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Home , Adams George Archibald, Alexander Tilloch Galt, British North America, Canada East, Canadian Confederation, Charlottetown Conference

Lower // : financial woes. In 1860, the government had to confrontation with the . In the mid- Factors Leading to borrow more money to buy out the Grand Trunk 1860s, encouraged negotiations to Railway Company's debts. In 1860, Canadian debt transfer these territories to the new country that Political Factors reached $50 million. The Reciprocity Treaty with would become Canada. When Confederation the United States was about to expire and Canada came into effect in 1867, the Hudson's Bay By the early 1860s, Great Britain was gradually had no choice but to turn to the markets of the Company began the transfer of the North- losing interest in its North American colonies, British Atlantic colonies. When the Reciprocity Western Territory and Rupert's Land to the new which were seen to be an economic, military and Treaty came to an end in 1866, fewer markets of Canada. political burden. With this detachment came a were available to Canada. A union of the British desire to reorganize the colonies' political colonies in would open up new Finally, Great Britain also feared that structure by giving them greater autonomy. The markets. might attack its North American colonies. political system of United Canada had been extremely unstable since the mid-1850s. Security Factors Factors Related to the Railway Government crises occurred every year from 1854 In the mid-19th century, Great Britain wanted, for to 1857, and twice a year in 1858, as well as from Great Britain was no longer interested in financing strategic reasons, to connect its North American 1862 to 1864. Once in power, the the defence of its North American colonies and colonies by means of a railway. Given the project's of John A. Macdonald, George-Étienne Cartier and asked that United Canada assume the scope, no single colony could provide the George Brown planned a legislative union of the responsibility for its own defence. In 1862, as a necessary financial resources. A British North American colonies. The debate show of goodwill, the Macdonald-Cartier would allow the colonies to pool their resources surrounding the issue of representation by government proposed a bill allocating $1 million and make the railway project more feasible. population (rep by pop) also called for a political to maintain a of 50,000 men. The bill was defeated in the House, disappointing the British reorganization. The Process authorities. From then on, they would be Economic Factors receptive to any project to unite the North In 1858, after George-Étienne Cartier and American colonies, which would solve the Galt reached an agreement, the The success of railway companies, particularly that problem of North American defence. former announced a government project in these of the Company, was crucial terms: to the economic health of United Canada. In 1855, When the ended, Great Britain skyrocketing construction costs forced the worried about the victors' reaction to British "Le gouvernement étudiera l'opportunité d'une government to begin massive investment in the support of the Southern cause. Britain's union fédérale des britanniques de Grand Trunk Railway Company in order to save withdrawal from North America might normalize l'Amérique du Nord, et se mettra en the project. This commitment spelled financial relations between Canada and the United States. communication à ce sujet avec le gouvernement ruin for the government, which would soon be impérial et avec les provinces Maritimes. Le The perceived "threat" posed by expanding unable to pay interest on its debt. It became clear résultat de ces communications sera soumis au American interests increased when the United that railway profits would never materialize. The Parlement à sa prochaine session."1 government of United Canada was forced to States purchased . Great Britain believed increase import tariffs, its main source of revenue. that the uncertain status of the North-Western [translation] But these hikes could not solve the colony's Territory and Rupert's Land might lead to "The government shall study the timeliness of a federal union of British North American provinces, resolve the political crisis once and for all, and North American colonies. The union could include and will contact the imperial government and agreed to co-operate with any government that only Canada East and Canada West, or the Maritime provinces in this regard. The result of accepted constitutional reform.2 Maritime colonies as well. Having heard of the these communications will be presented to John A. Macdonald, who did not like George discussions of underway among the three Parliament next session." Brown at first, made an overture to him. Brown Maritime colonies, the Parliament of United replied that he would join a Conservative majority Canada contacted the various colonial This project was essentially that of Alexander government if it agreed to include as governments. All agreed to meet in Tilloch Galt. It arose from an ideological debate part of its platform.3 This government, called the in September 1864 to discuss a possible union. begun by some members of the Canadian political Great Coalition, included several politicians who elite, Francophone and Anglophone, when the favoured a union of British colonies, including The Parliament of United Canada obtained were united in 1840. In 1858, many of , George-Étienne Cartier, permission to send seven of its members. For the main players in the Confederation conferences Hector-Louis Langevin, Étienne-Paschal Taché, Canada West, the representatives were of 1864 to 1867 were already on the scene, Thomas D'Arcy McGee and Jean-Charles Chapais. John A. Macdonald, George Brown and William including George Brown, George-Étienne Cartier, It was this overture to George Brown that set the McDougall; for Canada East, they were George- John A. Macdonald, Alexander Tilloch Galt, wheels of the Confederation project in motion. Étienne Cartier, Alexander-Tilloch Galt, Hector- Joseph-Charles Taché, Antoine-Aimé Dorion, The overture was also remarkable in that political Louis Langevin and Thomas D'Arcy McGee. Étienne-Paschal Taché, Hector-Louis Langevin and foes joined forces to support a common goal. This The United Canada delegates explained their plan Thomas D'Arcy McGee. Others, like Joseph- goal was hard to define, however, since not for a union of British North American colonies. Édouard Cauchon, exerted a more subtle everyone had the same definition of They did so with such conviction that the influence. Though only a member of Parliament, Confederation. Alexander Tilloch Galt, for delegates for the Maritime colonies set aside their Cauchon managed to influence public opinion in example, believed the Confederation project initial project to concentrate on favour of a political union through his newspaper, should include the Maritime provinces, while the new Canadian federation project. In Le Journal de Québec. George Brown initially viewed it simply as an Charlottetown, they agreed to resume discussions amendment to the union of Canada East and In 1858, George-Étienne Cartier, Alexander Tilloch at a second conference in October 1864, this time Canada West. In the end, all managed to agree. Galt and John Ross travelled to to present in Québec. with a federation project for the The British North American colonies. There were Before returning to Canada, the United Canada received with polite indifference. After this For close to ten years, the British Atlantic colonies delegates toured the Maritime colonies, giving