors Productivity Variables 1991-92 to 2000-01 2001-02 to 2010-11 2001-02 to 2010-11 (India) Total Cereals 0.47 4.84 0.005 Total pulses -2.94 4.98 1.35 Total Food grains 0.08 5.08 1.07 Wheat 0.11 3.45 0.63 Total oilseeds 0.53 2.62 2.69 Cotton -2.61 28.60 17.41 Groundnut 1.27 3.23 1.25 Tobacco -0.86 1.71 0.19 Milk* 0.34 1.29 - *Milk Yield per animal per day (in Kg.) Sources: Computed from the Data of Directorate of Economic and Statistics and Ministry of Agriculture, Government of Gujarat, Gandhinagar; Agricultural Statistics Report of Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. of India. Area Coverage of Crops and Non-Crops of Gujarat of area has increased more in Wheat crops and milk (No. of During the period 1991-92 to 2000-01, the growth rate of area livestock). The area growths of fruits, vegetables and total of cultivation of Cereals, pulses, food grains, wheat, oilseeds, horticulture have increased more than 10 per cent during 2001- tobacco, milk etc were in negative zone and after 2000’s the 02 to 2010 -11 (see table 5). area of crops and non-crops has increased highly. The growth Table: 5 AAGR of Area of major crops and non-crops sectors Area Variables 1991-92 to 2000-01 2001-02 to 2010-11 2001-02 to 2010-11 (India) Total Cereals -1.80 3.02 -0.13 Total pulses -1.58 1.43 1.94 Total Food grains -1.76 -7.89 0.24 Wheat -2.98 25.94 1.10 Total oilseeds -0.01 0.86 1.84 Cotton 4.38 5.09 2.20 Groundnut 4.36 0.31 -0.46 Tobacco -1.87 3.43 1.14 Milk* -0.79 1.80 - Fruits and Vegetables 9.61 10.53 - Total Horticulture 7.58 10.30 - *Total number of livestock for milk production only in milk Population (00’Nos.) Sources: Computed from the Data of Directorate of Economic and Statistics and Ministry of Agriculture, Government of Gujarat, Gandhinagar; Agricultural Statistics Report of Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. of India. The above three tables have shown that the performance cropped area. The variables of land irrigation are net irrigated of both crop and non-crops have increased rapidly than India area, gross irrigated area, irrigation intensity, the percentage of and this will increase income of the rural people and massive gross irrigated area to gross cropped area and net irrigated area expansion of area and production of livestock product and to net sown area. Both the variables of land utilization and horticulture product brings inclusive growth in agriculture. irrigation are important to estimate the impact of irrigation and Performance of some exogenous variables of Gujarat availability of land on the production and productivity of both Agriculture crops and non-crops of Gujarat agriculture. There are several exogenous factors that mattered in the Table 6 and 7 gives the performance of land utilization growth of agriculture in Gujarat since 2000. The performance and land irrigation area in hectare and also percentage of of some important variables such as rainfall pattern, effective Gujarat. Both the growth rate of net area sown and gross land utilization, efficiency in land irrigation, cropping intensity ( cropped area are 0.31 per cent and 1.56 per cent in 2001-06 per cent of Gross cropped area to net sown area), irrigation which has increased from -0.49 per cent and -0.77 per cent in intensity ( per cent of gross irrigated area to net irrigated area), the period 1980-2000. The percentage change of the previous fertilizer consumption, consumption of electricity and use of year shows that the gross cropped area and net sown area modern agricultural implements etc are discussed in the increased in the year 2001-02 and 2003-04. In the same manner following paragraphs. gross irrigated area and net irrigated area was 13.37 per cent and Land Utilizations and Land Irrigation of Gujarat 14.38 per cent in the period 1980-2000 and it slightly reduced to Agriculture 6.91 per cent and 7.95 per cent from 2001-02 to 2006-07. The The land utilization variables are gross cropped area, net percentage changes per year of net irrigated and gross irrigated sown area, cropping intensity, food cropped area and non-food area have seen that from 2001 onwards the change is increasing. 96 Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______Table: 6 Gross/Net Cropped Area and Irrigated Area of Gujarat (Area in ‘00 hectares) Year Net Sown Area Gross Cropped Area Net Irrigated Area Gross Irrigated Area 1980-81 95765 (-) 107459 (-) 20026 (-) 23344 (-) 1990-91 92962 (-2.92) 106348 (-1.03) 24376 (21.72) 29105 (24.70) 2000-01 94333 (1.48) 104970 (-1.30) 28060 (15.11) 33421 (14.82) 2001-02 96217 (1.99) 107910 (2.80) 29944 (6.71) 35728 (6.90) 2002-03 94818 (-1.45) 106307 (-1.49) 30461 (1.72) 36370 (1.80) 2003-04 98515 (3.90) 114210 (7.43) 33875 (11.20) 41112 (13.0) 2004-05 97469 (-1.06) 112569 (-1.43) 35276 (4.13) 42795 (4.10) 2005-06 97222 (-0.25) 114947 (2.11) 39074 (10.77) 47642 (11.30) 2006-07 98009 (0.80) 118074 (2.72) 42376 (8.45) 52787 (10.80) 1980-2000 -0.49 -0.77 13.37 14.38 2001-2006 0.31 1.56 6.91 7.95 Sources: Various years Socio-Economic Review, Govt. of Gujarat Note: Parenthesis is the percentage change in the previous years. Cropping intensity and irrigation intensity also increase in from the period 1991 to 2006. This is the reason for the period 2001-02 to 2006-07. The growth of cropping productivity increase in various crops after the 2000. Generally, intensity is 1.23 per cent in 2001-02 to 2006-07 in comparison it has proved that Gujarat is largest producer of commercial to -0.27 in 1980-81. This increase is due to the increase in crops such groundnut, cotton etc and this has brought because Gross cropped area at that period. In Gujarat the percentage of the percentage of area under non-food crop is increasing than gross irrigated area and net irrigated are increasing every year the percentage of food crop (see table 7). Table: 7 Gross and Net Irrigated Area of Gujarat (In per cent) Year Cropping Irrigation GIA/GCA NIA/NSA Food cropped Non-food cropped Intensity Intensity Area Area 1980-81 112.21 116.56 21.72 20.91 51.06 48.93 1990-91 114.39 119.4 27.37 26.22 49.41 50.58 2000-01 111.27 119.1 31.84 29.75 42.07 57.92 2001-02 112.15 119.31 33.11 31.12 42.07 56.96 2002-03 112.11 119.39 34.21 32.13 43.03 56.67 2003-04 115.93 121.36 36 34.39 44.80 55.19 2004-05 115.49 121.31 38.02 36.19 43.49 56.5 2005-06 118.23 121.92 41.85 40.19 44.26 55.73 2006-07 120.47 124.56 44.71 43.24 45.1 54.89 1980-2000 -0.27 0.72 15.53 14.09 -5.86 6.12 2001-2006 1.23 0.73 5.83 6.49 1.20 -0.60 Sources: Various years Socio-Economic Review, Govt. of Gujarat Performance of Other Input Variables in Gujarat electricity and modern agricultural gadgets. The technical Agriculture change in agriculture is possible to use these variables. The other inputs which has influence the agriculture growth of Gujarat are the consumption fertilizers, consumption of Table: 8 Uses of Fertilizer, Electricity and Modern Implements in Agriculture Consumption of fertilizers (Annual Growth rate) 1990-91 to 2000-01 7.39 2001-02 to 2010-11 10.69 Consumption of Electricity (Annual Growth rate) 1990-91 to 2000-01 12.20 2001-02 to 2010-11 -1.53 Agricultural Gadget (’00 numbers) Year Tractor per cent change over the Years Electric Pump per cent change over the Years 1977 146 - 794 1982 281 92.46 1722 116.87 1988 478 70.10 2908 68.87 1992 662 38.49 3356 15.40 1997 1221 84.44 4072 21.33 2003 1476 20.88 4683 15.00 Sources: Various years Socio-Economic Review, Govt. of Gujarat 97 Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______ The tables 8 show that the annual growth rate of distressed farmers, National Agricultural Insurance Scheme consumption of fertilizer (NPK) use in agriculture is rapidly (NAIS) etc. Research and extension is also playing important increasing from 7.39 per cent in 1990-91 to 2000-01 to 10.69 role for creating awareness among farmers. Agricultural per cent in 2001-02 to 2010-11. After 2001-02, fertilizers have Technology Management Agency (ATMA) is the largest been used to great extent in cultivation which has lead to heavy extension programme which is running at the district level with production of crops but damaged the nutrients of soil and active participation of farmers, NGOs, Krishi Vigyan Kendras environmental problems. Consumption of electricity for and Panchayati Raj Institutions etc. agriculture purpose had increased rapidly at the rate of 12.20 per Programme and Policies for Rural Transformation cent between the period 1990-91 to 2000-01 and then it reduced Rural transformation is generally denoted as agricultural massively to -1.53 per cent. This may be due to the restrictions transformation or structural changes in the economy. The coming from Jyotigram rural electrification programme. The meaning of all the term is same; shifting the dependency or Modern agriculture implement have also some impact on absorption of the people on farm sector to the non-farm sector. agriculture production. The use of number of tractors are seen In both 11th and 12th five year plan, the Government has to increase from just 662 in 1992 to 1476 in 2003 and in the prompted various schemes in rural area for the rural same manner the electric pump is increasing 1722 in 1982, 3356 development and uplift rural socio-economic groups. Some of in 1992 and 4683 in 2003. So more use of tractors for the schemes are generally centrally sponsored schemes which ploughing and electric pump for ground water irrigation are are implemented by the state government and they are relating effectively influenced agricultural production and productivity. to poverty reduction, employment generation, provision of Therefore the agriculture growth of Gujarat have very improved health services and access to basic infrastructure (11th much been affecting by cropping and irrigation intensity, and 12th 5 years Plan Approach Paper). There are various fertilizer and electricity consumption and uses of modern flagship programmes operating in rural areas, viz., Mahatma agricultural implements etc and it makes agriculture miracle. Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act Agriculture development and inclusive growth policy (MGNREGA), National Rural Livelihood Mission (NRLM), agenda in Indian planning India Awas Yojana (IAY), National Rural Drinking Water Indian planning model has linked inclusive growth and Programme (NRDWP), Integrated Watershed Development agriculture development as the two angels of development. The Programme (IWDP), Pradhan Mantri Grameen Sadak Yojana first attention is for achieving higher production and (PMGSY), Sanitation and Drinking Water Facilities , health productivity in food and non-food crops and also emphasized on facilities etc (12th 5 year plan report). area and production of the allied activities including horticulture The MGNREGA is the world’s largest universal wage and plantation, livestock, fisheries etc. The second attention employment guarantee programme. The objectives of this job was linked to employment opportunities and reduces rural guarantee programme are empowering rural women, reducing poverty. This is possible by increasing farm wages and rural and urban migration. The total plan expenditure of this increasing employment opportunities in the non-farm sector. In scheme of 11th five year plan was 156301 corers and grand total this case Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment is 691976 corers (11th 5 year plan report). In Gujarat about Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) has provided subsistence 38.88 lakh job cards have been issued and 188.71 lakhs man employment to the rural landless agriculture labour, manual days of employment have been generated up to November 2011 worker etc and improved economic outcomes resulting (Socio-Economic Review 2011). Up to September 2012-13, reduction in distress migration. The government of India has 3771029 job cards has issued, 515428 employments provided implemented various policies and programmes to achieve and total person days generated are 13680365 lakhs (Ministry of inclusive development in agriculture and reduce rural poverty Rural Development, Gujarat). through rural transformations and farm sector growth. Major Policy Initiatives for the Agricultural Development of Programme and Polices for Farm sector growth Gujarat There are two major schemes namely National Food Agriculture development should be viewed as a means to Security Mission (NFSM) and Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana larger goals of employment led economic growth, poverty (RKVY) which were launched in 2007. The NFSM is a food alleviation and self reliance for the proportion of people whose security and nutritional security scheme and its main aim is to livelihoods depend on it and this brings inclusive growth in increase production and productivity of Cereals, pulses. The agriculture development. To achieve such a goal, it requires RKVY is a public investment programme on agricultural technical change in agriculture policy strategy. Technical technologies and modern implements. The objective of this change in agriculture policy refers to technology-led-agriculture programme is to increase the crop productivity in dry land areas growth such as research and extension, integrated farming and extending green revolution to the states of eastern India. system; means seed-cum-resources-centered technology, Policies regarding allied sectors are National Horticulture improved farm input pricing system, irrigation and electricity Mission (NHM), Technology Mission for Integrated facilities and expansion of credit co-operative origination etc Development of horticulture in North Eastern States including (Desai et al. 1997 and Desai et al. 2011). Despite the technical Sikkim, Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and change of agriculture, there is a need for changing policy for Uttrakhand, Insurance facilities for the animal husbandry sector diversification of crop sector to non-crop sector such as strategy etc. Various credit and insurance schemes has been introduced for the development of livestock for milk production, expansion to reduce the distress condition of farmers. These schemes are of horticulture and plantation crops etc. These are basically Kisan Credit Card (KCC) scheme, Rehabilitation package for 98 Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______high value production and it requires effective policy for its farming. The main objective is expansion of research, extension marketing and processing. and technical support to the farmers and is called lab to land In this above background, it can be easily understood that