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Home , Colatura di Alici, Garum

ITEMS  Th e archaeology of : Gargilius Martialis’s

In this article, after a brief preliminary experiment will be il- description of garum and lustrated. In the conclusions prob- its history, a preliminary lems, variables and further experi- experiment based on Martialis’ ments will be analysed. recipe provides a taste of past.

Q Lara COMIS 1. Garum in the Roman Corrado RE world: archaeology (IT) of production

De gustibus non disputandum In his Liber de Agricultura Cato (between the 3rd and 2nd century BC) refers to allec, which seemed to have been a obtained by Introduction the working of fi sh, herbs and salt. Th e etymology of such a term ap- When came into con- pears to fi nd its roots in the word tact with the Greek world, a great putrescence (Dosi, Schnell 1984: Q Fig. 15 The final result of the experiment: a granular, amount of information, culture, 181). Interestingly, he refers to it olive green in colour compound with a strong fragrance technology and grandeur entered when describing food needed by of spices and fish. The amount of extracted liquid was the then rural roman way of living. the family who run a rural farm minimal. It is in fact from the second half of once the olives run out (Cato, LVI- the III century BC that Greek infl u- II). Because of the amount of nu- ence in many aspects of life was ac- tritive substances (such as amino ed (see Purpura 1982). Th ese in- knowledged by the ancient authors. acids, nitrogen, and many diff erent dustries consisted of a series of coc- Among these, we fi nd infl uences trace elements), garum and allec ciopesto (lime mortar with crushed on cuisine and cooking. Garon, as were quite important in the main- pottery) covered vats (called cetar- it was known among the Greeks, ly vegetarian diet of ia) in which the fi sh was worked was a culinary preparation made (Hubert 2001). and, probably, entrails, salt and mainly of fi sh, salt and herbs and herbs were left in the sun for trans- was in use in from Garum was a liquid or semi liquid formation into garum. Usually, am- at least the 5th century BC (Pliny, obtained by the decomposi- phorae sherds found nearby the vats NH XXXI, 93). Th e production and tion of fi sh and herbs in salt. Ac- help to give an idea of the duration trading of garum lasted for at least cording to Pliny, it was at fi rst ob- of the production. Th e most famous one millennium: its taste could be tained from one selected kind of garum was made only with macker- called a golden thread of the An- fi sh which might be compared to el and was produced in (Pliny cient World. . Common garum, on the NH XXXI, 94) and sold all over contrary, was created by the decom- the empire in Dressel 7-9 ampho- But what was it like? And, more im- position of fi sh entrails in salt. Its rae (Purpura 1982). Th e north Af- portantly, what was it that made it exotic taste entered fi rmly into the rican coast was rich in this sort of taste like itself? It is to answer these roman world in the time of industry which produced a typical questions that this project came to and was considered a fundamen- to contain the sauce. Th e life. In this article we will illustrate tal ingredient to many recipes. Th e African amphorae sherds for garum the fi rst steps taken for searching the liquid garum (another term used to trade can be found across the em- answers. Th e analysis needs to be indicate it is liquamen) was so pop- pire from Severian times and a sign carried on deeper and wider, many ular that it was also added to fruit of change in the market trends of written sources have to be read jams (Dosi, Schnell 1984: 210). that time (Purpura 1982). (and found!), many archaeological fi nds are there to be researched: we Many archaeological remains wit- Th is mode of production is not so are perfectly aware of the fact that ness the importance of the product. common on the Tyrrhenian coast this is just a beginner’s log. Th e Atlantic coast of Spain and Mo- of Italy. Scholars believe the reason rocco, as well as the Mediterranean for this can be found in the garum A brief history of garum produc- coasts and the Black Sea were sites offi cina (garum’s factory) found in tion, fortune and trade will be given of production of garum. Th e centres . Even though Pliny ac- in the fi rst part. In the second part of industry in the transformation of knowledges Pompeii as a famous methodology and specifi c infor- fi sh, in which and other fi sh site for the production of garum mation from written sources will was cleaned and salted, were also (NH XXXI, 95), the witnessed pro- be discussed and in the third the the sites in which salt was extract- cedure diff ers slightly from the

