Hystrix It. J. Mamm. (n.s.) 21(1) (2010): 19-33

THE ITALIAN ACTION PLAN FOR THE ENDANGERED EURASIAN OTTER LUTRA LUTRA

1* 2 3 4 ANNA LOY , LUIGI BOITANI , LAURA BONESI , ANTONIO CANU , 5 5 6 ANTONIO DI CROCE , PIER LUIGI FIORENTINO , PIERO GENOVESI , 7 6 8 LIVIA MATTEI , MANUELA PANZACCHI , CLAUDIO PRIGIONI , 6 9 ETTORE RANDI , GABRIELLA REGGIANI

1Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie per l’Ambiente e il Territorio, Università del Molise, Contrada Fonte Lappone, 86090 Pesche, *Corresponding author, E-mail: [email protected] 2Dipartimento di Biologia Animale e dell’Uomo, ‘Sapienza’ Università di Roma, Viale Università 32, 00158 Roma 3Riverside Place 73, Cambridge CB5 8JF, UK 4 WWF/ WWF Oasi, Via Allegri 1, Roma, Italy 5Ministero dell’Ambiente e della Tutela del Territorio e del Mare, Via Cristoforo Colombo 44, 00147 Roma, Italy 6 Istituto Superiore per la Protezione e la Ricerca Ambientale, Via Cà Fornacetta 9, 40064 Ozzano Emilia (BO), Italy 7Corpo Forestale dello Stato, Via della Polveriera 43, 63040 Ascoli Piceno (AP), Italy 8 Dipartimento di Biologia Animale, Università di Pavia, Via Taramelli 24, Pavia, Italy 9 Istituto di Ecologia Applicata, Viale dell’Università 32, 00186 Roma, Italy

Received 23 March 2010; accepted 20 June 2010

ABSTRACT - Although recent evidence of the species recovery has been reported for many European countries, in Italy the Eurasian otter Lutra lutra is still considered endan- gered. Otter populations are confined to few river basins in the southern part of the peninsu- la and these are both geographically and genetically isolated from other European popula- tions. This critical situation led the Italian Ministry of Environment to promote the produc- tion of an Action Plan for the otter in Italy, whose methods, aims and actions are briefly summarized.

Key words: Eurasian otter, Lutra lutra, conservation, management, Italy

RIASSUNTO - Nonostante i segnali di recupero segnalati in molti paesi europei, la lontra Lutra lutra è ancora una delle specie più minacciate della fauna italiana, in virtù delle pic- cole dimensionino della popolazione e del suo isolamento , sia geografico, sia genetico, dal resto delle popolazioni europee. Sulla base di queste considerazioni il Ministero dell’Ambiente e della Tutela del territorio e del Mare ha recentemente promosso la realiz- zazione di un Piano d’Azione Nazionale per la Conservazione della Lontra, i cui contenuti, obiettivi, e azioni sono riassunti in questo lavoro.