programme that gives knowledge to the farmers. In this major effective policy initiatives are required for the programme large number of agriculture officers, researchers and development of agriculture. Gujarat has proved to be successful scientists are engaged and they visit every village in the districts in implementing some of these policies and make agriculture of Gujarat with ‘Krushi Rath’. It provides information on soil growth miracle after 2000. The major policy and programmes conservation though soil health card scheme, Water in agricultural development of Gujarat are Krishi Mahostav conservation through community based irrigation which is campaign for research and extension support, Soil health card called as water harvesting, Organic farming etc (Socio- faculties for soil conservation, Jyotigram Yojana to provide 24/7 economic review of Gujarat and Department of Agriculture). electricity, Sarda Sarvor Project for the construction of major National Horticulture Mission and medium canal irrigation, management of ground water Gujarat is occupying 4th, 6th and 3rd places in India in irrigation under Sardar Patel Sahakari Jal Sanchaya Yojana etc. production of fruits, Vegetables and spices respectively. In Other Policies include programme for horticulture development other wards horticulture crops are high value crops and demand through Gujarat Horticulture mission, improved market access of these crops is now increasing in the world market. This type through Agricultural produce marketing committee etc. of crop plantation will bring inclusive agriculture development. Irrigation Development Programme So the Government of Gujarat has implemented Nation Irrigation infrastructure is the most important factor in Horticulture Mission from the year 2005-06 with a view to increasing agriculture production. The Government of Gujarat double the horticulture production and income of the rural poor has established water resources development department which (Socio-Economic Review of Gujarat). Various programmes by is estimating the irrigation potential and utilization of surface the state Government are going on to boost the horticulture. and ground water sources. The sources of irrigation from The programme for horticulture development are Gujarat Surface water are major & medium irrigation canals, under Horticulture Mission, Women Empowerment, upliftment of Sujalam Suphalam Yojana, Minor irrigation schemes and poor farmers, Input Subsidy for Horticulture, Establishment and indirect benefits through percolation tanks, check dams etc strengthening nursery, Extension Activity, Exhibition and under the Sardar Sarovar project Yojana. The sources of ground Competition of Horticulture crops and Financial Assistance etc water are government tube wells, tanks and other sources (Report on horticulture in Gujarat 2009). These programmes including khet talavadi, Boribandh and Check dam etc. Surface help to reduce rural poverty by increasing and also stabilize water irrigation potential is 3.l million hectares and maximum farmer’s income and bring inclusive agriculture development in utilization is 2.3 million hectares; the ground water irrigation Gujarat. potential and maximum utilization are 0.087 million hectares Improved Agricultural Marketing and 0.12 million hectare respectively till 2011 (Socio-Economic India agricultural marketing is being promoted through Review 2011). Agricultural Price Monitoring Committee (APMC Act). Rural Electrification Programme Gujarat is one of the leading states that have implemented this Gujarat’s agriculture growth miracle has been driven by APMC Act since 2003 (Economic survey of India 2010). There improved rural power supply under the Jyotigram Scheme. are different stages of reforms have been taking place in the Before this scheme, the mechanization was in bankrupt due to APMC Act through Direct marketing, Contract farming and uncontrolled power subsidies to the farmers. To control power markets in private or cooperative sectors since 2007 in Gujarat subsidies and overcome the debt problem of Gujarat Electricity (Gulati et al. 2009). These reforms are helping farmers to Board, the Government started initiatives including reduced directly sell their produce to wholesalers and exporters with a hours of three phase power connection used by the tube-well good profit margin and the government of Gujarat has also owners, providing 24 hours single or double phase power encouraged policies to promote sale of diversified high value supply for domestic users and provide only single phase crops (Shah et al. 2009). connection to the farmer who are using heavy motor-pumps. This decision of Gujarat Electricity Board had turned CONCLUSION agriculture and farmer as the main looser customers. In 2003, the Government of Gujarat implemented the This study promises to examine the agricultural growth Jyotigram Scheme or known as ‘Lighted Village Scheme’ performance of Gujarat and India. The growth of agriculture through the cooperation of International Water Management was higher than 10 per cent for Gujarat during the year 2001-02 institute (IWMI) and its main aim was to provide 24*7 three to 2010-11 while economic growth was also high at 10.21 per phase full power supply. But the implementation of this goal cent. But in the previous decade the agriculture growth was just was depended on effective rationing system and imposed on 4 per cent while economic growth was 7 per cent. So, it proved those who are using illegal power consumption. Now this that agricultural growth is positively related to economic scheme is providing three phases full voltage power supply for growth. The study found that when agriculture contribution of agriculture and farmers among 18000 odd villages across Gujarat GDP is increased, the economic growth is also Gujarat at the consistent time and scheduled (Gulati et al. 2009). increased. It was seen that both the periods 2002-03 to 2006-07 and 2001-02 to 2010-11 are superior in terms of primary and Krushi Mahostav Campaign Programme agriculture sector growth in Gujarat which was always better It is a flagship programme which was started in 2005 in than the India. Gujarat. Krushi Mahostav is a programme of creating The growth performance of agriculture of Gujarat has awareness among farmers through providing information on been influenced by the growth of total cereals, total pulses, total 99 Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______food grains, wheat, total oilseeds, groundnut and tobacco. The Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana, National Horticulture performances of crop growth were more than 10 times than that programme, Research and extension programme etc. The major of Indian agriculture growth of all the crops. The production policies of rural India are wage employment programme and area of diversification crops like livestock, fruits and (MNREGS), drinking water and sanitation campaigning, house vegetables, total horticulture were also higher in Gujarat than facilities for the rural poor etc which have initiated both in India during the period 2001-02 to 2010-11. The sources of Gujarat and India as a whole. The study found that the growth achievement of crops and non-crops of Gujarat have performance of the recent policy initiatives could not be been influenced by massive growth of net irrigated area, gross evaluated in a short period of time and its effective evaluation is irrigated area, and increased gross irrigated area to gross based on good governance for the inclusive development. cropped area, net irrigated area to net sown area, percentage of area on food crops and non-food crops etc. The agriculture ACKNOWLEDGEMENT development of Gujarat has increased after 2000’s due to I am very thankful to Prof. P.K. Viswanathan of GIDR, effective agricultural policy relating to irrigation, electrification, Ahmedabad for his valuable comments and suggestions on an research, extension, subsidies and fertilizer consumption etc. earlier draft of this paper. I take full responsibility of any errors There are different policy initiatives that have made both and omissions remaining. 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Ahmadabad: Indian Institute of Poverty: A Critique of Agricultural Fundamentalism. Management. Kyklos , 253-264. Dholakia. R.H. and Amey A Sapre. (2011). Gujarat's Growth Rao, C.H.H. (2009). Inclusive Growth: Recent Experience and Story. Economic and Political Weekly , 56(32): 122-124. Challenges Ahead. Economic and Political Weekly , 54(13): 16-21. Dixit, A.K. (2009). Agriculture in a High Growth State: Case of Gujarat (1960 to 2006). Economic and Politcal Weekly , 54(50): 64-71. 100 Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______ Improvement of traditional rain water harvesting structures for multiple use of water through ifs modules under farmers’ participatory action research programme B. BORKOTOKI*, P. BARUAH**, A.K.SARMAH, P.C. DEKA, A. M.BEGUM, R.PEGU, B.K. NEOG AND S.N. DEKA Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Sonitpur, Assam Agricultural University, Napam, Tezpur Received: 15.02.15 Accepted: 06.07.15 ABSTRACT Availability of water for agricultural use has been reducing due to growing water scarcity and competing water demands. Efforts are needed to utilize the available limited water resources efficiently and effectively to increase water productivity by adopting suitable IFS modules. To increase water productivity vis-a –vis to provide better employment in farm sector, a Farmers Participatory Action Research Programme (FPARP) on water management was carried out by Krishi Vigayan Kendra Sonitpur, Assam during 2011-12. An IFS module integrating horticultural crops, fisheries and poultry component was adopted for judiciously using harvested rainwater from a renovated traditional rain water harvesting structure under the FPARP. The study revealed markable increase in water productivity and other parameters in the IFS module adopted for multiple use of water in comparison to the conventional system. The daily per capita availability of energy in (K cal) was recorded to be 551.97 in conventional system and 851.14 under multiple use of water. The B:C ratio increased from 3.2 (conventional system) to 4.7 in multiple use. In conventional system water requirement (ha cm), WUP (kg/ha.cm), labour requirement (man days/ha) and labour use efficiency (kg/ha/labour) were recorded to be 90, 27.28, 16 and 14.2, respectively and their corresponding values recorded in multiple use of water were 240, 40.5, 83 and 25.5. Key words: FPARP, IFS and Multiple Use of Water. Water occupies 70.9% of the Earth’s surface, and is experiencing economic water scarcity, where the lack of critical for all known forms of living beings. About 96.5% of investment in water or insufficient human capacity makes it the Earth’s water is found in oceans, 1.7% as groundwater, impossible to satisfy the demand for water. The report found 1.7% in the form of glaciers and the ice caps, a small fraction in that it would be possible to produce the food required in future, other large water bodies, and 0.001% in the air as vapour, but that continuation of today’s food production and clouds, and precipitation (Gleick,1993). Only 2.5% of the environmental trends would lead to crisis in many parts of the Earth’s water is fresh water of which, 98.8% of water is present world. To avoid a global water crisis, farmers will have to strive as glaciers and groundwater. Less than 0.3% of the total to increase productivity to meet growing demands for food, freshwater is present in rivers and lakes, and an even smaller while industry and cities will have to find ways to use water amount of the Earth’s freshwater (0.003%) is conserved within more efficiently (Chartres and Varma, 2010). biological bodies and manufactured products (Gleick, 1993). Keeping all these in view, a Farmers’ Participatory Action There is an unambiguous correlation between access to Research Programme (FPARP Phase II) on water management pure water and GDP . Conversely, many observers have was carried out by Krishi Vigayan Kendra Sonitpur, Assam estimated that by 2025 more than half of the world population funded by Ministry of Water Resources, Govt. of India under will be facing water-linked vulnerability (Kulshreshtha, 1998). AICRP on water management, Assam Agricultural university A recent report suggests that by 2030, in some developing (AAU), Jorhat-13 during 2011-12 with an objective to increase regions of the world, water demand will exceed supply by 50% water use efficiency vis-à-vis to provide better employment in (2030 –Water Resource Group, 2009). It is important to note the farm sector. that that approximately 70% of the fresh water used by humans Materials and Methods: goes to agriculture (Baroni et. al., 2007). Rural Development by proper management of precious Five decades before, the ordinary perception was that natural resource water was tested in FPARP Phase II funded by water was a never-ending resource. On the other hand, the Ministry of Water Resources, Govt. of India under AICRP on competition for the fixed amount of water resource is much water management, AAU, Jorhat-13 at two different locations more intense at present time (Gleick, 2010). In future, even of Sonitpur district of Assam by Krishi Vigyan Kendra, more water will be required to produce food and fulfil the Sonitpur, Assam. demand of the earth’s population because the Earth’s population Improvement of traditional rain water harvesting structure is forecast to rise up to 9 billion by 2050 (UNPR, 2007). Assam has rich tradition of water harvesting which is International Water Management Institute in Sri Lanka evident from the number of old ponds located throughout the conducted an assessment of water management in agriculture in state. Unfortunately many of the traditional water harvesting 2007 to see if the world had required water to provide food for structures have fallen into disuse due to expansion of its growing population (Molden, 2007). It was observed that government water supply schemes. Therefore, there is a great more than 1.2 billion people in the world, live in areas of possibility of using these rainwater harvesting structures for physical water scarcity, where there is not enough water to meet supplementing irrigation during rabi seasons to increase their all demands. Further 1.6 billion people live in areas economic utility. Government of Assam through the draft water 101 Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______policy (section 9.7.4) declared that afford would be made to modernize the traditional rain water harvesting method through proper input of modern science and technology. For RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Improvement of traditional rain water harvesting structures The programme was undertaken covering 2 villages with following steps were followed. 