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others. Here the mixed ingredients agement for the task. Even so, af- were left to ferment in dolia, not in ter having eviscerated the problem vats, but were sold in amphorae as in many ways, we decided that ex- the other garum (Salza Prina Ricot- perimental methodology could be ti 1999). a great help in such an attempt. Th e preliminary experiment on garum An interesting note of the edictum production was therefore planned de pretiis by Diocletian (301 AD) to assess the variables and their states two diff erent prices for the consequent relationship. An or- fi rst liquamen and the second liq- ganoleptic evaluation of the fi nal uamen (III, 7), probably refl ecting a product was programmed to have diff erence in quality. a standardised description of the taste, useful to provide a compari- Th e production of garum was car- son for further experiments. ried on until the 5th century AD Q Fig. 1 Brushing the vase with pine tar in , and the consuming of As the starting point should be the garum is witnessed into the early archaeological record but we did medieval times and later (8th cen- not fi nd any convincing sources tury AD, Salza Prina Ricotti 1999, and studies made on the subject. Purpura 1982 footnote 10; Ency- In popular books the stereotypes clopaedia Romana under “Garum” of garum being a putrescent and states that there is trace of produc- morbid thing were not sustained tion of garum as late as 1345 AD). by experiment on actually mak- ing or tasting it according to the It seems therefore that produc- ancient procedure (Dosi, Schnell tion of garum was strictly linked 1984: 28, 246). On the contrary, in with the industry of fish transfor- the same source, the experimental mation: it actually used the same approach in the creation of garum facilities. But this is not the only was gladly encouraged, as the im- production witnessed as another portance of that ingredient was Q Fig. 2 Hardening the tar with a gas flame method used dolia to obtain the evident both by written and mate- same product. rial sources (ibidem: 254). Th e in- formation about taste was limited to a link to nuoc-mâm, an oriental 2. Exploring garum’s preparation still in use. Th e origin taste: methodological of it were referred to as an error approach, written made in the conservation of fi sh, ending in some sort of not-too- sources, ethnography bad waste (ibidem: 210). Th e curiosity about the taste of such a famous and renown ingredi- Even the ancient world seems to be ent lead us to approach garum from split into those who liked garum the experimental perspective. Th e and those who did not. re- fi rst aim of our experiment was to fers to garum made only with the be able to evaluate variables which blood of freshly killed as may aff ect garum’s taste. To attempt a sumptuous gift (Xen. XIII, 102), Q Fig. 3 A subtle layer to ensure impermeability a reconstruction of a “taste” might but points out also that common be considered as rather an impossi- garum had a terrible smell. Apicius, ble mission. Experimental archae- on the other hand, gives a recipe to ology has already demonstrated in change the smell of garum with the the past decades how an “accurate” aid of herbs and honey (Apicius De reconstruction is not only impos- Re Coquinaria, I, 6). Th e fi rst liq- sible to obtain, but also does not uid was called gari fl os (fl ower of necessarily improve our knowledge garum). Th e most appreciated was of the past. We can imagine, there- called garum nigrum and was sold fore, how subtle the results could in small jars. Th e banqueters could be when the object of the experi- use it as they pleased directly on ment is not an object but a taste, the table (Dosi, Schnell 1984: 212). which certainly lacks both materi- As we said, allec was the remaining ality and assessment measurements paste aft er all the liquid has been which can aid the evaluation. Th is extracted, but some scholars say theme has entered many times into that originally allec was garum at the discussion of those who par- the midfermentation point. In reci- ticipated in the experiment, and pes allec was used as an appetiser. Q Fig. 4 Closing the vase lead sometimes to a great discour- At some point, it seems to become

