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Fall 9-1-1990

Black Music Research Bulletin, Fall 1990

Samuel Floyd Columbia College Chicago

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Recommended Citation Floyd, Samuel, "Black Music Research Bulletin, Fall 1990" (1990). Center for Black Music Research: Black Music Research Newsletter. 31. https://digitalcommons.colum.edu/cbmrnews/31

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BULLETIN < B \I R COLUMBIA COLLEGE CHICAGO Vol. 12, No. 2 ISSN 0898-8536 Fall 199C

Contents A Historical Overview of Soul Music in Chicago A Historical Overview of 1 Soul Music in Chicago 1,y Robert Pruter, Elmhurst, fllinois Robert Pruter Chicago Gospel 4 Chicago was once a major center soul factories as Detroit, Memphis, Horace Clarence Boyer for the production and recording of and New York. soul music, that "gospelized" variant Michigan Avenue, just south of Jazz in Chicago: A Historical 8 of rhythm and blues that emerged in Chicago's downtown, was the city's Overview the early 1960s and dominated black "Record Row" and the center of its Richard Wang music for the next decade. During flourishing music scene (Dachs 1964, Florence B. Price and 11 the 1960s and 1970s Chicago-style 176). There the offices of Chess, Vee Margaret Bonds: The soul music was produced by such Jay, One-derful, ABC-Paramount, Chicago Years major labels as Vee Jay, Chess, ABC­ and a host of record distributors Rae Linda Brown Pararnount, Curtom, Okeh (a Colum­ were located. The distribution firms bia subsidiary), Brunswick (a Decca and the local radio stations worked Chicago Imprints in the 14 subsidiary.), and Mercury. There were in symbiotic fashion to contribute im­ CBMR Database numerous lesser lights, many mere measurably to the growth of the local Samuel A. Floyd, Jr., mom-and-pop operations, that also record industry. Black Musicians in the 15 helped fuel the soul explosion in the In the Black Belt of the city's south Claude Barnett Papers city-Brainstorm, Formal, Cortland/ and west sides were the theaters and Otha Day Witch, Nike/Tip T-0p, St. Lawrence/ nightclubs that were the venues from Jubilee Singing Groups in 17 Satellite, Giant, Four Brothers, .One­ which the record companies discov­ Illinois: A Research Note derful- a veritable laundry list of ered and drew their talent. The big• Robin Hough names. gest and brightest venue was the Many of the world's major soul Regal Theater (47th and King Drive), 1991 National Conference on 19 acts-such as Jerry Butler, the Im­ which was the equivalent of New Black Music Research: pressions, Gene Chandler, the Chi­ York's Apollo Theater. Other theaters Abstracts of Papers lites, and the Dells----called Chicago of note were the Capitol (79th and Portrait of a Black Flutist 25 their home. At one time, as many as Halsted), the Tivoli (63rd and Cot­ Charles Walthall one-third of all the records spun on tage Grove), and the Trianon Ball­ the city's black radio stations were lo­ room (62nd and Cottage Grove). The Dvorak and African- 26 cally produced (Pruter 1987). Interna­ most famous clubs were the High American Musicians, tionally, Chicago was putting as Chaparral (77th and Stoney Island), 1892- 1895 many records on the charts as such the Club (55th and State), and the Maurice Peress Sutherland (47th and Drexel). The first Chicago company to ex­ A full-length book treating this subject, OiicJlgo perience great success in the emerg­ Soul, by the author, Is scheduled to be pub­ lished by the University of Illinois Press in N<>­ ing soul market was Vee Jay, vember 1990. founded in 1953 by Vivian and James 2

Bracken. For most of its history, as "Just Be True" (1964), and "Nothing The company could hardly be said to the largest black-owned record label Can Stop Me" (1965), most of which be ready for the corning soul era. But before Motown, the company was were composed by Curtis Mayfield the Chess brothers adapted by bring­ headed by Ewart Abner, Jr., but in and produced by Carl Davis. ing in from Detroit 'Billy Davis as 1963 he left to form Constellation. Okeh waS Columbia's long-time, A&R head and by beefing up their Several of Vee Jay's key artists independently distributed R&B sub­ in-house production, arranging, and moved to Constellation. sidiary. By the early 1960s, however, writing staff. When the 1960s arrived, Vee Jay the label was practically moribund, Etta James was Chess Records' first was one of the nation's largest inde­ and in 1962 Columbia hired Carl' big soul star. She hit with such melo­ pendents, and the company's cre­ Davis to serve as producer and A&R dramatic ballads as "At Last'' (1961} ative department, under the direction director of the label. He brought his and "Stop the Wedding" (1962) and of Calvin Carter, was in a strong po­ own team of musicians and arrang­ such soul shouters as "Pushover" sition to make its presence felt in ers (principally Johnny Pate, Riley (1963) and "Tell Mama" (1967). soul music. Some observers claim Hampton, and most importantly, James was followed by a host of that Chicago's first soul record had writer Curtis Mayfield) and within a gospelized wailers, notably Mitty indeed come out of Vee Jay- "For year rejuvenated Okeh. Collier, who hit with "I Had a Talk Your Precious Love" (1958} by Jerry with My Man" (1964) and "No Faith Butler and the Impressions (McEwen No Love" (1964), among others, and 1980, 143}. The company was so im­ Many of the world's major soul Sugar Pie DeSanto, who hit with pressed with Butler's soulful baritone acts- such as Jerry Butler, the "Slip-in Mules" (1964). that within months Carter split the In the softer soul vein was Billy young singer from the group and Impressions, Gene Chandler, Stewart, a Washington, D.C., native promoted him as a single artist. He t11e Chi~lites, and the Dells­ whose recordings were virtually all went on to become one of Chicago's called Chicago their home. done at Chess. His unique style of biggest hitmakers, scoring with such vocalizing, which he called doubling standouts as "He Will Break Your of words, was put to marvelous use Heart" (1960), "Need to Belong" The most sucCESSful Okeh artist on "Strange Feeling" (1963), "1 Do (1963), and "Giving Up on Love" was Major Lance, for whom Davis Love You" (1965), and "Sitting in the (1964). employed a deep brass sound to en­ Park" (1965). The Dells were a vet­ Dee Clark was Vee Jay's biggest hance Lance's reedy vocals. The most eran group of some fifteen years by act of the late 1950s, but most of his memorable Lance hits were "Monkey the time they began a magnificent hit best hits were soul-styled songs from Time" (1963}, "Hey Little Girl" string at Chess in the late 1%0s with the 1960s. At Vee Jay, Clark hit with (1963}, "Um Um Um Um Um Um" "Ooo I Love You" (1967), "There Is" "Raindrops" (1961), among others; (1964), and "Rhythm" (1964). Davis (1968}, and "Stay in My Corner" and at Constellation, he hit with also discovered Billy Butler, brother (1968). "Come Closer" (1964), "Warm Sum­ of Jerry Butler. Working with his The Radiants were one of the earli­ mer Breezes" (1964}, and "Heart­ neighborhood pals in a vocal group, est pacesetters in the emerging Chi­ break" (1964). For a time in the the Chanters, Butler hit with "Found cago soul sound. At Chess they cre­ 1960s, another Vee Jay star, Betty Ev­ True Love" (1963), "I Can't Work No ated a spirited and highly melodic, erett, was one of the hottest female Longer" (1965), and "Right Track" yet sophisticated form of soul. Their vocalists in the soul field, with such (1966). Another Okeh artist was De­ best work was done when the group classics to her credit as "You're No troit native Walter Jackson, the mas­ consisted of a trio-Maurice Mc­ Good" (1%3), '1t's in His Kiss" ter of the love ballad, whose best re­ Alister, Leonard Caston, Jr., and Wal­ (1964}, and "Let It Be Me" (1964), the cords include '1t's All Over" (1964}, lace Sampson-which used marvel­ latter a duet with Jerry Butler. "Welcome Home" (1965), and "Speak ous switch-off lead work to create Gene Chandler's one claim to rock Her Name" (1967}. durable hits in "Voice Your Choice" 'n' roll fame is "Duke of Earl" (1962); After a dispute with Columbia ex­ (1964} and '1t Ain't No Big Thing" but as a soul star Chandler was a ecutive Len Levy, Davis left Okeh in (1965}. giant, having had more than twenty­ late 1965. Following several years of Chess picked up a number of acts five national pop hits during the futile attempts to maintain the label, from St. Louis, all associated with the 1960s and 1970s. His best records Columbia shut it down in 1970. Oliver Sain Band. Teaming the acts with Vee Jay besides the "Duke" When the 1960s began, Chess Re­ with Chess writers, arrangers, and were "Rainbow" (1963} and "Man's cords, owned by Leonard and Phil producers resulted in a load of hits, Temptation" (1963). But the singer Chess, had a group of bluesmen the best known being "We're Gonna came into his own at Constellation (such as Muddy Waters and Howlin' Make It" (1965} by Little Milton, with a bevy of masterful songs, nota­ Wolf} and rock 'n' rollers (most nota­ "Don't Mess Up a Good Thing" bly "Think Nothing About It'' (1964}, bly Chuck Berry and Bo Diddley). (1964} by Fontella Bass and Bobby 3

McOure, and "Rescue Me" (1965) by Tones' "Shake a Tail Feather" (1963). had even arrived, were the Artistics' Fontella Bass. The act that had the most hits for "I'm Gonna Miss You" (1966), Jackie Chess also produced records fea­ Leaner, much to his dismay, was an Wilson's "(Your Love Lifts Me) High­ turing young sopranos, as did a lot of all-brother dance team from St. er and Higher" (1967), and Barbara the other companies in the city. The Louis, Alvin Cash and the Crawlers, Acklin's "Love Makes a Woman" best and most successful of these re­ who chanted their way through a (1968). During the next decade Davis cords were Jan Bradley's "Mama bevy of funky dance records, notably was unable to achieve much success Didn't Lie" (1962), Jackie Ross's "Self­ "Twine Time" (1964). for these artists, but two acts-Ty­ ish One" (1964), and JoAnn Garrett's Other records besides those from rone Davis and the Chi-lites-became "Stay by My Sjde" (1966). Leaner's artists helped to make Chi­ international superstars while at By the late 1960s Chess was pro­ cago the leading spawner of black Brunswick, outstanding hits being ducing few hits, except for the Dells dances during the 1960s. Chicago Davis's "Turning Point'' (1975) and with producer Don Davis in Detroit. producers made it a habit to scan the the Chi-lites' "Have You Seen Her" The in-house production team Jost its dance floors at the city's high schools (1971). touch and gradually drifted away and teenspots for the latest dance cre­ Curtis Mayfield's Curtom label from the company, a few joining Mo­ ations and raced to get the dance was also active in the 1970s, record­ town in Detroit. Chess folded in 1975. rhythms on wax. Some of the biggest ing the Impressions, Natural Four, ABC-Paramount was based in New dance records were 'The Watusi" Leroy Hutson, Linda Clifford, and at York, but in 1961 signed the May­ (1961) and "Sloop Dance" (1964), least a dozen other acts besides May­ field-led Impressions, which resulted both recorded by the Vibrations; field himself. But aside from May­ in its signing a number of other Chi­ 'The Gorilla" (1963) by the Ideals; field's own solo work, notably his cago acts. By the early 196~ Mayfield 'The Bird" (1962), an early Carl Superfly soundtrack from 1972, there had fully developed as a songwriter, Davis production by the Dutones; was very little that was truly distin­ and the Impressions hit with their and "Boo-Ga-Loo" (1965) by Tom guished about the company's output. very first ABC release, "Gypsy and Jerrio, who helped launch the Despite considerable achievements Woman" (1961). In the years hence, Boogoloo dance craze. by Chicago recording artists and the group delivered hit after hit em­ companies during the 1970s, the de­ ploying distinctive three-part switch­ cade was the story of the decline and disappearance of a recording indus­ off leads of thte three members of the A harder side of Chicago soul group- Mayfield, Fred Cash, and try. The growth of the major labels was provided by George Leaner Samuel Gooden-and tasteful horn­ on both coasts effectively squeezed punctuated arrangements by pro­ in his One-derful operation. He out first Chicago's independent dis­ ducer Johnny Pate. The most out­ specialized in southern-style tributors and then the city's indepen­ standing hits were "It's All Right'' hard soul. dent labels. Most of the mom-and­ (1963), "Keep On Pushing" (1964), pop labels were gone by the time and "People Get Ready'' (1965). Curtom closed its doors in 1980, and Mayfield also had considerable As with the dance records, Leaner Carl Davis shut down his operation success recording acts for his own la­ did not monopolize Chicago's hard in 1984. bels-Mayfield and Windy C-and soul market. Sy! Johnson, who_ devel­ Today, on Michigan Avenue's ''Re­ got hits with the Fascinations and the oped as an artist· in the city's blues cord Row," virtually nothing remains Five Stairsteps. ABC had one other community, hit continuously on Twi­ of what was once a vital, creative significant Chicago-based act, the night Records from 1967 to 1972 with center and industry. Chess, Vee Jay, Marvelows, whose doowop-styled funky aggressive songs distinguished 0ne-derful, and others have long had soul hits-"! Do" (1965) and "In the mostly by his sharp piercing vocals. their offices shuttered, and the streei Morning" (1968)- were produced by His best records were "Come On looks like a backwater. Farther south, Johnny Pate. Sock It to Me" (1%7) and "Different in the great Black Belt where the A harder side of Chicago soul was Strokes" (1967). Other hard soul re­ Regal, Trianon, and other legendar) provided by George Leaner in his cords of note include Jimmy Robins's venues used to stand, only piles o One-derful operation. He specialized "I Can't Please You" (1966), Johnny rubble remain. The club scene is onl) in southern-style hard soul, best typi­ Moore's "Your Love's Got Power" a shadow of its former self, and the fied by Otis Clay with '1 Testify" (1966), and Darrow Fletcher's 'The talent produced by the few remain (1966) and ''That's How It Is" (1967). Pain Gets a Little Bit Deeper" (1965). ing niteries is signed to the majo Leaner had other big sellers with Mc­ For the 1970s the story of Chicago companies on both coasts. VirtuallJ Kinley Mitchell's "The Town I Live soul was basically that of Carl Davis nothing is left of the thriving sou In" (1962), Harold Burrage's "Got to and his productions at Brunswick. scene that made the city so excitin! Find a Way" (1965), the Sharpees' Outstanding releases early in Davis's for popular music in the 1960s anc "Do the 45" (1965), and the Five Du- tenure at Brunswick, before the 1970s 1970s. 4

References 88 (September /October):22--32; no. 89 (De­ Press Book. cembcr):25-29. Pruter, Robert. 1987. Unpublished survey of Hafferkamp, Jack. 1974. Rhythm and blues a local playlists in author's files. (In the 1960s Baker, Cary. 1980. Recording activity in Chi­ lonesome soul. Chicago Daily News June WBEE and WVON both put out lists of the cago; frOJ!l 4-track to state-of-the-art. Jllin.ois 3:21, 23. top-selling records, which like most radjo Entertainer 74 (May):4-5. Hoekstra, Dave. 1982. The Chicago sound. surveys were partially determined by rec­ Callahan, Mike. 1981. The Vee Jay story, part Suburban Sun-Times June 11:12. ord sales and partially by the stations' 1: Scenes from a family owned company. Koppel, Martin. 1986. The Chicago sound of choices of what to play. The "Soul 45" Goldmine 60 (May):6-18. Okeh. Soul Suroivor 5:24-25. WVON list from July 17, 1964, for example, Dachs, David. 1964. Anything gots: The wcrld of McEwen, Joe. 1980. The sound of Chicago. In Listed sixteen Olicago-produced records. popular music. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill. The Rolling Stone Ulustraled history of rock & The WBEE list from February 18, 1966, in Calkin, Peter. 1989. Black, white and blues: roll, edited by Jim Miller, 143-147. Rev. ed. another example, featured thirty records, The story of Chess Records. Lit1ing Blues no. New York: A Random House/Rolling Stone ten of which were Olicago-produced.)