14 numbers of beneficiaries in Sonitpur district of Assam with 1. Selection of suitable site of pond. following technologies provided by AICRP centre,AAU,Jorhat- 2. Determination of size and depth of pond. 13 ie. Improvement of traditional Rainwater harvesting structure 3. Harvesting of rain water during rainy season. and multiple use of water 4. Estimation of loss of harvested water. Technology on Improvement of traditional rainwater harvesting structure and multiple use of water was demonstrated 5. Amount of water required for irrigation and day to day use in two locations of Sonitpur District viz. Koroioni Bengali and the water required for day to day use + 20 % water was Village and Sootea. Where, one number of defunct traditional considered to be the volume of water harvesting tank. rainwater harvesting structure has been completely renovated in For example: to irrigate two crops in 1 ha land with 5 cm each location for supplement irrigation during rabi season thus irrigation for two times the volume of pond should at least be increasing its economic utility. Before renovation there was 2400 m2 (40 m length x 30 m width x 2 m depth) hardly any water in the ponds during rabi seasons. The ponds The following management practices were followed to have been renovated in such a way that could provide year enhance water retention during dry season. round water availability to a group of farmers for IFS activities 1. 20: 5:1 Mud: Na2CO3: NaCl was used to plaster the pond well as a source of irrigation water for rabi crops thus increasing bottom. the WUP up to 40.5 kg/ha. cm (Fig 1). Good works have also 2. After 10 days of sun drying , the pond bottom and sides of been conducted in NE India Improvement of traditional the pond up to 15 cm height was plastered with a mixture of 10: rainwater harvesting structure (Kumar, et. al., 2011). Multiple use of water aims to increase water productivity by adopting 1: 1 ( Clay Soil : Chopped rice husk: Cow dung). IFS model using fish-duck- horticulture as three basic 3. To prevent the soil erosion from the dyke, barriers using components. At first, renovated farm ponds have been amended locally available bamboos have been constructed in the initial with lime. Thereafter, fish fingerlings were released in properly stages. developed ponds. Duck houses were constructed above the 4. The dyke of the pond was pasted with heavy top soil along water body to utilize their litter as pond manure. Nutrient rich with grass to prevent erosion. pond water is used to irrigate horticultural crops grown on the Multiple use of water: Rural household system of Assam bank. Comparison of the two systems is presented in Table 1. traditionally encompasses different crops, fruit plants, and Perusal of data reviles that benefit cost ratio in multiple were livestock and fish ponds with different technology packages. 4.17 compared to 3.2 in traditional system. The daily per capita Altogether nine technology packages on integrated farming availability of energy in (K cal) was recorded to be 551.97 in were so far being developed for NE region that involves conventional system and 851.14 under multiple use of water multiple use of water with a basic objective to increase the (Table2). Many workers have reported better efficiency of water productivity. One among them that includes horticultural multiple use of water compared to traditional systems (Van et crops, fish and poultry has good acceptance and potential where al, 2009, Sikka et al., 2010). Channabasavanna and Biradar bio-waste from poultry are recycled into the fish pond to (2007) reported that IFS consumed 36% higher water than the substitute fish feed by promoting the growth of aquatic plants conventional system of rice-rice but the water use efficiency and providing nutrient for horticultural crops through nutrient was 71% higher in IFS than conventional system .Earlier, rich pond irrigation water as was used in your study. Jayanthi et al., (2000) indicated that integrated farming requires less water per unit of production than mono-cropping systems. Table 1. Multiple use of water (Av data for 2 locations, calculations made for 0.13 ha pond) Items Traditional Practice Multiple use of water (Before intervention) (Probable outcome after a year after intervention) Production Cost Income Production Cost Income Eggs - - -- 3680 Nos 2400.00 Rs. 18400.00 @60/duck @ Rs.5.00/egg Live duck - - - 40 kg 12000.00 @ Rs.300/duck fish 250.0 kg 5375.00 25000.00 600.00 kg 7860.00 60000.00@ Rs.100/kg (Rs.21.5/kg fish) (Rs. 13.1/kg fish) Horticultural crop Banana=50q (0.13 ha) Rs.18530.00 Rs.40000.00 (Rs.8/kg) Assam lemon = 6000 nos Rs.12000.00 (Rs.2/kg) ( 40 plants) Rs.5670.00 Turmeric= 4q/0.03 ha Rs.4000.00 Rs. 600.00 (Rs.10/kg) Total 5375.00 25000.00 35060.00 146,400.00 102 Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______B:C ratio 3.2 4.17 Table 2: Daily per capita availability of food, Energy and protein Food item System of water use Daily Per Daily Per Daily Per Capita Avail. Capita Capita Protein (g) Energy Avail. availability (Kcal) (g) Rice Conventional 120.2 416.03 8.18 Multiple 190.1 657.96 12.95 Pulse Conventional 15.0 51.70 3.15 Multiple 34.5 118.93 7.25 Banana Conventional 0 0 0 Multiple 72 53.89 0.76 Vegetables Conventional 0 0 0 Multiple 4.0 4.09 0.695 Fish Conventional 136.2 84.24 3.51 Multiple 8.8 9.02 1.53 Eggs Conventional 0 0 0 Multiple 4.0 7.25 5.56 Fig 1: Relative efficiency of water and labour in traditional system and IFS CONCLUSION facility and scope for multiple water use. Considering horticultural crops, fish and duck farming as components of an The technologies under FPARP have received considerable Integrated Farming System (IFS) model demonstrated in two attention and acceptance of the farmers and have fitted well for locations in Sonitpur district of Assam fetched a high income the purpose of increasing water use efficiency and water generation for the farmers. productivity.The renovation of traditional rain water harvesting structures using farm ponds provided a low cost irrigation 103 Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______REFERENCES 2030 Water Resource Group (2009). http://www. mckinsey.com/App_Media/Reports/Water/Charting_Our_ Kulshreshtha, S.N. (1998). "A Global Outlook for Water Water_Future_FullReport_001.pdf. Resources to the Year 2025". Water Resources Management, 12(3): 167–184. Baroni, L., Cenci, L., Tettamanti, M., Berati, M. (2007). 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Earthscan/IWMI Goenaga R and Irizarry H (1998) Yield of banana grown with Sikka A. K., Bhatnagar P. R., Haris A. A., Kaushal D. K., supplemental drip irrigation on an Ultisol. Expl Agric, Prasad L. K., Dey A.,Reddy A. R., Kumar U. (2010). 34:439-448 Productive utilisation of waterlogged areas throughmultiple use system in eastern India. Research Hedge, D.M. and Srinivas, K. (1990). Growth, productivity Bulletin R-24/PAT-14, Patna, India ICAR Research and water use of banana under drip and basin irrigation in Complex for Eastern Region. relation to evaporation replenishment. Indian Journal of Agronomy 35:106-112 United Nations Press Release POP/952, 13 March 2007. World population will increase by 2.5 billion by 2050. Jayanthi, C., Rangasamy, A. and Chinnusamy, C. (2000). Water budgeting for components in lowland integrated Van Koppen B., Smits S. and Mikhail M., (2009). farming systems. Agricultural Journal, 87(7/9): 411- 414. Homestead- and community-scale multiple-use water services: unlocking new investment opportunities to Koza, T., Zirebwa, J and Nehumai, I. 1998. Treadleump achieve the Millennium development Goals. Irrigation testing project report. Harare, Institute of Agricultural and Drainage, vol. 58(1):73–86. Engineers (IAE). 104 Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______ Geographical indications: A Tool for Indian traditional food industry REWA KUMARI1 AND JAGBIR REHAL2 1Assistant Professor, Department of Food Processing and Technology, Bilaspur Vishwavidalaya, Bilaspur 2Assistant Fruit and Vegetable Technologist, Department of Food Science & Technology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana Received: 13.05.15 Accepted: 16.07.15 ABSTRACT Present paper attempts to correlate significance of geographical indications with trade practices in context with food and food industry. The role of GIs to protect the importance of local culture and tradition in the face of globalization is discussed. India’s rich cultural diversity also shows that some traditional foods have benefits of nutritional sufficiency and market potential and once they are established as geographical indicators, their overall production and sale will definitely augment. Further these GI foods are pride of Indian cultural diets. The vast majority of GIs related to food are not well known and are often legally unprotected and the consumers consumes them realizing that those products are in fact GIs or what the GI represents. The practical considerations of pursuing and protecting a GI in Indian context are also provided. Key words: Geographical indications, Indian food industry, Traditional foods. India’s rich heritage amalgamates language, dance, music, facing stiff competition due to globalization and also due to lack of religion, architecture and food in one unit. Amongst these, food as up-gradation in manufacturing practices, effective marketing and well as the food industry lends various positive and negative changing needs of the consumers. Traditional foods such as modifications in the present changing lifestyle and market scenario. shrikhand, dhokla, papad, muri, wadi, petha, amavat, fermented The Indian food processing industry accounts for 32 per cent of foods such as idli, dosa have come a long way in providing India's total food market with an estimated worth of US$ 121 nutrition, functionality and taste but due to liberalized market and billion. It is one of the largest industries in India, and is ranked fifth lack of investment in small sector rural industries many traditional in terms of production, consumption and exports (Indian Food products of India are largely bygone. A major chunk of the food Industry, 2015). In the competitive market like today, various new processing industry in India is unorganized and the varied products are launched by major players like Nestle, ITC HLL etc to traditional products are prepared at small scale only (Fig 1). These cater to the needs of time conscious consumer, nutrition specific products need special protection, investment for up-scaling and consumer and working women. As a result traditional foods are conferred geographical indications for more popularity. Fig 1: Structure and characteristic diversity of Indian Food Industry. According to article 22.1 of the Agreement on Trade-Related from goods produced elsewhere thereby preventing the former from Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (the TRIPS Agreement), being misled. Their role is to protect the essential contribution of a ‘Geographical Indications’ refers to “indications which identify a geographical location in the making of the product, provided by good as originating in the territory of a country, or a region or special climatic, geological and biotic conditions and by a sui locality in that territory, where a given quality, reputation or other generis know-how. Protection through GIs can help localize characteristic of the good is essentially attributable to its economic control, promote rural socio-economic development and geographical origin”. The concept of Geographical Indications came assure higher economic returns (Rangnekar, 2004). This is crucial into existence because for quick profits lot of counterfeited products for the producers of GI products in developing countries since a lot tarnished the image of genuine products which led to loss to is at stake for them. producers and cheating of consumers. GI helps consumers In an increasingly industrialized and standardized food distinguishing goods produced in a particular geographical region market, GI labels may assure consumers of a more genuine, unique, 105 Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______and higher quality food (Broude, 2005) while offering producers an competitiveness and prices. In other words, it seeks trade and opportunity to differentiate their products and perhaps obtain higher commercial advantage on legitimate grounds. prices. Classic examples of international Geographical Indication In India, The Geographical Indication of Goods (Registration related to food industry are Champagne (France), Port wine and Protection) Act was enacted enacted in 1999 and has come into (Portugal), Etivaz and Gruyere Cheese (Switzerland), Idaho force on 15th September 2003 in compliance with India’s Potatoes (USA), Vidalia Onions (USA) Darjeeling tea (India), obligations under Trade-related Intellectual Property Rights Long-Ging Tea (China) and Jasmine Rice (Thailand). (TRIPS) at the WTO (hereafter called GI Act). Authorities claim Among the processed food commodities that enjoy GIs: that this Act has two key characteristics: (i) protection of producers cheese and wine-spirits share the maximum recognition, then meat against counterfeiting and misleading commerce, and (ii) striking of and meat products like ham and salmon followed by oil and fat balance between trademark and GI protection (Ravi 2003). products such as olive oil and then miscellaneous items. Many According to the TRIPS agreement, GIs are defined as indications major food processing industry in the sector of cocoa and chocolate that identify a good as originating in the territory of a member, or a and tea processing are benefitting billions by reaping the benefits of region or locality in that territory, where a given quality, reputation GI. Significance of Geographical indication registration is further or other characteristic of the good is essentially attributable to its highlighted (Dewan, 2011): geographical origin (Article 22.1). As opposed to this, the definition Such identification enables the product to gain reputation and included in section 2(1)(e) of the Indian GI Act is as follows: goodwill all over the world, consequently resulting into premium geographical indication in relation to goods, means an prices in national