refusal, the political class put its project aside for a had considered a union to improve their lot in speeches and drumming up support for their number of years. The frequent changes in colonial North America. By simplifying their project. government also disrupted the process. The administration, reducing expenses, and pooling The Québec Conference federation project resumed in 1864, and this time, their energies and resources, Prince Edward it was brought to a conclusion on , 1867. Island, and might face The United Canada delegates who attended the the future with serenity. Québec Conference were, for Canada East: In 1864, when the Conservative Taché-Macdonald Étienne-Paschal Taché, George-Étienne Cartier, government was defeated in the House, George As we have seen, the of Canada was also Alexander Tilloch Galt, Jean-Charles Chapais, Brown, who held the balance of power, wanted to considering a political reorganization of the British Hector-Louis Langevin, Thomas D'Arcy McGee and, for Canada West: John A. Macdonald, George believed that inclusion of the Maritime colonies John A. Macdonald, William McDougall and Brown, Alexander Campbell, , would increase the financial burden on United W. P. Howland; for Canada East: George-Étienne William McDougall and James Cockburn. Canada. Moreover, the Senate, as it was proposed Cartier, Alexander Tilloch Galt and Hector-Louis at the Québec Conference, could impede the will Langevin. The talks were chaired by The Québec Conference was held in the utmost of the people and block adoption of progressive John A. Macdonald, who tried to change the secrecy from October 10 to 26, 1864. When the legislation. Finally, he firmly believed that the wording of the Québec Resolutions several times. general population made it clear that it wanted to Confederation project should be subject to the George-Étienne Cartier and other delegates had to know more about the negotiations that would people's approval by a vote. Antoine-Aimé Dorion temper his zeal. decide their future, the Québec Resolutions were gave a speech to the constituents of the published. These resolutions served as the basis Hochelaga and, in 1865, he made a long Once the London Resolutions were drafted, the for the talks leading to Confederation. It was plea to Parliament against Confederation. In text had to be converted to a parliamentary bill. essentially these same 72 resolutions that were October 1866, he signed a manifesto as a last The imperial government assigned several of its voted on, after long debate, by the Legislative resort. The document's signatories, who claimed best writers and jurists to the task. The bill was Council and the House of Assembly of United to represent one third of the ridings in Lower debated in Great Britain's and Canada. Canada, gave the history of the federal project to House of Commons. show that it was not the will of the people. Anti-Confederation Reaction Native People's Reactions The "" under George-Étienne Cartier The "", some in Canada The history of relations between Native people retorted that the Confederation project drafted in West, and a few Conservatives from both parts of and the British and Canadian governments is one Québec adequately recognized and protected the United Canada reacted negatively to the of unequal power. London and the various rights of Francophones as a distinct cultural and publication of the Québec Conference resolutions. colonial governments imposed their view of the ethnic group, as well as the rights of Quebec as a They objected to the project as it was proposed. established order with a series of treaties and laws province. Confederation was an object of debate All disagreed with its centralizing nature. Parts of intended to regulate the lives of Aboriginal in Quebec. But the well-oiled political machine of the population in Canada East were not interested people. The process that led to Confederation did the "parti bleu", supported by the persuasive in a legislative union based on representation by not consider Aboriginal people, yet they lived in power of the Catholic clergy, assured that such population. The more radical "parti rouge" under the land and were directly affected by the debate did not impede the Confederation project. Jean-Baptiste-Éric Dorion and some French- decisions made from 1864 to 1866 in Canadian Conservatives feared that French- The London Conference Charlottetown, Québec and London. As Olive Canadian institutions were not given enough Patricia Dickason has stated [translation]: "When assurances. As elsewhere in the British North The road to the new Dominion of Canada ended in the federation of was American colonies, the Confederation project was London. The delegates for United Canada, Nova agreed upon in 1867, Aboriginal people were, yet a subject of disagreement. Scotia and New Brunswick met at the Westminster again, not consulted; the possibility of an Palace Hotel on December 4, 1866. Their working association with them was not even raised."4 Antoine-Aimé Dorion, the Liberal leader in Canada document was the Québec Resolutions. After one East, was the most vocal opponent of month, they emerged with a new document: the A New Country Confederation. He feared for the independence of London Resolutions. The delegates for United The British Parliament passed the British North the provinces called to form the new Canada, and Canada were, for Canada West: America Act without difficulty in March 1867. United Canada, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia East, who wished to protect the status of the Economic Factors were brought together under a same constitution. and were openly nationalistic, Canada East became the province of Quebec, and George Brown was relegated to the opposition. Canada West's trade in wheat, flour and timber Canada West became the province of . Government was also extremely unstable from had benefited substantially from the Reciprocity 1854 to 1864 due to the nature of United Treaty with the United States. Its possible The birth of the new country was celebrated on Canada's political system. abrogation (which did finally occur in 1866) made July 1, 1867. Towns were decorated modestly. farmers and merchants in Canada West Newspapers were no longer fascinated by Great Britain's waning interest in its North apprehensive. A proposed union of the British Confederation, and simply mentioned the few American colonies spurred a desire to politically North American colonies was highly appealing to official meetings organized to mark the event. restructure Canada West. It was the political them for this reason. instability in the that motivated John A. Macdonald and Alexander Territorial Security Factors Tilloch Galt to make an overture to George Brown /Canada West/Ontario: After the American Civil War, British authorities in and raise an appeal for a coalition. Factors Leading to Confederation London feared reprisals against British colonial In the interests of entering government and territories by the victorious Northern states. Since Several factors led to Confederation in 1867. Of asserting his political ideas, of eradicating political Great Britain had openly supported the South, these factors, some were inherently linked to instability, and of promoting the federation of their fear was well founded. The dangers of this Canada East, which, with Canada West, formed British North America, George Brown answered war also stirred Loyalist sentiments in Ontarians. the Province of Canada after the Act of Union was his political opponents and agreed to join the Protecting Canada West from American influence signed in 1840. Great Coalition of 1864. With this, the coalition