Chicago Gospel by Horace Clarence Boyer, University of Massachusetts, Amherst

Students of gospel music discover from his birth place of Atlanta, Geor­ 1872-1945), from Memphis, Tennes­ early on that a knowledge of Chicago gia. Pace studied music in Chicago see, opened the Bowles House of gospel is absolutely paramount to and by the 1920s had begun a career Music in 1926, but sold sacred and any serious research in the field. In in black church music at Beth Eden secular music. Bowles is also counted fact, Chicago is to gospel as New Or­ Baptist Church, later becoming the among the early Chicago gospel leans is to jazz. To be sure, while cit­ musical director for Liberty Baptist composers, for though her catalog is ies other than Chicago were witness­ (Tyler 1980, 9). At Liberty, Pace was small, in 1939 she composed "God's ing the development of the music expected to continue the musical tra­ Gonna Separate the Wheat from the that was to become known as gospel, dition of singing standard Protestant Tares," which became tthe first song it was in Chicago that gospel musi­ hymns in the style of white congre­ recorded by Mahalia Jackson. cians established and refined a work­ gations and directi111g a monthly mu­ Another Georgian, Thomas An­ able solo style, formed both backup­ sicale of great European choral drew Dorsey (b. 1899) from Villa singers and independent vocal works, which had been established Rica, arrived in Chicago for the first groups, and created a gospel piano by black "Old line" churches such as time in 1916 and, after returning to style, borrowing from ragtime, bar­ Olivet, Ebenezer, and Pilgrim Baptist Atlanta for the winters of 1917 and rclhouse, blues, and Protestant and Quinn Chapel and Bethel A.M.E. 1918, settled in Chicago in 1919. hymns. (Spear 1967, 91-96, 174-178). While After writing in 1921 ms first gospel continuing this tradition, Pace also song, "If I Don't Get There" (South­ introduced a kind of gospel music ern 1983, 452), Dorsey oscillated be­ The Founding Years: 1921-1944 into the church, which development tween the composition of blues and Gospel, like several other types of is not as significant as is the fact that gospel music until the end of the de­ black music, had its origins in the he composed the music. He therefore cade, when he elected to devote him­ South and was brought to Chicago became the leader of a group of com­ self full time to gospel. Composer of with the people as they migrated. posers who would establish the Chi­ over five hundred gospel songs, Dor­ Chicago was an ideal location for an cago gospel music center, unlike sey is regarded as the "Father of Gos­ urban music development, for other centers such as Philadelphia, pel Music." Among his first songs in Detroit, and Los Angeles, all of the genre are "Take My Hand, Pre­ One important precondition for the which were established by singers. cious Lord" (1932), "Peace in the Val­ growth of black music [including ley" (1937), and "The Lord Will gospel] in Chicago was the so-called Composers and Publishers. Pace is re­ Make a Way Somehow" (1943). In Great Black Migration from 1916 to membered as the composer of such 1926 Pace published Dorsey's "How 1920, when around 50,000 Southern gospel standards as "Bread of Heav­ About You?" and "If You See My blacks took up residence in Chicago, creating the Black Belt (Robinson en," "Hide My Soul," and "Nobody Savior" (Tyler 1980, 23). In 1932 Dor­ 1986, 422). But You, Lord," and as a music pub­ sey opened his publishing house, lisher. He opened his Pace Music Thomas A. Dorsey, Publisher, and Among those already in Chicago be­ House in 1910 to sell Negro spirituals became the first black American to fore 1916 was Charles Henry Pace and European art music. In the twen­ open a publishing house exclusively (1886-1963), who arrived there at age ties he began to publish his gospel for the sale of black gospel. By pub­ thirteen by way of a circuitous route compositions. Lillian Bowles (ca. lishing only his own compositions or 5 arrangements, Dorsey led the way for rather than singers, it was also rived in Chicago. In 1932, after an black gospel music publishing unique in that choirs, rather than so­ unsuccessful attempt to sing with a houses. loists, introduced the music. Both choir in Chicago, Jackson accepted By 1939 Roberta Martin (1907- Pace and Dorsey organized choirs to the invitation of the three Johnson 1969), who came to Chicago from introduce their music. It has been brothers (Robert, Prince, and Wilbur, Helena, Arkansas, as a teenager, had generally accepted that the first gos­ sons of the pastor of Greater Salem served a tutelage under Dorsey, es­ pel choir was organized by Thomas Baptist Church) to join with them tablishing a reputation as a gospel A. Dorsey and Theodore Frye at and Louise Lemon to form the John­ singer and pianist, and opened her Chicago's Pilgrim Baptist Church in son Singers. One of the first gospel own publishing company, the Ro­ 1932 with Roberta Martin as pianist. groups in Chicago-Dorsey organ­ berta Martin Studio of Music, Recent research, however, has uncov­ ized his female trio the same year, through which she published her ered the fact that Metropolitan Com­ 1932-the Johnson Singers began as songs, as well as those of other bud­ mwuty Church, where Magnolia an a cappella group but later per­ ding composers. Her compositions Lewis Butts was director of music, suaded Prince to serve as pianist. from this early period include "God's organized a chorus in 1928 (Smith Jackson left the group in 1937 to pur­ Amazing Grace" (1938) and "Try 1989). By 1930 the name of the group sue a solo career and to serve as Jesus" (1943). had been changed from "chorus" to Dorsey's demonstrator in her free Kenneth Morris (1917-1988) came "Gospel Chorus," and it was singing time. to Chicago to play jazz in the 1934 Dorsey songs. An appearance by this In 1933 with the assistance of The­ Chicago Exposition but became ill. choir at Pilgrim inspired its pastor, odore R. Frye, Roberta Martin se­ While recuperating, he was hired by Junius C. Austin, to invite Dorsey lected young men from the gospel Bowles as a scribe to replace Charles and Frye to organize a choir at Pil­ chorus at Ebenezer, including twelve­ Pace, who had left Chicago for Pitts­ grim (Smith 1989). In any event, by year-old Eugene Smith, to form the burgh. Because Sallie Martin (1896- 1932 both Ebenezer and Pilgrim had Martin-Frye Quartet, for which Mar­ 1988) wanted to open a publishing gospel choirs, and by 1933 Roberta tin served as pianist. By 1935 the house and needed a composer as a Martin was the director of the gospel group had chosen the name Roberta partner, the Reverend Clarence H. choir at Ebenezer, and Dorsey, at Pil­ Martin Singers. Sallie Martin organ­ Cobb (1907-1979), pastor of the First grim. Not long afterwards gospel ized the Sallie Martin Singers in 1940 Church of Deliverance, brought the choirs were organized at Salem Bap­ and, within its first year, hired Ruth two together in 1940 and advanced tist Church, where Prince Johnson Jones (1924-1963), originally from the money for the opening of Martin was pianist and director, and at the Tuscaloosa, Alabama, as pianist and and Morris Music. In the first period First Church of Deliverance, where soloist. When Jones left the group in of Chicago gospel, Morris composed pianist Kenneth Morris introduced 1943, she changed her name and be­ such standards as "Just a Closer the Hammond organ in 1939. came famous as Dinah Washington. Walk with Thee" (1940), which he The crowning choral activity of Unaccompanied male quartets transcribed from the singing of Wil­ this early period was the organiza­ were popular in Chicago in the liam Hurst and to which he com­ tion in 1932 of the National Conven­ 1920s, but they were patterned after posed additional verses; "Yes, God Is tion of Gospel Choirs and Choruses, the Fisk Jubilee Quartet and sang Real" (1944); and "King Jesus Will Incorporated, by Dorsey, Magnolic1 Negro spirituals and concert music. Roll All Burdens Away" (1944). Lewis Butts, and Sallie Martin. The This changed in the early forties Other composers of the founding gospel choir became a fixture not when the Blue Jay Singers from Bir­ period were Theodore R. Frye (1899- only in Chicago but in Baptist mingham, Alabama, settled in Chi­ 1963) of Fayette, Mississippi, who is churches throughout the nation. cago. They were soon joined by remembered for his 1939 song "Send­ Rebert H. Harris (b. 1916) and the ing Up My Timber;" Emma L. Jack­ Soloists, Groups, and Keyboardists. Soul Stirrers, who made the move son of Birmingham, Alabama, whose While Dorsey attempted to introduce from Houston, Texas. "I'm Going to Die with the Staff in his music with soloist Rebecca Tal­ My Hand" (1941) and "Don't Forget bert, and Magnolia Lewis Butts was the Family Prayer" (1945) are still singing his "How About You?" at The Golden Age: 1945--1965 popular and who opened the Emma Metropolitan, it was not until 1929, The war years stimulated growth in L. Jackson Studio of Music in 1941; when Sallie Martiin arrived in Chi­ the American economy. Almost two and Magnolia. Lewis Butts (ca. 1885- cago from Pittfield, Georgia, by way million southern rural Blacks aban­ 1949), whose "Let It Breathe on Me" of Cleveland, Ohio, that he found his doned their low-paying domestic, (1941) has become a standard. "demonstrator." Nineteen twenty­ sharecropping, tenant-fanning jobs nine was also the year that Mahalia for work in factories located Choirs. As the Chicago center was Jackson (1911-1972), considered the throughout the country. In the cities, unique for its founding by composers world's greatest gospel singer, ar- both Black Americans and whites 6

earned the highest wages in Ameri­ The two most popular composers ducted the choir at Greater Harvest can history. So Americans, especially of the Golden Age were Alex Brad­ Baptist, Willie Webb was the director 13lack Americans, had much to cele­ ford (1927-1978) of Bessemer, Ala­ at Southside Community Church, brate during the post war years bama, whose 1953 composition and and Anna Broy Crockett (b. 1916) (Maultsby 1986, 6). recording of "Too Close to Heaven" conducted the choir at St. Paul Gospel music, along with rhythm revived the piano-accompanied male Church of God in Christ. The Rever­ and blues, was the most celebrated group, and James Cleveland of Chi­ end Clay Evans founded Fellowship music of the war years. While before cago, who has composed over three Baptist and the Fellowship Radio the war gospel music could only be hundred gospel songs, the best Choir with his sister, LuDella Reid, purchased in Chicago, after the war known of which include "His Grace as the first pianist-director. agents around the country made Is Sufficient for Me" (1950) and "He's sheet music available in local towns. Using Me" (1962). Soloists, Groups, and Keyboardists. While earlier very few pianists could The composers of the earlier pe­ James Lee, a native of New Orleans, capture the gospel style, after the war riod continued to supply choirs and introduced the concept of the male gospel musicians began to teach the groups with new songs. Dorsey com­ soprano gospel singer at the begin­ style to pianists who before had posed "Search Me, Lord" in 1948 and ning of the Golden Age and influ­ played only Bach and Beethoven. in 1955 contributed "Standing Here enced Alex Bradford when he organ­ The most important change of all Wondering Which Way to Go," ized the Bradford Specials in 1951. In was that before the war such large while Kenneth Morris composed addition to his own falsetto, which recording companies as Victor, Co­ "Christ Is All" (1946) and "Dig a Lit­ extended up to high C, Bradford in­ lumbia, and Okeh controlled the tle Deeper in God's Love" (1947). Ro­ cluded a male soprano in his group. market for bla.ck music; after the war berta Martin composed "What a Bradford was also known as one of small, independent record companies Blessing in Jesus I've Found" in 1948 the most outstanding pianists of the entered the field, and by 1945 gospel and used the song to introduce period. singers began recording in large Delois Barrett (b. 1926). In 1959 she Mildred and Evelyn Gay formed numbers. composed her most popular song, the Gay Sisters and created a sensa­ "God Is Still on the Throne." Lucy tion with their recording of "God Composers and Publishers. Chicago Smith Collier, the traveling pianist Will Take Care of You." Mildred composers were still supplying the for the Martin Singers, composed for served as pianist for the sisters and nation with new songs, and those that group such songs as "He's So also served in that capacity for composers from the founding years Divine" (1956) and "Whisper a Mahalia Jackson. were joined by several others who Prayer" (1965). Albertina Walker (b. 1930), a native made significant contributions to the Gospel music publishers joining of Chicago, left the Robert Anderson literature. Among them were Vir­ the Chicago center included Robert Singers in 1952 to form the Caravans. ginia Davis Marshall, who wrote "I Anderson, who, while having his of­ This group later had such stellar Have a Friend Above All Others" fice located in Gary, Indiana, served members as Inez Andrews (b. 1928), (1945) and "I Call Him Jesus, My the Chicago public from his Good Bessie Griffin (1922-1989), and Shir­ Rock" (1950); Sylvia Boddie, com­ Shepherd Music House, established ley Caesar (b. 1938). Among the pia­ poser of "Now Lord" (1948) and in 1952, while the H&T Music House nists who accompanied the Caravans "Each Day I Grow a Little Nearer" and Publishers was opened in 1945. were James Cleveland, Eddie Wil­ (1949); Robert Anderson (b. 1919), a liams, and James Herndon. Cleve­ former member of the Roberta Mar­ Choirs. By 1955 Chicago had become land, who joined the Caravans in tin Singers, known for his "I Know known as the gospel-choir city, for in 1954, also sang for a while with Dor­ Prayer Changes Things" (1947) and addition to the choirs organized dur­ othy Norwood and the Gospel "Oh Lord, Is It I?" (1953); and the ing the founding period, the "radio Chimes. Reverend A. A. Childs, who wrote choir" - a choir consisting of the bet­ Kenneth Morris organized the the lyrics for "Sow Righteous Seeds" ter voices from a given church, Martin and Morris Singers, and a (1945) to the music of Robert Ander­ which was used for the broadcast of mixed group from Argo, Illinois, the son and "How Much I Owe for Love church services--introduced new Argo Singers, became a part of the Divine'' (1945). Willie Webb (b. 1920), songs almost weekly. Among the Chicago scene. One of the most pop­ also a former member of the Martin most popular of these was the radio ular and enduring groups from the Singers, contributed "I'm Bound for choir of First Church of Deliverance, Golden Age is the Staples Singers. Higher Ground" (1945) and "He's All where Ralph Goodpasteur had re­ In this period, male quartets, unac­ 1 Need" (1947), while the singing placed Kenneth Morris as choir di­ companied or using guitar, began to preacher, Sammy lewis, penned rector. (This choir was selected to ac­ flourish, one of the earliest to orga­ "Jesus, the Waymaker" (1949) and company Nat King Cole on a 1959 ni.ze being the Highway Q.C.'s. Sam "Hold the Light'' (1956). recording.) Robert Anderson con- Cooke (1931-1964) replaced Rebert Harris in the Soul Stirrers after hav­ porary." ing choirs on the national scene. The ing apprenticed in a family group "Tommies," as they are called, were (the Singing Children) and the High­ Composers. Both Dorsey and Morris soon joined by such other choirs as way Q.C.'s. The Soul Stirrers and the began to direct their energies else­ the Apostolic Church of God TV Highway Q.C.'s also counted as a where in the sixties. Dorsey wrote a Ministry Choir, under the direction former member soul singer Johnnie few songs during this period, the of Betty McDaniels; the Choir of St. Taylor (b. 1938). Other quartets were most popular of which was "Some­ Paul Church of God in Christ, di­ the Norfleet Brothers, the Windy City times My Burdens So Hard to Bear" rected by Charles Geiger; Greater Four, and the Pilgrim Jubilees. (1968), but Morris concentrated on Holy Temple Choir, under the direc­ The gospel organist emerged dur­ distribution. Roberta Martin, who tion of James Lenox; the choir of Cos­ ing the Golden Age, and Louise would live only until 1969, composed mopolitan; the choir of Christ Uni­ Overall Weaver, along with Gerald "There'll Be Joy" in 1965, "Just Jesus versal Temple, the church of the Rev­ Spraggins, accompanied choirs and and Me" in 1966, and in 1967, "I Am erend Johnnie Coleman, where Rob­ singers throughout the city. No Not Alone." Jessy Dixon (b. 1938) ert Mays is the director; and the choir doubt the best-known organist from from San Antonio, Texas, contributed of Christian Tabernacle, pastored by the Chicago center was Ralph Jones, '"The Failure's Not in God" (1964), the Reverend Maceo Woods, who is who combined with Mildred Falls, "Bring the Sun Out" (1979), and "Sat­ remembered as one of the leading the pianist for Mahalia Jackson, to isfied" (1982). Oyde Bradley com­ gospel organists of the 1950s. Despite form the Falls-Jones Ensemble, travel­ posed the popular "I'd Trade a Life­ the loss of their principal composer, ing all over the world with Jackson. time," and among Marvin Yancey's the Reverend Marvin Yancey, the compositions is the well-known choir of Fountain of Life enjoys great Recording Companies. During the "Sign Me Up for the Christian Jubi­ popularity. Golden Age of gospel, Chicago be­ lee." Melvin Smothers and George The most unique choral group in came an important recording center Jordan are among the newest cadre Chicago is the Soul Children of Chi­ for black music, and several local and of gospel composers. cago, a choir of honor roll students national gospel groups were re­ As gospel became more popular from the ages of seven to seventeen. corded. The United, Aristocrat, and the concept of playing by "ear" The group is under the di.rection of Chess, and States recording compa­ became common, the need for sheet Walter Whitman. nies all had headquarters in Chicago. music diminished, and the once James and Vivian Bracken, along strong dynasty of publishers in Chi­ Soloists, Groups, and Keyboardists. with Calvin Carter, formed Vee Jay cago gave way in the face of musi­ Even as Delois Barrett Campbell Records and were particularly partial cians learning songs from recordings maintained her membership in the to gospel music. Though short-lived, and tapes. Only one publisher Roberta Martin Singers, with whom the label was one of the most suc­ opened a business in the fusion age­ she had been associated since the age cessful in Chicago. Sallie Martin, who dissolved her of seventeen, she and her sisters, Bil­ partnership with Morris in 1975. Sal­ lie and Rhodessa, were winning acco­ lie Martin Music operated for only lades as the Barrett Sisters. The sisters The Fusion Years: 1965- three years before dosing. were celebrated in the very popular By 1965 several other cities had 1982 documentary Say Amen, Some­ joined Chicago as gospel music cen­ Choirs. In 1965, after five years of body. ters. Philadelphia had the Ward Sing­ working with James Oeveland, Jessy The choir of Christian Tabernacle ers, Davis Sisters, and Angelic Gospel Dixon became the director of a choir has produced several outstanding so­ Singers, along with the male quartet organized by Melvin Brunson called loists, including Doris Sykes, Melvin the Dixie Hummingbirds. Detroit had the Thompson Community Choir. Smothers, and George Jordan, while Mattie Moss Oark, Charles Craig, Recording with the choir under the the ''Tommies" produced Ethel Hol­ and the Meditations; and Los Ange­ name of the Chicago Community loway. Deleon Richards gained a na­ les would enter the field in a few Choir, Dixon inspired the transition tional reputation as a child gospel short years. In addition to the estab­ from traditional to contemporary singer but has since combined her lishment of centers in other cities, a gospel among choirs in Chicago. singing with television acting. Two new kind of gospel was emerging. Even recording under the name of outstanding contemporary groups of The new gospel would borrow as the Chicago Community Choir, the the city are the L.S.D. (Love, Salva­ much from rhythm and blues and group still used the name Thompson tion, and Devotion) Singers and the soul as the older gospel borrowed Community Choir locally and after a Love Holiness Singers. Calvin Brid­ from Negro spirituals and the Baptist few years began using that name on ges is the most well known of the lining-hymn. The older style of gos­ recordings. Not only did the group Chicago singers, due to a successful pel was called "traditional," while become the leading choir in the Chi­ recording career. the newer style was called "contem- cago area but became one of the lead- Well-known pianists of the Fusion 8