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an independent preparation, as we process lead modern garum-mak- Volumes can also read about allec made only ers to obtain good results with a with one type of fi sh or molluscs. yogurt-maker in which heat can be Container capacity 2,7 lt. kept controlled (Wunderlich’s web- Volume fi lled 2,4 lt Let us move to consider present- page). Volume loss after fi rst week 0,2 lt day information about fi sh sauc- es of that kind. As we said, nuoc- An Italian product, called “Colatura Volume loss after liquid drainage 0,2 lt mâm from Vietnam and naam-pla di Alici”, is quite similar to the an- Ingredients weights from Th ailand are the closest ex- cient garum Made with anchovies Salt 1575 g isting to ancient garum. collected in spring and summer, it To make it, fi sh and salt layers are is created by the fi sh being put un- Herbs 86 g alternatively put into an earthen- der pressure with salt. Th e raw fi sh Celery 150 g ware big jar with a percentage of is cleaned of entrails and put in Fish 624 g 20% salt on the total. Th e jars are salt for at least 24 hours. It is then then closed with a mat and left to transferred to wooden barrels be- Salt/fi sh ratio (volume) 1/1 (nearly) ferment from one to three months. tween layers of salt Th e closing cap Herbs ratio Th e fi rst extracted sauce is the best is then charged with extra weight quality. Th en subsequently adding and the resulting liquid collect- Saff ron 1/100 brine and fi ltering produce second ed in glass bottles and left for four Celery 4/1 and third quality choice sauce. Th e or more months exposed to sun- Other herbs 1/1 obtained liquid is put into glass shine to gain concentration. Aft er bottles and exposed to sunlight to this, the liquid is then put again in Layers’ thickness acquire a clear caramel colour. As wooden barrels with anchovies and Herbs 2/3 cm it is today, diff erent hues were as- then collected from a little opening. Fish 3/4 cm sociated with diff erent qualities of It is then ready in December. Its use sauce (see above, garum nigrum). is traditional for Christmas’ eve on Salt 3/4 cm non-salted ( Average temperature > 30 °C Th e process of transformation webpage). Time from solid to liquid, is not, as it was thought commonly, decompo- 3. Garum’s taste: Total duration 28 days sition or fermentation. If the per- preliminary experiment First phase without stirring 7 days centage of salt is kept 20% or high- er, the process of fermenting stops Written sources that illustrate the Second phase, daily stirring 7 days at a certain point and gives way to “recipe” for making garum are very Last phase 2-3 stirring/week 14 days what is known as autolysis, an ac- few and very late. No one states tual maturation of the compound the quantities, and the most ac- Q Tab. 1 Experimental data summary (Hubert 2001, Purpura 1982, foot- curate are those of the Geoponi- note 7). Th e presence of viscera ca collection, dating to medieval probably aids the process because times (Curtis R. I. 1991: 194). We portion of the ingredients. Th is of the presence of active enzymes decided therefore to start from a source comes from a collection (Rovere et al. 2008, “garum”). Th e late source that seemed to be suf- of works made in medieval times knowledge of this biochemical fi ciently clear to elaborate a pro- and its supposed author is Gargil- ius Martialis as quoted from Dosi Schnell 1982 and Gozzini Giacosa 1992. Gargilius Martialis, a writer from the third century AD, in “De medicina et de virtute herbarum” writes: “Use fatty fi sh, for example , and a well-sealed (pitched) container with a 26-35 quart/litre capacity. Add dried aromatic herbs possessing a strong fl avour, such as dill, coriander, fennel, celery, mint, oregano, and others making a layer on the bottom of the container; then put down a layer of fi sh (if small leave them whole, if large use piec- es); and over this add a layer of salt two fi ngers high. Repeat these three layers until the container is fi lled. Let it rest for seven days in the sun. Th en mix the sauce daily for twen- ty days. Aft er that time it becomes a liquid (garum)” (Gozzini Giacosa Q Fig. 5 Mixed dried herbs 1992: 27).

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Since our aim was to assess the var- ing it has actually remained the same iables included in the process, we over the millennia. Other spices may decided to scale down the quanti- as well have been imported, but the ties and to adapt them from an in- collecting methods were surely dif- dustrial standard to a more family- ferent and aff ected the fi nal presence like method of making garum. Th e in the recipe diff erently. Since celery container used was an earthenware was added fresh, the quantity was in- vase of 2,7 lt. capacity at the brim. creased to 4/1 against other herbs, Th e vase was tarred to prevent leak- considering the amount of water in ing (this method had been used fresh vegetables. All the dried herbs since Cato’s times). Tar was con- were carefully mixed in a soup dish Q Fig. 6 Minced celery sidered an important part of the to obtain an even compound (Fig. 5). experiment, not only because of Celery was added later with the other the impermeability needed for the ingredients (Fig. 6). procedure of fermentation, but also because it was thought that the re- Bluefi sh and