and international market. indication which identifies such goods as agricultural goods, natural goods or manufactured goods as originating, or manufactured in the Recognition of a particular commodity as a geographical indication also confers the right to protection under the territory of a country, or a region or locality in that territory, where a given quality, reputation or other characteristics of such goods is Geographical Indication Act, 1999, thereby preventing an unauthorized use of the commodity registered as GI by any third essentially attributable to its geographical origin and in case where such goods are manufactured goods one of the activities of either party. Geographical indication registration encourages community the production or of processing or preparation of the goods ownership and therefore it helps in proper distribution of the concerned takes place in such territory, region or locality, as the economic benefits accrued from commercialization of the case may be. commodity across a wider section of people in that territory. It also It is pertinent to note that whereas the TRIPS definition refers gives an upper edge to producers or artisans as they unlock value by to goods in general, the Indian GI Act specifies the goods to be capitalizing on consumer’s desire for typical quality product. either agricultural goods or natural goods or manufactured goods that can qualify as a GI. Further, in the Indian Act, if a producer French GI Cheeses fetch higher price by a magnitude of 2 € per kilo over French non-GI cheeses. Producers of Italian “Toscano” olive applies for a GI for a manufactured good, he or she must make sure that at least one of the activities of either the production or oil have managed to increase prices for their olive oil by 20 % since it was registered as a GI in 1998 (World Trade Report, 2004). In processing or preparation of the good must take place in the territory. In that sense, the GI Act is more restrictive than the TRIPS Mexico, after certifying “Tequila” as GI, the price of agave and other domestic inputs increased which profited Mexican producers. definition. Other examples being Jamao and Colombian coffee, Napa valley The Registrar of Geographical Indication located in Chennai wine. Therefore, the whole community is going to benefit, and this takes care of all GI application and the cost of application for the in turn may spur the regional economy. Third, unlike patents and registration for goods is INR 5000. The period of GI protection is for ten years which can be renewed. The first application received copyrights, GIs are not created but only recognized which means that investments are related only to building a reputation of a by the Geographical Registry was for Darjeeling Tea filed by Tea Board of India dated 27 October 2003. Darjeeling tea owns its product already existing, whereas patents and copyrights relate to creating products in the first place. unique tea qualities to special weather and soil conditions of Darjeeling hills of Eastern India (Fig 2). After thorough So the idea is to provide protection for GIs, a kind of intellectual property right, which entitles the enterprises that are examination of the application and completing all formalities, Darjeeling tea became the first registered geographical indication of located in the designated area to exclude others from using the th indication. Moreover, GIs are expected to benefit producers by India on 29 October 2004 (Tea Board of India). placing a premium on the product concerned by pushing up its Darjeeling Tea Hyderabad Haleem Fig 2: Geographical Indications of India 106 Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______ Some of the agricultural commodities which have been Malabar Pepper, Alleppy Green Cardamom, Nilgiris Orthodox recently granted the status of a Geographical indication, by the Tea, Alphanso mango and Nagpur orange. Food stuffs with GI’s Government of India include: Gir Kesar Mango, Bhalia wheat, are enlisted in Table 1. Nashik Valley wine, Monsoon Malabar Arabica Coffee, Table 1: Various Food stuff conferred GI. GI Application No. Commodity Class 80 Dharwad Pedha 29 121 Tirupathi Laddu 30 142 Bikaneri Bujia 30 164 Prosciutto di Parma "Parma Ham" 29 168 Hyderabadi Biryani 30 175 Ganjam Goat Ghee 29 193 Hyderabad Haleem 29 Fig 1: Procedure for Granting Geographical Indications in India. Geographical indication is a community owned brand for force that represents the interests of the producers of the goods instance Bikaneri Bhujia because geographical indications are concerned. For example, Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanams not built up by one individual but by a community of persons in (TTD) proposed the geographical indication of Tirupati Laddu a particular locality or region. Bhujia industry of Bikaner has Prasad as it is unique in preparation, quality and reputation and come long way since 1877. Since that time onwards it was to avoid its black-marketing by hawkers. It received GI patent in manufactured as a special variety with the name “Dungar Shahi September 2009. Around 1.5 lakh laddus are made daily and the Bhujia” especially for the guests of the king. As time passed by, annual revenue from sales is a whopping Rs 2 crore (TOI, the industry has emerged as a main livelihood of the inhabitants 2009). Such instances show that it is important to maintain the of the districts. The main reason for the spread of the industry is quality and curtail the growth of cheat products in the market. attributed to the fact that the district is a drought prone one, with Geographical indication can help in society upliftment by scarcity of electricity and water in the area. The main raw creating new market power for local peoples as in case of material for manufacturing bhujia is Moth, which is grown in Ganjam Goat ghee. Ganjam Goats are reared by the local the arid Zone of Rajasthan and the saline water available from communities of Orissa and Andhra Pradesh. Any surplus milk deep wells; both of them are gift to the area by nature of Ganjam Goats is used for the production of ghee which is (Anonymous, 2009). Bikaner Bhujia Udhyog Sangh came claimed to have a medicinal value and is sold at more than Rs forward for its GI and was granted the same in 2010. Hence 500 per kg and in lean season it may be as high as Rs 800 per kg unlike other intellectual property rights, the application for GI (Kornel et al. 2006). In order to prevent adulteration in this kind must be made by an association of persons or producers or any of product and misuse of this brand, GI has been granted to this organization or authority established by or under a law for in food stuff. Hyderabadi Haleem became the first non-vegetarian 107 Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______Indian cuisine to be granted Geographical Indication status by continuous source of income through its reputation channel, GI Indian GIS registry in recognition to its cultural significance certification reduces migration from rural to urban areas by (Fig 2). It is a stew composed of meat, lentils, and pounded retaining the rural farmers on their farm lands which has three wheat that is cooked at low flame of firewood for up to 12 pronged benefits – first the local indigenous knowledge does not hours. Its preparation has become sort of an art form. Though it perish, secondly it reduces migration to urban areas and thirdly is traditionally served as an appetizer, it is principally consumed promotes tourism in the region. The major benefit of GI in the Islamic month of a Ramadan during Iftar. It is a nutritious protection from the producers’ point of view is of course the high-calorie cuisine containing slow-digesting and fast-burning price premium which these products may receive due to their ingredients that gives instant energy. Apart from local geographical origins. Developing countries like India need to consumption, Hyderabadi haleem is also exported to over 50 ensure that valuable GI’s do not become generic or semi-generic other countries worldwide. Hyderabadi haleem chefs are paid in export markets. India, therefore, must continue to make high salaries, up to 1 lakh rupees a month with benefits efforts to get all its unique food products with a geographical (boydom.com). Pending cases for GI tag are Saoji food; indication tag on the register. There are various products like Scientist too recommends GI tag for Indian Chilika curd (Nanda Misthi dahi, Mysore pak, Agra petha, Chhana podo, Goan feni et al, 2013). that could benefit from geographical indication law. India, CONCLUSION which is still primarily an agricultural country with social, According to Dr Ved Prakash, Ex-Director of Central cultural, ethnic, food diversities, must have thousands of Food Technology Research Institute (CFTRI) Mysore, of more products that would qualify for a geographical indication. than 3000 traditional foods in India, only 100 are in existence However, the livelihood impact of GIs on their producers today. Current competitive market scenario can push traditional crucially hinges on the fact whether or not the benefits actually food industry to brink leaving the livelihood of hundreds of reach the producers. rural food industries to meager. By providing an assured and REFERENCES Anonymous, 2009. Geographical Indications Journal No. 31, GI Rangnekar D. 2004. The Socio - Economics of Geographical Application Number 142 http://ipindia Indications. ICTSD - UNCTAD project on IPRs and .nic.in/girindia/journal/Journal_31.pdf7 Sustainable Development. Geneva. Broude, T. 2005. Taking ‘Trade and Culture’ Seriously: Ravi, V. 2003. Protection of GIs in India. Presented at WIPO Asia Geographical Indications and Cultural Protection in WTO Pacific Symposium on GIs, Delhi, 18-20 November Law. Journal of International Economic Law. 26:624–692 Tea Board of India, 2010. ‘Darjeeling Tea - The Best’ Dewan, M. 2011. IPR Protection in Agriculture: An Overview. http://www.teaboard.gov.in/inner1.asp?param_link_id=62010 Journal of Intellectual Property Rights. 16:131-138 TOI, The Times of India 2009. Tirupati laddu gets global patent Indian Food Industry. (2014). http://www.ibef.org/ http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com /india/Tirupati-laddu-gets- artdispview.aspx?cat_id=498&art_id=33090&in=22 global-patent/articleshow /5015694.cms Kornel, D., Mohapatra, S.C. and Acharya, R.M. 2006. Sheep Top 10 Geographical indicators of India. 2015. http:// and goat genetic resources of Orissa: A survey report with www.boydom.com/2012/10/26/top-10-geographical - government of Orissa. Indo-Swiss Natural Resource indicators-of-india/ Management Programme, Orissa World Trade Report, 2004. Exploring the linkage between the Nanda, D.K., Singh, R., Tomar, S.K., Dash, S.K., Jayakumar, domestic policy environment and international trade. Page 84. S., Arora, D.K., Chaudhary, R. and Kumar, D. 2013. Indian Chilika curd – A potential dairy product for Geographical Indication registration. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge, 12(4): 707-13 108 Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______ Supply Chain Management and Storage of Carrot JANAGAM VENU MADHAV1, RUTH ASSUMI2 AND SHRUTI SETHI1 1Division of food science and postharvest technology, IARI, New Delhi. 2ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Barapani. Received: 26.04.15 Accepted: 17.08.15 ABSTRACT In India, carrot is a cool season crop with Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Assam being the major producing states with an annual production of 350,000 metric tonnes from an area of 24,000 hectare and postharvest loss accounting 7-15% (FAO, 2010). In carrots, mass loss and the occurrence of disease in the root are the principal causes of postharvest loss during bulk storage and commercialization, besides mechanical damage, sprouting and rooting. Supply Chain Management (SCM) is the process of planning, implementing, and controlling the operations of the supply chain with the purpose to satisfy customer requirements as efficiently as possible. SCM spans all movement and storage of raw materials, work-in-process inventory and finished produce from point-of-origin to point-of-consumption. To reduce the postharvest losses through supply chain management have been discussed in this review. Key words: Carrot, cold storage, shelf life and Supply chain management. Carrot (Daucus carota L.) is an important vegetable crop DISTINCT GROUPS OF CARROT: grown in spring, summer and autumn in temperate regions and 1. Tropical or Asiatic type – They are high yielding, producing during winter in tropical and sub-tropical regions. It belongs to seed under tropical conditions, poor in carotene content and family Umbelliferea. India, with its diverse agro climatic zones, other quality attributes. A wide range of colour from black and is highly favorable for its cultivation which includes both red to yellow is found in this group, more juicy, bigger core and tropical and temperate types and hence, holds great potential in a heavier top. Important varieties commonly grown in the raising the production to meet the growing domestic demand. country are – Pusa Kesar, Pusa Meghali, Sel. No. 29, Sel. No. Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and 233, Pusa Rudhera, Pusa Vrishti. Assam are major producing states. India ranks 14th in the world with an annual production of 350,000 metric tonnes from an 2. Temperate or European type – They form roots both under area of 24,000 hectare (FAO Stat, 2010). Carrot plays an temperate and tropical climates but set seeds only under important role in human diet mainly due to rich source of alpha temperate conditions since they need low temperature to break and beta carotene (1890 μg/100 g fresh weight) possessing good dormancy. Important varieties commonly grown in the country nutritional and medicinal benefits, good source of vitamins, are – Nantes Half Long, Early Nantes, Chantenay, Danvers, minerals, sugars. Zeno, Imperator, Pusa Yamdagini, Pusa Nanjyoti. Table 1. Difference between European and Asiatic type of carrot. Character European type Asiatic type Growth habit Biennial Annual Seed setting Hills Plains Juice content Less More Vegetative growth Lesser More Sweetness Less More Core Thin Thick Fibre More Less Moisture 87% >90% Carotene content High Low Shelf life Good Low Processing Good Low Shape Uniform Tapering Yield Lesser More Supply Chain Management (SCM) is the process of marketing of fresh fruits and vegetables do everything correctly planning, implementing and controlling the operations of the from farm to plate. Ensures highest and appropriate quality of supply chain with the purpose to satisfy customer requirements product is available for consumers (Hewett, 2003). as efficiently as possible. SCM spans all movement and storage However, poor supply chain infrastructure due to of raw materials from point-of-origin to point-of-consumption. inadequate cold storage and preservation facilities leads to All parties in the production, packing, storage, distribution and enormous wastage particularly during the peak season. 