Era arc Jessy Dixon, Marvin Yancey, Father's Day Weekend, is to gospel land and Albertina Walker through Gregory Scott Cooper (who accom­ what the Newport Jazz Festival was Jessy Dixon and Melvin Brunson; panied Sallie Martin during the last to jazz. Not only are gospel stars of from Marvin Yancey and the Barrett five years o( her lifo and now the United States presented in a se­ Sisters through Calvin Bridges and accompanies Robert Anderson), Rich­ ries of concerts spanning several the Soul Children, gospel developed ard Gibbs (pianist for his mother, days, but gospel stars of the United and has flourished in Chicago. If one singer Inez Andrews), and Charles Kingdom have been introduced to is to know gospel, one has to know Pike (pianist and music director of the American public by way of this Chicago gospel first. the Barrett Sisters). Percy Bady and festival. Darius Brooks, from the "Tommies," Vicki Winans, gospel singer and are pianists and organists. wife of Marvin Winans of The Winans (four brothers), is the host of References Recording Companies. While Califor­ Singspiration, a weekly television nia appears to have a near monopoly show (CBS, Sunday morning, 7:30 Maultsby, Portia K. 1986. Rhythm and blues on recording contemporary gospel, J\.M., Central Time). The Stellar (1945-1955): A survey of st yles. ln Black Chicago is the home of I Am records. Awards, gospel's answer to the American popular music, 6. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. Calvin Bridges is the most popular Grammy, were conceived and first Robinson, J. Bradford. 1986. 0.lcago: Jazz and artist on the label, and the Barrett produced by Don Jackson of Chi­ blues. In The ntto Gro,,e dictionary of Ameri­ Sisters, who still retain traditional cago, and the city houses the Gospel = music, edited by H. Wiley Hitchoodc gospel elements, are also popular. Music Archives at DuSable High and Stanley SadJe, vol. 1, 422-423. London: Macmillan. Other artists on the label arc Pop Sta­ School. The Center for Black Music Smith, Eugene. 1989. Conversation with the ples of the Staples Singers and Ethel Research at Columbia College has author, December 17. Holloway of the ''Tommies." begun a drive to collect manuscripts, Southern, Eileen. 1983. The music of black scores, and recordings of all aspects J\merica11S: J\ history. New York: W. W. Nor­ ton & Co. Festivals/Media/Research Institutions. of black American music and has Spear, Alan 1-1. 1967. Black Chicago: The making For the last several years the Chicago emerged as one of the principal re­ of a Negro ghttto, 1890-1920. Chimgo: Uni­ Gospel Festival, sponsored by the search facilities in the country. versity of Chicago Press. Project of the Mayor's Office of Spe­ From Charles Pace and Thomas A. Tyler, Mary Ann Lancaster. 1980. The music of Oun-Its 1-Itnry Paa ond ils rtlolimuhip to lht cial Events, has drawn national atten­ Dorsey through Roberta Martin and Afro-American church aptrimu. Ph.D. Diss., tion. This festival, usually held on Mahalia Jackson; from James Oeve- University of Pittsburgh.

Jazz in Chicago: A Historical Overview by Richard Wang, University of Illinois at Chicago

The early history of jazz in Chi­ from New Orleans to New York. Be­ America's black entertainment music, cago is partly obscured by legend hind the legends and myths, how­ jazz. This area was the heart of the and myth. For example, there is the ever, is a substantive history that has South-Side entertainment district, legend that jazz arrived in Chicago never been fully dorumented. and there were more theaters and on Mississippi riverboats when in The purpose of this article is to cabarets there than could be found in fact it came up on the Illinois Central present an overview of Chicago jazz the Loop around Randolph and Railroad and got off at the Twelfth­ and its institutions and to indicate State. Street Station (Wang 1988, 101-102); some of the directions future re­ Located at 31 HH2 South State the myth that W. C. Handy's Ma­ search might take. Hopefully, future Street, the Grand Theater was a hara's Minstrels played at Chicago's accounts of Chicago jazz will not vaudeville house, seating one thou­ 1893 World's Columbian Exposition only dispel the legends and myths of sand, which opened in the first de­ (Travis 1983, 9), when in fact Handy the past but will replace fiction with cade of the century and was in con­ arrived in Chicago in 1892 only to fact and informed judgement. tinuous operation into the 1930s. find the Chicago Fair had been post­ In the 1920s the area around State Some of the biggest names in show poned for a year (he left immediately Street between Thirty-first and business appeared there in the teens for St. Louis) (Handy [1941] 1970, 28); Thirty-fifth Streets, known to the and twenties, including Butterbeans and, most egregiously, the myth that black community as 'Toe Stroll," and Susie, Ethel Waters, Bessie Chicago jazz is just a subspecies of was the mecca of the jazz world-a Smith, and Cab and Blanche Cal­ New Orleans jazz and Chicago a veritable rialto of theaters, cabarets, loway. The Calloways appeared mere way station on the journey and dance halls that featured there in one of the most successful 9 musicals of the 1920s-Plantation Parkway (renamed Martin Luther of Esquire magazine produced an im­ Days. The "offi-cial" history of jazz in King Drive in 1968), the Savoy Ball­ portant series of concerts for the Hot Chicago also began at the Grand on room, accommodating four thousand Club of Chicago. February 1, 1915, when the Creole dancers, opened in 1927; in 1928 the During the 1920s the Melrose Band from New Orleans (via Los An­ 3,500-seat ~egal Theater opened a Brothers firm-"The House that geles) appeared. This group was led few doors north of the Savoy, featur­ Blues Built''-was committed to the by bassist Bill Johnson and featured ing talking pictures and stage shows. publication of the best of Chicago the legendary cometist Freddie Kep­ The opening of these two venues was jazz. Among the composers repre­ pard. mainly responsible for shifting the sented in their catalog were such leg­ Across the street from the Grand center of black entertainment to endary jazzmen as Jelly Roll Morton, stood the Vendome Theater. This was Forty-seventh and South Parkway. Kid Ory, Louis Armstrong, and King the home of Erskine Tate's fifteen­ Although in later years Chicago Oliver. During his Chicago years, piece "Symphony Orchestra," which would have other areas where jazz Jelly Roll Morton helped the firm es­ performed on the stage and in the pit would flourish, "The Stroll" was tablish itself through the popularity from 1918 to 1928. In 1925, shortly unique; never again would there be of his published piano solos and the after he returned to Chicago from so many important jazz clubs and jazz band arrangements made fa­ playing with Fletcher Henderson in musicians concentrated in so small mous by his Red Hot Pepper record­ New York, the young Louis Arm­ an area. ings. One of the most interesting strong joined Tate's orchestra as a What may have been the first jazz Melrose publications was what must featured soloist. During this same pe­ festival/concert in the United States have been the first collection of tran­ riod, Fats Waller was the intermis­ (or in the world for that matter) took scribed jazz solos: 50 Hot Choruses by sion organist for Tate. place on June 12, 1926, at Chicago's Louis Armstrong (1927). This publi­ South of the intersection of Thirty­ venerable Coliseum on South Wa­ cation, advertised as "hotter than the fifth and South State was one of the bash Avenue at Fourteenth Place. devil's kitchen," had a play-along most opulent of the area's jazz caba­ The Consolidated Talking Machine feature if one had also purchased the rets-the Dreamland Cafe. There, Lil Co. (Okeh Records) and Local 208 of companion stock arrangement. Mel­ Hardin Armstrong, Louis Arm­ the American Federation of Musi­ rose also published Armstrong's 125 strong's second wife, led a band of cians-the first black local in the A.F. Jazz Breaks for Cornet (1927), in which which her husband was a member in of M.-sponsored a "Race Artists Armstrong was advertised as "the 1925-1926. Young Louis reports that Festival" which featured fifteen world's hottest and most eccentric the even-younger Benny Goodman bands and was attended by about cometist. All his tricks are in this came down to the Dreamland to sit­ twenty thousand people (Steiner and book." With publications and adver­ in at the after-hours jam sessions, Sengstock 1966, 6/19/1926). Among tising like this, it is not surprising where he would "help us tear up the the artists and bands appearing were that Melrose became a pioneer in jazz joint" (Armstr,ong 1975, 42). Many of Erskine Tate, King Oliver, and Louis publishing. the nightclubs and cabarets were Armstrong's Hot Five, who "broke it "black and tans," where the clientele up" with their hot playing. "The Stroll" was unique; never was racially integrated. The after­ Another historic Chicago concert again would there be so many took place on Easter Sunday 1936 in hours jam sessions were also racially important jazz clubs and musi­ mixed, and the young white musi­ the Urban Room of the Congress cians of Chicago were drawn to The Hotel when Benny Goodman cians concentrated in so small Stroll to learn all about this new brought Teddy Wilson from New an area. music called jazz. Among these were York to join Gene Krupa and himself the members of the so-called Austin in the concert debut of the Benny Long before jazz was an accepted High School Gang: Bud Freeman, Goodman Swing Trio. Thus it was in study within the music curriculum, a Jimmy and Dick McPartland, Frank Chicago that Goodman began his pi­ black South-Side band director was Teschemacher, and Jim Lanigan. oneering efforts toward racial inte­ busy preparing his students for pro­ In the late 1920s several events led gration in his band. This concert was fessional careers in this music. Begin­ to the gradual decline of The Stroll sponsored by the Chicago Rhythm ning in 1931 with his appointment as and the relocation of the black enter­ Club-Chicago's first "hot club." the band director at Wendell Phillips tainment center farther south. Begin­ American "hot dubs" were inspired High School, Captain Walter Henri ning in 1927, when "talkies" were in­ by and modeled after the Hot Club of Dyett trained more than fifteen thou­ troduced to the public by Al Jolson's France begun by Charles Delaunay sand musicians until his retirement movie The Jazz Singer, the need for and Hughes Panassie. Chicago pion­ from DuSable High School thirty live musicians in the theaters began eered in the formation of these clubs; years later. He was a commanding to decline; farther south near the in­ in the 1940s John Steiner of Para­ leader and a demanding taskmas­ tersection of Forty-seventh and South mount Records and Arnold Gingrich ter-a teacher who would accept 10 nothing less than the best his stu­ eleven-year span beginning in March 1982 Chicago Jazz Festival, and initi­ dents were capable of producing. 1949, Ellington appeared at the Blue ating an oral history program for its The list of famous jazz musicians Note on eighteen different occasions DeMicheal Archives. who passed thorough his program is for a record-setting total of forty-five One of Chicago's unique jazi: insti­ legion: saxophonists Gene "Jug" weeks (Caine 1989, 33). tutions is Joe Segal's Tazz Showcase, Ammons, Johnny Board, Von Free­ Ellington's close relationship to located in the Blackstone Hotel. In man, Johnny Griffin, Bill Adkins, Pat Chicago goes beyond his appear­ 1946 Segal began to promote jam ses­ Patrick, Joseph Jarman, and Clifford ances at the Blue Note. He chose sions at Roosevelt University featur­ Jordan; trumpeters Sonny Cohn and Chicago's McCormick Place and the ing the emerging young stars of Paul Serrano; trombonist Julian Pries­ 1963 Century of Negro Progress Ex­ bebop, including the already-famous ter; bassists Wilbur Ware, Richard position for the premiere of his ex­ Charlie Parker. Since then Segal has Evans, Richard Davis, and Victor tended composition My People. In been the "keeper of the flame" for Sproles; pianists Dorothy Donegan 1967 his Second Sacred Concert was more than forty-five years, during and John Young; drummers Wilbur performed in Rockefeller Chapel of which he has presented almost every Campbell, Phil Thomas, and Walter The University of Chicago. During major jazz artist and many outstand­ Perkins; violinist Leroy Jenkins; gui­ his first visit to Chicago in 1931, El­ ing local jazzmen. One of the special tarist George Freeman; and vocalists lington composed his Creole Rhapsody events at the Showcase is the annual Dinah Washington and Johnny Hart­ while appearing at the Oriental The­ August tribute to Charlie Parker- a man. The list could go on and on. ater in the Loop. Interest in the music month-long celebration of Parker's Dyett-DuSable alumnus Joseph Jar­ of Duke Ellington is sustained by the art. In 1982 the Jazz Institute of Chi­ man of the Art Ensemble of Chicago, members of the Ray Nance Chapter cago honored Segal with a concert by reflecting on the legacy of Captain of the Duke Ellington Society, which artists who came to prominence be­ Dyett, stated: "He was like this eter­ hosted a national conference of the cause of their appearances in his nal spirit manifested in living form. society at the University of Illinois at club. A number of National Public One had to experience his vibrancy. Chicago in 1984. Radio broadcasts have originated We can talk about his vision, but for The successor to the Chicago hot from the Jazz Showcase, and several him to look at you with those eyes, clubs of the 1930s and 1940s is the live recordings have been made to smile at you, for this giant to say Jazz Institute of Chicago (JIC). there. you're cool . . ." (Freedman and Founded in 1968, the JIC charter In May 1965 the Association for Cesario 1980, 33). states that its goals are "to perpetuate the Advancement of Creative Musi­ Tn the late 1940s Chicago's famous jazz in all its forms." Some of the cians (AACM) was chartered as a Blue Note jazz club was located at 56 founding members who are still ac­ not-for-profit corporation in the State West Madison Street; in 1954 it was tive in the Chicago community in­ of Illinois. The AACM is the most moved to 3 North Clark Street-both clude pianist Art Hodes, historian important and long-lived black Dr. John Steiner, impresario Joe musicians' cooperative in the country Segal, saxophonist Franz Jackson, and as such was the forerunner and Hopefully, future accounts of and record producer Bob Koester. model for the collectives of the 1970s: Chicago jazz will not only dis­ Since it produced its first program at the Black Artists Group of St. Lou is, pel the legends and myths of the Field Museum in 1969, the JIC Boston's Society for the Creatively the pnst but will replace fiction has presented more than eighty pro­ Concerned, and Strata-East of De­ with fact and informed judge­ grams in which jazz of all styles has troit. The AACM's charter was a ment. been showcased. Since those early symbol of the commitment that a years the JIC has expanded its activi­ group of South-Side musicians were ties to include producing a jazz edu­ making to raise the level of recogni­ locations were in the heart of cation program (The Jazz Express) in tion and opportunity for what came Chicago's Loop. Engagements at cooperation with the Chicago Public to be known as "Great Black Music." Frank Holzfeind's Blue Note played Schools, contributing to a jazz ar­ The AACM is an outgrowth of the a crucial role in the development of chive at The University of Chicago, Experimental Band led by Muha) jazz artists like Sarah Vaughan, Dave com.missioning and presenting origi­ Richard Abrams, one of the founders Brubeck, Ahmad Jamal, George nal jazz compositions, programming of the AACM, in the early 1960s. It Shearing, and Erroll Gamer, all of the Chicago Jazz Festival since its in­ began as a rehearsal band, meeting whom appeared there at pivotal ception in 1979, sponsoring master on the "off-night" at a South Cottage points in their careers. All the jazz classes and workshops for young Grove Avenue nightclub and later at greats played the Blue Note, but it musicians, maintaining a jazz hotline, the Abraham Lincoln Center-one of was the annual Christmas residencies publishing a Jazzgram for its mem­ Chicago's oldest South-Side settle­ of Duke Ellington that Chicagoans bers, creating an exhibit entitled ment houses. As Joseph Jarman, one remember most fondly. Over an "Memories of Chicago Jazz" for the of the band's early members recalls: 11

'1f you wanted to have something primary sources, including audio and References tested . . . you'd take it there." video recordings, printed and manu­ Abrams's impact upon the growth script music, books and periodicals, Armstrong, Louis. 1975. That toddlin' town: and development of the AACM is and any other material that gives Louis Armstrong reminisces about his early legendary. He was, and to some ex­ substance to the history of jazz as it days. In £squirt' s world of jazz, edited by tent still is, the artistic fountainhead was created and played in Chicago. lewis W. Gillenson, 38-43. New York: of the organization. Thomas Y. Crowell Co. The establishment of the archive was Caine, Dan. 1989. Blue Note memories. Reader Almost every year since its found­ inspired by a visit to the university August 18:1+. ing, the AACM has presented an an­ by Chicagoan Benny Goodman, who Freedman, Samuel Gary, and Jeff Cesario. niversary festival that brings together came there to lecture on the "Art of 1980. The jazz teacher. Reader August 22:1+. Handy, W. C. (1941) 1970. Father of the bluts: for several days members now living the Jazz Conductor." The Chicago An auwbiography. New York: Collier Books. in New York and Europe as well as Jazz Archive provides sources for the Steiner, John, and Charles A. Sengstock, Jr. Chicago. There is a seriousness of courses offered by the Department of 1966. A SUrrN!!f of tht "Chicago Dtftndtr'' and purpose and purity of vision which Music and is also accessible to other tht "Chicago Whip": C=ring tht years 1909 through 1930 with rtsptct to the dtvelopment of permeates both the organization and scholars by permission of the Music jazz music in Chicago. Chicago: The Authors. its audience. Librarian. Travis, Dempsey J. 1983. An autobiography of The Chicago Jazz Archive of The The history of jazz in Chicago has black jazz. Chicago: Urban Research, Inc. University of Chicago is dedicated to a richness and diversity to which the Wang, Richard. 1988. Researching the New Qr. leans-Oiicago jazz connection: Tools and the preservation of Chicago jazz. It individuals, events, and institutions methods. Blai:k Music Research Journal 8, no. collects and catalogs a wide range of described here have contributed. 1:101-112.