were par- sulting taste could be aff ected by tially cleaned (Fig. 7-8) – intestines the use of vegetable tar. Th e cho- were only taken from the bluefi sh, sen one was natural pine tree tar, whereas fi shbone, intestines and gills spread onto the inner surface of the were taken away from mackerels – vase with a brush (Fig. 1). To hard- and cut into small pieces (Fig. 9-10). en the tar, a common fl ame device It was felt that, considering the small was used (Fig. 2). Subsequently, for dimension of the vase, cutting the ultra-safety of impermeability, it fi sh would aid the process. Q Fig. 7 Blue fish cleaning was isolated with a veil of olive oil (Fig. 3). During the experiment, it Salt was carefully chosen to pre- was clear that a soft er way of hard- vent contamination from indus- ening the tar, possibly with embers, trial chemical substances. We used would have produced a more reli- whole organic marine salt naturally able result and avoided damage to gathered from Trapani (Sicily). the vase. To prevent insect contami- nation, a wooden cap wrapped with See tables for details in quantities of a cotton cloth was prepared to be ingredients used. put on the brim of the vase (Fig. 4). Beeswax was considered to be the Th e actual procedure of preparing best material to be used to seal the garum, started with a bottom layer cap. Th is system was very useful of herbs (Fig. 11) of 2/3 cm height as it permitted an easy re-opening being put in the vase complete with each time mixing was needed. celery (Fig. 12). Fish was then laid in a layer 3/4 cm high (Fig. 13). Th e Q Fig. 8 Mackerels cleaning Aft er preparing the vase, a selection next layer was salt, “two fi ngers in of herbs as described by Martialis height” as Martialis says (3/4 cm). was prepared. Th e vase contained 9 layers in total and then was closed with the above We used: dill (Anethum graveolens L., described cap. Th e preparation end- dried seeds), coriander (Coriandrum ed at midday on the 15th August sativum, dried seeds), fennel (Foe- 2008. For the whole duration of the niculum vulgare, dried seeds), celery experiment (until 13th September) (Apium graveolens, leaf and stem), the vase was left in the sun from mint (Mentha Longifolia, dried just aft er dawn to a little before sun- leaves), pepper ( Nigrum, grains set. Th e temperature reached above and dried leaves), saff ron (Crocus 30 °C. For only two days bad weath- Q Fig. 9 Minced blue fish sativus, dried stigma) and oregano er prevented the vase to be exposed. (Origanum vulgare, dried leaves). Aft er 7 days excluding the fi rst, the We also used saff ron as we found it vase was opened to begin stirring quoted into an Italian translation of (Fig. 14) On this occasion an in- the recipe that also quoted this spice tense perfume of fi sh and Medi- (Wikipedia). Since the proportion of terranean spices was released from the herbs were not described, we de- the compound. Th e volume seemed cided to use a mixture of the essenc- to be diminished by 0,2 l and a liq- es in equal parts, except for saff ron, uid part was noted among the clog- added as 1/100 against the other gy compound. For seven days the herbs. As saff ron has always been an garum was stirred daily, whereas extremely expensive spice since an- for the remaining two weeks it was Q Fig. 10 Minced mackerels cient times, as the process of collect- stirred only 3 to 2 times per week.

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On the third day of stirring, a yel- tra viscera (besides the utilized fi sh lowish liquid begun to leak from a ones), an over abundance of salt fi ssure in the vase. Th is yellowish and doubt on the scaled propor- liquid had a very acrid smell and tion used are to be explored deep- become crispy on drying. Th e fi s- er. As said above, viscera from the sure in the vase, probably caused by fi sh could aid the autolysis process. the hardening of the tar within us- Salt could also be kept at a lower ing the fl ame, was sealed with natu- percentage of the total (being al- ral beeswax. Th e liquid started then most- at volume 1:1 in our proce- to turn into a more greenish colour, dure) or, more likely, added in form probably because of the herbs. of brine as happens in Oriental fi sh sauces and as probably happened in Aft er 28 days, the compound was the fi sh-salting industries in ancient taken out of the vase and put into a times. Another point seems to be fi ne linen cloth with medium large the overall quantity of ingredients, texture and compressed to extract probably standardised at the times Q Fig. 11 The first layer of dried herbs the liquid. Th is method proved to of the description for the success of be a failure as the amount liquid the procedure. was very small and too dense to drip from the cloth. Th is made us think Th is