109 Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______Therefore, the immediate need of the hour is to implement an efficient supply chain system that can contribute to an increase Intact or Fresh-cut: Bitterness may be caused by pre in the marketable surplus by lowering the inefficiencies in harvest stress (improper irrigation scheduling) or exposure to production, processing, storage, transportation and marketing. ethylene from ripening rooms or mixing with commodities such Postharvest losses of carrot in India are about 7-15% as apples. Freezing injury will likely result at temperatures of - (FAO, 2010). There are different forms of postharvest losses of 1.2°C (29.5°F) or lower. Frozen carrots generally exhibit an carrot. European type responds well to low temperature storage outer ring of water-soaked tissue, viewed in cross section, which as in bulk storage for regular and consistent supply to both blackens in 2-3 days wholesaler and retailer during lean period (Late April to November). Shelf life performance of European type was Fresh-cut: White Blush, due to dehydration of cut or superior to Asiatic type attributed to its lesser moisture content abrasion-peeled surfaces, has been a problem on fresh-cut and more fiber. Potential postharvest losses and their reasons carrots. Sharp cutting blades and residual free-moisture on the are discussed below. surface of the processed carrots will significantly delay the Potential post-harvest losses: (Global AgriSystem) development of the disorder Intact Roots: Bruising, shatter-cracks and tip- breakage are signs of rough handling. Nantes-type carrots are Poor supply chain infrastructure due to inadequate cold particularly susceptible. Sprouting will continue as carrot roots storage and preservation facilities leads to enormous wastage develop new shoots after harvest. This is one reason low particularly during the peak season. Therefore, the immediate temperature post harvest management is critical. Common need of the hour is to implement an efficient supply chain associated disorders include wilting, shrivelling, or rubberiness system that can contribute to an increase in the marketable due to desiccation. White Root is a physiologic disorder due to surplus by lowering the inefficiencies in production, processing, suboptimal production conditions which results in patchy or storage, transportation and marketing. streaks of low colour on the carrot roots Figure 1. Carrot Value Chain Carrot roots are used as a vegetable for soups, stews, extraction of leaf protein, as fodder and also for the poultry curries and pies; grated roots are used as salad, tender roots as feed. pickles. Carrot halwa and jam are also popular and the roots in POSTHARVEST MANAGEMENT the form of disc and slices can be also dehydrated. Carrot juice Harvest Maturity: It takes 80-90 days in Asiatic type and 110- is a rich source of carotene and is sometimes used for colouring 130 days for European type to harvest maturity after sowing buffer and other food articles. Carrots are also canned. Carrot (Thamburaj and Singh, 2001). Common cultivars, in general seed are aromatic, stimulant and carminative which is source of attain marketable stage at 2-4 cm diameter at the upper end an essential oil – the carrot seed oil. Carrot tops are used for (Rosenfeld, 1998). For freezing and canning should be 110 Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______harvested while still tender, for dehydration when slightly cartons/master poly bags. Bunch type carrots are divided into 2 mature (John, 2008). grades namely No. 1 and Commercial grade. This type of Harvesting: In India, harvesting is done manually for the carrots can be loosely packed in 12 kg (26lbs) cartons. Asiatic type and mechanically for the European type. It is Transportation: In India, transportation of perishable advisable to give a light irrigation before harvesting to permit commodities is in the most precarious stage. Transportation and easy pulling of roots from the soil without any damage distribution are the important stages of post-harvest losses. For Washing and pre-cooling: Prompt washing and hydrocooling local market, the produce is brought either by bullock carts or to <5°C (41°F) is essential to maintain freshness and crispness tractor trollies. The long distance transportation is mainly by of carrot (Luo et al., 2001). Nunez et al, (2008) reported rails and trucks, which is costly. The basic reason for preference Washed and hydro precooling (32oF) with cold water to road transportation is that it takes short transit period. Plastic having100ppm chlorine will help to maintain the quality of crate, Wooden containers, Nylon/Hessian mesh bag, Woven carrot along with control postharvest decay during storage. basket are the common means of packaging materials used Grading and Packaging: Luo et al., 2001 given the grading (Peter, 2007). and its packaging of carrots. Topped carrots are divided into 4 Cold Storage: Low temperature storage is essential to minimize grades namely Extra No. 1, U.S No.1 (0.75 inches in Diameter decay and sprouting during storage. High relative humidity is and >5 inches in length), No.1 Jumbo (1-2.5 inches in required to prevent desiccation and loss of crispness. Carrot Diameter and 5 inches in length) and No.2 (1-3 inches in shows good storage life at low temperatures coupled with high Diameter and 3 inches in length). These can be packed in 0.5 to RH as shown in the table-2. 2.25 kg consumer bags grouped in 22.7 kg (50 lbs) Table: 2 Shelf life of carrots in different storage conditions. Temperature (°C) Relative humidity (%) Storage life Citation 0 95 20-24 weeks Saraswathy et al., 2010 0-4.5 93-98 6 months Chadha., 2009 0 98 7 months Nunez et al., 2008 1 99 5 months 0 98-100 7-9 months Luo et al., 2001 0-5 90-95 5-6 months Several researchers reported shelf life of the carrot superior to Asiatic type attributed to its lesser moisture content different structures. Mogaji and Fapetu, (2011) reported Shelf and more fiber Supply chain management ensures that all the life of carrot inside the evaporative cooling system was steps involved in the production and supply are efficiently extended by 14 days. Tripathi and Thakur, 1996 reported Carrot executed for enhanced marketability and consumer satisfaction. in zero energy cool chamber can be stored for 12 days as against Future Thrust: 5 days in ambient condition in the months of February –March. Establishment of cooling units and storage infrastructure Pal and Roy (1988) reported freshness and firmness of Nantes in/nearby the production site to minimize loss and transport carrot was extended upto 18 days. cost. Combinations of different postharvest treatments to CONCLUSION improve the quality and shelf life. Research on Asiatic type European type responds well to low temperature storage carrot need to be explored as limited work has been done on its as in bulk storage for regular and consistent supply to both improvement. Emphasis on export of quality produces with the wholesaler and retailer during lean period (Late April to establishment of specific grades. November). Shelf life performance of European type was REFERENCES Chadha, K.L. 2009. Vegetable crops in Handbook of Horticulture, Pal, R.K. and Roy, S.K. 1988. Zero energy cool chamber for ICAR, New Delhi, pp. 372-374. maintaining post harvest quality of carrot. Indian J Agric Sci 58: FAO 2010. Global AgriSystem Pvt Ltd. www.globalagri.com 665–667. http://faostat.fao.org Peter, K.V. 2007. Transportation of fruits and vegetables. In: Post John, P.J. 2008. A Handbook on Post Harvest Management of Fruits Harvest Technology of Horticultural Crops – Horticulture and Vegetables, Daya Publishing House, Delhi. Science Series Vol. 7, Sudheer, K. P., Indira, V. (eds), New India Luo, Y., Suslow, T. and Cantwell, M. 2001. Produce Quality and Publishing Agency, New Delhi, pp. 229-238. Safety Laboratory, USDA/ARS, Henry A. Wallace Beltsville Saraswathy, S., Preethi, T.L., Balasubramanyan, S., Suresh, J., Agricultural Research Center, Beltsville, MD, Mann Laboratory, Revathy, N. and Natarajan, S. 2010. Postharvest Management Department of Vegetable Crops, University of California, Davis, of Horticultural Crops. Agrobios, India CA. Thamburaj, S. and Singh, N. 2001. Vegetables, Tuber-crops and Mogaji, T.S. and Fapetu, O.P. 2011. Development of an evaporative Spices, ICAR, New Delhi, pp. 151-156. cooling system for the preservation of fresh vegetables. African Tripathi, S. N. and Thakur, K. S. 1996. Zero energy cool chamber for Journal of Food Science, 5(4): 255-266. fruits and vegetables. In: Postharvest management of temperate Nunez, J., Hartz, T., Suslow, T., McGiffin, M. and Natwick, E.T. horticultural crops, Dr YS Parmar University of Hort. & Fty. 2008. Carrot production in Califronia. University of California, Solan. V. S. Barval, M. S. Pathania, (eds) pp. 28. Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources. http://anrcatalog.ucdavis.edu 111 Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______ Cropping system model for sustainable production in arid region: A review A.K. SRIVASTAVA1, P.L. SAROJ2, CAHANDER BHAN3 AND D.S. BHATI4 1&3Assistant Professor (Horti.), Agricultural Research station (SKRAU), Sriganganagar, Rajasthan 2Director, Directorate on Cashew nut, Puttur, Karnataka 4Assistant Professor (Ag. Extension), KVK (SKNAU), Ajmer Received: 18.06.15 Accepted: 03.09.15 ABSTRACT The arid zone of India is spread over 38.7 million hectare area of which 31.7 million hectare is hot arid. The major part of hot arid region occurs in north – western India (21.85 million hectare) and in small pockets in south India (3.13 m ha). About 90% of arid zone is spread in western part of Rajasthan (19.6 m ha), north –western Gujarat (6.22 m ha) and south –western part of Haryana and Punjab (2.75 m ha). Cropping systems of a region are decided and inlarged by a type of soil and climatic parameters which determine overall agro-ecological setting for nourishment and appropriateness of a crop or set of crops for cultivation. An integrated system of plant and animal production practices having a site-specific application that will over the long term satisfy human food and fiber needs. Enhance environmental quality and the natural resource base upon which the agricultural economy depends. Make the most efficient use of nonrenewable resources and on-farm resources. Sustain the economic viability of farm operations. Enhance the quality of life for farmers and society as a whole. Diversification of crops and cropping systems seems to be a viable option to impart resilience in agricultural production system. Key words: Arid region, Cropping system, sustainable production. At present, 7% of the world’s population lives in areas PRESENT SCENARIO OF ARID REGIONS where water is scares. This is predicted to rise to a staggering The arid zone of India is spread over 38.7 million hectare area 67% in the next 50 years. The overall analysis on global water of which 31.7 million hectare is hot arid. The major part of hot scarcity is that within the next few decade, two third of the arid region occurs in north – western India (21.85 million world population will be affected by water scarcity hectare) and in small pockets in south India (3.13 m ha). About (Shiklomanove, 1991; Wallace and Gregory, 2002). It is 90% of arid zone is spread in western part of Rajasthan (19.6 m estimated that in India around 263 million people live in ha), north –western Gujarat (6.22 m ha) and south –western part drought prone area of about 108 million hectare which works of Haryana and Punjab (2.75 m ha). These regions are out to be 1/3rd of the total geographical area of country. The characterized by low rain fall (100 to 500mm), its uneven situation further worsens in arid tracts of the country. distribution over space and time (CV > 60%), strong wind Cropping systems of a region are decided by and large, by velocity, high temperatures and high evapo-transpiration 200- a number of soil and climatic parameters which determine 2200 mm showing permanent negative water balance. The overall agro-ecological setting for nourishment and ground water level is decreasing @ 1-3 m per year due to appropriateness of a crop or set of crops for cultivation. excessive and in judicious siphoning for domestic, industrial, Depending upon the natural water resources, each region agricultural and livestock purposes. 31.56% of land in Rajasthan has certain area under irrigated agriculture. But, broadly has crossed the mining limit of ground water and 8.47% land considering, two distinct irrigated ecosystems emerge. One is has already been declared ‘dark area’ by the Indian Indo-Gangetic Plain region comprising the states of Punjab, Government. Haryana, plains of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and plains of Jammu & A vast stretch of cold arid (79278 sq km) area lies in the Kashmir. The other ecosystem may be carved out of coastal North- Western Himalayan region of India is located in areas of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. At present 51 million Laddakh region of Jammu and Kashmir, the Lahul and Spiti, hectare net-cropped area is irrigated by different sources, which Kinnaur and Pangi areas of Chamba district of Himanchal constitutes about 35 per cent of net cultivated area. Estimates Pradesh and small part of Uttrakhand. The natural springs and indicate that more than 56 per cent of total food grain comes rivers freezes due to subzero temperatures (-10 to -40o C) from from irrigated ecosystem while progress has been considerably November to April. Repeated snowfall, high incidence of UV sluggish in rain fed agriculture which still accounts for 92.8 radiation, high diurnal temperature variation, negligible rainfall million hectare or 65 per cent of net area sown and contributes and high wind velocity (45 – 60 miles h- 1) during winter are only 44 per cent to national food grain production. some of the main features of the climate of this region. Most of the cold arid regions are in high altitude zones (9000 ft above MSL). They face the stresses of both the conditions of cold arid and high altitude. 