Florence B. Price and Margaret Bonds: The Chicago Years by Rae Linda Brvwn, University of California, Irvine

By 1925 Florence Price (1887- 1953), like all southern states, the govern­ of the National Association of Negro married with two children, had es­ ment was in the pl!'ocess of disenfran­ Musicians (NANM)-the Chicago tablished a successful piano studio in chising Negroes. Price, too, was sub­ Music Association (founded in 1919) Little Rock, Arkansas. She was also jected to the overt racism When she and the R. Nathaniel Dett Club composing piano music, organ mu­ applied to the Arkansas Music Teach­ (founded in 1922)-had become sic, and art songs; arranging spiritu­ ers Association, in spite of her impec­ prominent musical organizations. als; and writing children's pieces for cable academic and teaching creden­ They regularly sponsored African­ piano and violin with piano accom­ tials-an honor graduate of the New American artists in recital, members paniment. In May 1926 she won her England Conservatory of Music and gave lectures on black music first major composition award: she teaching tenures at Shorter College in throughout the city, and they gener­ tied for second prize with Edmund North Little Rock and Clark Univer­ ally promoted the work of African­ Jenkins in the Opportunity magazine's sity in Atlanta-sh@ was denied ad­ American composers. Price became a Holstein prize for her piano piece "In mission because of her color (Green member of the R. Nathaniel Dett the Lando' Cotton" ("Awards" 1926, 1983, 32). Club on April 2, 1922 (R. Nathaniel 157). When Price and her family arrived Dett Club 1987, 5). This club, which In 1927, following the path of hun­ in Chicago, they found a vibrant and met bi-monthly at the National Uni­ dreds of Negroes from the South, the culturally rich African-American versity of Music, had a membership Price family moved from Little Rock community. The city had its own of about one hundred and included to Chicago.1 The racial tension in Lit­ music schools for black children, in­ mostly younger and not yet well-es­ tle Rock had become intolerable, and cluding the Coleridge-Taylor Music tablished black musicians and com­ School and the National University of posers. In addition to Price, some Music. Black churches were the cen­ members of the club-La Julia Rhea, I. Conllicling evidence exists about when the ter of most activity. At least once a opera singer, and Orrin Clayton Price family moved to Oticago. Correspon· dence to the Arthur P. Schmidt Publishing Co. month, the Metropolitan Community Suthem, II, organist-were later to regarding her submission of "Impromptu," for Center Church, Olivet Baptist establish themselves nationally. piano, dated June and September 1926, carries Church, Grace Presbyterian, and Although Price was an active Price's UtUe Rock address. However, Iran· Bethel A.M.E. Church held musicals scripts from the Chicago Musical College indi­ member of the Dett Club, holding cate that she took courses there during the where fine talent could be heard. various offices including chair of the summers of 1926 and 1927. By the mid-1920s the two branches composition committee, she was 12 equally active and became more visi­ ship money to help her pursue her able mention for Ethiopia's Shadow in ble through her activities in the Chi­ studies. Bonds studied piano at America. She also won first prize cago Music Association. It was Northwestern University. ($250) in the piano composition cate­ through this organiZiition that Price Throughout her teenage years gory for her Sonata in E Minor. ln met the most distinguished members Bonds was seriously interested in addition, she won honorable mention of the black community, including composition. She had opportunity to for a Piano Fantasie. Bonds, now a se­ Maude Roberts George, music editor spend a great deal of time with con­ nior at Northwestern University, of the Chicago Defender and later pres­ cert singer and actress Abbie Mitch­ won the remaining prize money ident of NANM (1932); Estelle Bonds, ell, who shared with Bonds vocal lit­ ($250) for The Sea Ghost, an art song organist and teacher at the Cole­ erature by classical composers as she had submitted for course work. ridge-Taylor Music School; and Anita well as art songs and spiritual ar­ Patti Brown, concert singer. rangements by African-American Bonds and Price worked to­ Price and Estelle Bonds formed a composers. Bonds greatly admired gether 011 numerous occasions special relationship. During the Mitchell, who taught the young girl 1930s, Bonds's home became a gath­ "the importance of the marriage be­ through the 1930s, and their col­ ering place for African-American tween words and music'' (Bonds laborations continued to earn musicians who conspired to support 1967, 191). recognition. each other. Mrs. Bonds was a gener­ Because of her young age, Bonds ous woman, and she was known to received little support to pursue It was this competition that help anyone who fell upon hard composition. It was Price who ac­ brought Price's music to the attention times during the Depression. At one cepted her as a composition student. of Frederick Stock, who would con­ time, Price, her daughters, and con­ In Price she found a sympathetic and duct the Chicago Symphony Orches­ cert singers Louis and Helen White interested teacher who encouraged tra in a performance of the sym­ and their daughter all lived under her work {George 1932a, 15). phony on June 15, 1933. Estelle Bonds's roof. Mrs. White said Bonds also had an opportunity to Bonds and Price worked together that Bonds just "took people in," and study composition with William on numerous occasions through the while no one paid rent, they did con­ Dawson, who arrived in Chicago in 1930s, and their collaborations con­ tribute food (White 1988). the summer of 1926, around the tinued to earn recognition. In late same time as Price {Spady 1981, 16). 1932 Price's Fantasie Negre for piano In Florence Price, Margaret Shortly after he arrived in the city, attracted the attention of a Russian Dawson took courses in harmony ballet teacher who was working with Bonds found a sympathetic and orchestration at the Chic.ago Mu­ Katherine Dunham with an eye to­ and interested teacl,er who en­ sical College and at the American ward forming a permanent dance co uraged her work. Conservatory of Music, where Price troupe. The ballet, choreographed by also studied. Although there is no ex­ Mme Ludmilla Speranzcva of the When Price arrived in Chicago, tant evidence that suggests that Daw­ Chicago Art Theater, was performed Margaret was only fourteen, but son and Price spent any social or at the Beaux Arts Ball in December Price could see that the young girl professional time together, they 1932 with Margaret Bonds at the had special taJents. Bonds received surely must have known each other. piano {George 1932b, 15). her first music training in piano from ln Dawson Bonds found a teacher In the spring of 1933 Price was es­ her mother. Under the tutelage of who had mastered European fonns pecially busy. She withdrew from all Martha B. Anderson, with whom she and techniques, arranged spirituals, activities in order to copy the parts of began to study at age five, Bonds and played jazz. Bonds's predilection her symphony, which was to be per­ won several contests and scholar­ for jazz-flavored harmonies in her formed in June. She was present, ships at the Chicago Musical College. compositions may have been in­ however, at the premiere perfor­ When she was about eight, Bonds spired by her work with Dawson. mance of the Florence B. Price A studied under T. Theodore Taylor of Dawson left Chicago in 1933 to direct Cappella Chorus in April, organized the Coleridge-Taylor School of the Tuskegee Institute School of and directed by Grace W. Music, where her mother was on the Music. Thompkins, secretary of the Chicago faculty. While residing at the Bonds's, Music Association. On the occasion, Bonds was active as a performer Price worked steadily and in 1932 several soloists rendered selections, and an officer in the youth depart­ her hard luck changed. She won first the choir sang, and Maude Roberts ment of the Chicago Music Associa­ priz.e in the Rodman Wanamaker George installed the officers of the tion. On numerous occasions, she Music Composition Contest in two choir. Price "acknowledged in a very was asked to represent the branch at categories: first prize for her Sym­ beautiful way the honor which had the national conventions. In return, phony in E Minor, which carried the been bestowed upon her in the nam­ the organization gave Bonds scholar- welcome prize of $500, and honor- ing of their group" {George 1933a, 13

15). During July, Price performed her companied by William Duncan The time was busy for Bonds, too. own music (violin and piano, art Allen, and Louis Vaughn Jones, vio­ In addition to helping Price copy the songs, part-songs, and piano music) linist, accompanied by Camille parts of her symphony, Bonds was and lectured for the National Council Nickerson. The program won critical preparing the solo part of John Alden of Women and at the Illinois Host acclaim and, interestingly, was re­ Carpenter's Concertino for Piano and House at the Century of Progress Ex­ viewed in both the major Pittsburgh Orchestra for a performance with the hibition. These honors included Price newspapers (Llssfelt 1934, 27; Lewan­ Chicago Symphony Orchestra on the as one of the recognized composers do 1934, 27). same evening. And in May Bonds of Illinois. In August, Price was hon­ The concerto received widespread performed her senior class recital at ored, with concert singer Anita Patti attention later that year when it was Northwestern University. She played Brown and concert pianist Hazel performed on October 12, by the Chi­ a challenging program which in­ Harrison, at the International Con­ cago Women's Symphony, under the cluded music by Franck, Debussy, gress of Women at the Stevens Hotel direction of Ebba Sundstrum, at the Villa Lobos, and a two-piano ar­ (George 1933c, 15; 1933d, 15; 1933e, Ford Symphony Gardens, Century of rangement of Carpenter's Concertino. 15; 1933f, 15). Price also directed her Progress Exhibition. For this perfor­ June 15, 1933, was a day to remem­ Treble Clef Club (glee dub) on sev­ mance, Bonds played the solo part. ber for black Chicagoans. The Audi­ eral occasions. The review reads: torium Theater was filled to capacity in anticipation of the evening's pro­ A nationalist in my attitude to­ Price's symphony won critical ward the art, it is pleasant for me to gram to be performed by the Chicago record the brilliant success of Flor­ Symphony Orchestra under the di­ acclaim and marked the first ence Price's piano concerto as pre­ rection of Frederick Stock. Chicago symphony by a black woman sented by Margaret Bonds and the Fiskites were especially excited that composer to be played by a orchestra. . . . [l)t represents the most Roland Hayes was chosen as special major American orchestra. successful effort to date to lift the na­ guest soloist for the event. The pro­ Bonds became the first black so­ tive folk-song idiom of the Negro to artistic levels. gram included John Powell's Over­ loist to appear with the Chi­ ture In Old Virginia, Samuel Cole­ It is full of fine melodies deriving ridge-Taylor's Bamboula, John Alden cago Symphony. from this source directly or by imita­ Carpenter's Concertino for Piano and tion. The quasi-symphonic treatment of these ideas shows abundant re­ Orchestra with Bonds as soloist, When the NAACP convention met source, both harmonic and orches­ Price's Symphony in E Minor, and that summer, Bonds performed sev­ tral. Finally the piano part is ex­ four selections by Roland Hayes-­ eral selections for them and she per­ pertly set upon the keyboard and Berlioz's aria "Le Repos de la Sainte formed Price's Fantasie Negre for the was brilliantly played by Margaret Famille" from L' Enfance du Christ, overflow crowd at the International Bonds (Gunn 1934, 17). Coleridge-Taylor's aria "Onaway, Congress of Women meeting. Bonds Awake Beloved" from Hiawatha's was active also as an accompanist for Price and Bonds collaborated in Wedding Feast, and two spirituals, such noted singers as Etta Moten. various activities throughout the "Swing Low, Sweet Chariot," ar­ Only one year elapsed between the 1930s. Although each of them pur­ ranged and orchestrated by Harry successful performance of Price's sued their own careers, they contin­ Burleigh, and "Bye and Bye," ar­ symphony and the completion of her ued to appear on programs together ranged and orchestrated by Hayes. next major orchestral work, the Piano and to support each others' endeav­ Price's symphony won critical ac­ Concerto in One Movement. The con­ ors. Their success stands as a testi­ claim and marked the first symphony certo was first performed, with the mony to their enduring friendship. by a black woman composer to be composer at the piano, in Orchestra played by a major American orches­ Hall on June 24, 1934, at the com­ References tra. Bonds became the first black so­ mencement exercises of the Chicago loist to appear with the Chicago Musical College, where she took Symphony. post-graduate courses. Award$. 1926. Op,x,rtunity (May):157. Bonds, Margaret. 1967. A Re-miniscence. In /n­ Price steadily gained recognition as The concerto was performed again terru,tional library of Negro life and history: The a composer. In late June she was in a two-piano arrangement in Au­ Negro in music and art, compiled and edited asked to perform several of her own gust at the fifteenth national NANM by Lindsay Patterson under the auspices of compositions, including the Sonata in The Association for the Study of Negro We convention in Pittsburgh. For this and History, 191-193. New York: Publishers E Minor and Dances in the Canebrakes, program, Price played the solo part Co., Inc. on a program of original composi­ and Bonds played the orchestral re­ George, Maude Robert. 1932a. News of the tions organized by members of the duction. In addition to Price's con­ music world. Chicago ~fender October American Conservatory faculty 15:15. certo, the program included selec­ --. 1932b News of the music world. Chi­ (George 1933b, 15). tions by Lillian Evanti, soprano, ac- cago Deferuler December 17:15. 14

--. 1933a. News ,of the music world. Chi­ --. 1933f. News of the· music world. Chi­ Llssfelt, J. Fred. 1934. Review. Pittsburgh Sun cago Defender April 22:15. cago Defender August 12: 15. Telegraph August 31 :27. --. 1933b. News of the music world. Chi­ Green, Mildred Denby. 1983. Black women com­ R. Nathaniel Oett Cub. 1987. Whispers of love: cago Defender June 24:15. posers: A genesis. Boston: Twayne Publishers. A history of the R. Nathaniel Dell Club and Al· - -. 1933c. News -of the music world. . Chi­ Gunn, Glenn Dillard. 1934. Women composers lied Arts. Unpublished manuscript. cago Defender July 8:15. heard In concert at Wo.rld's Falr: Florence Spady, James G., ed. 1981. William L. Dawson: --. 1933d. News of the music world. Chi­ Price's concerto brilliant- Chicago Herald and A Umum tribute and a marvelous journey. cago Defender July JS:15. Examiner October 12:17. Philadelphia: Creative Artists' Workshop. - -. 1933e. News of the music world. Chi­ Lewando, Ralph. 1934. Negroes play last con­ White, Helen. 1988. Conversation with the au­ cago Defender July 29:15. cert. Pittsburgh Press August 31 :sect. 2, 27. thor, Chicago, Ill., September 13.

Chicago Imprints in the CBMR Database by Samuel A. Floyd, Jr., Center for Black Music Research, Columbia College Chicago

From the 1890s to the present day, coll Collection of Historical American lumbia College. Oett, R Nathaniel. 1913. /uba. Chicago: Oay· Chicago has been a leader among Sheet Music, housed in The New­ ton F. SWllmy Co. Holding library: New­ United States cities in the publishing berry Library. This collection consists berry Library. of works by black composers. Con­ of more than 200,000 titles and in­ - -. 1934. fuba, for SATB and piano. Chi­ sisting of jazz, blues, spirituals, gos­ cludes thousands of items by black cago: Cayton F. SWllmy Co. Holding li­ brary: ColWllbia College. composers (Floyd 1974). Good na­ pel songs, r<1gtime, and concert mu­ --. 1934. Juba, from In the bottoms, for sic, the works published in Chicago tional sources for original copies of piano. Chicago: Summy. Holding library: run the entire gamut of black music Chicago imprints are the United Northwestern University. and include compositions by some of States Library of Congress, Washing­ Dorsey, Thomas A. 1929. If you s« my savior. Chicago: Thomas A. Dorsey. Holding li­ the major figures in the history of ton, D.C.; the Moorland-Spingam Re­ brary: ColWllbia College. black music, including Jelly Roll search Center at Howard University, --. 1938. Take my hand, precious Lord. Chi­ Morton, Florence Price, Margaret Washington, D.C.; and the Schom­ cago: Thomas A. Do=y. Holding library: Bonds, N. Clark Smith, Sheldon burg Center for Research in Black ColUIJlbia College. --. 1941. How about you? Chkago: Thomas Brooks, Clarence Williams, R. Na­ Culture, New York, New York. A. Dorsey. Holding library: Columbia Col­ thaniel Dett, and William Dawson. lege. --. 1942. The Lord will make a way somehow. Included here is a list of Chicago The Imprints imprints held by repositories whose Chicago: Thomas A. Dorsey. Holding li­ brary: Columbia College. holdings are cataloged in the CBMR Anderson, Allred, and Th-ompson, De Koven. (1911]. When tomorrow comes. Chicago: De Hall, Frederick. 1926. Good night. Olicago: Database of the Center for Black Koven Music Co. Holding library: New­ Homer A. Rodeheaver. Holding library: Co­ Music Research. The depositories berry Library. lUIJlbia College. hold either originals or photocopies Blind Tom. (1866]. Battle of Manassas, for piano. - - . 1926. Mandy Leu. Chicago: Homer A. Robinson Rodeheaver. Holding library: Co­ of the titles. This listing, which in­ Chicago: Root and Cady. Holding library: Newberry Library. lWllbia College. cludes only items published in Chi­ --. 1866. Daylight, a musical expression, for --. 1927. Eo'ry time I feel the spirit. Chi­ cago between 1854 and 1942, is pre­ pi.ano. Chicago: 5. Brainard's Sons. Holding cago: Homer A. Rodeheaver. I-lollling Ii· sented in the hope that it will stimu­ library: Columbia College. brary: Columbia College. --. 1963. Deliverance. Chicago: The late interest and generate ideas for Brooks, Shelton. 1910. Some of thtse days. Chi­ cago: Will Rossiter. Holding library: Colum­ Rodeheaver Co. 1lolding library: Columbia research projects. The names of the bia College. College. composers of the music, the names of --. 1916. Walkin' the dog. Chicago: Will Jackson, Tony. 1917. Ice and snow (or don't leave the publishing houses, and the titles Rossiter. Holding library: Columbia Col­ me in the ice and snow). Chicago: Will Rossi­ ter. Holding library: Columbia College. of many of the works should prove lege. --. 191 7. The darktown strutters' ball. Chi­ /eficrson, Blind Lemon. 1924. The paramount provocative. cago: Will Rossiter. Holding library: Colum­ book: Blues. Chicago: Chicago Music Pub­ bia College. lishing Co. Holding library: Columbia Col­ Brymn, James T. 1901. Josephine, my /o. Chi­ lege. Consisting of jazz, blues, spiri­ cago: Shapiro, Bernstein, & Von Tilzer. /ohns, Albert. 1899. For love of you. O,icago: tuals, gospel songs, ragtime, Holding library: Columbia College. Howley, Haviland & Co. Holding library: and concert music, the works Dawson, William L. 1926. Go to sleep. O,icago: Columbia College. H. T. FitzSimons. Holding library: Colum­ Johnson, Rosamond. 1899. J want no other: Bal­ published in Chicago run the bia College. lad. Chicago: M. Witmark & Sons. Holding entire gamut of black music --. 1929. Out in the fields. Chicago: Gamble library: ColUIJlbia College. Hinged Music Co. Holding library: Colum­ Jordan, Joe. 1904. Pekin rag: Inltrmtz%0. Chi­ bia College. cago: Pekin Publishing Co. Holding library: A local source for the study of Chi­ --. 1930. The mongrel yank. Chicago: Gam­ ColWllbia College. cago imprints is the J. Francis Dris- ble Hinged Music Co. Holding library: Co- --. 1905. /././.rag. Chicago: The Pekin Pub. 15