Parole chiave: Lontra euroasiatica, Lutra lutra, piano d’azione, Italia

19 Loy et al.

INTRODUCTION ropean populations (Prigioni et al., 2006a, 2007; Randi et al., 2003; Mucci In the last four decades of the 20th cen- et al. 2010). Moreover the population is tury, the Eurasian otter Lutra lutra un- divided in two isolated sub- derwent a large, significant decline populations: the larger occurring in throughout much of Europe. Several Campania, , and factors have been suggested to explain Puglia regions, while the smaller, only this decline, including a reduction of recently discovered nucleus, occurs in food supply, pollutants, human perse- four river catchments of Molise and cution and the destruction of riparian regions (Loy et al., 2004; Fu- vegetation. These factors played differ- sillo et al., 2004; Marcelli, 2006). ent roles in each European country, Recent expansion of the otter popula- making it difficult to generalize con- tions in Slovenia (Honigsfledt, pers. servation strategies at a continental lev- com.) and Austria (Kranz, pers. com.) el. Accordingly, the action plan for ot- let hypothesize the near colonization of ter species produced by the IUCN-Otter the River Isonzo catchment (NE Italy). Specialist Group (Foster-Turley et al. Compared to other populations in Eu- 1990) gives specific indications for the rope, that in e Italy is recovering rather implementation of national action slowly, with signs of the species ex- plans. The decrease in the concentra- panding its range having only recently tion of harmful pollutants in the envi- become evident (De Castro and Loy, ronment due to more stringent regula- 2007; Prigioni et al., 2007). tions and the enactment of legal protec- This critical situation led the Italian tion have allowed otter populations to Ministry of Environment to promote gradually recover since the 1980s in the production of an Action Plan (AP several European countries (Fig. 1). hereafter) for the otter in Italy (Panzac- This positive trend led to downgrade chi et al., 2010). The efficacy of this the species from “Vulnerable” (Reuther tool depending on both its adherence to and Hilton-Taylor, 2004) to “Near the local situation and capacity to in- Threatened”, at both global and Euro- volve stakeholders (Council of Europe, pean scale (IUCN, 2004, 2007). De- 1998). To achieve this, the Italian Min- spite this positive trend the species is istry of Environment established two still considered as “Endangered” in Ita- teams: the first team (TSB - Technical ly (Boitani L., Genovesi P. and Rondi- and Scientific Board) was charged with nini C., in prep). collecting data and drawing up the During the first half of the 20th century plan; the second, the Institutional the otter was still widespread through- Board (IB) was responsible for promot- out Italy, but its distribution is now ing the participation and involvement confined to the southern part of the pe- of all the territorial authorities within ninsula. The residual population is rela- the current range of the otter (Regional tively small (estimated at about 250 and Provincial administrations, Nation- adult individuals surviving on 50 river al and Regional parks, government en- catchments) and is both geographically vironmental agencies, NGOs). The and genetically isolated from other Eu- teams met periodically to share and

20 Italian Action Plan for otters

 Figure 1 - Distribution of the otter in Europe (from European Mammal Assessment http://www.iucnredlist.org ) and detail of the otter range in Italy. discuss the different stages of the plan The otter is considered a “flagship spe- development. The plan represents an cies”, at the top of the fresh water food official document of the Italian gov- chain and strictly dependent on riparian ernment. To maximize and optimize vegetation cover (Lunnon and Rey- the efficacy of the plan through a nolds, 1991; Bifolchi and Lodé, 2005), shared strategy of management, all in- consequently the Action Plan was also stitutions signed an official agreement. conceived in the light of the key role of

21 Loy et al. otters in the conservation of aquatic 2006b; Prigioni, 1997; Cannetiello et ecosystems, these being among the al. 2005; Fusillo, 2006) and trout (Sal- most endangered habitats in Europe mo trutta) in mountain streams. Otters (Dudgeon et al., 2006). also prey upon alien species, such as A special effort was devoted to stan- largemouth bass (Micropterus sal- dardize methods, monitoring efforts moides), carp (Cyprinus carpio;), gold- and actions in conformity to the Euro- fish (Carassius auratus), catfish (Icta- pean conservation strategy. This aim lurus melas) and red swamp crayfish was achieved by adapting the recom- (Procambarus clarkii), which some- mendations of the IUCN Otter Special- times may form the bulk of its diet ist Group for Europe (IUCN, 2004) to (Prigioni et al. 2006b; Blanco Garrido the Italian legal, economic, and social et al., 2008; Loy et al., 2009). context. In these terms, we argue that it The behavioural ecology of Italian ot- may represent an effective tool to en- ters has been little investigated. Radi- hance the protection and conservation otelemetric data on wild otters are of the otter in Europe. available for only one male and one female from the Cilento National Park, BIOLOGY AND ECOLOGY OF while six animals (three females and ITALIAN OTTERS three sterilized males) were experimen- tally released from an enclosure in the The Eurasian otter is a solitary and ter- National Park. These data indi- ritorial semi-aquatic carnivore distri- cate that home range size varies be- buted widely throughout Eurasia, tween 36 - 44 km for males and 30 km where it inhabits streams, rivers, ponds, for females (Mattei et al., 2005a, b, c, lakes and coastal areas. In Italy the d; Fusillo, 2006; Quaglietta, com. species is confined mainly to the me- pers.). A non-invasive genetic sampling dian course of the main rivers and their carried out in the National Park tributaries, rarely occurring in coastal yielded maximum values of 35 km and areas (Panzacchi et al., 2010). The Eu- 21 km of river stretches (Prigioni et al., rasian otter is an opportunistic feeder 2006c), each including the overlapping and in Mediterranean freshwater bo- ranges of 4-6 different otters. The same dies, its diet varies spatially and seaso- study allowed an assessment of otter nally in relation to fish availability density, which, in the core area of the (Remonti et al., 2008, 2009).Whenever Italian otter population, ranged from fish are scarce otters rely on alternative 0.18 to 2.0 ind/km (Prigioni et al., prey, most frequently amphibians and 2006a). Variation in otter marking in- crustaceans (Ruiz-Olmo et al. 1989; tensity at the periphery of the range Prigioni et al., 2006b; Fusillo, 2006; suggested otter density is probably Smiroldo et al., 2009). As in the rest of lower in these areas (Prigioni et al., Europe, the diet is dominated by cypri- 2006d, Fusillo et al., 2007). nids in lentic waters, mainly barbs The average distance covered in one (Barbus spp.), European chub (Leucis- night by females was 11 km and by cus cephalus), and orange-fin roaches males 15 km (Mattei et al., 2005b).All (Rutilus rubilio) (Prigioni et al., 1991, otters monitored in Italy were largely