112 Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______ Table 1. State wise areas of the arid zone in India. State Area under the arid zone (km2) Percentage of the total arid zone in India Rajasthan 196150 62 Jammu & Kashmir 70300 - Gujarat 62180 20 Andhra Pradesh 21550 7 Punjab 14510 5 Haryana 12840 4 Karnataka 8570 3 Maharashtra 1290 0.4 Total 387390 - In spite of the environmental sensitivity and perceived livestock - tree/shrubs – human continuum. The areas falling in fragility, arid zone of India is supporting one of the largest <250 mm rainfall zone have predominance of grasses and populations. Dry land farming is the main occupation of the shrubs; hence range/pasture development with livestock rearing people. Even if all the available water is exploited, then also is the major proposition (Bhati and Joshi, 2007). In areas 70% of the area would remain rain fed. The most common crops receiving rainfall between 250-350 mm besides grasses and grown are pearl millet, cluster bean, green gram and dew gram. shrubs, multipurpose tree species dominate and mixed farming The crop yields are meagre and unstable and consequently the encompassing agro-forestry system, mixed cropping, livestock income from existing cropping alone is hardly sufficient to and pasture management are main livelihood options. In areas sustain the farm family. To minimize the risk and uncertainty, receiving rainfall >300 mm crops and cropping system farmers in this region practice farming systems in one form or diversification, agro-forestry and livestock rearing are major other. In fact traditional farming systems represent a crop – systems of sustenance of arid zone farmers. Table 2. Districts of Rajasthan affected by aridity. Agro-climatic zones Districts Arid western plains (IA) Jaisalmer, Barmer, Bikaner, Western Jodhpur and Western Churu Irrigated N-W plains (I B) Sri Ganganagar, Hanumangarh, Western-Bikaner and Western-Jaisalmer Transitional plains of inland drainage (II A) Eastern Jodhpur, Nagaur, Eastern Churu, Jhunjhunu, Sikar Transitional Plains of Luni Basin (II B) Jalore, Pali, Nagaur, Jodhpur, Barmer Table 3. Suitable fruit crop for arid areas. Characters Fruit crops Indigenous draught hardy type Ker, pilu, lasora, gondi, ber, Fruit tree with reproductive phase matched to the period of moisture Sour lime , aonla abundance Fruit tree with growth and flowering matched to the period of moisture Karonda, pomegranate, guava, custurd apple abundance Irrigated fruit crop (agro-climate is suitable but requires assured irrigation) Phalsa, mulberry, papaya, fig grape date, mango and sweet orange Crops grown under cold arid regions: irrigation followed by Haryana (76.4%) and Uttar Pradesh Field Crops: Wheat, Barley, Smaller millets, Mustard, Field (62.3%). pea, Lentil, French bean, Buck Wheat, Lathyrus and Fababean. The horticultural crops cover about 9 per cent of the total Vegetable Crops: Spinach, Beet-Silver, Corainder, Pudina, area contributing about 24.5 per cent of the gross agricultural Raddish, Kale, Cauliflower, Cabbage, Capsicum, Vegetable and output in the country. However, the productivity of fruits and Pea. vegetables grown in the country is low as compared to Fruit crops: Apricot, Apple, Seabuckthorn, Peach, Plum, developed countries. Walnut, Grape, Pear, Strawberry. In arid and semiarid areas, farmers in general grow more Cropped area in the country than 1 crop mixture in kharif and rabi under dry land conditions The principal crops having sizeable percentage of area under to forestall complete crop failure. Intercropping of sorghum irrigation in the country are; sugar cane (87.9%), wheat with groundnut, soybean, and pigeon pea was more beneficial (84.3%), barley (60.8%), rapeseed and mustard (57.5%), rice and economic than sole planting. Intercropping increased the (46.8%), tobacco (41.2%), cotton (33.2%), chickpea (21.9%), productivity and income per unit and area as compared to sole maize (21.8%) and groundnut (19.2%). Among the states, planting of sorghum or pulses. Under dry land conditions the Punjab ranks first with 94.6 per cent cropped area under pearl millet-legume intercropping system proved useful. The productivity per unit area was increased considerably when 113 Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______pearl millet was intercropped with short duration legumes such 10. Adaptability: The new agro-forestry technology that as mung bean. Alternate planting of maize with soybean, pigeon are introduced into new area should be in accordance to pea or castor at 45 cm row spacing or paired planting of maize local farming practice. at 45 cm and 1 row of urd between pairs gave higher monetary Crop diversification in semi arid areas returns and leaf area index as compared with other Diversification of crops and cropping systems seems to be combinations. The inclusion of legumes in cropping system a viable option to impart resilience in agricultural production preceding cotton resulted in higher yields of cotton. Low system. To cushion the adverse affect of drought and growing grain legumes such as urd, mung bean and cowpea uncertainty mixed sowing of seeds of various dryland crops viz., were found to be compatible intercrops with early maturing pearlmillet (Pennisetum typhoides), clusterbean (Cyamopsis pigeon pea varieties. The spring planted sugar cane can be tetragonoloba), mothbean (Vigna aconitifolia) and sesame intercropped with fodder maize, and autumn planted sugar cane (Sesamum indicum) in an approximate ratio of 8:2:2:1 (by intercropped with 3 rows of mustard or 4 rows of wheat weight) is a common practice (Bhati and Faroda, 2000). between 2 rows of sugar cane gave maximum net returns. In North – western plain zone of Rajasthan the main Constraints for survival of crops in arid and semi arid eco source of irrigation is canal water i.e. Gang canal, the Bhakra system canal and Indra Gandhi Nahar Project. Cotton during Karief and 1. Insufficient and erratic precipitation. Wheat during rabi are main crops in canal command areas. Both 2. Inefficient irrigation methods. these crops require more water. Due to high water requirement 3. Brackish nature of underground water. of these crops part of the land of the farmers remain fellow for 4. Inadequate efforts for harvesting rain water for life saving want of irrigation water. The average rainfall in irrigated North irrigations. Western plain zone 1b of Rajasthan is 326 mm. The farmer may 5. Less adoption of in situ moisture conservation practices. increase their farm income by crop diversification. If 50% area 6. Harsh agro climatic conditions. under cotton and 50% area under wheat is replaced by other low 7. Less efforts of rainwater harvesting for agriculture purposes. water requiring crops then farm income may be increased. In Farming systems in arid areas addition soil health will also be improved. This is also minimum Farming system represents integration of farm practices risk farming as failure of one crop due to one or other reason such as cropping systems, animal husbandry, fisheries, forestry would not deteriorate the economy of the farmer because other etc. for optimal utilization of resources bringing prosperity to crops will give the return. the farmers. Judicious mix of cropping systems with associated Sustainable Agriculture: enterprises like dairy, poultry, piggery, fishery, sericulture etc. The word “Sustain," came from the Latin word sustinere suited to given agro-climatic conditions and socio economic (sus-, from below and tenere, to hold) means to keep in status of farmers would bring prosperity to the farmers. existence or maintain. Sustainable Agriculture describes Lowland farming systems farming systems that are "capable of maintaining their Common cropping system is rice based cropping system, productivity and usefulness to society indefinitely. Such system especially under agro climatic conditions of south India is rice – must be resource-conserving, socially supportive, commercially rice – pulse. Modified cropping system includes crops like competitive, and environmentally sound. maize, groundnut and sesame. Sustainable agriculture means: Upland irrigated farming systems An integrated system of plant and animal production Adding enterprises like dairy biogas and silvi culture to practices having a site-specific application that will, over the the usual cropping system can generate additional income. Two long term satisfy human food and fiber needs. Enhance to three milch cows can be maintained from one ha crop straw. environmental quality and the natural resource base upon which Recycling of farm and animal waste through biogas unit can the agricultural economy depends. Make the most efficient use produce cooking gas for family use. Several such integrations of nonrenewable resources and on-farm resources. Sustain the can greatly increase the farm productivity, besides providing economic viability of farm operations. Enhance the quality of work for family members whole the year. life for farmers and society as a whole. Rain fed farming system Principles of sustainable cropping system Environmentally sustainable dry land farming systems 1. Reducing soil erosion and improving soil conservation. emphasize conservation and utilization of natural resources. 2. Inclusion of legumes and cover crops in crop rotations. Agronomic practices of conservation tillage and mulch farming, 3. Agro-forestry as an alternative use system and. rotational farming, use of legumes and cover crops for 4. Judicious use of organic waste. improving soil fertility and suppressing weeds and efficient use Types of cropping system of cattle manure are some of the components of sustainable dry Cropping systems are designed to mimic nature and land farming system in arid region. bring diversity into our farming system. Cropping system Agro - forestry system for arid and semi arid areas includes: 8. Productivity : The system should maintain / increase 1. Crop rotation: Crops are changed in the field from year to production sa well as productivity of land by way of year according to a planned sequence rather than the same increased output of tree products, crop being grown in the same field. It can include both 9. Sustainability: By conserving the production system of annual and perennial crops. recourse base i.e. beneficial effects of perennials on soil, 2. Multiple cropping: Two or more crops grown in the same maintaining soil fertility status. field within a given year. Annual & perennial plants can be organized in fields together e.g. Planting row of fruit tree 114 Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______with cereal grains or vegetables in between and windbreaks There are many socio-economic factors via; population planted around the field perimeter. density, status of farmer, heterogeneity of resources, traditional 3. Mixed cropping: Two or more crops are mixed together in values, availability of resources etc. which decides the adoption the same field at the same time without a definite row of different agro forestry system. The system so developed arrangement. Complementary crops include oats and peas or should meet their domestic needs in addition to higher returns. mixture of forage grasses and legumes. Popular agro forestry systems are as under: 4. Strip cropping: Two or more crops are planted in the same 1) Agri - Pasture system: In rain fed condition the field in alternate rows. The two crops generally have their farmers are following the agri – pasture system from very main production period at different times of the year. The bingeing by following the mixed cropping with existing system more evenly uses water throughout the growing perennial grass components. The strip cropping of grasses season and ensures some level of productivity during the (Lasiurs sindicus or Cenchrus ciliaris) and crops Mothbean, dry season by the more draught tolerant crops. clusterbeanand till together increased the productivity per unit Benefits of the cropping system: area under the severe draught condition. This system provides 1. Maintain and enhance soil fertility. food and fodder both on the same land. It reduces soil erosion, 2. Enhanced crop growth. maintains soil health and stabilizes production system. 3. Minimize spread of disease. 2) Silvi-pasture & Horti-pasture systems: In rain fed 4. Control weeds. condition of arid zone silvi pasture system has been identified as 5. Inhibit pest and insect growth. holistic approach to re – vegetate the vaste land as well as 6. Increase soil cover. meeting the growing demand for fodder and fuel of the rural 7. Use resources efficiently. population of the region. It also helps in conservation of natural 8. Reduce risk of crop failure. resources as well. Draught hardy silvi trees with perennial 9. Improved food and financial security. grasses or fruit tree with perennial grasses are grown in this Cropping system for limited water supply regions system. 1. Rajasthan It has been found to be best suited for areas receiving Maize – Gram/Black gram <200 mm rainfall, or indegraded rocky-gravelly areas. The Sorghum/ Soyabean – Linseed/ lentil/ safflower/ Duram wheat highly compatible trees with grasses are: Acacia senegal, A. Pearl millet – Wheat- Green gram tortilis, Albizzia lebbek, Tecomella undulata, Colophospermum Cotton – Wheat mopane, Dychrostasis nutans, Hardwickia binnata, Z. Clusturebean – Wheat nummularia and Z. rotundifolia. Among the pasture legumes Pearlmillet – Chickpea Clitoria ternatea and Lablab purpureus showed good Pearlmillet/ peanut/ Greengram/Cowpea – Musturd/ compatibility with L. sindicus and C. ciliaris (Pratap Narain and Chickpea/Wheat & Barley Tiwari, 2005). Under goat grazing, Z. nummularia with grass 2. Gujarat strips in 1:2 ratio led to higher economic returns due to weight Maize/ Srghum – Wheat gain of the animals and higher wool production (Bhati, 1997). Sorghum – Musturd Under cattle grazing the silvi pasture system with Z. Castor – Bajra rotundifolia and C. ciliaris could sustain 554 animal days/ha Bajra – Musturd (Tharparker breed) with 60% pasture utilization. 