Co. Holding library: Columbia College. --. 1926. Dtlld man blues. Chicago: Melrose Columbia College. --. 1906. Sweetit dear. Chicago: Pekin Pub­ Bros. Holding library: Columbia College. --. 1909. Rn/ling in lien's jubilee: Camp lishing Co. Holding library: Columbia Col­ --. 1927. Jelly Roll blues. Olicago: Melrose mttting song, from New plantation melodies. lege. Bros. Holding library: Columbia College. Chicago: N. C. Smith. Holding library: Co­ Lemonier, Tom. 1921. An odt to ThtodQre Roose­ Oliver, Joe. 1926. Snag it, Oii,;ago; Melrose lumbia College. oe/1. Chicago: Rickman & Lemonier. Hold­ Bros. Music Co. Holding library: Columbia --. 1913. Every time 1 fttl the spirit, from Fa­ ing library: Columbia College. College. vorite folk melodies. Chicago: N. C Smith. --. 1921. Milwauue porters and waiters --. 1926. Suga,foot stomp. Olicago: Melrose Holding library: Columbia College. march song. Chicago: Tom Lemonier & Tom Bros. Music Co. Holding library: Columbia --. (1913). Tht Tusugee song, from F

Black Musicians in the Claude Barnett Papers by Otha Day, Williamstown, Massachusetts

The papers of Oaude Barnett and newspapers were founded to help ion columns, features, poetry, book the Associated Negro Press (ANP) ease the process of adjustment to city and record reviews, cartoons and oc­ are not generally known to scholars life. These newspapers provided a casionally photographs" (Evans 1983, of black music history. However, for sense of belonging and pride that the 44), The ANP would then compile forty-five years the ANP served as a local white newspapers did not offer these articles and send them on a hub from which there are connec­ to black communities. The black weekly, and eventually more fre­ tions to many of the major and minor newspapers were usually regional quent, basis to the black newspapers figures in the black music and enter­ and operated on very small budgets. that subscribed to the service. In so tainment worlds. This brief article Many of them had access to no de­ doing, the ANP "helped to create a will introduce the Oaude Barnett Pa­ pendable and timely source for na­ national black culture and increased pers as a usefu1 collection for those tional and international news and black awareness of trends and events interested in studying a primary re­ events that were relevant to the black in the nation at large" (Evans 1983, source for the lives of black musi­ community. 45). Among the major !black newspa­ cians. In Chicago in 1919 Claude Barnett pers that used the ANP news services In the decades of the late nine­ (1889-1967) founded the Associated were the Chicago Defender, the Pitts­ teenth and early twentieth centuries, Negro Press. Operating until 1964, it burgh Courier, the Norfolk Journal and blacks increasingly chose to leave the was the oldest and largest of the Guide, the New York Age, the New socially, economically, and politically black press services, with correspon­ York Amsterdam News, the Afro-Ameri­ repressive rural South for the cities of dents worldwide. These correspon­ can of Baltimore and other cities, the both the North and South. In the dents submitted "news stories on af­ Philadelphia Tribune, the Houston In­ urban environments many black fairs concerning black citizens, opin- fonner, and the Black Dispatch of Okla- 16 homa City (Evans 1983, 46). times photos, are concerned primar­ singer and actress Etta Moten and Barnett used his position as direc­ ily with business matters. Often, the began to manage her career. The tor of the ANP to encourage and letters that are the most interesting many folders of correspondence re­ support the careers of many musi­ arc those that were used as the basis la ting to her career arc an important cians. He corresponded regularly for ANP press releases. A close and part of the Barnett Papers. But even with a wide variety of people in­ detailed reading of these letters can before his marriage to Moten, he volved in the music and entertain­ reveal new facts about the lives of began a close correspondence with ment industry. Fortunately, a signifi­ their authors. However, their pri­ several concert and opera singers, in­ cant portion of these letters have mary value lies in providing a sense cluding Caterina Jarboro and Marian been saved and are now housed at of the lives and cultural contexts into Anderson. While in Poland for a pe­ the Chicago Historical Society. The which these musicians fit. Addition­ riod of time, Jarboro wrote on Janu­ Claude A. Barnett Papers consist of ally, the musicians' own descriptions ary 19, 1936, describing a busy sched­ 320 boxes of correspondence, news of well-known events can provide in­ ule of opera tours and singing Aida clippings, and other papers, dating teresting insights. in Polish, Italian, and Latvian. She from 1918 thorough 1967, and 107 Some of the letters offer biting so­ also says, "for many reasons being boxes of Associated Negro Press cial comments. In September 1938 over here is much better than being news releases from 1928 to 1964 Will Marion Cook writes, in America for I have learned to (Evans 1983, 56). Am working overtime and hope make myself happy over here, life is some of what I'm doing will help us very,, nice and gay in my work but to become men and not the substi­ Claude Barnett corresponded In 1935 Toscanini heard Marian reg11larly with a wide variety tutes we've been since death of Douglass and advent of the super Anderson sing in Salzburg, Austria. of people involved ill the music whisperer super double crosser In a letter to Barnett, she describes and entertainment industry. super (handkerchief-head). the experience of meeting the famous Fortunately, a significant por­ Booker Washington- whom even conductor: tion of these letters l1ave been my great son ''Mercer'' (but not my saved. grand son Mercer !Il) thinks was a Of the summer concerts, Salzburg leader. I call him a Miss-Leader. was of course, the high point and Toscanini's attendance or rather In the collection there are a num­ Barnett often used his connections presence gave it an extra impor­ ber of letters to Barnett from Marian to focus public attention on the rac­ tance, nccdless to say it was thrilling Anderson, Will Marion Cook, R. Na­ ism faced by black musicians. On to talk with him and though every­ thaniel Dctt, Carl Diton, Nora Holt, New Year's Day 1935 the team of one wanted to know what he said to me, I was so out of myself that I Caterina Jarboro, Clarence Muse, Norton and Margot wrote asking for can't remember. Toscanini was mar­ Andy Razaf, and Charles "Luckey" advice and publicity about an en­ velous. Roberts. Barnett corresponded less counter they had with the notorious frequently with numerous other fig­ Ed Fox, owner of Chicago's Grand In the mid-1940s Carl Diton joined ures, including Josephine Baker, Mar­ Terrace Cafe. After weeks of abuse, the executive staff of the ANP as a garet Bonds, Cab and Blanche Cal­ they approached Fox requesting their music correspondent and contributed loway, Nat King Cole, Rudolph Dun­ back pay, whereupon "Mr. Fox as-. many articles about black concert life bar, Duke Ellington, H. L. Freeman, saulted Norton, his 'flunkies' there in in New York Gty. 0. Anderson Fuller, W. C. Handy, the club closed in on him with guns Will Marion Cook, in his letters of Roland Hayes, Alberta Hunter, Eva and knives, so that the only sensible the late 1930s and early 1940s re­ Jessye, J. Louis Johnson, Harold Nor­ thing for him to do was to get out of vealed a still vibrant and musically ton, Florence Price, Ernest L. Rucker, the place as best he could." Blanche active personality, who felt forgotten Noble Sissie, and William Grant Still. Calloway, in a letter dated June 10, by the music world. "Luckey" Rob­ In the collection the letters from 1937, describes a situation in which erts and Andy Razaf also wrote let­ some of the musicians are gathered "a girl friend, my husband and my­ ters describing a sense of isolation into separate files. However, to en­ self [were] humiliated, embarrassed, after serious illnesses and deaths in sure that all of the letters of any one molested and fined"-and jailed be­ their lives. However, as each of these person are located, a thorough search cause they used the bathroom at the musicians describe their individual of the folders labeled "General and Shell gas station while passing efforts to remain creatively involved Miscellaneous Correspondence" through Yazoo City, Mississippi. In in music and to write and publish would be necessary. both of the above instances, Barnett their autobiographies, there is the Many of these letters, which often helped the musicians obtain legal sense that they realize their impor­ include "enclosed materials" such as counsel. tance and place in music history. press releases, tour dates, and some- In 1934 Barnett married concert William Grant Still describes the 17

reasons for his resignatfon from 20th She goes on to say, 1942 to address the issue of "exploi­ Century Fox as the supervisor of tation of Race entertainers (tops in music for the 1943 film Stonny Muriel Rahn is facing her big chance the field in many instances) by white Weather. He writes, on Broadway in "The Barrier'' . . . co-starred with Lawrence Tibbett, no booking offices of the country." The Crescent City Booking Agents of I did not approve of Newman's [the less .... he is no doubt on the way music director's) ideas that in order out, but still rates enough to draw. New Orleans described another prob­ to be authentic, Negro music had to .. . I am glad for her. I saw the trial lem. They wrote in June 1949 asking be crude and Negro dancing had to performances at Columbia Univer­ Barnett to publicize the trend of black be sexy... . Those are the sort of sity. . . . she was truly sensational performers such as "Cab, Dizzie, misconceptions that help to breed and those who say she cannot sing King Cole, Lionel Hampton, Jordan, misconceptions in other people's are wrong. Her trouble is that she Hadda Brooks, Sister Rosetta Tharpe, minds and indirectly influence the seems to be showing off all the time and many others," who performed in lives of our 13 million people. ... Jacking in sincerity. Goodness New Orleans for white promoters knows she has gone thru enough to but ignored the black agencies. He resigned after six weeks of a ten­ have depth, and I think she has . ... week contract, without being paid. she has been so near death that I In the Claude Barnett Papers may One gem is a letter dated August think her attitude could result from be found treasures that broaden our 20, 1950, from Eva Jessye to Etta being so darned glad to be alive ... understanding of the lives of many Moten Barnett, revealing the close and rejoicing rather than being pro­ musicians. While few of the letters re­ friendship the two women had for found. . . . 0, one never can tell what is in the soul of another, so veal a strong gift for writing, they all many years. Jes.sye had a wonderful why try. highlight the dogged determination eye for detail and a strong, descrip­ of the musicians to make a life for tive voice. She writes: Barnett received letters from fledg­ themselves in music. ling concert booking agencies and re­ Saw Pearl Bailey this week for the cording companies seeking advice first time.... nothing to have a fit over.. . . clever in style of insinua­ about establishing themselves in the Reference tion, and a good, husky coon style music world. Many of them entered voice .... mighty good stage appear­ the business for reasons similar to those of the Indianapolis-based Fer­ Evans, Linda J. 1983. Qaude A. Barnett and ance. But I don't like the Uncle Tom the Associated Negro Press. ChicAgo f-Jistory: manner. . . . might call it a flat­ guson Brothers Agency, whose The Magazine of the Chicago Historical Society footed shuffling voice. founders expressed their desire in 12, no. 1:44--56.

Jubilee Singing Groups in Illinois: A Research Note

Robin Hough, Central Michigan University, Mount Pleasant, Michigan

The Ill inois Writers Project (IWP), The two earliest citations recorded After the concert on June 17, Rev. sponsored by the W.P.A. in the late by the IWP researchers (February 17 Robert Collyer of Evanston Method­ 1930s and early 1940s, produced a and May 23, 1874) concern concerts ist Church proposed, on behalf of lengthy document entitled "The by ''The Tennesseans" reported in "the citizens of Chicago," a resolu­ Negro i:l Illinois," in which the pri­ The Chicago Evening fournal. The re­ tion of support for the fund-raising mary concern is the documentation port from May 23 concludes with the efforts of the Hampton singers, of contemporary matters such as the ambiguous comment, "some like which concluded, "resolved, that, in economic conditions and the types of their songs, and others don't, it being our opinion, those who hear the churches in Chicago during the late purely a matter of sound judgment in Hampton Singers get the worth of 1930s. Within this document, how­ either case." their money anyhow." ever, are to be found nineteen refer­ The same newspaper carried the The IWP writers noted five refer­ ences to the appearances of African­ advertisement for the June 16-18, ences in The Inter Ocean during American jubilee singing groups in 1874, concerts of "The Hampton Col­ March 1875 to a group identified as Illinois from 1874 to 1891. The ored Students" at McCormick Hall in "The Hallalujah Band," said to be sources consulted by the IWP re­ Chicago. ln a glowing review of the comprised of singers who were "for­ searchers, for this part of their proj­ first night's concert, the reporter con­ merly slaves in the South." They per­ ect, were The Chicago Evening Journal, cludes, "the singers are superior to formed at the Oakland M. E. Church, The Inter Ocean, The Peoria Transcript, the Tennesseans, and their songs are at the Halstead St. M. E. Church, at and The Kewanee Courier. of the same characteristic nature." Farwell Hall for the Women's Tern- 18 pcrancc prayer meeting, and at an of F. J. Loudin. The IWP researcher Union made its first public appear­ undisclosed location for the Sunday recorded the dates (May 5, 1880, and ance last evening at the Chicago Ave­ School Teachers' meeting. February 25, 1882) but neglected to nue church. The organization began There are several concert an­ give the sources of the information. work last March under C. M. Leslie, nouncements from The Inter Ocean The second of these references is a and is the only chorus of colored (March 25, April 3, and August 16, rather lengthy report of a perfor­ people in the West, being 175 in 1875) that identify the performers in mance before an audience that in­ number." The review of the perfor­ rather general terms, as "the Knox­ cluded President Chester A. Arthur mance of this especially large chorus ville, Tennessee colored Jubilee Sing­ and a certaiJ, Dr. Rankin, who intro­ concludes with the following: ers," or "the colored Tennessee Jubi­ duced the singers to the President. The singers displayed voices of both lee Singers." As there were several The review concludes, talent and culture. The programme touring groups at the time that might was long but varied, and the audi­ have been designated in such a man­ Their singing is strangely moving, ence listened with interest until the ner, these citations arc obscure. The with its plaintive spirit and some­ last. ''The Soldiers Chorus" opened August 16 announcement refers sim­ times wierd [sic] strains. All present the concert after "Who Built the ply to "a grand jubilee concert and were affected by it. The President Ark?" ... There was a vocal selec­ tableaux" with no citation for the soon became deeply moved and en­ tion by Miss (Millie) Marshall and group, despite tthe provocative com­ deavored to brush away the tears six numbers by the union. with his hands, but, soon taking ment, "the program is an excellent from his breast pocket his handker­ one, and the singers and actors de­ chief, he burst into uncontrollable The final entry in the IWP papers serve success." tears, weeping like a child. The last comes from the April 15, 1891, issue note died away and the President, of The Kewanee Courier, announcing drying his eyes, advanced and the upcoming concert of the "the Jin­ The TWP papers on "Tl1e Negro warmly shook each by the hand, gters, colored jubilee singers." Ac­ and turning to Dr. Rankin said: i11 Illi11ois" clearly include valu­ cording to the announcement, "this "Doctor, I have never in my lifu company includes the original male able references to tlie presence been so deeply moved." quartet who made a national reputa­ of quite a variety of jubilee tion during the campaign of '88." groups operating in Illinois be­ The report of the meeting between This may refer to the Presidential tween 1874 and 1891. Loudin's troupe and President Ar­ campaign of that year. The advertise­ thur ends with Arthur's invitation ment concluded with the boast that for the troupe to "call and see him The Jinglers "have established the The Peoria Transcript of February whenever they visit Washington." reputation of being the finest combi­ 13, 1879, carried a review of the con­ The Inter Ocean of April 23, 1886, nation of colored singers ever before cert by "The Temperance Colored Ju­ carries a review of a concert at the the public." bilee Singers," which concluded, Central Music Hall in Chicago by The !WP papers on 'The Negro in "There was quite a variation from 'The Jubilee Singers from Fisk Uni­ Illinois'' clearly include valuable ref­ the program given by them at the versity" led by three members of the erences to the presence of quite a va­ same place last Sunday evening. original troupe, Mrs. Maggie Porter­ riety of jubilee groups operating in Il­ There was a strong spice of pure fun Cole, Miss Georgia Gordon, and Miss linois between 1874 and 1891. It is and jollity, and some excellent char­ Jennie Jackson. After a brief history likely that some of the entries arc ex­ acter singing that was highly appre­ of the Fisk Jubilee Singers, there is a cerpts from longer newspaper ac­ ciated." detailed discussion of the program, counts, and for that reason research­ A review in The Inter Ocean from naming thirteen of the sixteen selec­ ers might wish to follow to their April 4, 1879, concentrates, in a sim­ tions. After the religious selections, sources the leads provided by the ilar vein, upon the comic abilities of three secular numbers are cited: "Old IWP writers, where that is possible. a group identified as 'The Louis Folks at Home," "The Cows Are in Nevertheless, the IWP writers per­ Cowen Concert Combination, a the Com," and "The Last Rose of formed a real service in examining troupe of colored singers," who per­ Summer." The review concludes, the available nineteenth-century formed at QuiMs' Chapel in Chi­ "their enunciation is wonderfully newspapers from ntinois for docu­ cago. After listing all of the person­ marked and telling, and the purity mentation of the early African-Amer­ nel, the review concludes, "Mr. and power of their pianissimo effects ican jubilee groups. The complete Boshen is a good buffo singer and a might be emulated by more preten­ IWP papers, on five rolls of micro­ man with a keen sense of the humor­ tious singers." film, are located in the Vivian Harsh ous." A surprising entry from the Octo­ Afro-American Collection of the Car­ There are two references to 'The ber 14, 1887, issue of The Inter Ocean ter G. Woodson Regional Library in Jubilee Singers" under the direction reports that "The Freedman Choral Chicago. 19