22 Italian Action Plan for otters nocturnal (80-100% of total activity for the protection of wildlife (L.N. was at night; Mattei et al., 2005c; Fu- 157/1992, art. 2/1). sillo, 2006; Quaglietta, pers. com.). As in other temperate areas (Green et al., THREATS AND LIMITING FAC- 1984; Rosoux and Libois, 1991; TORS Jiménez and Palomo, 1998), during their diurnal inactive phase otters used Threats and limiting factors have been a high number of resting sites (up to defined considering the specific charac- 50; Fusillo, 2006; Quaglietta, com. teristics of Mediterranean river basins pers.). Brambles seem to be strongly and the Italian socioeconomic context. selected as resting habitat, as reported Each threat was examined for its relev- for Portugal (Beja, 1996), whilst reed ance, effects and present trend (Tab. 1). beds and tree roots are less important Due to high human density in Italy, the than reported for other countries (Green species has been severely limited by et al., 1984; Kruuk, 2006; Macdonald anthropogenic factors. Main threats to and Mason, 1983). otters were identified as the destruction No data are available for wild otters of riparian vegetation along riverbanks, breeding in Italy, while in captivity road casualties, illegal direct persecu- births tend to concentrate in October - tion, the scarcity of food resources December (Maiella N. P.; Mattei, per- (mainly fish), and seasonal variation in sonal observation). water availability. The online database Finally, recent studies reported that the on otter road casualties (http://www2.- otter population of southern Italy show units.it/~specieinvasive/) developed by only one mtDNA haplotype (Mucci et L. Bonesi for the IUCN.SSC Otter Specialist Group, recorded 27 otters al., 2010) and are divergent from the found dead between 1999 and 2008. other European ones probably as a con- sequence of recent isolation and bottle- GOALS AND STRATEGY OF THE neck (Mucci et al., 2010), even if, lack- ITALIAN ACTION PLAN ing data on extinct north Italian popula- tions, the genetic diversity of southern Taking the current otter distribution in otters is difficult to interpret. Italy, the species’ main ecological re- quirements and all potential threats, the LEGAL PROTECTION Action Plan identified the priority areas for intervention and main goals to be The Italian Action Plan has been de- accomplished in the short, medium and vised to be accommodated into current long term, summarized in the Appen- international and national laws for the dix. The latter group includes: the protection of biodiversity and endan- coordination of the institutions respon- gered species. The Eurasian otter is sible for the application of the legal strictly protected by the Bern Conven- framework for the conservation of the tion, is listed in annex I of the CITES otter (goals R: rules), reduction of mor- convention and annexes II and IV of tality and disturbance, prevention of the EU Habitat Directive. It is also se- conflicts and impacts on human activi- verely protected under the Italian law ties, preservation of the genetic identity

23 Loy et al.

Table 1 - Main threats and limiting factors for the Eurasian otter in Italy.