3. Andhra Pradesh Best combinations: Ground – Pegionpea Acacia nilotica + natural grass – For arid and semi arid region Pulse followed by Tobaco / Sorghum Acacia leucocephala + natural grasses Pearlmillet – Tobaco / Chillies / Cotton Acacia planifrons + natural grasses Rice – Groundnut / Blackgram Acacia catechu + natural grasses Sorghum – Pulse / Safflower Dalbergia sisoo + Barbar grasses Groundnut / Safflower Prosopis cineraria + Grasses 4. Haryana Zizyphus rotundrifolia + Dhaman (Cenchrus ciliaris) Maize – Gram Zizyphus rotundrifolia + Sewan (Lasiurus sindicus) Rice – Lentil Datepalm + natural grasses Pearl millet – Gram / Musturd Adoption of the silvi – pasture system can rise the land Felow – Barley / Musturd productivity by more than 8-10 times and quality output by 7 Karief fodder – Gram / Musturd times. The increase in nutritive value of forages by 6-7 times Guar – Gram / Musturd can further help in improving productivity of livestock. 5. Maharashtra 3) Agri-Horticulture system: Most of the farmers do Bajra + Redgram – (Kharif Crop) not willing to wait for the the return till the horticultural crops Rabi Sorghum (Sole crop) mature. The cultivation of arid legumes and cereals with ber, Rabi Safflower aonla and pomegranate have increased the per unit area Karief fodder – Toriya – Wheat production. This also provides the extra income to the farmers. Maize – Field peas – Summer moong The experiments carried out at CAZRI, RRS, Bikaner showed Arhar / Moong - Wheat that the intercropping of Moth bean and cluster bean with the Agro forestry systems for Arid areas of Rajasthan Citrus can be done without affecting their yield as well as growth of the horticultural crops under rain fed conditions. The 115 Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______intercropping of green gram, mateera and groundnut with the Moringa oleifera, Cymopsis tetragnoloba and Vigna ungiculata little supplemental irrigation produced good yield without are suitable for horticultural based framing systems (Pareek and affecting the growth of Citrus. The intercropping of sonmukhi Awasthi, 2008). Agri-horti system comprising Zizyphus + leaves with Citrus, bael, and gonad fruit tree produced good mungbean found very promising in <250-300 mm rainfall zone yield of sonmukhi leaves without affecting the growth of fruit (Faroda, 1998, Gupta et al,. 2000, Sharma and Gupta, 2001, plants. Several drought hardy fruit crops like Cappirs decidua, Singh et al., 2003). Intercropping of bottle guard during kharif Salvadora oleoides, Cordia dichotoma, Zizyphus nummularia season and pea and kasuri methi with ber plantation did not var. rotundifolia, Z. mauritiana are suitable for the area cause adverse effect on three year old ber (Singh and Kumar, receiving rainfall <300 mm. Several other fruit such as Emblica 1993). A study on kinnow based agri-hortisystem under officinialis, Punica granatum, Aegle marmelos, Phoenix irrigated arid condition at Sriganganagar showed that intercrop dactylifera, and Tamarindus indica can be grown in the area did not show any significant negative effect on fruit yield having irrigation facilities. Among the vegetable crops Solanum (Bhatnagar et al., 2007). Pomegranate has been found melongena, Lagnaeria ciceraria, Luffa acutangula, Luffa compatible with pearl millet, mung bean, Isabgol, sorghum and cylindrica, Citrullus lanatus, C. lanatus var. fistulosus, Cucumis cumin in Jalore district of Rajasthan (Gupta, 2000). melo var. utillismus, C. melo var momardica, C. callosus, Table 4. Suitable fruit, field crops and grasses for agri – horti – pastoral system. Rainfall Fruit crops Field crops Grasses 150– 300 mm Cordia myxa, Caparis deciduas, Vigna aconitifilia, Cymopicsis Lasiurus sindicus, Cenchrus Salvadora oleoides, Ziziphus tetragonoloba, Vigna sinensis ciliaris numularia 300 – 500 mm Cordia myxa, Moringo olifera, Vigna aconitifilia, Cymopicsis Lasiurus sindicus, Cenchrus Carrisa carandus, Ziziphus tetragonoloba, Vigna radiate, ciliaris, Penicum antidotale, numularia, Emblica officinales Sesamum indicum, Pennisetum Dichanthium annulatum glaucum 4) Strip cropping under agri-pasture system: Aonla + Khejari + Saji + Moth Bean + Cumin Alternative strips of Grass : legume Sewan + Guar in 1: 3 Ratio Alternate cropping system for arid or semi-arid regions under 4m:12m strip gave highest dry forage production of 30 q In arid and semiarid areas in India farmers in general grow /ha of grass + Guar grain 7.0 q/ha over 1:1 to 1:4 ratios. more than 1 crop mixture in kharif and rabi under dry land Compatible Agri - Horti models under micro sprinkler conditions to forestall complete crop failure. Intercropping of irrigation. sorghum with groundnut, soybean, and pigeon pea was more Moongbean + Mopane beneficial and economic than sole planting. Intercropping Moongbean + Shisham increased the productivity and income per unit and area as Moongbean + Kagzilime compared to sole planting of sorghum or pulses. Under dry land Mateera + Shisaham conditions the pearl millet-legume intercropping system proved Agri – Horti system under drip irrigation system. useful. The productivity per unit area was increased Cluster bean + bael considerably when pearl millet was intercropped with short Cluster bean + kagzi lime duration legumes such as mung bean. Alternate planting of Moth bean + Kagzi lime maize with soybean, pigeon pea or castor at 45 cm row spacing Sonamukhi + Kagzi lime or paired planting of maize at 45 cm and 1 row of urd between Multi-storey fruit based cropping system pairs gave higher monetary returns and leaf area index as Aonla + Ber + Brinjal + Moth bean + Cumin compared with other combinations. The inclusion of legumes in Aonla + Bael + Brinjal + Moth Bean + Cumin cropping system preceding cotton resulted in higher yields of Aonla + Ber = Karonda + Moyh bean + Cumin cotton. Low growing grain legumes such as urd, mung bean and Aonla + Bael + Karonoda + moth bean + Cumin cowpea were found to be compatible intercrops with early Aonla + Drumstic + Saji + Moth Bean + Cumin maturing pigeon pea varieties (Shaktawat and Singh, 1990). REFERENCES Bhatanagar, P., Kaul, M.K. and Singh, J. 2007. Effect of Congress on Agronomy, Environment and Food Security intercropping in kinnow based production system. Indian for 21st Century (Eds.Punjab Singh, Rajendra Prasad and Journal of Arid Horticulture. 2(1):15-17. IPS Ahalawat). Indian Society of Agronomy, New Delhi, 342-350. Bhati, T.K. 1997. Integrated farming systems for sustainable agriculture on drylands. In Sustainable Dryland Bhati, T.K. and Joshi, N.L. 2007. Farming systems for the Agriculture, Central Arid Zone Research Institute, sustainable agriculture in Indian Arid zone. In Dryland Jodhpur, pp.102-105. Ecosystem: Indian Perspective (Eds. K.P.R. Vittal, R.L. Srivastava, N.L. Joshi, A. Kar, V.P. Tewari and S. Bhati, T.K. and Faroda, A.S. 2000. Integrated farming Kathju,), Central Arid Zone Research Institute and Arid systems for sustained productivity in hot arid ecosystems Forest Research Institute, Jodhpur, pp. 35-52. of India. In Proceedings of First International Agronomy 116 Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______Faroda, A.S. 1998. Arid Zone Research: An overview. In Fifty Sharma, A.K. and Gupta, J.P. 2001. Agroforestery for Years of Arid Zone Research in India (Eds. A.S. Faroda sustainable production under increasing biotic and abiotic and M. Singh), CAZRI,Jodhpur, pp. 1- 16. stresses in arid Zone. Abstract In Impact of Human Activities on Thar Environment, Arid Zone Research Gupta, J.P. 2000. Agroforestery for sustained production. In Association of India, Jodhpur, pp 95-96. Technonolgy Approach for Greening Arid Lands, Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur. Shaktawat, M.S. and Singh, H.G. 1990. Alternate cropping system for arid or semi-arid regions. Dryland Resources Gupta, J.P., Joshi, D.C. and Singh, G.B. 2000. Management and Technology, 5:137-160. of arid ecosystem. In Natural Resource Management for Agriculture Production in India (Eds. J.S.P. Yadava, and Singh, R.S. and Kumar, A. 1993. Agri-horticulture systems G.B. Singh), Indian Society of Soil Science, New Delhi. under semi-arid conditions. Agroforestry News 5(1): 3-5. pp. 551- 668. Singh, R.S., Gupta, J.P., Rao, A.S. and Sharma, A.K. 2003. Pareek, O.P. and Awasthi, O.P. 2008. Horticulture-based Micro-climatic quantification and drought impacts on farming systems for arid region. In Diversification of Arid productivity of green gram under different cropping farming System (Eds. Pratap Narain, M.P. Singh, A. Kar, systems of arid zones. In Human Impact on Desert S. Kathju and Praveen-Kumar), Arid Zone Research Environment (Eds. P. Naraian, S. Kathju, A. Kar, M.P. Association of India and Scientific Publisher (India) Singh and Praveen-Kumar), Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur, pp. 12-22. Jodhpur. Pp.74-80. Pratap Narain and Tiwari, J.C. 2005. Trees on agricultural fields: a unique basis of life support in Thar Desert.s of In Proceedings of International Conference on Multipurpose Trees in the Tropics: Assessment, Growth and Management organized at Arid Forest Research Institute, Jodhpur during 22-25 November,2004, pp.523 516. 117 Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______ Extension of shelf life of pre-cooled tomato fruit under refrigerated transport condition storage BHAUMIK B. PATEL1*, ROY F. SUTAR2 AND SONALI C. KHANBARAD3 College of Food Processing Technology & Bio-energy, Anand Agricultural University, Anand-388 110, Gujarat, India *E-mail: [email protected]. Received: 02.04.15 Accepted: 12.07.15 ABSTRACT The effect of pre-cooling methods i.e. hydrocooling, forced air cooling and chilled water dipping at three cooling media temperatures (4, 6 and 8°C) on shelf life of tomato fruit (cv. Narendra-2) was studied. The pre-cooled samples were stored under refrigerated transport condition (13±2°C and 85-95% RH) storage and physiological parameters like physiological loss in weight (PLW), percent spoilage, firmness in fruit and biochemical parameters like changes in total soluble solids, titratable acidity and lycopene content were observed at three days interval throughout the shelf life. The study revealed that pre-cooling with chilled water dipping (8.5, 16.17 and 19.75 min at of 4, 6 and 8°C cooling media temperature respectively) was the fastest method for rapid removal of field heat to achieve desired product temperature (10±0.5°C) followed by hydrocooling and forced air cooling. The maximum shelf life of 39 days was found for samples subjected to 8°C hydrocooling had advantage of 18 days over control (21 days) under refrigerated transport condition storage. Key words: Pre-cooling, storage, lycopene content, shelf life Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), ranks third in priority after (Kadar, 2002). Above the critical threshold temperature for safe potato and onion in India but it is the second most important storage, every 10°C increase in temperature accelerates vegetable crop next to potato in the world (Luthria et al., 2006). deterioration and the rate of loss in nutritional quality by 2 to 3 Tomato has high content of lycopene, carotenoids, phenols, fold. Low temperature handling and storage is the most vitamin C and E (Kucuk et al., 2002), which contribute to high important method of post harvest management. antioxidant capacity. Lycopene is considered the predominant Removing field heat by pre-cooling from freshly carotenoid of tomato fruit (80-90%), followed by β-carotene (5- harvested fruits reduces respiration rate, microbial activity, 10%) (Lenucci et al., 2006). Most importantly, tomato water loss and decay and thereby it helps in maintaining quality consumption has been shown to reduce the risks of and prolongs shelf life of the fruits. Therefore, a scientific study cardiovascular disease and certain types of cancer, such as was undertaken to evaluate the effect of pre-cooling treatments cancers of prostate, lung, and stomach (Canene-Adams et al., on shelf life as well as on various quality parameters of tomato 2005). fruits using different pre-cooling method. Tomato being a climacteric fruit, the start of ripening is accompanied by a rapid rise in respiration rate called MATERIAL AND METHODS ‘respiratory climacteric’ during which oxidative breakdown of Fully matured breaker stage tomatoes (cv. Narendra-2) were complex substrates occur, ageing follows, leading to product freshly harvested from the local fields and selected on the basis deterioration. Lycopene has been suggested as a good indicator of size, color, and absence of external injuries. Selected of the level of ripening. At the breaker stage, and when tomatoes were subjected to three different pre-cooling coloration becomes evident, lycopene starts to accumulate and treatments i.e. hydrocooling, forced air cooling and chilled its concentration increases up to 500-fold in ripe fruits. water dipping with three different cooling media temperatures Ripe tomatoes are perishable and very labile to i.e. 4, 6 and 8°C. Tomato fruits were pre-cooled till the desired transport damage which consequently leads to loss of quality final product temperature 10°C was achieved and time required and waste (Nakhasi et al., 1991). Hence, tomatoes are harvested to precool the tomato fruits was recorded. Fruits without pre- when mature but before ripening has begun. According to cooling served as control. Each treatment was subjected to Kumar et al., (2004) postharvest losses of tomato is about 20- various pre-cooling treatment combinations such as T1, T2 and 35% of total production. It is very much important to store T3 were Hydrocooled at 4, 6 and 8°C respectively, T4, T5 and tomato fruit for extended availability and minimization of T6 were Forced air cooled at 4, 6 and 8°C respectively and T7, market glut. T8 and T9 were Chilled water dipped at 4, 6 and 8°C Field heat can cause rapid deterioration of crops and respectively. 