1991 National Conference on Black Music Research Abstracts of Papers

The Center's 1991 National Confer­ in the concert hall? what was the re­ lation and opportunities to many ence on Black Music Research, to be lationship of this programming to the musicians. Such individual contribu­ held in Chicago during October 10- nationalistic movement of the early tions towards cultural J:ife as William 13, will focus on black music in Chi­ twentieth century? and to what ex­ Hackney's "All Colored Composers cago. Following are abstracts of the tent did inclusion in Chicago Sym­ Concerts" at Orchestra Hall brought papers to be presented at the meet­ phony Orchestra programs further Helen Eugenia Hagan to Chicago in ing. The entire schedule of events the promotion of black music in Chi­ 1915 to perform her Piano Concerto. will be announced in a brochure for cago? Estella Bonds's Sunday afternoon sa­ the joint mccti ngs of the Center, the To date, these issues have not been lons in the 1920s and 1930s gave College Music Society, the Society for adequately addressed. Recent studies young black students the chance to Ethnomusicology, the Chinese Music have only just begun to document meet and hear artists, writers, and Society of North America, the Inter­ the phenomenon of the early world's musicians of the Black Renaissance. national Association for the Study of fairs as cultural displays. Several arti­ It is no accident that the earliest Popular Music, and the Association cles have addressed in particular black women composers to gain for Technology in Music Instruction. black protests of inadequate repre­ widespread recognition-Florence sentation at Chicago's Century of Price (1888-1953) and Margaret FaiI Representation: Peiformances Progress Exhibition, but none have Bonds (1913-1972)-emerged from of Black Music by the Chicago taken a musical point of view. There this milieu. Price was one of the pio­ Symphony Orchestra, 1900-1933 has 3Jso been a proliferation of publi­ neer black symphonists. Her Sym­ Brenda Nelson-Strauss, Chicago cations in the last decade concerning phony in E Minor was performed at Symphony Orchestra Archivist the black role in classical music, some the Chicago World's Fair in 1933 by On June 15, 1933, a unique concert focusing on the performance history the Chicago Symphony Orchestra was presented w,der the auspices of at particular concert halls but none under Frederick Stock and was the the Friends of Music as part of the specifically documenting Chicago first work by a black woman com­ Century of Progress Exposition- an concert halls or orchestras. poser to be performed by a major all-black program performed by Through interviews and a thor­ American orchestra. Bonds received members of the Chicago Symphony ough study of local archival re­ her B.M. and M.M. degrees from sources, an attempt will be made to Orchestra under the direction of Northwestern University. She built a Frederick Stock. Featured soloists in­ deepen our understanding of the role career as a concert pianist, teacher, of blacks in the classical music scene cluded Roland Hayes and Margaret and composer in New York and later Bonds, and the concert concluded of that era and the role of black in Los Angeles. She collaborated with with Samuel Coleridge-Taylor's 8am­ music in a major Chicago cultural in­ Langston Hughes in stage works boula: Rhapsodic Dance for Orchestra. stitution-the Chicago Symphony (Romey and Julie, Shakespeare in Har­ Orchestra. This paper will address the extent lem) and set many of his poems as art to which black music was repre­ songs. Her Credo for baritone, chorus, sented in Chicago Symphony Orches­ Black Women Composers in and orchestra was performed by the tra concerts during the Stock era with Chicago: Then and Now Los Angeles Symphony Orchestra particular emphasis on the events Helen Walker-Hi!ll, University of under Zubin Mehta shortly after her that led to the apparent culmination Colorado death in 1972. of such programming at the world's The careers of several black wom­ Others were also products of this fair. Questions to be addressed in­ en composers were furthered by a environment. Betty Jackson King (b. clude the following: to what extent number of environmental conditions 1928) has amassed an oeuvre that in­ was black participation either inhib­ unique to Chicago. The city devel­ cludes piano, organ, and other instru­ ited or facilitated? what role did oped a particularly strong and inde­ mental works in addition to numer­ Chicago's black community play in pendent black community between ous choral and religious works. Mar­ seeking musical representation? how 1890 and 1920. Numerous music garet Harris (b. 1943) has become na­ did prevailing social definitions of clubs and religious institutions, such tionally well known as a conductor, race and culture influence the perfor­ as the Berean Baptist Church with its music director, and composer. Irene mance and packaging of black music choirs and orchestra, provided stimu- Britton Smith, a retired school 20 teacher, pursued a life-long avocation to appear in the Woman's Page of black artists like Roland Hayes and in composition; her works include a the Defender's Society section under Marian Anderson while they were Sinfonietta for orchestra, a number of the name of Lena James Holt. Her still studying and developing their chamber works, choral anthems, art first feature article, "Cultivating Sym­ vocal craft. (From 1943 to 1952, as songs, and piano works. phony Concerts," appeared in the music critic for the New York Amster­ Other composers, such as Lena Defender on November 10, 1917. Her dam N!!Ws, Holt would review many McLin, brought enrichment to the articles were written against the of these same artists again.) Other city from elsewhere. McLin (b. 1929), backdrop of World War I, which had important concerns well'e black com­ a native of Atlanta, spent many already impacted the social, eco­ posers, pianists, conductors, accom­ childhood years in the Chicago home nomic, and political viewpoints car­ panists, and opera singers. of her uncle, Thomas A. Dorsey. She ried in The Chicago Defender, particu­ The role of the music critic in the returned to Chicago in 1951 after larly noted in the by-lines of its style, black community may have been her graduation from Spelman College. policy, format, and printing. All most challenging responsibility. Un­ She had her own opera company for across the nation black newspapers like the appraisals of white music many years, and her public-school were becoming a forum for the ad­ critics during the same era, Holt teaching career has produced award­ vancement of the "Negro Race," fos­ found the responsibility of informing winning choirs and voice students. tering the fight for freedom, abolish­ her readers about the technical as­ Many of her choral works have been ing discrimination, and demanding pects of the art of music to be one of published, induding her cantata Free integration in all phases of life. the most needed in the black commu­ at Last: A Portrait of Martin Luther For this paper, the content, view­ nity. The fine line between teaching King, Jr. points, and styles of selected feature and educating a sensitive black com­ New talent continues to grow here, articles in The Chicago Defender from munity about "cultural advance­ as demonstrated by the work of Re­ 1917 to 1923, the period of Holt's ten­ ment" required caution, patience, gina Harris Baiiocchi, whose composi­ ure as music critic, were examined to and a tremendous musical knowl­ tions include a number of choral, determine what subjects and opin­ edge, with all of which Holt was well chamber, and piano works. This ions she felt were of greatest impor­ endowed. paper will survey the contributions tance to her reading and listening of these composers and will illustrate public, revealing a focus upon the The M usic of George W. Thomas with examples of their works. following: (1) her responsibility to Michael Montgomery, Southfield, music as an art form, (2) the inspira­ Michigan Music Criticism of Nora Douglas tion and promotion of young artists, The influence of George W. Holt in The Chicago Defender, (3) her leadership in creating an Thomas, Jr. (1883-1937) on early Saturday Edition, 1917-1923 awareness of a history of Afro-Amer­ American blues and jazz music, via Rawn Wardell Spearman, University ican and European music to the pub­ recordings and compositions, is con­ of Lowell lic and society as a whole, and (4) the siderable but not generally recog­ Words about music are a very poor advancement of music criticism. nized. Through his efforts, beginning substitute for the creative art of Holt served the black community, in 1923, his younger sister Sippie music per se. Nevertheless, if we ac­ its listening audience, and perform­ Wallace (1898-1986) was among the cept the argument that music is a ing artists by "teaching" them about earliest blues singers to record. Her tonal representation of intrinsic the important aspects of music. For 0keh records are classic jazz perfor­ human experiences and values, then the young artist, she was a staunch mances partly because well-known its elements and qualities must de­ advocate of "Good Musicianship." musicians like King Oliver, Louis pend upon words for its meaning She directed her criticism particularly Armstrong, Johnny Dodds, Sidney and existence. Historically, this func­ to vocalists, advising that harmony Bechet, Clarence Williams, and tion and responsibility has become be a "requirement for vocalists-mu­ Buddy Christian recorded with her. that of music critics, a small but se­ sicianship demands that musicians Through George's encouragement lect group of misunderstood arbiters be thoroughly familiar with music and guidance, his younger brother of musical tastes who work hard to rhetoria-vocalists should be thor­ Hersal Thomas (1906-1926) became "establish a line of communication oughly acquainted with the compos­ an amazingly rich, full-keyboard between the creative arts and the ers of the songs they sing, knowing blues pianist as a teen-ager. Hersal public." This study focuses upon just the school to which they belong and also made Okeh recordings with Oli­ such a person-Nora Douglas Holt their particular style." ver, Armstrong, Dodds, and his sister (1885-1974), one of the most highly Holt was quick to announce the Sippie. Even George Thomas's esteemed pioneers of music criticism opening of major operas, sympho­ daughter Hociel Thomas (1904-1952) of recent years. nies, and recitals, and she followed made Okeh records with Armstrong, Holt's weekly music reviews began the career growth of many young Dodds, and Johnny St. Cyr as well as 21