experiment lead us to distin- that a slow dripping method might guish the diff erent variables present be more eff ective as described in the in the process, some of which came Geoponica. Th e mixture was then to light by accident during the ex- suspended in a natural fi bres basket periment itself. For example, we from which to extract the liquamen. felt that the failure of the process A small amount of garum was in- of extracting the liquid was due to deed collected and tasted. Th e taste the need for a diff erent technique: resembled that of paste probably the original recipe for with a strong accent on raw fi sh and the colatura di alici, using weight a background of spices which made put on top of the anchovies, could Q Fig. 12 The first layer of celery it quite pleasant. At the organoleptic have helped. Temperature was not examination the product obtained a problem as the experiment had with the experiment turned out to been planned for a season in which have the following characteristics: weather was hot and sunny. Prob- ably air has to be considered care- Consistency: granular with frag- fully in the next experiments in re- ments of spices and salt to which lation to the autolysis. the fi sh are amalgamated. Th ere is another question regard- Colour: olive green. ing the relation between allec and garum, and garum to liquamen Smell: the blue fi sh one is predomi- Sources of the time seem to dis- nant, rounded off by spices. Smells tinguish between diff erent consist- are well amalgamated. encies. Th e archaeological record could be analysed to assess wheth- Taste: very intense salt and fatty er there exists a distinction in fi sh, the initial impact vanishes fair- the container morphology which ly rapidly with the dissolution of could be linked to ceramic mor- salt, leaving a clean aft ertaste. phology, content and production Q Fig. 13 The first layer of fish (one of three ) procedure. (Examined by Cristiana Minelli, laboratory technician for food indus- try) Bibliography Colatura di Alici Webpage: http:// it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colatura_di_alici_ 4. Conclusions di_Cetara Th ere are few conclusions that we Curtis R.I. 1991: Garum and Salsamenta: can point to at this stage of research. production and commerce in materia Th e preliminary experiment, in medica, 1991. fact, lead us to evaluate many other Dosi A. Schnell 1984: F. A tavola con i Romani Antichi 1984 Roma. possibilities in experimenting with Encyclopaedia Romana: http://penelope. garum making. Th e procedure we uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_ used was not successful as very little romana//garum.html liquid sauce was obtained. Among Gozzini Giacosa I. 1992: A taste of ancient the many explanations, lack of ex- Rome. Chicago, 1992 Q Fig. 14 Stirring with a wooden spoon

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Hubert A. 2001: Odore forte, forse di Aft er leaving it alone for one night vert olive, à l’odeur forte et au goût pesce, in “Messaggero di gusto e cultura” throw it into a vessel and place it intentse de sel et de poisson gras, laissant 22, july 2001. without a lid in the sun for two or un arrière-goût très net. Il est toutefois Purpura G. 1982: Pesca e stabilimenti three months, agitating it with a impossible de dire si le garum romain antichi per la lavorazione del pesce shaft at intervals. Next take it, cover ressemblait à cela, d’autant plus qu’il in Sicilia: S. VITO (Trapani), CALA semble avoir existé plusieurs gammes et MINNOLA (Levanzo), in “Sicilia it, and store it away. plusieurs qualités de produit. Archeologica” XV, 1982, 48. pp. 45-60 Rovere P., Brutti A., Pittia P. Belicchi 4. Some add to one sextarius of fi sh, Die Archäologie des Geschmacks C. 2008: Re-evaluation of traditional two sextarii of old wine. – Das Garum von Gargilius Martialis technologies for the processing of fi sh byproducts: Comparison of technologies 5. Next, if you wish to use the garum Der Versuch einen „vergangenen for the production of the roman “garum”, immediately, that is to say not fer- Geschmack“ zu rekonstruieren, mag unmöglich erscheinen. Das Würzmittel in industria conserve N. 3 Anno 83, 2008, ment it in the sun, but to boil it, you pp 165-172 Garum wurde von den Römern in do it this way. When the brine has großen Mengen konsumiert, ein Salza Prina Ricotti E. 1999: L’importanza been tested, so that an egg having del pesce nella vita, nel costume e genaues Rezept mit Mengenangaben nell’industria del mondo antico in been thrown in fl oats (if it sinks, it der Zutaten ist jedoch bisher nicht “Rendiconti della Pontifi cia Accademia is not suffi ciently salty), and throw- bekannt. Untersuchungen dazu haben Romana di Archeologia” Vol. LXXI, 1998- ing the fi sh into the brine in a newly- deshalb