Threat or limiting factor Relevance in Italy Shortage of feeding resources Very high Scarcity of water Very high Demographic and genetic stochasticity Very high Riparian habitat loss/destruction High/Very high Roads High Direct persecution and conflicts with man High Organoclorine pesticides Probably high Urbanization and human disturbance Moderate/High Dams Moderate/High Heavy metals Moderate/High PCBs Probably moderate Organic pollutants Moderate Gravel pit Moderate and integrity of populations, with an (C), river basins where otters are likely adequate genetic flow among popula- to expand in the next future (E; Fig. 2). tions (S: species), habitat restoration Within each priority area, maps of ha- and conservation, primarily in the areas bitat suitability were produced, follow- of current presence and those potential- ing a model produced by Ottaviani et ly connecting the isolated populations al. (2009), to allow the identification of (H: habitat), systematic, continuous and the specific areas of intervention. coordinate monitoring of the goals and, As listed in the Appendix, for each ac- eventually, updating of conservation tion the following information were strategies (M: monitoring), communi- specified: list of interventions, scale cation and dissemination strategies, (national, regional, or local), area of in- training and involvement of stakehold- tervention (areas of occurrence, con- ers (I: information). Each category was nection, or expansion), relevance of the subdivided in specific sub-goals, each action (high, medium, low), subjects in to be achieved through specific actions charge for action coordination, subjects (see Appendix). For each action, the in charge for action achievement, dead- institutional responsible, costs and time lines for both the start up and comple- of accomplishment were defined. Ac- tion of the action, and estimated costs. tions were differently addressed to Finally, the Action Plan contains a se- three categories of priority areas: river ries of appendices providing protocols basins where otters actually occur (P), for: 1) data collection and recovery of river basins that are crucial for the con- wounded animals (also including the nection of isolated portions of the range national website for reporting otters ca-

24 Italian Action Plan for otters



Figure 2 - Current otter distribution in Italy, showing the priority areas for the connection of isolated populations and future otter expansion. sualties and carcasses http://www2.- non invasive genetic sampling, captive units.it/~specieinvasive/); 2) necrop- breeding and the conversion of captive sies, 3) captures, 4) captive breeding, 5) breeding centres into recovery centres. monitoring, 6) standard survey. Proto- We hope that the effort devoted to cols were derived from those available adapt the conservation strategy for ot- in Europe, adapted to Italian laws and ters in Europe (IUCN, 2004) to the Ital- the relevant EU Directives. Particular ian legal, economic, and social context attention was devoted to provide a pro- made the Italian AP an effective tool to tocol for standard surveys in accor- enhance the protection and conserva- dance to IUCN –OSG recommenda- tion of the otter throughout Europe. tions (Reuther et al., 2000). The stan- dard method was also revised in order AKNOWLEDGMENTS to optimize monitoring efforts accord- ing to the obligations of both art. 17 of Our gratitude goes to the many people, Habitat (92/43/CE) and Water Frame- institutions, organizations and volunta- work (2000/60/CE) Directives. The Ac- ries that provided information and data tion Plan also provides guidelines for on distribution, biology and ecology of

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28 Appendix – Main objectives, sub objectives and actions required for the Italian Action Plan for the Eurasian otter to be successfully achieved. Abbreviations. Subject: MATTM –Italian Ministry of Environment; ISPRA – National Environmental Agency, ARPA – Regional Environmental Agency, SS -Public institutions and private organizations who signed the AP agreement , CNR-IRSA – National Research Institute-Institute for Water Research, TSB: Technical and Scientific Board, IB: Institutional Board, MC- Management Committee, CFS-National Forestry Service, ASL – Local Health National Service. Scale: N -National, R -Regional; L: Local. Basin:P - current occurrence; C - important for subpopulation connection; E - future expansion; Priority: H – high, M - medium, L - low

Objectives R (Rules): Coordination of institutional subjects responsible for application of existing rules regarding on otter conservation, and for any integrations needed.