with her uncle Hersal. Today, all industry during the 1920s in general three of George Thomas's proteges--­ tories as a main source of jazz devel­ and into the independent musical ef­ Sippie, Hersal, and Hociel-are better opment, little research has treated the forts of George Thomas in particular. known to jazz researchers and schol­ relationship of Chica.go to its sur­ The aim of this paper is to document ars than Thomas himself. So, despite rounding territory. In his two jazz George W. Thomas's musical legacy histories, Early (1968) and being an active pianist, performer, using these archival materials. Jazz The composer, publisher, and the musical Swing Era (1986), Gunther Schuller godfather of the Thomas family, isolates Chicago from the surround­ Chicago-Style Jazz: Does It Exist? George W. Thomas remains a shad­ ing territory. In contrast, interviews Richard Wang, University of Illinois owy figure. conducted by Samuel A. Floyd, Jr., at Chicago Between 1915 and 1933, Thomas with musicians such as Hayes Pillars was involved in the composition or Between the arrivals in Chicago of suggest that Chicago was very much co-composition, the copyrighting, King Oliver (1918), Jelly Roll Morton a part of the Mississippi Valley terri­ and in a few cases, the publishing of (1922), and Louis Armstrong (1922) tory. This conflict suggests the need more than 110 songs and instrumen­ and their departures for New York for research that will describe with tal numbers. Some of these num­ (Oliver in 1927, Morton in 1928, and greater accuracy the role that the bers-including "New Orleans Hop Armstrong in 1929), Chicago was a Mississippi Valley musicians, espe­ Scop Blues" (1916), "The Houston mecca for the world of jazz. Chicago­ cially those who played on the river­ Blues" (1918), "Sweet Baby Doll" style jazz has been treated by most boats, played in the development of (1919), "Muscle Shoals Blues" (1921), historians as merely a subspecies of black music in Chicago. "The Fives" (1921), "The Rocks" New Orleans jazz and has been asso­ This paper will explore social and (1922), "Shorty George Blues" (1923), ciated with the young white musi­ musical relationships between black "Up the Country Blues" (1923), and cians who /locked to the South Side musicians and bands playing on riv­ "Adam and Eve Had the Blues" in the 1920s to listen to, and learn erboats in the Mississippi Valley and (1925)-are classics and are well from, the black New Orleans jazz. their counterparts in the city of Chi­ known to serious traditional jazz mu­ men. However, the impact of Chi­ cago. The most well-known riverboat sicians, blues singers, and solo pia­ cago and its theaters, cabarets, ball­ musicians to play in Chicago were nists today. But history so far has rooms, radio stations, recording and Louis Armstrong, the Dodds broth­ kept Thomas himself out of focus. publishing industry on the emigrant ers, and Johnny St. Cyr, all sidemen The only known formal portrait of jazzmen themselves was profound. in Joe "King'' Oliver's Creole Band. Thomas appears in a 1940 blues folio Their response to the changed condi­ The early Creole Band recordings published by Oarence Williams in tions of their cultural environment will be analyzed for musical influ­ which the "Hop Scop Blues" is re­ led to changes in repertory, tempo, ences of the riverboat experience. printed. Descendents of the Thomas instrumentation, and most impor­ The paper will look at other river­ family do not currently hold an origi­ tantly, style. Chicago became the in­ boat musicians who moved to and nal photograph of this image. No cubator of the new virtuoso solo style worked in Chicago following their other copies are known to exist. and the place where the foundation riverboat tenures. For example, one At Thomas's death in March 1937, for the swing style of the 1930s was former St. Louis riverboat musician, Sippie Wa llace went to Chicago to re­ laid. Although, for comparison pur­ Charles Creath, is known to have trieve his business papers and the poses, there are no recordings of moved to Chicago and opened a remnants of the George W. Thomas New Orleans jazz made in New Or­ nightclub, but to date his activities Music Company. These remnants leans before 1927 and no Chicago re­ have never been traced. consist of a few posed publicity pho­ cordings by the black emjgrants be­ The final topic to be treated will be tographs, numerous copyright docu­ fore 1923, the recordings that do a discussion of the relationship be­ ments, a few music manuscripts, car­ exist, the autobiographies, and the tween territory/riverboat bands and bon copies of business correspon­ oral histories testify to the changes Chicago. Some of those bands in­ dence between Thomas and record that took place after jazz moved clude the Jeter-Pillars Orchestra and company officials, royalty agree­ north. Eddie Johnson's "Crackerjacks." ments and contracts, a few piano rolls of Thomas's compositions, in­ Riverboat Musicians and Chicago Earl Hines's Piano Style in the ventories of musical merchandise David Chevan, Brooklyn, New York 1920s: A Historical and Analytical once kept in stock to fill mail orders, A large number of the musicians Perspective. three 78 rpm test pressings, and mis­ who worked on the Mississippi river­ Jeffrey Taylor, University of cellaneous ephemera. These fascinat­ boats continued their ca reers in the Michigan ing materials often raise more ques­ major urban centers of the United tions than they answer, but they do Few jazz musicians have been as States. While Chicago is often ad­ shed insights into the popular music closely tied to Chicago as has Earl dressed in various published jazz his- Hines. The pianist was only twenty- 22 one when he first moved to the city, look first at the ragtime and stride pitched colorations of found objects and unlike many of his peers who players he heard in Pittsburgh and (commonly identified by members as left in the 1930s to explore the boom­ New York. This paper will also ex­ "little instruments"). ing musical life of New York, Hines amine the work of other pianists ac­ Early critical interpretations of lin­ remained in Chicago, building a ca­ tive in the Chicago area during the ear, marginally tonal "free" improvi­ reer there which spanned several de­ 1920s, such as Jelly Roll Morton, sations typically advanced the view cades. Teddy Weatherford, and a host of that free jazz expressed, in musical Hines was the first jazz pianist to lesser-known figures. In the cases form, the most radical objectives-or achieve international fame. As a where recordings by these musicians perhaps more accurately, media por­ piano soloist, his influence on suc­ are scant or non-existent, a partial trayals of the same objectives-of the ceeding generations of jazz musicians picture of their work will be pieced black power movement. As a result, has been immeasurable. Great talents together from piano rolls, contempo­ the AACM's performances acquired such as Teddy Wilson, Art Tatum, rary reports, and oral histories by similar associations, while its most and Errol Gamer, to name just a few, Chicago musicians. Finally, the cru­ accessible expressions (notably, those have repeatedly spoken of his contri­ cial influence on Hines of non-pia­ of the Art Ensemble of Chicago and, bution to their own work. With his nists-particularly Louis Armstrong for a time, Anthony Braxton) were highly linear style, stunning rhyth­ and cometist Joe Smith- will be ex­ made to fit conventional views of mic independence of hands, and amined. jazz music's consistent and uninter­ masterful use of articulation and Hines never ceased growing as a rupted stylistic evolution. Analysis of phrasing, Hines revolutionized jazz musician. He kept abreast of most of the members' commentary from the piano, and his contribution is still felt the musical developments that oc­ 1960s suggests, however, that the today. Although the literature on curred during his lifetime, incorpo­ AACM's agenda expressed a unified Hines is fairly extensive, there is still rating into his later style many ele­ conception of artistic and political a need for a comprehensive study ments of swing and bebop. Yet it was vanguardism, rejecting mainstream that examines specifics of harmonic his early work that had the most pro­ critical values while advancing legiti­ and melodic content, rhythm, dy­ found effect on other pianists. Exam­ mately "artistic" concerns. lts em­ namics, tempo, and articulation in ining Hines's style in the 1920s pro­ brace of the language of modernism order to discover what has made that vides a crucial step toward the un­ serviced a cultural nationalist agen­ contribution unique. derstanding of jazz in Chicago and da: linear-oriented and rhythmically Working from a basis of extensive the history of music in general. enlivened improvisatio11 represented transcriptions and knowledge of re­ "spiritual" elements that stood in op­ cordings, I will provide a detailed The AACM Aesthetic: An position to the harmonic shackles of discussion of Hines's early style. I lntezpretation a normative and institutionalized will combine techniques of musical Ronald M. Radano, University of jazz mainstream. Furthermore, the analysis with my own experiences as Wisconsin-Madison particular advances of textural exper­ a jazz pianist in examining both his This paper will offer an interpreta­ iment and rhythmic innovation first recordings with Jimmie Noone and tion of the aesthetic ideals of the As­ introduced in concert music in the Louis Armstrong in 1927 and 1928 sociation for the Advancement of early twentieth century reinforced and his first solo sessions in Decem­ Creative Musicians, the principal mu­ the AACM's commitment to tradi­ ber of the latter year. I will address in sical force in Chicago's black arts tional Afro-American musical expres­ particular the idea of "trumpet-style" movement of the 19(i()s. Early record­ sion, which, I will argue, is informed piano; for although this adjective has ings and published commentary by on a deep structural level by the frequently been applied to the work leading mcmbers.-Muhal Richard same essential elements. of Hines, its meaning and applicabil­ Abrams, Roscoe Mitchell, Joseph Jar­ Thus, the AACM's brand of mod­ ity have never been examined in de­ man, and Anthony Braxton-show ernism represented a kind of sonic tail. that the organization had embraced a syncrctism, a fusion of elements The study will explore several in­ coherent aesthetic doctrine by the stemming from modernist concert fluences on Hines's mature style. time it had emerged publicly in 1966. music and traditional black music, el­ Like that of most great artists, his The musical manifestations of this ements that had been previously re­ playing represents a synthesis of an doctrine are obvious and well vitalized in early free jazz. What innovative approach with much that known: an exaltation of linear cle­ might be called the "spiritualist ide­ had come before; as Gunther Schuller ments (melody and rhythm) over ology" of the AACM stood as a met­ has written, he was evolutionary as vertical (harmonic) structure and the aphor for liberation-it became an well as revolutionary. In order to un­ application of unconventional sounds artistic bulwark, a defense against derstand fully the development of and sound souroes, from extreme­ the values and aesthetics of main­ Hines's technique, it is necessary to register pitch distortions to non- stream jazz. Significantly, this fusion 23 took place at the brink of the Some black Southerners believed competence into jazz and gospel idi­ postmodern, when the hierarchy of that migration would mean the end oms. An inevitable result was the high and low culture was being seri­ of the blues, at least the end of its re­ rapid emergence of new styles and a ously questioned. As such, the flection on the problem of evil and tendency to hybridization of different AACM's vanguardist doctrine carries suffering. But black migrants would idioms. broad implications not only about the find that such northern cities as Chi­ With the advent of swing, bebop aesthetics of the era but also about cago would offer them neither eco­ jazz, and rhythm and blues, the tradi­ the way we interpret subsequent jazz nomic equality nor social justice. In tions of folk and city blues dimin­ practices and expressions. addition to poor working conditions, ished in prominence but in no way long hours, low wages, and exclusion disappeared. Blues in the recorded From Mississippi to Chicago: The from the labor unions, blacks also tradition of the 1920s and 1930s per­ Transition of the Blues faced hostility from whites who be­ sisted in the hands of old and young Jon Michael Spencer, Bowling Green came increasingly apprehensive and musicians of both races through the State University angry as the number of black mi­ 1970s and even down to the present. After slavery, a different master­ grants increased. What Chicago blues The nature and dynamics of this "re­ slave dialectic emerged in the context singers had to say about these condi­ vival" or latter-day tradition is the of the abject economic exploitation of tions in their post-migratory home in primary concern of this study. It is the postbellum plantation. Some the North will be the central topic of suggested that the post-war revival could in fact claim that the South had this paper. blues tradition consisted of many won the war. Together, Jim Crow small overlapping traditions center­ and Social Darwinism found reason Mama Yancey and .Aspe<:ts of the ing around individual songs and/or and means to give blacks unequal Revival Blues Tradition the emulation of the styile of vener­ (indeed inferior) education, deny Jane Bowers, University of ated examples. them the vote, and relegate them to Wisconsin-Milwaukee, and William Estelle "Mama" Yancey (1896- traveling in the railroad's "nigger Westcott, York University 1986), the wife of famed blues pianist cars" and the steamboats' "Jim Crow Jimmy Yancey (1900-1951), provided stalls," to sitting in the cinemas' In Big Road Blues, David Evans has a nucleus a.round which a later urban "buzzard roosts," and to living in the conceptualized the folk blues tradi­ blues tradition developed. In the "darktown slums" which lacked tion as consisting of concentric circles years following the death. of her hus­ basic public services. Furthermore, expanding outward from an individ­ band, Mama Yancey's vocal style governing the black areas was a dif­ ual practitioner into his local tradi­ changed demonstrably to include the ferent kind of law, the "negro law," tion, thence to the regional tradition, use of greater melodic variety, in­ which had its antecedent in the ante­ and all contained finally within the creased rhythmic complexity, and a bellum "slave code." A quasi-juristic folk blues tradition as a whole. The "shouting" style. Possible stylistic in­ criminal justice system run by vigi­ elements of tradition (repertoire and fluences include those mentioned lantes, Judge Lynch's court operated musical style) a.re seen as normally above and the "hot jazz" revival in with popular consent and judged al­ traveling in both dir,ections through Chicago. leged black criminals. these circles from one level to the On the other hand, all of Mama's These are the conditions that led to next. It is also possible for material of recording accompanists were men the migration of more than one mil­ an especially influential performer to who were part of, or inherited, a spe­ lion blacks from the southern states leap across more than one boundary cific Chicago blues piano tradition northward in what has come to be at a time. This mode[ has been used centering around Jimmy Yancey in called the Great Migration (1916- successfully to describe the blues tra­ the 1930s and 1940s. These men all 1930). Hence, when the blues singer dition in its first stages of develop­ replicated Jimmy's personal style in sings "Jim Crow Blues," we see that ment and as it continues to exist in some respects when accompanying it is not at all profane. In the context the rural South to the present time. Mama Yancey, especially on those of the "dark journey" through the Later urban blues traditions were tunes that she had originally sung Jim Crow age, it is sacred, as sacred fostered and maintained under some­ with her husband. Through compara­ as Mississippi's black diaspora dur­ what different conditions. Con­ tive analysis of her performances ing the Great Migration: fronted by a more competitive envi­ with these men (including her hus­ ronment, city-based blues singers and band), it is possible to describe I'm tired of this Jim Crow, pianists may have felt the imperative Yancey's later vocal styl.e within a gonna leave this Jim Crow town, to develop an individual style more matrix of developing contemporary Doggone my black soul, strongly than their rural forebears idioms, the self-conscious perpetua­ I'm sweet Chicago bound, and contemporaries. Given the plu­ tion of a specific tradition by blues Yes, I'm leavin' here, rality of urban culture, they also had accompanists, and her own personal from this old Jim Crow town. added incentives to expand their creative impulses. Four Decades of French Blues aspect. It assumes (1) that the only These were among the most popular Resea:cch in Chicago: From the way to document the blues effec­ songs of that era. Thus, QRS aimed Fifties into the Nineties tively is to view the performers the rolls at a broad and general audi­ Andre J.M. Prevos, Pennsylvania through audio as well as visual ence. State University media and (2) that the aesthetics of Although Boone's first manager, the blues influenced a wide range of John Lange, was still living in 1912, The purpose of this essay is the artistic expressions from the stage Boone went to Chicago with Wayne documentation of the efforts of sev­ theatrics of rock and pop bands to a Allen, a music publisher and the eral French blues researchers who certain extent to the modem aspect owner of a flourishing music store in have studied and documented the of performance art. The paper will Columbia, Missouri. Allen accompa­ Chicago blues. This essay does not treat and investigate the following: nied Boone to Chicago specifically to claim to be exhaustive but, instead, the historic role of the classic blues record the rolls, only to be told by includes materials culled from inter­ singers who traveled in "tent-shows" QRS officials that someone else had views from significant French re­ and vaudeville acts; the use of blues been hired to make the recordings. searchers who visited the Windy City in the urban landscape, such as the Allen, however, exclaimed that during the post-war decades. . Oea market of Maxwell Street, several Boone could out-play anyone. Com­ Among those who were inter­ street corners, or the Delta fish mar­ pany officials challenged him to viewed for the essay are Jacques ket; and the great bluesmen as prove his claim; whereupon Allen Demetre and the late Marcel "showmen" who are able to play, wrote a check for $1,000 and pro­ Chauvard, who were among the first sing, act, and dance. claimed, ''If this man is not as great to document the Chicago blues in the The theatricality of the blues is as I said, I will sign the check." Ten­ 1950s and introduce it to both French reminiscent of musical theater. In sion was running high since the and American audiences, renowned blues theater, live bands interact with other pianist had traveled to Chicago discographers Oike Kurt Mohr), dedi­ these actors to create rich and stimu­ from California. The stage was set for cated photographers (like Emmanuel lating plays that might be called a battle of pianists. Choisnel), professional musicians "bluesicals." In that sense, blues can The Californian played first and and filmographers (like Jacques be a model for playwrights in search performed one of his original compo­ Lacava), scholarly-minded musicians of a genuine folk expression bearing sitions for half an hour. Boone and students (like Sebastian Dan­ modem aesthetics. applauded enthusiastically for him chin), and amateur blues musicians In examining how the blues be­ and then walked unassisted to a sec­ (like Marc Loison, Alain Fran~oise, came a theatrical expression, I will ond piano, which he located by hear­ Thierry Anquetil, and Fran<;ois consider the remote origins of the ing the sympathetic vibrations of the Marie) who went to Chicago to play blues in the musical expressions of overtones. While still standing, with local blues artists and explore a Africa. Boone said: "Your performance was world they knew only indirectly. very good. This is the part I like These individuals were inter­ best." He then played through the viewed during the summer of 1989, Blind Boone's Chicago Piano Rolls middle section of the piece without a and their responses will compose the Warren C. Swindell, Indiana State flaw. Everyone in the room shouted central documentation of the essay. University with glee and astonishment! The Cal­ In addition, there will be a brief de­ John William "Blind" Boone al­ ifornian shook Wayne Allen's hand scription of publications and other ready had developed a fine reputa­ and said, "My God, I'd go to hell and productions-from doctoral theses to tion as an excellent pianist when he back for that man." Boone was then movies-that resulted from the ef­ made his piano roll recordings for awarded the contract for making the forts of these individuals. It will thus the QRS (Quality Reigns Supreme) rolls. become clear that, parallel to the bet­ Company of Chicago in 1912. When The following day, in addition to ter-known French jazz researchers he signed a contract on August 28, the pieces listed above, Boone re­ and their renowned publications, 1912, with QRS, he: became the first corded his composition entitled "The there is an identifiable body of African American to make a piano Marshfield Tornado," but he played French blues researchers whose ef­ roll. The contract stipulated, among so rapidly and with so much forts have resulted in an identifiable other things, which pieces he was to strength that he stripped the gears in body of documentation and analysis record. Some of the songs recorded the machine. Thus, his most impor­ of the Chicago blues. were "Dixie," "Swanee River," "Old tant composition was lost to the Black Joe," "Massa's in the Cold, world. Chicago, nevertheless, was The Theatricality of the Blues Cold Ground," "Camp Meeting Med­ very kind to Boone. Music critics re­ Jacques Lacava, Chicago, Illinois ley No. 1," "Rag Medley No. 2," ceived him well and his career prof­ This paper will discuss the theatri­ "Woodland Murmurs," and "When ited handsomely as a result of his cality of blues, including its ritualistic You and I Were Young, Maggie." visits there. 25

Portrait of a Black Flutist by Charles Walthall, Washington, D.C.

This handsome portrait first came Barzillai (Barzillia, Barzillah) (nick­ regimental fifer (also drummer). He to my attention in Michael Brenson's name: Zelah, Zeal) Lew (Lieu, Lue) served as fifer intermittently from article "Black Musicians in Art: Ste­ was born November 5, 1743, Groton, 1775 to 1777 at Bunker Hill, Ticon­ reotypes and Beyond" (1988). Any­ MA, and died either January 19, 1821 deroga, and elsewhere. thing but a stereotype, this cultivated (Southern 1982, 243) or January 18, I question the identification of this black musician proudly peers at us 1822 (Vital Records 1907, 287). The so­ portrait as Mr. Lew for several rea­ across two centuries. Few nobles norous forename, while seemingly sons. One, the sitter holds a flute, not were ever rendered with greater skill. South American or West Indian a fife-not that any flutist couldn't The interesting Times article re­ [hence "Brazillai" in the Times arti­ play both. Second, the portrait de­ viewed a then-current exhibit (July 1- cle], or related to Italian "barzelletta," picts a cultured gentleman, not a reg­ August 28, 1988) entitled "The Por­ turns out to be Biblical and refers to imental fifer. Is it likely a cooper/reg­ trayal of the B[ack Musician in Amer­ two men in Second Samuel. Its mean­ imental fifer could have afforded ican Art," on display at The Studio ing, "man of iron, strong," certainly such a quality oil portrait? Although Museum in Harlem (which gra­ fits the determined countenance of some artist could have painted him ciously provided the photo and cata­ the portrait. Lew's residence was simply because of his striking figure. log of the exhibit). This fascinating variously at Chelmsford and Dracut, Several persons to whom I have exhibit was organized by The Califor­ which are near Lowell, Mass. (not made inquiry about the portrait also nia Afro-American Museum in Los Boston). He worked as a cooper and doubt that Lew is the sitter, including Angeles and consisted of 44 works in various media from 1830 to 1970 (the present portrait looks earlier than 1830 to me). The portrait of a black flutist, enti­ tled simply "The Flutist," is by an unknown late 18th-century artist, in oil on canvas, measuring 35 by 28 inches. It presently hangs in The Wal­ ter Thurston Gentleman's (Reception) Lounge, Diplomatic Reception Rooms, U.S. Department of State, Washington, D.C. (which kindly al­ lowed me to view the painting, and gave permission to p ublish the photo). The State Department indi­ cates: It has been suggested that the flutist is American Revolutionary War sol­ dier and fifer Barzillai Lew (1743- 1822) of Boston, or one of Lew's sons. The portrait, formerly attrib­ uted to Gilbert Stuart, is by an yet unidentified artist who apparently used the canvas to pai nt a full­ length figure (resembling George Washington for whose portraits Stu­ art was fa mous] still faintly visible to the left of the subject's head.

Reprinted with permission from The Flutisl Quarttrly 14, no. 3 (Summer 1989):31. The Black Flutisl. OJurtesy of lire U.S. Depart men I of State 26

Eileen Southern (Harvard Professor pictions in paintings). the sitter might have been: a slave, Emerita) and H. Diack Johnstone Even if the Six Duets by William brought from Africa probably via the (Oxford Professor). Shield are intended, why is the sitter Americas to England, patronized and Turning to the "Six Duets by W. holding these? Is he merely trying to educated by the nobility, who rose to Shield" as the obvious next clue, we show his competence or familiarity a position of some prominence. find the portrait in no wise resembles with a current popular piece? Or, Special thanks to all the above who the portly, white English theater could he possibly ·be the flutist for gave input to this article. composer William Shield (1748- whom the work was written? Several 1829). (Of course, he could be some favorite players of William Shield are References other W. Shield.) And while this known, but none of them is a flutist. Shield wrote two sets of six duets, Dr. H. Diack Johnstone, specialist Brenson, Michael. 1988. Black musicians in art: one of which was for flutes, the rest in 18th-century English music, sug­ Stereotypes and beyond. The New York for violins, the music depicted does gests there might be some connection Times, Sunday, August 14:s.ect. H, 31 . Southern, Eileen. 1982. Biog,aphical dictionary of not resemble any of the twelve duets. between this portrait and Ignatius Afro-American and African musicians. West­ In fact, the depicted quote goes Sancho (1729-1780). Unfortunately, port, Conn.: Greenwood Press. below middle C down to G, com­ there is no resemblance to the known Vital records of Dracut, Massachusetts, to the year portrait of Sancho (Wright 1981), and 1850. 1907. Dracut Deaths. Boston: The New pletely out of the flute range. Possi­ England Historic Genealogical Society at the bly the artist only meant to suggest his sons were not musicians. Never­ charge of the Eddy Town-Record Fund. music in general, not an actual quote theless, in Sancho perhaps we have Wright, Josephine R. B. 1981. Ignatius Sancho. (despite the frequency of accurate de- the prototype of the kind of person New York: Garland.