meant protecting British traditions and institutions in North America. Political Factors launched the process that would lead to Confederation in 1867. The threat of attacks by Fenians also motivated Equal parliamentary representation suited Canada London to reorganize the political status of its West as long as its population was less than that A few days before this proposal, a report was North American colonies. If the United States of Canada East; however, the 1851 census tabled by a parliamentary committee (formed and considered Canada a sovereign country rather revealed that, for the first time, the population of chaired by George Brown himself) responsible for than a British colony, the Fenians might be less Canada West exceeded that of Canada East. Faced examining political problems in the Province of inclined to continue their attacks. with this new state of affairs, George Brown began Canada. The report was brief and general. Nevertheless, it was a foundation for resolving his campaign for rep by pop (representation by The issue of the North-Western Territory also United Canada's political problems. Proposals that population). Although elected by a majority in played a significant role in Canada West's desire to were considered unworkable were removed, such Canada West, Brown's Clear Grits were unable to politically restructure British North America. Some as the double majority, rep by pop, and form a government because of alliances from members of Ontario's political leadership believed dissolution of the Union. The committee favoured 1854 to 1864 between John A. Macdonald's that the territories west of the province were a federal system, but did not attempt to define Conservatives and George-Étienne Cartier's Parti rightfully theirs. Political restructuring was an the form it would take. Bleu. As it was impossible to forge an alliance ideal opportunity to claim them. between reformers in Canada West, often anti-

French and anti-Catholic, and reformers in Canada Factors Related to the Railway When George Brown joined the Great Coalition, Brown, Oliver Mowat, Alexander Campbell and asking the government to include a solution to the James Cockburn. The British colonies involved in the confederation political problem in United Canada as part of its project had amassed considerable debt from mandate, he took up a proposal originally made Negotiations at the Québec Conference dealt with railway construction. Pooling their debts in a by Alexander Tilloch Galt in 1858. That year, the United Canada's -- particularly Canada federation would relieve the stress on their Alexander Tilloch Galt, George-Étienne Cartier and West's -- insistence on its vision of the federation several economies. By facilitating commerce John Ross had travelled to Great Britain to present project. Also at issue was the desire of the between provinces, confederation would also Queen Victoria with a federation project for the Maritime provinces to obtain their fair share in encourage the profitability of railway companies. British colonies. The proposal had been received any agreement. If John A. Macdonald wanted a by the London authorities with polite indifference. strong central power, he would have to alter his The Process stance on the demands of the Maritime provinces. Originally, George Brown's proposal involved only He would also have to yield to the elected Many proposals for a new political arrangement Canada East and Canada West. When the representatives of Canada East, who wanted the surfaced in the 1850s and 1860s. government of United Canada learned that the provinces to retain certain rights with respect to In the 1850s, the controversial William Lyon Maritime colonies were planning a meeting to the administration of day-to-day activities. Mackenzie proposed that the Union simply be discuss a possible union amongst themselves, a Reaction dissolved. Neither the eastern nor the western delegation was sent to convince United Canada's Atlantic neighbours of the federation project's faction of Canada West agreed with this proposal. A majority of the members of Parliament for validity. A return to single-colony status would have Canada West voted in favour of the Québec isolated Canada West from the markets and The Charlottetown Conference Conference proposals (55 for and 8 against). All of waterways essential to commercial development. Canada West's demands were met in the 72 In 1864, a Canadian delegation presented a resolutions from the Québec Conference. A kind presented a proposal proposal to federate the British North American of rep by pop was reached by establishing that would make a double majority mandatory to colonies at the meeting of the Maritime colonies provincial governments responsible for part of the form a government. When he came to power in in Charlottetown. Members of the delegation administrative powers and by redistributing 1862, he tried to apply this principle -- which was included John A. Macdonald, William McDougall elected members in the House of Commons in fairly attractive in theory, at least -- but failed. He and George Brown. The Maritime colonies were . Local costs were controlled by creating was unable to remain in power. keenly interested and decided to abandon their provincial legislatures. The main powers were George Brown's proposal of rep by pop was by far initial plan in favour of this new proposal. All entrusted to a strong federal authority. the best-known suggestion at the time. It would agreed that they would meet again in Québec City Not all reformers voted for the Québec be equivalent to a simple legislative union, on October 10, 1864. Conference resolutions, though. Even without further change, but under it French The Québec Conference Conservatives, who favoured confederation, would lose the advantages they had reserved the right to critique the project. For the gained over the years. John A. Macdonald and The confederation project took its final shape at latter, confederation was tantamount to handing John Sandfield Macdonald, both representatives the Québec Conference. At this conference, the Canada West over to the Clear Grits. Some from the eastern section of Canada West, representatives for Canada West were Conservatives even thought the project should be opposed it. John A. Macdonald, William McDougall, George subject to a vote by the people, as the Parti Rouge "If there were any doubt about public feeling, voice of the Native peoples in Canada was not in Canada East and some New Brunswick there might be propriety in going to the people. heard during the constitutional conferences in politicians were demanding. Several newspapers But is there any doubt about it? I am not opposing Charlottetown, Québec City or London. When in Canada West were also calling for such a vote. the honorable gentleman's resolution on joined Canada, the events that The Conservative Hamilton Spectator, and the constitutional grounds. I am not denying the rights transpired showed just how hard the Métis, in this Reform Hamilton Times supported this call, as did of the people; if I had any doubt whatever about case, had to fight for recognition of their rights. As the Leader, a Conservative paper, which what would be the verdict of the people, I should historian Jean-Pierre Charland states: stated the following: be the first to say that we ought to go to the people. But it is simply because I am satisfied there [translation] "No one can doubt what the views of Upper would be a sweeping verdict of the people in favor "Although the people in the territories belonging Canada are in regard to an appeal to the people of the measure, that I think it unnecessary to take to the Hudson's