4, 6 and 8°C were cooling media temperatures, therefore it is desirable to remove the field heat as quickly as T10-Control. possible after harvesting (Brosnan and Sun, 2001). Pre-cooling The pre-cooled samples were immediately transferred is defined as the removal of field heat from freshly harvested to storage chamber where it was stored under controlled produce in order to slow down metabolism and to reduce refrigerated transport condition (13°C & 85-95% RH). During deterioration prior to transport or storage. Delay between storage different physiological (physiological loss in weight, per harvesting and cooling can result in direct losses so it is cent spoilage and firmness) and biochemical (total soluble necessary to cool the product as quickly as possible after harvest 118 Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______solids, titratable acidity and lycopene content) parameters were is maintained using a digital temperature controller with PT 100 monitored at three days interval throughout shelf life. sensor placed in the chilled water dipping tank. The fruits to be pre-cooled are immersed in the chilled water dipping tank. In hydrocooling system cold water is supplied to the hydocooling chamber using pump from an external cold water The temperature of the fruit at the centre was recorded storage tank. The cold water is sprinkled over the fruits kept in using RTD type PT 100 temperature sensors connected to a vented plastic crates. The external cold water storage tank digital datalogger (Data Taker Make, DT-600). The temperature contains the chilling coils connected to a 5 TR system to was recorded at an interval of 5 sec. till the temperature of the achieve the desirable cooling temperature. fruit at the centre reaches to 10°C. Total time required to precool tomato fruits using different pre-cooling methods was recorded. A forced air pre-cooling unit uses R-22 refrigeration The temperature of cooling media was maintained with an system of 5 TR capacity. The temperature as well as velocity of inbuilt RTD based thermostatic control system. cooling air is adjustable using control system and a blower respectively. The humidity of the air inside the pre-cooling Physiological Loss in Weight (PLW): The fruits were weighed chamber can be adjusted between 50% and 95%. immediately after imposing the treatments which served as the initial fruit weight and weighed at three days interval to In chilled water dipping system, the chilled water calculate PLW by the difference between initial and dipping tank is connected to a chilling tank containing cooling subsequent weights and expressed as percentage (Karki, coils. The desired water temperature in the chilled water dipping 2005). tank is maintained by continuous recirculation of water from the chilling tank to chilled water dipping tank. The water temperature ------(I) Spoilage: Spoilage percentage were measured based on visual development of undesirable patch (i.e., lesion and any obvious inspection (Behboudian and Tod, 1995) of texture, firmness, signs of deterioration) appear on the harvested fruits. surface moulds, shrinkage and presence of necrosis, ------(II) Firmness: A Texture Analyzer of Stable Micro System Ltd. Total Soluble Solids: Total Soluble Solids (TSS) were (Make- TA-HDi, UK), equipped with 75 mm Compression determined with the help of a digital refractometer and the Platen (P/75) and 100 kg load cell, was used in order to measure values were reported as °bx, corrected to 20°C with the the tomatoes response to compression as firmness. The help of temperature correlation chart (AOAC, 1975). operating conditions were pre-test speed 1mm/s, compression Titratable acidity: The titratable acidity of tomato samples was speed (test speed) 1 mm/s and post-test speed of 5 mm/s. Once a determined as per the procedure described by Ranganna (1986). trigger force of 20 g has been achieved the compression platen 10 g of the ground and filtered sample diluted in 90 ml of proceeds to move down onto the tomato and a rapid rise in force distilled water. The volume was made up and aliquot was is observed until the tomato was compressed 10 mm in the titrated with 0.1N NaOH using 1% phenolphthalein solutions as equatorial zone. During this stage the sample deforms under an indicator. The percent anhydrous citric acid was calculated as applied force but there will be no apparent breakdown of the under; product. The compression force, maximum force (N) needed to compress 10mm the tomato in the equatorial zone was obtained (Arazuri et al., 2007). 119 Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______ Lycopene content: Lycopene was extracted and analyzed were pooled in a brown bottle containing 10 g anhydrous according to method described by Thimmaiah (1999). Briefly, sodium sulphate. After standing it for ten minutes the petroleum tomato juice (from 10 g pulp) was extracted with acetone until ether extract was decanted in 100 ml volumetric flask through a the residue is colorless. The acetone extracts were transferred to funnel containing cotton wool. The volume was made up and a separate funnel containing 20 ml petroleum ether and mixed the absorbance measured using a UV-visible double beam gently. Subsequently, 20 ml of 5% sodium sulphate solvent was spectrophotometer at 503 nm using petroleum ether as blank. added. The two phases formed were separated and the lower The lycopene content (mg/100 g) was calculated as under, using aqueous phase was re-extracted with additional petroleum ether, molar extinction coefficient Σ = 17.2 X 10-4 M-1cm-1. until the aqueous phase was colorless. Petroleum ether extracts ------(IV) Shelf life: The shelf life of fruits was decided based on the RESULTS AND DISCUSSION spoilage of fruits. When 40 per cent of fruits showed symptoms Pre-cooling Characteristics as affected by cooling media of spoilage, the fruits were considered to have reached end of The cooling curve for hydrocooling, forced air cooling and the shelf life (Rai et al., 2012). chilled water dipping is depicted in Fig. 1, Fig. 2, and Fig. 3 Statistical analysis: The data obtained from analysis of each respectively. The cooling curve indicates the difference in quality attribute with three replications during the experiment temperature of cooling media and reduction in fruit’s centre were subjected to statistical analysis using completely temperature. The rate of heat transfer between the fruits and the randomized design (CRD). The critical difference value at 5% cooling media was slow in case of forced air cooling as level of probability was used for comparison among treatment compared to water. It was observed that the cooling rate was means. higher at the start of the pre-cooling process and became slower exponentially towards the end of the pre-cooling and took more time to reach desired temperature. 120 Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______ In all three pre-cooling methods, the rate of cooling chilled water, coefficient of convective heat transfer can be up was higher at 4°C cooling media temperature compared to 6 and to 6 times higher compared to the cooling system with forced 8°C as the rate of cooling depends on the difference in the air. In hydrocooling the water was sprayed on stationary fruits temperature of cooling media and fruit’s center temperature. and there was no complete contact between the fruits and the The cooling rate was higher in case of chilled water dipping and cooling media. However, as the water was flowing over the lowest for forced air cooling compared to other two pre-cooling fruits, the heat transfer between cooling water and fruits was methods. This is due to higher heat transfer coefficient of water faster than the forced air cooling. than of air. According to Barbara et al., (2003) in systems with The total time taken for pre-cooling of tomato fruit by 3.2 Effect of pre-cooling treatment on physiological loss in different pre-cooling methods is shown in Fig. 4 and time weight of tomato stored under refrigerated transport required by the hydrocooling, forced air cooling and chilled condition water dipping experiments for the cooling media temperatures The percent physiological loss in weight (PLW) of tomato under of 4, 6 and 8 °C were 20, 21.50, 24.50 min, 54.25, 84.50, 86.83 refrigerated transport condition storage for various pre-cooling min and 8.50, 16.17, 19.75 min respectively. From Fig. 4 it treatments is depicted in Fig. 5. For all pre-cooling treatments, it was observed that the chilled water dipping required least time was found that the physiological loss in weight increased with where as forced air cooling required more time to achieve the increase in the storage period and was maximum at the end desired fruit temperature than other two pre-cooling methods. of the shelf life. Weight loss of fresh tomatoes is due to transpiration i.e. a mechanism in which water is lost due to 121 Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______differences in vapour pressure of water in the atmosphere and atmosphere (Bhowmik and Pan, 1992). The maximum weight the transpiring surface and respiration i.e. a carbon atom is lost loss was found in treatment T10 (4.44%) while T6 (2.48%) from the fruit each time as a carbon-dioxide molecule is recorded the lowest weight loss among all the treatments at the produced from an absorbed oxygen molecule and evolved into end of 21 days storage. 3.3 Effect of pre-cooling treatments on spoilage of tomato and high relative humidity which usually have a delaying effect stored under refrigerated transport condition on the respiratory climacterics (Wills et al., 1998). 3.4 Effect of pre-cooling treatments on firmness of tomato The spoilage of tomato under refrigerated storage condition for stored under refrigerated transport condition different pre-cooling treatments is depicted in Fig. 6. It was The results of firmness of tomato fruits for different pre-cooling observed that the spoilage in fruits gradually increased with the treatments under refrigerated transport condition storage is advancement of storage period and it was maximum at the end depicted in Fig. 7. It was observed that firmness decreased as of the shelf life. At the end of 21 days storage, the spoilage was the storage period increased. The results of firmness indicates maximum in treatment T10 (37.50%) & minimum in treatment that after 21 days storage T5 (379.54 N) had maximum firmness T1 (10.83%). The temperature plays an important role in the where as T10 (243.38 N) had minimum firmness under spoilage of the fruits. The effectiveness of pre-cooling treatment refrigerated storage condition and was varied from 853.02 N to and low temperature storage in extending the shelf life of 243.38 N. Softening of the fruit due to ripening leads the breaker mature tomato may be attributed to the low temperature decrease in firmness during storage. 3.5 Effect of pre-cooling treatments on total soluble solids of tomato increased as the storage period increased. After 21 days tomato stored under refrigerated transport condition of storage under refrigerated transport condition, the total The total soluble solids (TSS) of tomato under refrigerated soluble solids was highest in T10 (5.07 °bx) and lowest in transport condition storage for various pre-cooling treatments is treatments T2 (4.33 °bx). Increase in TSS during storage might shown in Fig. 8. It was observed that the total soluble solids of be associated with the transformation of the pectic substances, 122 Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______starch, hemi cellulose or other polysaccharides in soluble sugar and also with loss of moisture from fruits (Hoda et al., 2000). 3.6 Effect of pre-cooling treatments on titratable acidity of advancement of ripening and storage period. After the storage tomato stored under refrigerated transport condition of 21 days, it was observed that acidity was minimum in T5 storage (0.16%) where as it was maximum in T3 (0.23%). The reduction in acidity during storage might be because of the The data on titratable acidity (TA) as influenced by pre-cooling conversion of organic acid into sugar and their derivatives or treatments and refrigerated transport condition storage is their utilization in respiration (Bhullar et al., 1981). depicted in Fig. 9. It was observed that acidity decreased with 3.7 Effect of pre-cooling treatments on lycopene content of (5.82 mg/100 g frt. wt.) where as it was minimum in T4 tomato stored under refrigerated transport condition (4.48mg/100 g frt. wt.). The increasing in redness of tomatoes The data on lycopene content as influenced by pre-cooling during ripening is due to lycopene accumulation, in association treatments and refrigerated transport condition storage is with the internal membrane system (Grierson and Kader, 1986). depicted in Fig. 10. It was found that lycopene content increased According to Rai et al., (2012), increased levels of lycopene in with advancement of ripening and storage period. At the end of tomato during storage might be due to ripening advancements of 21 days, it was found that lycopene content was maximum in T6 tomato fruits and conversion of chloroplasts to chromoplasts. 3.8 Effect of pre-cooling treatments on shelf life of tomato The values of shelf life of pre-cooled tomato stored under stored under refrigerated transport condition refrigerated transport condition is shown in Fig.11.The 123 Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.6, No. 2: October 2015 ______maximum shelf life was observed in the treatment T3 (39 days) T10 (21 days). The lowest shelf life was recorded in the T10 (21 followed by the treatments T4 and T8, followed by treatments days). It was found that pre-cooling treatment has significant T1, T2, T5 T6 and T9 (30 days) followed by T7 (27 days) and effect on shelf life of tomato fruits. CONCLUSIONS temperature storage has significant effect on extension of shelf From the experimental result, it can be concluded that life of tomato fruits which aids in safe transient and on farm among the three different pre-cooling methods, chilled water storage of the commodity. Along with aid in extension of self dipping required least time for pre-cooling of tomato fruit life, pre-cooling treatment and low temperature storage has followed by hydrocooling and forced air cooling. When pre- advantage of better retention of nutritive as well as market value cooled samples were stored under refrigerated transport of tomato fruit. condition, 8°C hydrocooling treatment (T3) gave maximum ACKNOWLEDGEMENT shelf life of 39 days with advantage of 18 days over control (21 We wish to acknowledge the assistance provided by Dr. V. B. days) and found as the best pre-cooling method and temperature Darji, Department of agricultural science, College of AIT, combination among all the treatments for the pre-cooling of Anand Agricultural University, Anand for statistical analysis. tomato fruits. Thus Pre-cooling treatment followed by low REFERENCES AOAC (1975). Official Methods of Analysis, Washington Nakhasi, S., Schlimme, D. and Solomos, T. (1991). Storage D.C.: Author, pp. 16-17. potential of tomatoes harvested at the breaker stage using modified atmosphere packaging. Journal of Food Bhullar, J. S., Khakhar, U. U. and Agnihotri, R. P. (1981). Science, 56(1): 55-59. Studies of storage of kinnow mandarin. Punjab Horticultural Journal, 21: 27-31. Bhowmik, S. R. and Pan, J. C. (1992). Shelf life of mature green tomatoes stored in controlled atmosphere and Ranganna, S. (1986). Hand Book of Analysis and Quality nd high humidity. Journal of Food Science, 57(4): 948- Control for Fruits and Vegetable Products, 2 ed. 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