Dvorak and African-American Musicians, 1892-1895

by Maurice Peress, Aaron Cap/and School, City University of New York

While I must justly say that standard American-music research Garden- not the one from which [Dvorak's] name and works will literature, but the extent to which his telecasts of the Nicks vs. the Boston ever live endearingly in the hearts of three years in New York City im­ Celtics now originate, but the land­ the best white people of America; if pacts directly upon the history of mark sporting-and-entertainment it were possible the A fro-American America's black music and musicians palace erected in 1889 to a design of musicians alone could flood his has yet to be fully uncovered. Stanford White. grave with tears (The [Indianapolis] One public concert in particular Dvorak had been enticed by Mrs. Freeman June 4, 1904). underscores Dvorak's reach. On Jeanette Thurber, a bold and for­ The celebrated Czech composer Tuesday, January 23, 1894, the Met­ ward-thinking musical patron, to Antonin Dvorak (1841-1904) lived ropolitan Opera Company was per­ move from Prague to New York City and worked in the United States forming Wagner's Lohengrin at the and become the Director of the Na­ from September 1892 until April Brooklyn Academy, while an intrigu­ tional Conservatory of Music of 1895. In contemporary newspapers ingly titled work, Imre Kiralfi's America, beginning with the autumn and periodicals, one finds Dvorak America, was being performed at the semester of 1892. The Conservatory, encouraging American composers to Metropolitan's new opera house on founded by Mrs. Thurber, had been utilize their own folk music- that of 38th Street and Broadway. Tony chartered by Congress in time for the Native Americans and especially the Pastor's was offering two vaudeville 400th anniversary of Columbus's plantation songs and spirituals of Af­ teams in a "splendid bill of comedy, landfall in the New World. Mrs. rican Americans. With these they had mirth, and melody." Charley's Aunt Thurber had a clear agenda for the "all that is needed to create a great was enjoying its "fifth crowded Conservatory which was heartily and noble school of music" (New month." And Lillian Russell was ap­ supported by the distinguished York Herald May 21, 1893), not unlike pearing in the next-to-last perfor­ Czech composer: to create a national that which Dvorak himself had mance of The Princess Nicotine. music founded upon the native achieved with his own native Czech That same night a benefit concert music and language of America. music. Dvorak went further, compos­ for the New York Herald's Free Ooth­ They both made a special effort to at­ ing several American-inspired works ing Fund was being given by the Na­ tract African-American teachers and of his own, the most celebrated being tional Conservatory Chorus and Or­ students to the Conservatory, and the the "New World" Symphony. All chestra, under the direction of An­ Madison Square Garden concert of this has been well documented in the tonin Dvorak, in the Madison Square January 23, 1894, was a clear demon- 27 stration that they had succeeded. The America. Kinney directed the orches­ New York Herald, being the sponsors tra and the 130-voice all-black choir, llEAR-':tHE·:'"~b t~ ·.. , of the Free Clothing Fund, gave the among them the boy sopranos and concert prominent coverage (see Fig. altos from St. Philips,1 in the '1n­ 1). flammatus" from Rossini's Stabat .FOLKS AT HOME.'·' The pre-concert article began by re­ Mater, with Mme Jones as soloist. counting the donations already re­ Seated prominently among the vio­ I~ill :B11 Bendereil To-Night ceived to provide clothing for the lins was the black composer Will . for Charity aa It Haa poor, mostly immigrant, families of Marion Cook, who came to the Con­ lever Boen Before. the city. It then described in detail servatory after having studied under the actual concert program, which Joachim in Berlin. There were more -----· has several surprises of importance than six hundred students at the l>\'ORAK'S OW!i ARRA~GElJEXT. (see Fig. 2). An African-American Conservatory, at least one-sixth were student from the Conservatory, black. No doubt there were other It '\\"Ill Be Saa~ Entirely by Nci:rm, of Harry Thacker Burleigh, whom we seeds planted and nourished by the Wbom lhn~. Jone~, the "Blt1ck: know as the principal source of Conservatory and Maestro Dvorak. Patli," ls lioloist. Dvorak's deep respect for spirituals Josef Skvorecky, a Czech historical and plantation songs, was to be the novelist with an unquenchable curi­ AID FOR TH E CLOTH I .S-G F USD. concert's baritone soloist, along with osity about music and especially jazz, ,- the featured guest star of the eve­ wrote a novel about Dvorak's Ameri­ --- . ning, Sissieretta Jones. Mme Jones, a can sojourn, Dvorak in Love (1987). Oonatio~s Are Sti)I Comina in,· but celebrated soprano also known as Skvorecky "improvises" upon actual n.,,, 1, S1ill a Greal Need "Black Patti," had already distin­ events. Having found the name Bai­ of Women·, Wear. guished herself at the White House ley listed among the students at the and at Chicago's World Columbian Conservatory during Dvorak's time, Exposition where she appeared with the author invents a scenario in Figure 1. Madison Square Carden Ccrn:ert, Sousa's Band. Mme Jones, Burleigh, which Bailey's future son turns out to New York Herald, JanUAry 23, 1894 and the Conservatory Choir would be the famous virtuoso jazz clarinet­ sing together Dvorak's own setting of ist Buster Bailey. It is hard to imagine left the Conservatory, putting aside Foster's Old Folks at Home, which was that there are not actual interconnec­ the violin to compose, orchestrate, described by Dvorak in the article as tions such as this we still might dis­ and conduct Clorindy, the Origin of the a very beautiful American folk song cover. Unfortunately, the records of Cakewalk. Among the first non-min­ "that he (Foster) happened to write the National Conservatory have yet strel music-theater entertainments by down.... American music is music to be located. an all-black creative team, C/orindy that lives in the hearts of the people, Dvorak's influence went far be­ had a marked success, and Cook was and therefore this air has every right yond the students at the Conserva­ launched. Harry T. Burleigh carried to be regardcdl as purely national" tory. Through example and encour­ on the legacy he inherited during his (New York Herafd January 23, 1894). agement, he propelled into action a early years in Erie, Pennsylvania, We should remind ourselves that slowly emerging, if still intimidated, where he learned from his blind Dvorak was at the height of his suc­ generation of American composers. grandfather, Hamilton Waters of cess here in the United States. Only By 1901 Arthur Farwell and a group Maryland, the plantation songs and five weeks earlier his ''New World" of like-minded composers decided to spirituals that later infused his com­ Symphony had been premiered and "accept Dvorak's challenge and go positions and inspired his classic ar­ received critical and popular acclaim. after our own folk music." They rangements for choir, as well as for Imagine, therefore, the honor be­ formed the Wa-Wan Press to publish solo voice and orchestra. There are stowed upon two more of his stu­ their own works, many of which still among us people wlho remember dents, both of them African Ameri­ were based upon the music of Native his long and distinguished career as cans, when at the concert he turned Americans (Chase 1955, 395). the baritone soloist in two of New over his baton and invited them to What became of the African York's most prominent congrega­ the podium: Maurice Arnold (whose Americans in Dvorak's composition tions, St. George's Episcopal and surname was really Strothotte), who class? By 1898 Will Marion Cook had Temple Emmanuel. led the orchestra in his own composi­ An account about the Burleigh im­ tion American Plantation Dances; and print on Dvorak appears in a 1922 Edward H. Kinney, organist and 1. The St. Philips Choir would later appear at letter from the great Victor Herbert to choirmaster of St. Philips Episcopal the historic 1912 Oef Oub concert in Carnegie Hall, "the first concert of aU-Negro musk" per­ Carl Engel, then chief of the music Church, the s-econd-oldest African formed entirely by black singers and instru­ division at the Library of Congress. Methodist Episcopal diocese in mentalists. We remember Herbert, of course, as a 28

his American Plantation Dances, I have not been able to lo,cate any of Overture, "Midsummer Night's Dream" ...... Mendelssohn Arnold's works that are listed in the Conservatory Orchestra. Dr. Antonin Dvorak, conductor. Baker article. Arnold appears not to Stabat Mater, "lnflammatus" ...... Rossini have been a member of ASCAP. A Mme. Sissieretta Jones and members of St. Philip's choir. few of his works do appear in the Conductor, Mr. Edward H. Kinney (pupil of Dr. Dvorak). catalog of the Library of Congress and the New York Public Library Hungarian Fantaisie ...... Liszt Music Division, and a tantalizing list Miss Bertha Visanska. of eighteen published works are Serenade for string orchestra (two movements) . . Volkmann listed in the British Library catalog of printed works. These include a Valse American Plantation Dances ...... Maurice Arnold elegante pour 2 pianos a 8 mains and Conducted by the composer (pupil of Dr. Dvorak). Danse de la Midway Plaisance, both "Old Folks at Home" ...... Arranged by Antonin Dvorak written in 1893. The latter had to For soli, chorus and orchestra. have been inspired during an ap­ Mme. Jones, soprano; Mr. Harry E. Burleigh, barytone; pearance of Burleigh, Cook, and Ar­ Conservatory Orchestra and colored chorus. nold-all three of Dvorak's black stu­ dents-at the "Day for Colored Peo­ ple" presented at the Chicago World Figure 2. Ccncert Program, Benefit Ccncert for the New York Herald's Free Clothing Fund, New York Exposition on August 25, 1893. The Hmld,/An1111ry23, 1894 Midway Plaisance, a prominent part of the fair, was an amazing mix. In­ dian-American and Dahomeyan na­ master composer in his own right, became as visible as did Cook and tive villages stood side by side with but he was also active as a solo cel­ Burleigh. Their names do not yet ap­ exotic exhibitions such as high divers list, which instrument he taught at pear in Eileen Southern's Bibliographi­ and Chinese acrobats. There were Mrs. Thurber's Conservatory. Her­ cal Dictionary of Afro-American Musi­ foreign restaurants from Austria, bert describes Dvorak in some detail: cians (1982) or JoAnn Skowronski's Turkey, and Hungary, each with its Black Music in America: A Bibliography own orchestra. They created an lves­ "Dr. Dvorak was most kind and un­ (1981). Kinney, the organist and ian din trying to attract crowds to affected and took great interest in choirmaster of St. Philips, was identi­ their establishments. It is also very his pupils, one of which, the very fied in the New York Herald coverage possible that Cook's most successful talented Harry Burleigh, had the musical, one that traveled from privilege of giving the Dr. some of of the Madison Square Garden con­ the thematic material for his Sym­ cert as a Dvorak (composition) pupil Broadway to Europe in 1903, In phony 'From the New World.' I (New York Herald January 23, 1894). It Dahomey, was likewis,e inspired by have seen this denied-but it is true. is possible the reporter assumed this. the community of sixty-seven West Naturally, I knew a great deal about He is listed, however, along with Africans that he observed at the Mid­ the symphony, as I saw the Dr. two Burleigh and Strothotte, as being a way. or three times a week and knew he member of the faculty in the 1894- Despite Arnold's relative obscu­ was at work on it" (quoted in Wa­ 1895 catalog of the Conservatory rity, it nevertheless appears that he ters 1955, 87). (Abom 196.5, Addenda). A study of made a much greater impression on the archival material from St. Philips, Dvorak than has been reported to Victor Herbert was also the principal which still remains in boxes at the date. In an interview for the Febru­ cellist of the New York Philharmonic Schomburg Center for Research in ary 1895 issue of Harper's, Dvorak be­ which gave the premiere of the sym­ Black Culture, might reveal more moaned the difficulties American phony. He remained Burleigh's life­ about him. composers had in getting their works long friend. As a founder of the As for Maurice Arnold (Strothotte), published: "When one of my pupils American Society of Composers, Au­ there is an entry for him in Baker's last year produced a very creditable thors, and Publishers (ASCAP) along Biographical Dictionary (Baker 1978, work, and a thoroughly American with Irving 1Berlin and John Philip 67) and in the American Supplement composition at that, he could not get Sousa, Herbert invited Burleigh to of Grove's Dictionary ("Maurice Ar­ it published in America, but had to become a charter member. nold" 1928, 66). He had a long pro­ send it to Germany, where it was at Neither Edward H. Kinney nor fessional career conducting for the once accepted." Simple deduction Maurice Arnold (Strothotte), the two musical theater here and abroad and tells us this was Maurice Arnold's pupils that Dvorak featured at the was composing actively until his American Plantation Dances, pre­ Madison Square Garden concert, ever death in 1937. With the exception of miered at the 1894 Madison Square 29

Garden concert. The carefully instru­ York Herald January 24, 1894). Hall in 1912 with the Clef Oub and, mented piano/conductor's score at We marvel at Dvorak's spirit and six years later, in the trenches at Ar­ the New York Public Library, was vision. Zeckwer (1919, 702) quotes gonne with Jim Europe's "Hell Fight­ published by P. L. Jung in 1894 under him as having said in class, "In one ers." the title Amerikanische fanze. There is hundred years America will be the also a later two-piano score at the Li­ musical center of the world." Yet the References brary of Congress. The second of the generation of Americanists he helped "thoroughly American" movements spawn did not break the grip that Abom, Merton Robert. 1965. Dwrdk in America. features an utterly charming humor­ Eurocentric-and, too often, racist­ Diss., University of Indiana . Baker, Theodore. 1978. Baker's biogr,,phioJ/ d~­ csque-like tune scored for a solo clar­ academics and critics had on the mu­ tiotwy of musicions, revised by Nicolas inet. Its i character and phrase sical community. This hold would Slonimsky. 6th ed. New York: Schirmer lengths resemble Dvorak's celebrated only begin to weaken at the end of Books. Humoresque, the seventh of a group of the 1920s with the unquenchable new Chase, Gilbert. 1955. America's mus~. New York: McGraw-I llll. eight he published in 1894. Do we music of Ellington, Gershwin, and Dvorik. Antonin. 1895. Music in America. detect influences on Dvorak by yet Copland, each of whom studied for­ HJirptr's Mag111.int 15 (February):429-434. another African-American composi­ ml'lly or informally with a member Dvodk leads for the fund. 1894. Ntw York Her­ tion student? Dvorak's Eight Humor­ of Dvorak's composition class at the ald January 24:10. Farw<>II, Arthur, and W. Dermot Darby. 1915. esques were written just after Conservatory-Ellington with Will Music In America. Tlrt art of music, vol. 4. Arnold's American Plantation Dances. Marion Cook (Duke called him "His New York: The National Society of Music. It is significant that from among Conservatory'') and both Gershwin Maurice Arnold. 1928. In Crm,,,'s dictionary of the works of the six non-black com­ and Copland with Ruben Goldmark. music and musicillns: American Supplement, edited by Waldo Selden Pratt, vol. 6, 66. position students of Dvorak- Wil­ As for Sissieretta Jones singing at New York: Macmillan. liam Arms Fisher, Ruben Goldmark, Madison Square Garden instead of at Hear the "Old folks at home.N 1894. Ntw York Harvey Worthington Loomis, Harry the new Metropolitan Opera House, Herald January 23:11. Row Shelley, Henry Waller, and that national disgrace would take Real value of Negro melodies. 1893. Ntw York Htrald May 21 :28. Camille W. Zeckwer- we find titles even longer to erase. But caveats. Skowronski, JoAnn. 1981. Black musk in Amer• like The Ogal/al/ahs and Old Black Joe, aside, we have much for which to be ia: A bibliography. Metudlen, N.J.: Scare­ both of them operas, and The Call of thankful and much to learn about aow Press. the Plain, Indian Dances, Lyrics of the Dvorak's impact on the history of Skvorecky, Josef. 1987. DIIO'rdk in lo!>t. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. Red Man, and A Negro Rhapsody. If, in black musk and, thereby, American Sou thern, Eileen. 1982. Biographical dictionary of the words of the unnamed reviewer music. Taking a leaf from Skvorecky, Afrt>-Americ,,n lffld African musicillns. West­ of the Madison Square Garden con­ I can easily imagine at least one of port, Conn.: Green wood Press. cert, "Mr. Dvorak is the apostle of the St. Philips boy sopranos who Waters, Edwin N. 1955. Victor lltrl>m, a lift in music. New York: MacMillan. national music," all of the composers sang at Madison Square Garden in Z

BMR Bulletin is devoted to the encourage­ BMR Bulletin is published by the Colum­ With this issue, the publication of BMR ment and promotion of scholarship and cul­ bia College Center for Black Music Research, Bulletin comes to a close. The editors would tural activity in black American music and is Columbia College Chicago, 600 South Michi­ like to extend their thanks to its readers, who intended to serve as a medium for the sharing gan Avenue, Chicago, lllinois 60605-1996. have supported it, and to alil those who have of ideas and information regarding current contributed to it-as authors, editors, or advi­ and future research and activities in universi­ sors-during the period of its publication. ties and research centers.

Managing Associate Editor: Marsha J. Reisser Associate Editor: Rae Linda iBrown Production Assistant: Trenace V. Ford Editor: Samuel A. Floyd, Jr. Associate Editor; Orin Moe