Bay Company were not invited to before Confederation is finally carried into effect. it to the country. What would be the verdict of the send representatives, one resolution of the Québec Taking the press as an indication of public opinion, people may be judged from what has been the Conference provided for their inclusion in the we must conclude that the feeling is almost vote of their representatives here, who are federation. The would not be a unanimous in favor of allowing the people an responsible to them."7 opportunity to express an opinion upon the province, but a territory, under the authority of the 8 constitution under which they are to live."5 John A. Macdonald, of course, praised the merits federal government." of confederation. Some Conservative and Reform In 1869, two years after Confederation, the Nor could political leaders agree on the issue of elements thought it undesirable for the central promulgated An Act for the the people's approval of the Confederation government to wield such power to the detriment temporary government of Rupert's Land and the project. Sandfield Macdonald was in favour of a of "local" (provincial) authorities. John Sandfield North-Western Territory when united with popular vote, saying: Macdonald's Liberals agreed, but few newspapers Canada, and in 1870 Manitoba became a province in Canada West argued the Liberal stance. "If there has been one question more than another of Canada. Many Ontario politicians coveted the before this House, for the last of a century, Catholics in West Canada, who were mainly Irish, territories west of the province as their due, and upon which the views of the people, ought to be did not support the Catholic Sandfield Macdonald, were particularly displeased with the prospect of clearly and distinctly ascertained, it is upon this who was Scottish. Instead they rallied under the the predominantly Francophone and Catholic 9 proposal [of the House] to destroy the Irish Thomas D'Arcy McGee, who supported the Métis standing in their way. Constitution; and if gentlemen will vote against it, confederation project born of the Québec The only mention of Native people in the wording then I hope that at the next general election, the Conference. people will pass such a judgement upon them as of the new Constitution was in section 91, well as prevent any such scheme ever being Native People's Reactions paragraph 24, where it stated that "the exclusive proposed in any British Colonial Legislature, Legislative Authority of the Parliament of Canada without the sanction of the people, during all The confederation project arose from the extends to all Matters coming within the Classes future time."6 governing majority's desire to politically of Subjects next hereinafter enumerated: (...) 24. restructure the British North American colonies. Indians, and Lands reserved for the Indians." 10 George Brown, on the other hand, was opposed to This governing majority was white, male and a popular vote. He said: predominantly British or French-Canadian. The The Birth of a Province It was not until the summer of 1864, when the Leader , Opposition Canadians expressed interest in the proposed Upper House Member Jonathan McCully, As a result of these negotiations and deliberations, conference, and requested permission to attend in Government Upper House Member Dickey, in 1867, the province of Ontario was created. The order to make a presentation regarding a full and Attorney General William Henry. Dickey word Ontario is believed to be derived from the British , that discussion of arrived in Charlottetown on August 30 and his Iroquoian for "vast body of water." The province the matter was renewed. The colonies were fellow delegates joined him the following evening. bears the same name as , first forced to actually organize a conference for the referred to by this name in the Jesuit Relations Canadians to attend, and to appoint delegates. It Official proceedings began on the afternoon of toward 1641. was decided (after much deliberation) to hold the September 1 -- after the arrival of the Canadian discussions at Charlottetown, Prince Edward delegates -- with the appointment of officers. Like everywhere else in the new country, towns in Island, beginning September 1, 1864. After deciding that discussion of Maritime Union the province were decorated to celebrate could wait, it was agreed to hear the Canadian Dominion Day. The province's many newspapers Canadian Visit, 1864 proposals regarding a larger union. While there described on the event. are no official records of the closed proceedings, In the interest of promoting closer relations the Halifax Morning Chronicle of

amongst the colonies of British North America, September 10, 1864 gives an account of what was D'Arcy McGee organized a visit to Nova Scotia and Nova Scotia: Factors Leading to said, in an article attributed to Jonathan McCully. New Brunswick by a delegation of Nova Scotians, like the other delegates, took part politicians and journalists for the late summer of in the whirl of social activities accompanying the Maritime Union 1864. In Nova Scotia the visitors, after landing at official proceedings. After the official meetings at Windsor, proceeded to Halifax, where they Charlottetown were over, the delegates continued The spring and summer of 1864 saw discussion of stopped for several days. For entertainment, there on a tour of the Maritime colonies. In Nova Scotia, a possible union of the Maritime colonies. In fact, were picnics, banquets, and excursions. A warm they stopped at Halifax. based part of his 1863 election disposition toward each other, and toward the platform on the promise to call a conference on idea of a union of the colonies, prevailed. The Québec Conference, October 1864 the matter. The collapse of negotiations with the Newspapers of the time were particularly amused Province of Canada for an extension of the by the "Hodge Podge dinner" held for the At the Québec Conference -- where a union in (ICR) has been suggested as delegates. Even , who later became a the spirit of the discussions held at Charlottetown a factor in the issue's prominence -- it was felt vehement anti-Confederationist, gave a speech was to be formed -- the Nova Scotia delegates that the region would have more influence supporting union after one of the banquets in were the same gentlemen who had attended the bargaining as one large group instead of three Halifax. first conference. The Québec negotiations took a small ones. During its spring session, the Nova different tone and direction from the Scotia legislature considered a resolution calling The Charlottetown Conference, September 1864 presentations at Charlottetown, however. The for the appointment of delegates to a Maritime delegates now needed to agree on the actual The delegates from Nova Scotia were appointed union conference. However, interest then terms of the proposed union. The first difficulty from all levels of the government, and included languished, possibly because of renewed Canadian encountered was the composition of the Senate, government and opposition members. They interest in the ICR. and the desire of the Maritime colonies for equal included Premier Charles Tupper, Opposition representation in the proposed government. More pressing were the financial arrangements that supporters of the proposed agreement. Tupper's created also promised to make the passage of a would allow the provinces to cover the costs of government also had a comfortable majority in union resolution difficult. With his legislative new and existing services. Charles Tupper put the legislature that would vote on the proposals; majority, he was able to ignore the