Institutional subject Specific Objective Action Subject responsible code /*1000 /*1000 Time Scale involved Costs Basin Priority ȯ

TSB, IB, State Assure institutional Production, revision, approval, reception and adoption of the H MATTM, ISPRA, - 0 R1 N committee for regional Italian Action Planforotters

support to the AP AP 2009 SS affairs

a) Establishment of a Management Committee to coordinate H -

N MATTM, ISPRA TSB and provide scientific and technical support to AP activities 2/year 29 Promote coordination and Immediate organization of institutional R2 b) Establishment of Working Groups for accomplishment of H Reference subjectsresponsible for SS 0 R/L specific actions organizations, MC first yr Within

accomplicshment of the C (E) P, AP Regional and Province c) Guarantee funding for the AP H MATTM, SS administrations, onths N/R Do be m defined

P, C (E) C (E) P, Protected Areas Within six I. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT EVALUATION Being responsible for the inclusion of otter AP objectives in MATTM , Regional any Environmental Impact Assessments, Environmental H MATTM administrations, SS, Assure inclusion of otter Strategic Assessments, or Environmental Incidence N/R/L P, C, E conservation actions MC Routine R3 Assessments Immediate during application of actual regulation II. DIRETTIVA ACQUE (2000/60/CEE) Assure otter is considered in the decision making process CNR-IRSA, ISPRA, P N within the quality objectives of Water Framework Directive M MATTM MC Within first yr

2000/60/CE Routine III. DIRETTIVA HABITAT (92/43/CEE) Integration of AP actions in management plans of Natura 2000 H Regional

L sites and eventual proposal for new sites in relation to otter MATTM administrations first yr Within P (C,E) occurrence Routine IV. NATIONAL FREMEWORK LAW ON PROTECTED AREAS (LN 394/91)

a) Promote the adoption of management plans in National and Regional Regional and Province

Regional Parks H

R administrations, administrations, P, C, E

b) Promote the establishment of Side Areas and inclusion of AP Protected Areas MATTM, National Parks Routine R3 objectives in defition of their regulation s Within two yrs V. CONVENZIONE DI RAMSAR (1971)

Inclusion of the otter within biological indicators for P L Loy N MATTM MC identification of internationally relevant wetlands Within two yrs Routine Routine 30 et al. Objectives S (Species): Reduction of mortality rates and disturbance, prevention of conflicts with human activities, safeguard the genetic identity of populations and sustain adequate gene flow among populations. Regional and Province a) Minimize road casualties SS administrations, Road agencies, CFS H

S1 Reduction of casualties L Province

P (C, E) administrations, Stake b) Minimize casualties due to fishing tools SS holders associations (i.e. Within two yrs Fish farm , Anglers)

Prevention of conflicts Regional Stake holders Do be defined Define adequate measures of prevention, assessment and H S2 with fish farms and administrations, associations (i.e. Fish R,L consider damage compensation one yr one yr Within

anglers P (C, E) Protected Areas farm, Anglers)

MATTM, ISPRA, Prevention of risks related Protected Areas, Authorize captures only in exceptional cases, when they are H Regional and 0 P S3 to captures of wild L Research Institutions, necessary to achieve actions Province animals Museums, CFS

Immediate administrations Preserve gentic identity H Captive breeding

S4 and variabilità of Italian L Eliminate the risk of genetic pollution MATTM, SS Centres

populations P, C, E Immediate Do be defined

Regional and Province administrations, Minimize disturbance in Regulate disturbance activities in specific relevant Protected Areas, CFS, P S5 L SS sensitive areas conservation, areas (e.g. breeding sites) H/L Stake holders Routine Routine

Immediate associations (i.e. Fish farm, Anglers)

Italian Action Planforotters Objectives H (Habitat): Restoring and preserving otter, with priority in areas of occurrence and corridors connecting isolated populations

Institutional subject Specific Objective Action Subject responsible code /*1000 /*1000 Time Scale involved Costs Basin Priority ȯ

