Language Documentation & Conservation Special Publication No. 17 Language and Toponymy in Alaska and Beyond: Papers in Honor of James Kari ed. by Gary Holton & Thomas F. Thornton, pp. 203–216 http://nflrc.hawaii.edu/ldc/ 11 http://hdl.handle.net/10125/24848

“The inhabitants of Nunivak Island, a tundra people, were a partial exception [among aboriginal southwest Alaskans] to [the] wholesale crossing of ecological boundaries.” James VanStone (1984: 207) “The winter ice of Etolin Strait between Nunivak and Nelson Islands may be thick butoften is too broken and liable to movement or at times too slushy for small vessel or sled travel.” Margaret Lantis (1984: 209)

Crossing Etolin Strait and the Challenges Presented by a Single Place Name

Robert Drozda

1. Introduction Nunivak Island (Nuniwar)1 in the Bering Sea is separated from mainland Alaska and Nelson Island (Qaluyaat)2 by the hazardous waters of Etolin Strait (Akularer/Akuluraq in Cup’ig/Yup’ik). Before the introduction of air travel (circa 1946, see Griffin 2001: 92) Nunivak remained isolated from the mainland for all but afewice- free months of the year. Unlike much of the Yup’ik homeland where frozen waterways facilitate travel, winter travel across Etolin Strait is impossible due to shallow, constricted waters and strong, shifting currents that rarely, if ever, allow it to completely freeze over (Griffin 2004: 116; Drozda 2010: 5-6). Summer months are also fraught with hazards associated with small boat travel on the open ocean. The resulting isolation contributed to the distinct culture and language of the Nuniwarmiut. Nevertheless, as expert ocean travelers some Nuniwarmiut paddled their kayaks or sailed skin boats across the strait to Nelson Island and from there to destinations north and south. To facilitate these travels, particularly for return trips, they needed a staging area at Nelson Island. On each side of Etolin Strait at their closest crossing points lies a historical occupation site, Englulrarmiut on the Nunivak side and Aternermiut at Nelson Island (Figures 1 and 5). Both names are representative of the Nunivak Island Cup’ig dialect. Aternermiut, the focus of this paper, is the only known Nuniwarmiut habitation site outside of Nunivak Island with a Cup’ig name. While the site is part of a larger Qaluyaarmiut settlement Nelson Islanders clearly attribute its name, which refers specifically to the action of crossing over to theisland,to the Nuniwarmiut.

1Nunivak Island place names appear (italicized) in a unique orthography (Amos & Amos 2003) developed specifically for the Nunivak Dialect (also referred to as Cup’ig) of the Central Alaskan Yup’ik language. Mainland Yup’ik words are written (italicized) in the standard Central Yup’ik orthography (Jacobson 2012). Official (i.e. US Geological Survey) English or anglicized Native names are also used here andspelled accordingly, but not italicized. 2While technically an island, geographically Nelson Island is considered part of mainland southwest Alaska (NOAA 2018: 435).

ISBN: 978-0-9973295-4-4 Crossing Etolin Strait and the Challenges Presented by a Single Place Name 204

Figure 1: General orientation map showing Nunivak and Nelson Islands relative to other Bering Sea islands, Etolin Strait and mainland Western Alaska.

2. The Inaccessibility of Nunivak Island and Crossing Akularer (Etolin Strait) Bering Sea maps show the close proximity of Nunivak Island to the mainland yet create a deceptive view with respect to the extent of the island’s accessibility. At their closest points Nunivak and Nelson Island are separated by less than 30 kilometers (18.6 miles) of sea. Given the relatively short distance it is easy to assume that historically travel to and from the mainland was frequent and relatively easy. But in reality, the constricted nature and shallowness of the Strait, strong shifting currents, and Nunivak’s position at the fluctuating southern boundary of winter sea ice extent all contribute to thedifficult marine access.3

3The difficult approach to Nunivak from the sea particularly with respect to the hazards of near-shore travelis well documented (VanStone 1957: 97; Lantis 1984: 209; Griffin 2004: 116; Pratt 2009b: 102; Drozda 2010: 5-6; NOAA 2018: 408).