increasing forward an agreement, which, while it suited the he anticipated no difficulty in passing them. Once agitation to put the matter to a vote before trying Canadians, was insufficient to meet Nova Scotia's the Resolutions were made public, however, many to pass it. Tupper reintroduced the concept of needs. prominent figures expressed their opposition. As Maritime Union in the legislature to divert Christopher Moore states, Nova Scotians felt no attention away from Confederation. As at Charlottetown, there were many social particular compulsion for constitutional reform; activities for the delegates to attend when many others found the financial parts of the On April 18, 1866, just as his mandate was about negotiations were through for the day. For this agreement completely unacceptable. to end, Tupper passed the Québec Resolutions gathering, however, many delegates were through the legislature. When the general accompanied by wives and daughters, and though Chief among the protesters was Joseph Howe. At population heard of the government's actions, Québec did not offer the warm summer weather first, while acting as Imperial Fisheries they protested loudly in print. Although it was too of Charlottetown, the setting and the people did Commissioner, he was obliged to denounce the late to reverse the decision, Tupper promised the much to charm the delegates and their families. resolutions anonymously in a series of newspaper electorate that he would attempt to make Even more so than at Charlottetown, these articles called the "Botheration Letters." Later, modifications to the act during the London occasions were important in wooing delegates when he no longer held any imperial Conference, where the British North America Act who might have been unsure about supporting responsibilities, he was more overt in his criticism. was to be finalized. the terms of the union. Another prominent detractor was , who would become the first Nova Scotian The London Conference, December 1866 After long hours of deliberation and debate, the premier of the Confederation era. delegates at last produced the Québec The British North American contingent that Resolutions, the guidelines for what would The battle over Confederation was fought in the travelled to London, to draft what would become the British North America Act. The newspapers as well as in the legislature. The become the official version of the British North Resolutions covered all aspects of the formation Halifax Morning Chronicle was a prominent America Act was smaller than the ones sent to the of the proposed new country and its government. supporter of union until William Annand resumed previous two conferences. The Nova Scotia Nova Scotian response was varied, ranging from control of the paper from Jonathan McCully, after members were the same, except that John wholehearted support to harsh criticism. which time it became one of Confederation's William Ritchie replaced Robert Dickey -- who had strongest critics. McCully continued publishing his expressed last-minute doubts about the Québec After the conference, delegates took a tour of the pro-union opinions in the Halifax Unionist. agreement's financial terms. The delegates Canadas, stopping at Montréal, Ottawa, Kingston, Another supporter of the idea was the Halifax worked hard at creating a final draft out of the Belleville and Toronto. British Colonist, for which Charles Tupper wrote Resolutions. They also worried over such details as frequently. how to refer to the new union; they eventually Reactions to the Québec Resolutions settled on "Dominion," from a passage in the Bible After the Québec proposal's disastrous showing in reputedly found by . Charles Tupper, as leader of the Nova Scotia New Brunswick's 1865 election, Tupper wished to delegation, was surprised to meet opposition to keep Confederation as far away from the polls as At the same time, those against union had sent the Québec Resolutions when he and the other possible. An unpopular school tax he had recently their own small delegation, consisting of Howe delegates returned home. The delegates were all and Annand, to London to protest Nova Scotia's It was feared that the federal members, led by New Brunswick: Factors Leading to method of ratification. They wished for a Joseph Howe, would not even attend the first Confederation renegotiation for what they called "better terms" sitting of the new nation's Parliament. (They did within the proposed union. Tupper and the other appear, although Howe made a speech about his Security supporters managed to anticipate every feelings regarding union.) William Annand became During and after the American Civil War, New opposition move, while trying to persuade the two Nova Scotia's premier. He and Howe continued to Brunswick became increasingly fearful of the delegates that modifications could be made to the push for the removal of Nova Scotia from Canada. military threat posed by the United States. Events document before it reached its final form. Despite When that failed, they moved to a campaign for such as the and the Chesapeake his best efforts, however, Tupper was unable to so-called "better terms." In this effort they were incident fuelled such fears during the war. The introduce any changes before the agreement moderately successful. Eventually, Howe was Fenians, a group of mainly ex-Civil War soldiers received . integrated into the new government, persuaded who were sympathetic to the cause of Irish that there he could better fight for his province's independence, also proved disconcerting, and Confederation: July 1, 1867 interests. Annand had a falling-out with Howe newspapers provided frequent updates of over this point, and continued to fight In contrast to the pages-long editorial written by movements along the border with the United Confederation until 1869. George Brown for the Globe, the Eastern Chronicle States. In April, 1866, Fenians launched a raid on & Pictou County Advocate featured mocking birth, The political fate of the delegates varied. Tupper New Brunswick. marriage and death notices in protest of sat in the first Parliament of the new federal Gordon's Push for Union, 1863 Confederation. While there were celebrations government, but did not receive a Cabinet post around the province, such as those described in a because of regional representation concerns. In 1863, Governor Gordon decided to pursue the Lunenburg resident's diary, in Yarmouth there Archibald was made the new Secretary of State. idea of Maritime Union. There is still debate as to were buildings draped in black crepe in protest. McCully, Dickey, and Ritchie were all named as why Gordon wanted to unite New Brunswick, Effigies of Tupper and other union supporters senators. Henry, who lost his seat in the 1867 and Nova Scotia into a single were burned at Halifax, and at other communities election, remained active in Nova Scotia politics province. The military and economic security of around the province. Some people welcomed and was eventually named as one of the first the region was an important factor, as was union, while others were resentful at being forced judges to the in 1875. Britain's desire for some sort of union in British into it. The newspaper coverage of the time North America. There was also historical reflects these varying opinions. Interestingly, the repeal movement in Nova Scotia precedent: Prince Edward Island and New resurfaced in 1886, under Liberal leader William Brunswick had once been administered as parts of Anti-Confederation feeling in Nova Scotia also Fielding. He won 26 of the 38 seats that year, on a Nova Scotia, until 1769 and 1784 respectively. influenced that fall's