ethnologische und jüngere 1999 pp. 111-165. made earthenware pot and adding in Schrift quellen zu Rate gezogen. Die Wikipedia: http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/ some oregano, you place it on a fi re dabei hauptsächlich genutzte Quelle ist Garum until it is boiled, that is until it be- die Beschreibung in „De medicina et de Wunderlich n.d. Garum oder Liquamen gins to reduce a little. Some throw in virtute herbarum“ („Vom medizinischen und praktischen Nutzen der Kräuter“) der Alten: in: http://www.heinrich. boiled down must. Next, throwing wunderlich.de/encyclo/liqua.htm von Gargilius Martialis aus dem 3. Jh. the cooled liquid into a fi lter you toss n. Chr. Eine Auswahl von aromatischen it a second and third time through Kräutern, Fisch und natürlichem Salz Appendix the fi lter until it turns out clear. Aft er wurden schichtweise in einen Tontopf having covered it, store it away. gefüllt, dessen Gefässwandung vorher Geoponica is a medieval manual mit einem pfl anzlichen Pech versiegelt wurde. Der Topf wurde danach mit which may derive from a 6th Cen- 6. Th e best garum, the so-called einem hölzernen Deckel verschlossen. tury text. haimation, is made in this way: the intestines of tunny along with the Das Gemisch wurde anschließend zur gills, juice and blood are taken and Fermentation in der Sonne aufgestellt, Quoted by Curtis, R. I. 1991, 12-13: in der ersten Woche ungestört und suffi cient salt is sprinkled on. Aft er danach regelmäßig umgerührt. Das “1. Th e so-called liquamen is made having left it alone in the vessel for Ergebnis war eine feinkörnige Flüssigkeit in this manner: the intestines of fi sh two month at most, pierce the ves- mit einer olivgrünen Farbe und einem are thrown into a vessel and salted. sel and the garum, called haimation, intensiven Geruch nach Fisch und Small fi sh, either the best smelt, or is withdrawn.” Gewürzen. Die Sauce besaß einen small mullets, or , or wolfi sh, salzigen, fetten Geschmack nach Fisch, der jedoch schnell verschwand und einen or whatever is deemed to be small, Summary angenehmen Nachgeschmack hinterließ. are all salted together and, shaken L’archéologie du goût. Dieses Experiment ermöglichte eine frequently, are fermented in the Le garum de Gargilius Martialis Analyse der verschiedenen Variablen sun. innerhalb des Prozesses und führte zur Reconstituter de façon expérimentale Formulierung von neuen Fragestellungen des goûts est une chose très diffi cile, 2. Aft er it has been reduced in the für zukünft ige Experimente. heat, garum is obtained from it in voir impossible. Bien que le garum ait été consommé en grandes quantités par this way: a large, strong basket is les romains, il n’existe aucune recette Q Lara Comis MA graduated in placed into the vessel of the afore- décrivant précisément les ingrédients 2001 in medieval archaeology at mentioned fi sh, and the garum et leurs proportions. Les chercheurs the University of Tuscia-Viterbo streams into the basket. In this way, ont donc eu recours à des observations (IT) followed by an MA in 2003 the so-called liquamen is strained ethnologiques et à des sources in experimental archaeology at through the basket when it is tak- médiévales, ainsi qu’à une source antique, the University of Exeter (UK). She en up. Th e remaining refuse is alex le « De Medecina et de virtute harbarum » e is currently a professional field (allec). de Gargialus Martialis (III siècle). and research archaeologist with Une sélection d’herbes aromatiques (en a deep interest in experimental 3. Th e Bythinians prepare it in this proportions égales – sauf pour le safran) archaeology and related activities. manner: it is best if you take small a été ajoutée à un mélange de maqueraux, or large sprats, but if not, wolfi sh, de morues et de sel naturel, le tout dans Q Corrado Re PhD is a professional or horse-mackerel, or mackerel, or un vase de terre cuite dont l’intérieur geologist graduated in 1989 at the even alica, and a mixture of all, and avait été préalablement enduit de résine University of Parma (Italy), followed de pin. Clos par un bouchon de bois, throw these into a baker’s knead- by a PhD in Anthropology at the le vase a été laissé 7 jours à macérer au ing trough, in which they are ac- soleil avant d’être ouvert pour remuer le University of Ferrara (Italy) and has customed to knead meal. Tossing mélange. L’expérience a duré presque un 18 years experience in the field into the modius of fi sh two Italian mois au total, pour obtenir un liquide of traditional archaeology. He is sextarii of salt, mix up thoroughly épais avec des morceaux d’épices, de sel et working with Roman living history in order to strengthen it with salt. de poisson amalgammés, d’une couleur and archaeometallurgy.

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