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Because of these conditions the island’s offshore waters remained largely uncharted well into contemporary times. Today, potential marine obstacles such as reefs and submerged rocks are still not fully surveyed. The uncertain approach deterred mariners and missionaries and was a major factor in delaying the effects of Western contact on the Nuniwarmiut (Lantis 1946: 161; VanStone 1957: 97).4 For example, Jesuits established their church on Nelson Island at Tununak (only 55 km from the Nunivak village of Mekoryuk) in 1889. John Kilbuck established the Moravian Mission at Bethel on the lower Kuskokwim River in 1884. Kilbuck traveled extensively in the Yukon-Kuskokwim region but made only one journey to Nunivak staying less than one day in 1897 (USBIA 1995: 1:5). By contrast, Christianity in the form of the Swedish Evangelical Covenant Church did not arrive at Nunivak until 1936 (Griffin 2004: 127).

Figure 2: Winter view of Etolin Strait showing broken and shifting pan ice. View from direction of Nunivak toward Nelson Island with Cape Vancouver in background.

The earliest nautical references found in the Alaska Coast Pilot (see also USBIA 1995: 1:6) relative to Etolin Strait indicate tidal currents “so strong that the middle portion does not freeze over in winter” (USC&GS 1909: 40). Over one-hundred years later this statement is virtually unmodified and includes the addition, “Navigation is difficult from mid-December to mid-May and usually is suspended from early January to late March” (NOAA 2018: 436). Naturally such environmental knowledge was understood by the Nuniwarmiut and is represented in their oral history. Nunivak elder Joe David (2005; Drozda 2010: 6) recounted a story involving a foreign shipwreck survivor who attempted to walk from Nunivak to Nelson Island. Feeling stranded the man gazed across the strait at Nelson Island—readily seen from eastern Nunivak on clear days. Noting its nearness, he disregarded Nunivakers’ warnings of unstable ice, attempted the crossing and drowned. Nelson Island elders John Alirkar (b. 1929), Phillip Moses (b. 1925) and

4The Nuniwarmiut were not completely removed from outside influences, see Griffin (2004) and Pratt(1994, 2019) regarding, for example, the effects of introduction of reindeer and musk oxen in the 1920s and 1930s.

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Simeon Agnus (b. 1930) also spoke of the currents in Etolin Strait with cautionary terms such as, “extremely strong” (Alirkar 2011: 156-157). Agnus (2011: 158-159) says it is “unlike other places around here, since it is narrow.” Moses (2011: 156-157) concludes, “It does not freeze, but the ice goes back and forth and there’s no way through it”. By necessity and through experience and generations of shared knowledge the Nuniwarmiut are highly skilled navigators of the open ocean. Nunivak elder Peter Smith (b. 1912) explained,

“…if you’re a hunter you know [the] ocean current. I’m a hunter, I know the water. I’m an ocean man you know. I live in the ocean, Nunivak Island. If it’s bad weather I won’t go. If it’s good weather [mainland] guys see bad weather, I go. I know the current and wind.” (Smith 1988)5

Figure 3: “I’m an ocean man, you know.” Peter Smith as a young man at Nash Harbor Village (Qimugglugpagmiut), Nunivak Island. Photo attributed to Henry Collins. Courtesy Smithsonian Institution.

Prior to the introduction of motorized craft Nuniwarmiut crossed the strait in summer by kayak, but not without careful consideration and planning. Elders Kay Hendrickson (b. 1909) and George Williams, Sr. (b. 1922), each reported crossing by kayak on more than one occasion (Snaith 1999). Williams described gauging the tidal currents in order to make the crossing as quickly as possible, estimated by him and others (including his brother, Jack) at from two to five hours on a calm day (Williams 1991; Snaith 1999). Smith (1988) also spoke of the skills needed and danger of crossing the strait, “[It’s] very scary when they go across. Sometimes before they reach the other side … they get in a storm. Two times I got into a storm before I reached Nunivak, very dangerous.” Contemporary skin boat maker Skip Snaith (1997) conducted an ethnographic study and modern reconstruction of the traditional Nunivak kayak (Snaith 2000). He reported, “[Nuniwarmiut] retained large fleets of active kayaks into the [19]50s, and there was

5Smith spoke in English, edited here for clarity.

