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The Quality of Sydney's Drinking Water

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The Quality of Sydney's Drinking Water NSW PARLIAMENTARY LIBRARY RESEARCH SERVICE The Quality of Sydney’s Drinking Water: Current Issues by Stewart Smith Briefing Paper No 16/98 ISSN 1325-5142 ISBN 0 7313 1626 6 October 1998 © 1998 Except to the extent of the uses permitted under the Copyright Act 1968, no part of this document may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means including information storage and retrieval systems, with the prior written consent from the Librarian, New South Wales Parliamentary Library, other than by Members of the New South Wales Parliament in the course of their official duties. NSW PARLIAMENTARY LIBRARY RESEARCH SERVICE Dr David Clune, Manager ..........................(02) 9230 2484 Dr Gareth Griffith, Senior Research Officer, Politics and Government / Law ......................(02) 9230 2356 Ms Honor Figgis, Research Officer, Law ...............(02) 9230 2768 Ms Rachel Simpson, Research Officer, Law ............(02) 9230 3085 Mr Stewart Smith, Research Officer, Environment .......(02) 9230 2798 Ms Marie Swain, Research Officer, Law/Social Issues ....(02) 9230 2003 Mr John Wilkinson, Research Officer, Economics ........(02) 9230 2006 Should Members or their staff require further information about this publication please contact the author. Information about Research Publications can be found on the Internet at: http://www.parliament.nsw.gov.au/gi/library/publicn.html CONTENTS 1.0 Introduction ..................................................1 1.1 The Characteristics of Water ................................1 2.0 The Regulation of Drinking Water ................................2 2.1 The Regulation of Drinking Water in Sydney ....................4 3.0 The Treatment of Drinking Water ................................6 4.0 Micro-organisms in Drinking Water ...............................8 4.1 Cryptosporidium ..........................................9 4.2 Giardia ................................................14 4.3 Anatomy of a Cryptosporidium Drinking Water Outbreak: Milwaukee .............................................15 4.4 Anatomy of a Cryptosporidium Drinking Water Outbreak: North East of London .....................................17 5.0 The Sydney Water Crisis .......................................17 5.1 Background - Sydney’s Water Supply System ..................17 5.2 The Contamination of Sydney Water Supplies: Summary of the First Event .....................................................19 5.3 Possible Causes of Contamination ...........................21 5.4 A Second Contamination Event .............................22 5.5 The Health Effects of the Sydney Water Incident ................23 5.6 Institutional Response to the Sydney Water Incident ..............24 6.0 International Responses to the threat of Cryptosporidium in Drinking Water ..............................................27 6.1 The United Kingdom Regulatory Response to Cryptosporidium .....27 6.2 The United States Response ................................29 7.0 Conclusion ..................................................33 The Quality of Sydney’s Drinking Water: Current Issues EXECUTIVE SUMMARY There are four main characteristics of drinking water used to describe its quality. These are: physical; microbiological; chemical; and radiological (page 1). Each of these four areas are very important in their own right. However, in Sydney, lately specific attention has been paid to the microbiological characteristics of drinking water (pages 8-15). The protozoan parasites Cryptosporidium and Giardia have recently been detected in the distribution system of Sydney Water, leading to boil water alerts in the community (pages 17-24). The ingestion of the cysts of these organisms, which is the environmentally resistant stage of the pathogen, can result in diarrhoea and stomach cramps in affected persons. There is no treatment available for disease caught from Cryptosporidium, the body naturally repels the parasites after a period of time. However, in the immuno-suppressed, the body is less able to do this and death may result (pages 9-14). Current drinking water guidelines in Australia provide little assistance for water supply authorities in relation to the presence of Cryptosporidium or Giardia in drinking water. Developments overseas, notably the United Kingdom and the United States, have provided some guidelines on international best practice for the presence of these pathogenic organisms in drinking water (pages 27-33). Outbreaks of disease resulting from Cryptosporidium and Giardia contaminated drinking water have occurred around the world. In Milwaukee in the United States, a contamination event in 1993 resulted in over 400,000 people sick and 104 people died. In