federal and provincial campaign of repeal and increased subsidies. The Some historians cite Gordon's own ambition as elections. Thirty-six of the thirty-eight provincial short-lived resurgence collapsed, however, when another factor, noting that he envisioned himself seats went to anti-Confederation candidates. the Conservatives won 14 of 21 seats in the as the natural choice for governor of the united Eighteen of the nineteen available federal seats federal election of 1887. went the same route -- the only Confederation Maritime colonies. Gordon sent an invitation to supporter elected was Charles Tupper, in the Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island for a riding of Cumberland. conference to discuss the matter. Legislatures in all three provinces passed motions supporting the Although not organized expressly to promote a new union, reflected in a newspaper editorial idea. Confederation, this visit did much to break down from the Saint John Morning Telegraph. Gordon any suspicions either group might have had about was not happy with events at Charlottetown. Gordon's initiative for Maritime Union was quickly the other, and created an atmosphere of goodwill When it became clear that Maritime Union was overshadowed by a more ambitious project. In the that carried over to the meeting at Charlottetown. being swept aside, he left the conference and wake of the collapse of the government of United returned to New Brunswick. Canada, a coalition had been formed to study The Charlottetown Conference, September 1864 possible reforms. This coalition heard of the The Charlottetown Conference is also proposed Maritime Union meeting, and asked if On September 1, 1864, the Charlottetown remembered for the eloquent speeches, lavish representatives from Canada could attend in order Conference was convened to formally discuss the balls and banquets that helped to create an to discuss the possibility of a union between all of idea of union. From Gordon's original plan for a amicable mood amongst the delegates. As the British North America. The Maritime colonies small group of Maritime governors and premiers, conference wound down, delegates from Canada agreed, hastily organizing a meeting to take place the conference had grown to include more than went on to Saint John and to continue at Charlottetown that September. thirty delegates. Gordon had selected the lobbying for union -- and to continue throwing delegation from New Brunswick: Premier Tilley, parties. The Canadian Visit, Summer 1864 former Premier John Hamilton Gray, Attorney- General , Upper House The Québec Conference, October 1864 Earlier that year, a tour of the Maritime colonies Reform Leader William Steeves, and Opposition by politicians and journalists had been organized, Member Edward Chandler. Notably absent from The Québec Conference began on October 10. intended to allow Canadians and Maritimers to the delegation were spokesmen for two of New After the discussions at Charlottetown, the task get acquainted. This visit, led by D'Arcy McGee, Brunswick's largest minorities, and Irish before the delegates was now to create a formal took place during the late summer of 1864. Catholics, despite the fact that both groups had union agreement. Governor Gordon expanded the McGee and about one hundred other Canadians elected representatives in the New Brunswick New Brunswick delegation to include Peter toured the Maritime colonies, attending a variety legislature. Mitchell and Charles Fisher. of receptions, dinners and other events. The tour made its first stop in New Brunswick, where they The Canadian delegates arrived well prepared to Debates at Québec focussed on financial were greeted at Saint John by a crowd of 15,000 argue the reasons for all the colonies to unite. It arrangements, and on the form government in a people, including a military band and revellers was Tilley who voiced the growing consensus united British North America would take. The singing French folk songs. The mood of the visit among Maritime delegates that Canadian Maritime colonies were concerned that they was convivial, and the newspapers reported Confederation was a real possibility. The would be under-represented in a federal Tilley's enthusiastic clasping of hands with a proceedings of the conference were not recorded, legislative assembly based on representation by Canadian visitor as a symbol of unity. The Saint but it is known that Tilley and the other New population. Tilley tried hard to expand New John Morning Telegraph carried an account of a Brunswick delegates were impressed by what Brunswick's representation in the proposed particularly enjoyable afternoon boat trip to Confederation could offer: greater security, a (now the Senate), but had little Fredericton, where a reception and dinner were wider market for their goods, and a way to reach success. held for the Canadians. There, Samuel Tilley and that market through the promised Intercolonial There was also dissent within the New Brunswick D'Arcy McGee spoke in favour of union -- the Railway. Still, there were concerns about the delegation over the distribution of provincial and latter to "rapturous applause." relative strength of New Brunswick's voice within federal powers. Edward Chandler argued that all powers not specified as federal should come In the legislature it was Albert Smith, a rival of As the tide of popular support turned in favour of under provincial jurisdiction. However, this Tilley, who headed the anti-Confederation faction. union, Smith resigned. There is some debate over proposal was deemed by many delegates to be Smith became the de facto leader of opposition to whether or not Governor Gordon exceeded his too similar to the principle of States' rights, widely union, because the official leader of the authority and forced Smith's resignation. A seen as contributing to the American Civil War. Opposition, John Hamilton Gray, had accompanied general election was called in 1866 and Tilley and Many at the conference, including Johnson and Tilley to the union conferences and supported his pro-Confederation faction won. That summer Gray, from his own delegation, attacked Confederation. There was also opposition to Tilley put a resolution before the legislature Chandler's position. Still, in a speech made after Confederation among merchants and shippers, supporting Confederation, which was passed by a the Québec Conference, Tilley pronounced that who feared increased competition, new tariffs and vote of 38 to 1. There were still reservations about New Brunswick would retain -- and even gain - a higher tax burden. Many ethnic minorities, the details of the union plan, however. It was - several important powers under Confederation. including Acadians and Irish Catholics, distrusted understood that the province's delegates would both Tilley and his Confederation project. try to get a better deal during the next stage of As at Charlottetown, Québec was the scene of negotiation. elaborate dinners, social events and speeches that To avoid humiliation in the legislature -- or aided the negotiations. Several delegates brought possibly because Governor Gordon forced his The London Conference, December- their wives to the Québec conference; Gray and hand -- Tilley called a snap election in 1865. Tilley January 1866-67 Steeves of New Brunswick brought their lost by a wide margin, and his opponents, under daughters. After the formal discussions at Québec Smith, were swept to power. Smith's government London was the site of the final Confederation ended, the delegates extended the conference by did not stay in power for long, however. His conference, where the delegates drafted what going on tour, this