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Figure 4: A variety of watercraft at Nunivak Island (probably Mekoryuk) ca. 1950. Photo by E.P. Haddon. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Courtesy of NOAA. isolated use beyond that time.” Snaith described the strait as “highly exposed and tide swept,” and reported that “even today with aluminum boats and 150 h.p. outboards locals think long and hard before such an attempt [at crossing]” (Snaith 1999).

3. Aternermiut—a Nuniwarmiut Staging Area at Nelson Island “As this land was called Nelson Island, there was a saying in those days that there was a story that a settlement existed called Aternermiut. I personally saw this settlement. I know this settlement as I used to travel bykayak between Nuniwar and Nelson Island. This settlement was abandoned when I started traveling by kayak. But before I traveled with a kayak, this settlement was inhabited.” (Jack U. Williams, Sr., 1991)6 The abandoned Aternermiut site was investigated by BIA ANCSA archeologists with Nelson Island Yup’ik guides in the summer of 1984. They described the site as a “spring and summer camp/village” and reported the name “comes from the Nunivak Island dialect [Cup’ig] and is associated with ‘going back to Nunivak Island”’ (USBIA 1988: 7). Paul Agimuk, an elder from the Nelson Island village of Tununak stated (translated from Yup’ik), “Nunivak Island people called this Aternermiut” (Agimuk 1984). Some Nelson Islanders used the term as well, although the site is situated within a larger three-site site complex referred to collectively by them as Up’nerkillermiut or similar variants. There

6Jack U. Williams, Sr. was born ca. 1911, so it’s fair to assume the site was abandoned, at least by Nunivakers, by 1930. This date corresponds to those provided by Okada et al. (1982: 14) and BIA ANCSA (1988:10).

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are inconsistencies in the documented site names and their mapped locations which I will discuss later.7 Earlier documentation of Nunivak place names (Drozda 1998) does not include Aternermiut.8 However, the name occurs in several Nunivak oral history recordings in the BIA ANCSA collection (see Pratt 2009a: 452-457). George Williams, Sr. recalled Aternermiut in a narrative involving an arrival of outsiders to the island. Williams (1991) speculated9 that a group of foreigners known as Qaviayarmiut10 left Aternermiut and arrived at the eastern Nunivak site Qavlumiut or nearby Taprarmiut. Aternermiut also figures in at least two Nuniwarmiut traditional tales (in English titled “The Dog Husband” and “The Giant Shrew”), although in published versions (e.g. Lantis 1946: 267-268; Fienup- Riordan 2000: 193-200) the site name is inferred (see Williams 1977 and 1991).

Figure 5: Northeast Nunivak Island (Nuniwar) and west Nelson Island (Qaluyaat). Aternermiut, at Nelson Island is part of a three-site complex including Qukarmiut and Qengararmiut, collectively also called Up’nerkillermiut and Up’nerkarmiut.

Recent documentation at Nelson Island (Calista Elders Council n.d.; Fienup-Riordan 2011) reveals a point of land named Aterneq (with Yup’ik final -q) associated with the village of Up’nerkillermiut.11 In these works, Aterneq is not specifically identified asa

7Comparisons conducted by the author of Yup’ik names recorded or re-elicited from different sources, especially over the last 35 years, reveal some older names have become generalized over broader areas or forgotten altogether. As patterns of land use and site use change, the names can change too with a tendency from specific to general, or they are forgotten altogether. 8It did not cross my mind when recording place names at Nunivak to ask about names outside the boundaries of the island and its near-shore waters. 9George Williams, Sr. clearly stated he did not witness these events, but was repeating them as part of the oral tradition. 10The identity of the Qaviayarmiut remains in question, some believe they were from St. Lawrence Island, others claim they were Kawerak Inupiat, and others say it’s a generic term for any Eskimo north of Yup’ik territory. The name may be used differently bythe Nuniwarmiut than by other groups or scholars. See Drozda n.d. 11Based on the narratives the locations given for Up’nerkillermiut and Aterneq are mixed up. See Billy Lincoln statement in next section.