Sydney, while these organisms have recently been detected in the water distribution system, no increase in disease has been identified. Modern water treatment plants like Prospect Treatment Plant should be able to remove 99% of Cryptosporidium oocysts. However, the Sydney Water Inquiry has concluded that this does not appear to be the case, and further disinfection technologies may need to be investigated for the Sydney water supply (pages 19-24). The source of the pathogenic organisms in the Sydney water supply is yet to be finally determined. Overseas, with similar outbreaks it has proved impossible to pinpoint the source of water contamination. In Sydney, considerable work can be done to improve the catchment management of Warragamba Dam, helping to eliminate some potential sources of contamination for the city’s water supply (page 33). The Quality of Sydney’s Drinking Water: Current Issues 1 1.0 Introduction In New South Wales there are about 120 water treatment plants responsible for the supply of safe and palatable drinking water. The Department of Land and Water Conservation manages around 97% of these plants. Dam storages supplying water to treatment plants account for 86% of the raw water supplied. However, when the Sydney metropolitan area plants are excluded, this figure is reduced to 51%. While dams contribute the greatest volume, rivers are the most common source of drinking water in the State.1 This paper discusses: the regulatory standards of drinking water; the treatment of drinking water; micro-organisms found in water supplies; analysis of outbreaks of water-borne disease overseas and current problems facing Sydney water supply. Both the United Kingdom and the United States of America are currently reviewing their standards and regulations in regard to pathogenic micro-organisms, and these are reviewed in section 6. 1.1 The Characteristics of Water A wide range of characteristics are used to describe the quality of water. These include: C physical C microbiological C chemical, including inorganic, organic and pesticides C radiological The physical characteristics include colour, turbidity, hardness, total dissolved solids, pH, temperature, taste and odour and dissolved oxygen. For the purposes of this paper, one of the most important physical characteristics to take note of is turbidity. Turbidity is caused by the presence in water of fine suspended matter such as clay, silt, plankton and other microscopic organisms. High turbidity can result in the water having a muddy or milky appearance. Turbidity is measured in terms of Nephelometric Turbidity Units (NTU), with the detection limit about 0.1 NTU. In major Australian water systems turbidity ranges between 5 NTU and <1.0 NTU where supplies are filtered, and between 1 NTU and 65 NTU where supplies are not filtered.2 Consumption of highly turbid water is not necessarily a health hazard in its own right. However, suspended particles may harbour micro-organisms, can interfere with the detection of bacteria and viruses, and protect micro-organisms from disinfection. 1 Van Anen,M and Dharmappa,H, “A Survey of Water Treatment Plants in New South Wales.” in Water, Vol 24 No 6 Nov/Dec 1997. 2 National Health and Medical Research Council and Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand, National Water Quality Management Strategy, Australian Drinking Water Guidelines. 1996. 2 The Quality of Sydney’s Drinking Water: Current Issues Section 4.0 of this paper discusses the microbiological characteristics of drinking water. 2.0 The Regulation of Drinking Water In 1980, for the first time, water supply and health authorities combined together to produce guidelines for drinking water in Australia.3 In the guidelines it was noted that water quality regulation is the responsibility of the State and Territory health authorities. The guidelines were just that, and to date the responsibility for determining appropriate standards for drinking water rely on the States. Two types of guideline values have been determined. The first is a health related guideline value, which is the measure of a water quality characteristic that, based on present knowledge, does not result in any significant risk to the health of the consumer over the a lifetime of consumption. The second, referred to as an aesthetic value, is the measure of a water quality characteristic that is associated with good quality water. The guidelines note that the quality of drinking water is determined by three main characteristics: physical, chemical and microbiological. The 1980 guidelines assist authorities by providing the following: basic water quality levels regarded as acceptable under Australian conditions; the long term goal towards which authorities could aim; and an indication of levels above which investigation should be initiated.4 The guidelines
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