31 Assure planning of habitat Assure integration of AP objectives being considered in River District MATTM, Regional R H1 conservation and restoring managment and planning tools of river basins (according to LN H Authorities, competent administrations one yr one yr Within P, C, E

actions 183/1989, Dlgs 152/2006) Ministries Routine

a) Preserve/restore riparian vegetation cover Regional and Province H administrations, Riestore and preserve b) Reduce impact agricultural and zootechnical practices on ISPRA, H2 riverine environment in riparian vegetation belts SS R,L River District

AP priority areas P, E, C Authorities, CFS, Within one yr c) Adequate agricultural and zootechnical practices in riparian Protected Areas Do be defined belts M

Local administrations, a) Preserve/restore natural waterbeds River District Restore and preserve Authorities, CFS,

H3 freshwater habitat in AP H SS R,L Land reclamation

priority areas P, E, C b) Adequate water quality and flood throughout the year authority, Protected Within one yr Areas Do be defined Regional and Province administrations, River Assure an adequate and District Authorities, constant availability of Restore freshwater ecosystems and promote a sustainable and CFS, Land reclamation L H4 otter feeding resources, H SS rationale management of fishing and manipulation of fish fauna authority, Protected

both fish and alternative P, E, C Areas, Stake holders

preys Within one yr associations (i.e. Fish Do be defined farm, Anglers)

a) Recover/protect relevant areas for gene flow within river basins Regional and Province administrations, C H SS R,L b) Recover/protect relevant areas for gene flow among river Protected Areas, Assure an adequate gene basins, specifically for isolated populations and for expanding MATTM, Universities Within one yr H5 Do be defined flow among populations areas Loy 32

c) Identify and adequately manage areas for ecological and et al. 0 C H N MATTM, SS ISPRA, Universities functional connection (DPR 357/97) Within one yr

Objectives M (Monitoring): Collecting in a systematic, continuative and coordinated way data useful to accomplish, verify and update conservation strategies of the AP.

Institutional subject Specific Objective Action Subject responsible code /*1000 /*1000

Scale Time involved Costs Basin Priority ȯ

a) Carry out a five year monitoring program at a national scale CDG, authorized N H yr yr MATTM through standard survey techniques personnel Do be P, C, E defined M1 Monitor otter distribution Within one b) Notify and document any finding of otter occurrence outside ISPRA, University of L N current range during monitoring following obligations of Dlgs MATTM, CDG Molise, University of yrs C, E

152/2006 Pavia 20 15 - Within two Road Authority, CFS, ASL, Regional and Province Promote a coordinated and centralized collection of data and University of Trieste, P M2 Monitor otter mortality N H administrations, information on dead or wounded otters MATTM

Protected Areas, Routine Regional Veterinary

Within six months Within six months Service Stake holders Monitor potential Promote coordinated and centralized collection on damages to P H M3 N MATTM, MC associations (i.e. Fish conflicts fish farms 15-20 15-20 Within two yrs farm, Anglers)

Store and utilize data on quality of freshwater and riparian Monitor otter habitat Italian Action Planforotters N yr yr M4 ecosystems collected following obligations of Dlgs 152/2006 M MATTM, MC ISPRA conservation status P, C, E

related to otter habitat conservation Routine Within one Universities, ISPRA, Promote scientific MATTM, Ministry of Protected Areas,

M5 research on priority Promote researches on priority subjects M Education and Research 33 N,L

subjects P, C, E Scientific Research, SS Institutions,

Within one yr Museums Do be defined

Objectives I (Information): Put into practice- realize an effective and transparent communication, train, and involve all active components of the society in the accomplishment of the AP.

Institutional subject Specific Objective Action Subject responsible code /*1000 /*1000

Scale Time involved Costs Basin Priority ȯ

Promote and advertise the AP contents and related activities, Promote dissemination

I1 N including the involvement of mass media and the creation of a H MATTM, ISPRA, MC and education 30 - 40 30 - P, C, E dedicated web site SS, Media, Schools, Within one yr Environmental organizations Promote active Develop specific programs for accomplishment of AP actions

I2 participation of H MATTM, SS, MC R,L through active involvement of stakeholders

stakeholder P, C, E Within one yr Do be defined