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Cup’ig name, but Martina John (b. 1936) of Toksook Bay (Nelson Island) recalled the general area:

“They say many kayakers from Nunivak used to arrive here (a placenamed Umkuuk) on Nelson Island in the past. They’d arrive with kayaks. And when they started to use boats, they’d continually come up with boats…. They always traveled up [to the Kuskokwim river area]. And when they returned home, they’d arrive here. We’d go up on top of Umkuuk and search the [ocean]. And then after a while, across there beyond Cingigyaq12 we’d see a sail, and sometimes there would be two. And when we climbed down, we’d tell them that we had seen boats. Then they’d head our way and arrive, and we’d see that they were people from Nunivak Island. Back in those days, since they weren’t educated in schools, their children would speak in their dialect, and they were fun to listen to.”13 (Fienup-Riordan 2011: 62-65)

John also recalled that Nelson Island men went to the Kuskokwim River region for trade, but she does not mention them traveling to Nunivak Island by boat. This supports the author’s opinion that contact between the Nuniwarmiut and mainland Yup’iks was decidedly one way, i.e. from the Nunivak direction. Pratt (personal communication) also urges caution about making assumptions of regular contact between Nelson Islanders and other mainlanders with Nunivakers (see Pratt 2009b: 252-256). This is reinforced by Lantis’ (1946: 260) statement that Nuniwarmiut exhibited an “absence of constant intercourse with other tribes.”

4. Misplots and Errors Physically Aternermiut and the associated site complex is well documented (Okada et al. 1982; U.S. BIA1988), yet until recently its location was (and in some cases still is) erroneously marked on maps in publications (including Okada et al. 1982: 25) and records at the federal (USBIA), state of Alaska (Historic Preservation Office), regional (Calista Corporation and Association of Village Council Presidents), local (Fienup-Riordan 2011) and now global-cyber level (ELOKA). Ironically, while trying to reconcile the various map plots the accurate location of the site was ascertained by the author after consulting Google Earth imagery where site features (predominantly house depressions and food cache pits) are clearly seen and can be precisely matched to BIA ANCSA (1988: 12, 14) and Okada et al. (1982, Figure 4) archeological ground survey maps. While these site maps are very accurate when compared with the satellite images, the site is misplotted in at least three different locations and by as much as five kilometers in the above referenced works. Assumptions about published map names can create confusion in the process of documenting traditional names and accurately placing them on maps. For example, United States Geological Survey (USGS) topographic maps do not include the name Aternermiut (or variants), nor does the name occur in the Dictionary of Alaska Place Names (Orth 1967). However, the base (Aterner) is present in a nearby USGS name with the variant spelling “Atrnak Point.” Adding to the confusion it appears the USGS transposed the names Atrnak Point (Aterner) and Uluruk Point (Ulurruk) on official maps, such that

12Cingigyaq, from “Cingiq, point of land” is described in the Yup’ik Environmental Knowledge Project Atlas (Calista Elders Council n.d.; ELOKA 2014) as a “cape,” but here it likely refers to a sandbar extending off the cape; there is a channel, Kuiguyurraq, that cuts through it. See also Fienup-Riordan 2011 map) 13Her comment reflects the differences between the Nunivak and Nelson Island dialects.

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Figure 6: Aerial view showing part of Aternermiut site area. A row of house pits (center foreground), parallels the beach. The largest depression was identified as the former men’s community house (qasgiq). Photo by Steven Street, July 1984. Bureau of Indian Affairs, ANCSA 14(h)(1) Collection. the Atrnak name is plotted about 5.6 km southeast of the site positively identified as Aternermiut (see Figure 5). These errors are perpetuated when they become published by otherwise trusted sources and/or displayed via the internet (Fienup-Riordan 2011; CEC n.d.). It remains possible the USGS has the names plotted accurately and that Atrnak Point is a separate and unique name of Nelson Island (Yup’ik) origin. But it makes sense that the actual location of Aterner(q?)/Aternermiut is at the point of land presumably misnamed Uluruk Point on the official USGS maps. This is explicitly stated inasea- based travel narrative by Nelson Island elder Billy Lincoln (b. 1909), “[T]he point of the village of Up’nerkillermiut down the coast [from Umkuuk/Umkumiut] is Aterneq; they call it Aterneq” (Lincoln 2011: 15). Errors of this sort are not uncommon on official maps of the region. A more careful review of Lincoln’s narrative and other records is in order to fully resolve (if possible) these discrepancies. But I believe his testimony provides strong evidence that the names were mistakenly switched sometime in the past14. Unrelated to the above but for the record, in his Dictionary of Alaska Place Names, Donald Orth (1967: 16) erroneously described a December 1897 crossing of the strait by members of the Jarvis expedition (a.k.a. Overland Relief Expedition). Orth states the men traveled “(f)rom Nunivak Island … by dog teams across the delta and lake country to Andreafski, on the Yukon (River).” Other sources reveal the party actually departed from Nelson Island: “Captain Jarvis and his party left Cape Vancouver December 16, 1897, starting on a journey of eighteen hundred miles across the frozen waste” (Bagley 1916: 416). Orth’s statement: “On December 16, 1897, he [Jarvis] and three companions were