time through Canada East and coalition, a mix of Reformers and Conservatives, would become the British North America Act. The Canada West. had only their opposition to Confederation in Maritime delegates arrived in England during the common. With little else to unite them, they did summer, in advance of the delegates from In general, the New Brunswick delegates backed not work well together, and their popularity Canada. For various reasons, the Canadian arrival Confederation and the Québec Resolutions. quickly waned. was delayed until November. The London However, the handful of politicians who attended Conference got underway in December of 1866. the conference would find they had little support There were other factors working against Smith's The New Brunswick delegation was slightly at home. government. Fenian raiders, mainly former Civil changed for this conference: R. D. Wilmot War soldiers who were sympathetic to the cause replaced Gray and Chandler. Post-Québec Reaction of Irish independence, were harassing New Brunswick and other parts of British North As their legislature had instructed them, the New Tilley faced stiff opposition to Confederation when America. A Fenian attack on New Brunswick in Brunswick delegates tried to use the London he returned to New Brunswick. Many people April 1866 caused considerable excitement in the Conference to secure better terms. However, the reacted harshly to the terms reached in Québec province. To distance themselves from the Fenians Canadian delegation insisted they had a mandate when they were published in the Saint John and show loyalty to , many New only to deal with the Québec Resolutions, and few Morning Telegraph. The premier soon discovered Brunswick Catholics began to support Canadian changes were made. New Brunswick did manage a majority of members of the legislature were union. to confirm its right to impose duties on timber, against union, and that these opponents enjoyed and to insist on a guarantee for the Intercolonial popular support in the province. Railway. Talks concluded on Christmas Eve, 1866. The following month, the drafting of the British Post-Confederation worked on plots owned by absentee landlords, North America Act began. Once there was a whose exorbitant rents or refusal to sell their satisfactory version, it passed quickly through the The hesitancy that many people in New Brunswick property gave rise to many problems. British Parliament, receiving the Royal Assent on felt towards Confederation was reflected in the March 29, 1867. It is believed that Tilley suggested first federal election, held in 1867. Five of the 15 Island politics were characterized by a strong Dominion as the title for the new country, after a seats allotted to the province in the House of sense of independence in relation to the outside passage he read from the Bible, Psalm 72: "He Commons were won by anti-Confederationists, world, and by intense political battles internally. shall have dominion also from sea to sea, and including Albert Smith. came to the Island in from the river unto the ends of the earth." 1851. Most men had the right to vote, though no John A. Macdonald included Tilley in his new women did. Conflicts in the legislature often arose Confederation, 1867 federal cabinet and Tilley, in turn, recommended between the reformers, who were mainly anti- Peter Mitchell for a cabinet position. Governor landowners, and the Conservatives, who generally July 1, 1867 was an official holiday in New Gordon had left New Brunswick in 1866, resolving supported the rights of landowners. At the time of Brunswick, though not everyone was in a festive never to work in a self-governing colony again. the Charlottetown Conference, the Conservative mood -- feelings towards Confederation were Colonel John Hamilton Gray was premier of Prince mixed. In Saint John, the Volunteer Artillery fired a Edward Island. George Coles, a former premier 21-gun salute to mark the beginning of the new Prince Edward Island: Factors Leading to and veteran of the fight for responsible Dominion, and an impromptu gathering of several Confederation government, was leader of the opposition in the thousand people paraded through the city streets. Legislative Council. As the parade passed through an anti- Pre-Confederation Confederation neighbourhood, street fights broke The Charlottetown Conference, September 1864 out, and according to one newspaper report Prince Edward Island before Confederation was "several members of the party were obliged to go home to approximately 87,000 people. Most of In 1864, Prince Edward Island played host to the home to have their heads bandaged." the population was of Irish, Scottish, English, and Charlottetown Conference. The choice of location Dr. Livingstone, a well-known anti-Confederation Acadian descent, but there were also small Black was somewhat peculiar, as the members of the supporter, flew his flag at half-mast in protest, and Mi'kmaq communities. Life had a decidedly Island's delegation were nearly all opposed to only to have it forcibly raised by pro- rural flavour. Charlottetown was the only either Maritime Union, or the larger union Confederationists. In Fredericton there were incorporated city in the province, with just 7,000 proposed by the Canadians. (It has been calmer festivities, including a marksmanship inhabitants. suggested that the Island government refused to competition, but those who were against attend any conference unless it was allowed to be Confederation kept their shops closed and their The Island had a strong economy, built on the the host.) The Island's delegates were Premier flags lowered. The Saint John Morning News farming, timber and shipbuilding industries, and John Hamilton Gray, Attorney General Edward carried reports of the festivities in rural parts of with a merchant fleet that shipped goods around Palmer, Member William Henry Pope, Upper the province, where bonfires and in one case a the world. Like other parts of British North House Reform Leader Andrew Archibald "monster picnic" marked the day. It also ran an America, the Island benefited from the Reciprocity Macdonald, and Lower House Opposition Leader editorial, "The New Dominion," and commissioned Treaty. It also had strong trade links with the New George Coles. a poem, "The Nation's Birthday." England states. Despite the health of the economy, however, many Islanders lived and Most of the Island delegates initially saw little The Prince Edward Island delegation's interest in Coles, the official opposition leader, quickly benefit to joining a united British North America. Confederation quickly waned at Québec. The withdrew his support for union upon returning There were concerns that the province would lose delegation suffered from infighting -- hardly from the Québec Conference, joining fellow its legislature and control of its own affairs. surprising, considering the inter-party animosity delegates Palmer and MacDonald in opposition to Edward Palmer, ardently anti-Confederation, went existing between its members. Coles and Palmer, Confederation. Five out of seven Island so far as to remind his colleagues that they were for instance, had once fought a duel with each newspapers were opposed to union, as were only authorized to listen, not to make decisions. other, and Colonel Gray had ousted Palmer from many Islanders. Opponents claimed that union However, the Island delegates warmed to the idea the premiership only the year before. There were with the other colonies would lead to excessive of a larger union, particularly after the other also problems with the agreement that was taking taxation, spending of tax dollars on things that colonies