14The author was made aware by Nunivakers of several similar instances of name mix ups on USGSNunivak Island mapsheets.

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landed on Nunivak Island by the revenue cutter Bear” is an error and “Nunivak” should be replaced with “Nelson” Island.

5. Linguistic Considerations The site complex that includes Aternermiut consists of three distinct habitation areas with separated cemeteries and food storage pits. They are named (from west to east) Aternermiut, Qukarmiut and Qengararmiut (Okada et al. 1982; U.S. BIA 1988; Fienup-Riordan 2011). The complex is also known to Nelson Islanders by a collective name, variantly Up’nerkarmiut (Okada et al. 1982: 10) and Up’nerkillermiut15 (U.S. BIA 1988; Okada et al. 1982). These are descriptive names meaning ‘spring camp’, derived from the Yup’ik word up’nerkaq (spring). As the last of the three sites to be abandoned, Aternermiut is also referred to specifically as Up’nerkillermiut by some Nelson Islanders. (see Kailukiak 1984). This is an example of ways remembered place names can change over time. Of the four names Aternermiut alone is a Cup’ig variant. Williams of Mekoryuk addressed the issue in a 1977 history lesson to students in the Nelson Island village of Tununak, (English translation):

“Before [Nelson Islanders] started calling it Up’nerkillermiut, they apparently called [it] Aternermiut. That was apparently the main village that existed back then … before the village of Tununak was established, during that time … that village up there that we [Nunivak people] used to call Aternermiut, the one you [Nelson Islanders] call Up’nerkillermiut up there.”

Translation of the Aternermiut place name is a matter of context, in this case related to specific geography or movement. Neither the Yup’ik Eskimo Dictionary (Jacobson 2012) nor the Cup’ig Eskimo Dictionary (Amos & Amos 2003) include the name, however both have an entry for the verb ater-, respectively, ‘to get down from something; to go down’ and ‘to get down from a high place’ (see Table 1). The name is derived from proto-Eskimo *at(ə)-, meaning ‘down’ and *at(ə)r-, ‘go down (to shore)’ (Fortescue et al. 2010: 51). With the addition of +neq/r “Aterner” becomes a noun. Examples of English translations derived from Native language oral history recordings or texts include ‘the result of going down’ or ‘a place to step down’ (Williams 1991). One translation from Nelson Island includes, ‘one drifting out to sea, referring to kayaks leaving Nelson Island’ (Fienup-Riordan 2011: 14-15). Larry Kaplan (2018), commenting on an early draft of this paper, said it could also imply ‘go down to the coast’, ‘go out to sea’ and in some areas ‘go out on the ice’. Dissatisfied with the various explanations originating from the Yup’ik translators, I wondered rather than referring to descending a hill or bluff, if ‘prepare to go down’ or ‘place to step down’ or ‘result of going down’ might imply instead to ‘go down (cross) to Nunivak Island’. I put the question to Cup’ig language specialist, Howard Amos, he replied, “Yes, that is a good assumption, to prepare to go down to Nuniwar. I’ve heard older people using that term at moments of beginning their trek to Nuniwar [from Nelson Island]” (Amos 2013). From the Nunivak perspective then and with the -miut ending the name is satisfactorily glossed as, ‘place (settlement) to prepare to go down (cross to Nunivak Island)’.