suggested a purchase of large land shape; the Island delegation protested the would not directly benefit the Island, and holdings -- financed by the proposed new composition of the proposed union government. conscription of Islanders for Canadian conflicts. government -- as a solution to the problem of Perhaps most damaging, however, was the They also feared the loss of the Island's legislature. absentee landlords. withdrawal of the offer to repurchase land from absentee landlords. Although Whelan remained a dedicated Prince Edward Islanders were enthusiastic hosts. proponent of Confederation, with support from a The Charlottetown Conference is remembered for As at Charlottetown, there were many social couple of Island newspapers and from William its parties, elegant dinners and excursions on the events to entertain the delegates to Québec. Pope, his efforts were in vain. In December 1864, island, all held for the visitors from the mainland. Impressions of the dinners and balls can be found Whelan wrote that the Island was "dead set The Canadians returned this hospitality by hosting in the diary of Mercy Coles, daughter of George against Union in all shapes and forms." In a luncheon aboard their ship. The final 'grand ball' Coles, and in the newspaper accounts by Edward May 1866 the provincial legislature passed the at Province House was held on Whelan. Still, such events could not iron out the "No Terms" resolution, under the leadership of a Thursday, September 8. It began at ten o'clock in problems faced by the Island delegation or the new Conservative, anti-Confederation premier, the evening -- dinner was served until one o'clock disharmony among its own numbers. James Pope. The resolution rejected the terms of the following morning, and was followed by the Québec Conference and of Confederation. several hours of speeches. Reactions in Prince Edward Island There was one more attempt to sway the Island After the discussions at Charlottetown ended, the The Confederation debate exploded in Prince towards union in the autumn of 1866. It came in conference delegates toured the region, visiting Edward Island once the delegates returned from the form of a renewed offer to purchase absentee cities in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. Québec. The Québec Resolutions, established at landlord holdings with an $800,000 fund. Samuel the conference, were quickly published in a local Leonard Tilley and Charles Tupper, in London The Québec Conference, October 1864 paper, and received little popular support. Some awaiting the start of the London Conference, met of the most bitter arguments were within the with James Pope to make the offer. The offer was After the favourable discussions at the Conservative government, between pro- viewed as a bribe by many Islanders, and was Charlottetown Conference, representatives from Confederationist Colonel Gray, and anti- rejected. Prince Edward Island was not one of the the provinces reconvened at Québec to create a Confederationist Palmer. Within months both had original provinces in Canadian confederation. formal union agreement. Thomas Heath Haviland resigned from the Cabinet over the matter. and Edward Whelan joined the Prince Edward Island delegation at this time. Trade Talks, 1866-1868 The Railway and Confederation, 1871-73 and more. Canada was to assume Prince Edward Island's railway debt; the Island would be given an After rejecting Confederation in 1866, Prince Following the rejection of the latest union offer, $800,000 grant to purchase land from absentee Edward Island focused its efforts on securing its Prince Edward Island embarked on a period of landlords, and a grant of $50 per head; a economic future. That same year the Reciprocity railway construction. James Pope believed that a guarantee of continuous communication with the Treaty with the Americans expired, greatly railway network would generate employment, and mainland was provided for; and, finally, Prince reducing the Island's exports to the United States. provide an efficient means of transporting goods Edward Island was allotted six members of To the consternation of the , and throughout the Island. As well, he believed it Parliament, one more than the five they had been the new Canadian government, the Island decided would benefit tourism. With wide public support, offered at the Québec Conference. to pursue its own trade agreement with the construction began in 1871. However, concerns United States. In 1868, the colony hosted a soon arose over the mounting cost of the project. "Long Courted, Won at Last," 1873 delegation from the United States Congress. The A provincial election in 1872 failed to resolve the meetings went well, with the United States economic problems; within the year, the Prince Edward Island joined Confederation on delegation presenting a favourable report to government realized that the province faced July 1, 1873. Despite their long resistance to Congress. However, the Island legislature, under imminent financial collapse unless help was found. union, many Islanders celebrated the day. pressure from the Colonial Office, passed a In November, the Island approached the Buildings throughout Charlottetown were resolution acknowledging it could not pursue a Canadians about joining Confederation; it found decorated with flags, bunting and streamers; even trade deal without British permission -- something the Canadians receptive and willing to discuss the ships in the harbour were festooned with that was not forthcoming. terms. ribbons. At noon there was a brief ceremony at the Colonial building, where the union Better Terms, 1869 In February 1873 Haythorne and proclamation was read, and the crowd sang the travelled to Ottawa to begin negotiating terms for national anthem. Islanders still retained a strong Although Prince Edward Island did not implement union. By March, a proposed union deal was put sense of independence, however. When Lord an independent trade deal with the Americans, before Island voters in a general election. Dufferin visited Charlottetown later that month, the possibility of stronger ties between Prince Although the terms secured by Haythorne were he was so impressed by the Islanders' lingering Edward Island and the United States concerned impressive, James Pope campaigned on a promise sense of independence, he reported he was Canada. In 1869, the new country decided to try that he could obtain an even better agreement. "under the impression that it is the Dominion that again to convince the Island to join Confederation He won a majority, and led a new delegation to has been annexed to Prince Edward Island." with a deal known as "Better Terms". In addition Ottawa that also included Haviland and to an offer to assume the Island's debts, the deal G. W. Howlan. They succeeded in gaining even That summer, James Pope was sent to Ottawa as a provided a debt allowance, and an annual per better terms for the Island. When they returned to member of Parliament. He became the first capita subsidy of 80 cents. As well, Canada offered Charlottetown, a union resolution was put before Islander in the federal Cabinet, acting as fisheries a steamer service to the mainland for delivery of the legislature and debated; all but two members minister for John A. Macdonald. Haythorne was passengers and post, and a renewed pledge of voted in favour of Confederation. appointed to the Senate. $800,000 to purchase remaining absentee landlord holdings. The government of Robert The terms under which the Island joined Canada Haythorne rejected this offer in January of 1870. included those it had sought in Québec in 1864,

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