15This appears to be the same name as that appearing on ca. 1920s map sheets of the St. Mary’s Mission District as “Upenarkisagamut” (also mistranscribed “Yunarkisagamut”), by members of the Jesuit priests, records on file at Oregon Province Archives, Gonzaga University, Spokane Washington. Several draft versions ofthis map exist and one is reproduced in Fienup-Riordan (2011).

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Table 1: Examples of ater-/at’er from the Yup’ik (Jacobson 2012) and Cup’ig (Amos & Amos 2003) Eskimo dictionaries.

BASE Yup’ik Cup’ig note ater- to get down from to get down from a something; to go high place down at’er to go down to river or coast atercete-, to fish with a aterceta’arte- driftnet aternir- to blow from shore out to sea # of wind Atn(e)q PY ‘cape’ and CAY At(n)(e)q Cape Darby (place name) (Fortescue et al. 2010: 53) aterneq (NUN)? Aterner in CED (NUN) orthography; pb -neq(Y), -ner(C) ‘thing that results from V-ing’ (YED) aterte- to drift with current to float away; to PY at(ə)rtə ‘drift (out drift away to sea)’ atrar-, atr(ar)- to go down; to to go down to (in NUN) descend riverbank or coast atrartuq, he is going down he is going down at’ertur (in NUN)

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6. Conclusion A fragment or memory of the past era of non-motorized indigenous travel is evoked in the historical place and Cup’ig place name Aternermiut. What I began as a simple documentation of a single name provides an example of the complexity associated with Native language toponymic research. Like many named places Aternermiut may be clearly, but not necessarily easily, delineated in space. However, its linguistic isolation (or singling out) removes it from a greater context, or “constellation of place names,” to borrow a phrase from Dorothy Jean Ray (1971: 1). The above investigation remains a work in progress as there are still several tedious and sinuous paths left to explore. Additional research and full transcription of Native language tapes may clarify the matter. I end with a guiding quote from Jim Kari:

“… place names research requires diligent review and revision. A complete survey of the oral place names for a Native language area requires consolidation of all records and frequent review of lists and maps. Continual monitoring for errors is required. We also use philological methods to interpret place names in the various documentary sources such as early historic maps, word lists and field notes.” (Kari et al. 2012: 11-12).

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References

Agimuk, Paul. 1984. Taped interview and notes. Steven Street, interviewer. Cecilia Fairbanks, interpreter. Qengaramiut (BLM AA-9734) Cape Vancouver, Alaska. 26 July. Tape 84BAY004. On file at the Bureau of Indian Affairs, ANCSA Office, Anchorage. Agnus, Simeon. 2011. In Ann Fienup-Riordan (ed.), Qaluyaarmiuni nunamtenek qanemciput = Our Nelson Island stories: Meanings of place on the Bering Sea coast, transcribed and translated by Alice Rearden. Anchorage and Seattle: Calista Elders Council and University of Washington Press. Alirkar, John. 2011. In Ann Fienup-Riordan (ed.), Qaluyaarmiuni nunamtenek qanemciput = Our Nelson Island stories: Meanings of place on the Bering Sea coast, transcribed and translated by Alice Rearden. Anchorage and Seattle: Calista Elders Council and University of Washington Press. Amos, Howard T. 2013. Email correspondence with the author. Amos, Muriel M. & Howard T. Amos (compilers). 2003. Cup’ig Eskimo Dictionary. Fairbanks: Alaska Native Language Center. Bagley, Clarence. 1916. History of Seattle from the Earliest Settlement to the Present Time, Volume 3. Chicago: The S. J. Clarke Publishing Company. Calista Elders Council. n.d. Yup’ik Environmental Knowledge Project Atlas. http:// eloka-arctic.org/communities/yupik/atlas/index.html (Accessed 2018-02- 28) David, Joseph. 2005. Taped interview and transcript. Robert Drozda, interviewer. Mekoryuk, Alaska. 07 December. Transcription/translation by Howard Amos and Drozda. Tape 05NPT009. Accession number 2006-03-06, Archives, University of Alaska Fairbanks. Drozda, Robert M. n.d. Wandering in Place: A Close Examination of Two Nunivak Island Place Names. In Kenneth L. Pratt & Scott A. Heyes (eds.), Language, Memory and Landscape. Submitted to University of Calgary Press. Drozda, Robert M. 1998. Qikertamteni Nunat Atrit Nuniwarmiut = The Names of Places on Our Island, Nunivak. Manuscript in possession of author. Drozda, Robert M. 2010. Nunivak Island Subsistence Cod, Red Salmon and Grayling fisheries – Past and Present. Final Report (Study 05-353). US Fish and Wildlife Service, Office of Subsistence Management. Anchorage: Fisheries Resource Monitoring Program. ELOKA 2014. Exchange for Local Observations and Knowledge of the Arctic. https: //eloka-arctic.org/ (Accessed 2019-02-28) Fienup-Riordan, Ann (ed.). 2000. “Dog Husband”: Retelling an Old Tale. Dog Husband story told by Robert Kolerok. 24 February 1995. Transcribed and translated by Marie Mead. In Hans Himmelheber (ed.), Where the Echo Began and other Oral Traditions from Southwest Alaska, translated by Kurt and Ester Vitt. Fairbanks: University of Alaska Press. Fienup-Riordan, Ann (ed.). 2011. Qaluyaarmiuni nunamtenek qanemciput = Our Nelson Island stories: Meanings of place on the Bering Sea coast, transcribed and translated by Alice Rearden. Anchorage and Seattle: Calista Elders Council and University of Washington Press Fortescue, Michael, Steven Jacobson & Lawrence Kaplan. 2010. Comparative Eskimo Dictionary with Aleut Cognates, 2nd edition. (Alaska Native Language Center, Research Paper Number 9.) Fairbanks: Alaska Native Language Center.

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Griffin, Dennis G. 2001. Contributions to the Ethnobotany of the Cup’it Eskimo, Nunivak Island, Alaska. Journal of Ethnobiology 21(2): 91-127. Griffin, Dennis G. 2004. Ellikarrmiut: Changing Lifeways in An Alaskan Community. (Aurora Monograph Series.) Anchorage: Alaska Anthropological Association. Jacobson, Steven. 2012. Yup’ik Eskimo Dictionary, 2nd edition. Fairbanks: Alaska Native Language Center. Kailukiak, Nickolas. 1984. Taped interview and notes. Walter Dotter, interviewer. Cecilia Fairbanks, interpreter. Up’nerkillermiut (BLM AA-9734) Cape Vancouver, Alaska. 26 July. Tape 84BAY033. On file at the Bureau of Indian Affairs, ANCSA Office, Anchorage. Kaplan, Lawrence. 2018. Personal communication with the author. October 6. Kari, James, Gary Holton, Brett Parks & Robert Charlie. 2012. Lower Tanana Athabaskan Place Names. Fairbanks: Alaska Native Language Center. Lantis, Margaret. 1946. The Social Culture of the Nunivak Eskimo. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 35(3): 153-323. Lantis, Margaret. 1984. Nunivak Eskimo. In David Damas (ed.), Handbook of North American Indians Vol. 5, Arctic, 209-223. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press. Lincoln, Billy. 2011. In Ann Fienup-Riordan (ed.), Qaluyaarmiuni nunamtenek qanemciput = Our Nelson Island stories: Meanings of place on the Bering Sea coast, transcribed and translated by Alice Rearden. Anchorage and Seattle: Calista Elders Council and University of Washington Press. Moses, Phillip. 2011. In Ann Fienup-Riordan (ed.), Qaluyaarmiuni nunamtenek qanemciput = Our Nelson Island stories: Meanings of place on the Bering Sea coast, transcribed and translated by Alice Rearden. Anchorage and Seattle: Calista Elders Council and University of Washington Press. NOAA [National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]. 2018. United States Coast Pilot Volume 9: Alaska, 36th Edition, 2018 Chapter 8, Bering Sea, 408-503. Okada, Hiroaki, Atsuko Okada, Kunio Yajima, Osahito Miyaoka, & Chikuma Oka. 1982. The Qaluyaarmiut: An anthropological survey of the southwestern Alaska Eskimos. Sapporo, Japan: Department of Behavioral Science, Faculty of Letters, Hokkaido University. Orth, Donald J. 1967. Dictionary of Alaska Place Names. (US Geological Survey Professional Paper 567.) Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office. Pratt, Kenneth L. 1994. “They Never Ask the People”: Native Views About theNunivak Wilderness. In Ernest S. Burch, Jr. & Linda J. Ellanna (eds.) Key Issues in Hunter- Gatherer Research, 333-356. Oxford and Providence: Berg Publishers. Pratt, Kenneth L. (ed.). 2009a. Chasing the Dark: Perspectives on Place, History and Alaska Native Land Claims. Anchorage: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Indian Affairs, Alaska Region, Division of Environmental and Cultural Resources Management, ANCSA Office. Pratt, Kenneth L. 2009b. Nuniwarmiut Land Use, Settlement History and Socio-Territorial Organization, 1880-1960. Ph.D. dissertation. Department of Anthropology, University of Alaska Fairbanks. Pratt, Kenneth L. 2019. From Vigilantism to Serendipity: Nunivak Islanders andKnud Rasmussen in Nome, 1924. Paper presented in the symposium, “The Centennial of the 5th Thule Expedition: Arctic/Alaskan/Bering Strait Connections.” 46th Annual Meeting of the Alaska Anthropological Association, 28 March, Nome, Alaska.

Language and Toponymy in Alaska and Beyond: Papers in Honor of James Kari Crossing Etolin Strait and the Challenges Presented by a Single Place Name 216

Ray, Dorothy Jean. 1971. Eskimo Place Names in Bering Strait and Vicinity. Names 19(1): 1-33 Smith, Peter. 1988. Taped interview and transcript. Robert Drozda, interviewer. Anchorage, Alaska. 31 December. Tape 88NUN002. On file at the Bureau of Indian Affairs, ANCSA Office, Anchorage, and University of Alaska Fairbanks, Rasmuson Library, Archives. Snaith, Skip. 1997. Umiak, An Illustrated Guide. (Contemporary Skin Boat Building Series, Number 1.) Eastsound, Washington: Walrose & Hyde. Snaith, Skip. 1999. Nuniwar. Report on a trip to Mekoryuk, 21 January. http: //cronus.rockisland.com/~kyak/nuniwar1.html (Accessed 2019-3-6) Snaith, Skip. 2000. Nunivak qayar revival. http://cronus.rockisland.com/~kyak/ nun2000.html (Accessed 2019-3-6) USBIA [Bureau of Indian Affairs – ANCSA Office]. 1988. Report of Investigation for Up’nerkillermiut Calista Corporation BLM AA-9734. Anchorage: Bureau of Indian Affairs ANCSA Office. USBIA. 1995. Nunivak Overview. Report of Investigation for BLM AA-9238 et al. Calista Corporation. Volumes 1-6. Compiled and edited by Kenneth L. Pratt. Anchorage: U.S. Bureau of Indian Affairs, ANCSA Office. USC&GS [Coast and Geodetic Survey]. 1909. Alaska Coast Pilot Notes on Bering Sea and Arctic Ocean … November 20, 1908. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office. VanStone, James W. 1957. An Archaeological Reconnaissance of Nunivak Island, Alaska. Anthropological Papers of the University of Alaska 5(2): 97-118. VanStone, James W. 1984. Southwest Alaska Eskimo: Introduction. In David Damas (ed.), Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 5, Arctic, 205-208. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press. Williams, George Sr. 1991. Taped narrative and transcript. Robert Drozda, interviewer. Transcribed and translated by H. Amos, and R. Drozda August 9, Mekoryuk, Alaska. Tape 91NUN022. On file at the Bureau of Indian Affairs, ANCSA Office, Anchorage. Williams, Jack Sr. 1977. Nunivaam Cung’eqarraarutai / The First Inhabitants of Nunivak Island. Transcribed story. Tununak, Alaska. Fienup-Riordan Tapes 40 and 45. Transcript in possession of author. Williams, Jack Sr. 1991. Taped interview (audio and video) and transcript. Recorded by Robert Drozda and William Sheppard. Translated and transcribed by Howard T. Amos. Mekoryuk, Alaska. July. Tapes 91NUN028-30. On file at the Bureau of Indian Affairs, ANCSA Office, Anchorage.

Robert Drozda [email protected]

Language and Toponymy in Alaska and Beyond: Papers in Honor of James Kari