Estate Nature Guide Estate Nature Guide The Linnaeus Estate Named after Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778) Contents

i. ii. iii. iv. v. 8 INTRODUCTION & 10 GEOGRAPHY 20 ECOSYSTEMS AND FLORA 52 FAUNA 86 HISTORY OF HUMAN 106 APPENDICES & ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS OCCUPATION FURTHER READING

12 Geological History 22 The Flora and Ecological 54 Fauna Communities 88 Bundjalung Aboriginal 108 Appendix A Communities of Linnaeus Cultural Heritage Threatened Profiles 14 Ecological History 56 Threatened 29 Littoral Rainforest 94 European Settlement Flora and Fauna 15 Broken Head Nature Reserve 60 Mammals 34 Brush Box Forest 110 Appendix B 16 The Heathland 62 Birds Vegetation Species 36 Swamp Forest 17 Cape Byron Marine Park 70 117 Appendix C 40 Wallum Heathland 72 Frogs Fauna Species 44 Kangaroo Grassland on 74 128 Appendix D Headlands Linnaeus Estate Trail Guide 78 Spiders 46 Freshwater Wetlands 130 Appendix E 80 Dragonflies and Damsel Flies 49 Coastal Dunes Sunbeams from cucumbers: 82 Beetles A gold-from-sea water scheme 84 Phasmids and Mantids 136 Appendix F Owen Lynn Oral History 85 Cicadas and Katydids 141 Further Reading

6 Contents Contents 7 Introduction Acknowledgements

Welcome to the Linnaeus Estate Nature Guide, the companion text for The Linnaeus Estate Nature Guide and the companion Linnaeus Estate the Linnaeus Estate Trail Guide Trail Guide are the progeny of an enormous collaborative effort.

The flora and fauna included in this Guide are a particular record of those species observed, or expected to The of the idea was sown by Phil McMaster. He recruited botanists and ecologists Robert Price and be observed, by botanists Robert Price and Lui Weber as they walked the Linnaeus Estate Trail, and those Lui Weber to assist with the germination after they had presented workshops for our first Students Under- additionally recorded by flora and fauna consultant Peter Parker and by Linnaeus members. standing Sustainable Strategies (SUSS) programme in 2007. Phil then guided the project to fruition.

The Guide also includes information on the geological and ecological history, and the history of human The main body of the text was compiled by Robert Price and Lui Weber. Further contributions to the text occupation, that have all influenced the ecosystems that we see today on the Linnaeus Estate. were made by historian Dr Brett Stubbs, Ms Kate Adams from NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service, Mr Josh Rosenthal from School for International Training, Mr Peter Parker from Peter Parker Environmental Consultants, and Dr Angela James. The oral history contribution was made by Mr Owen Lynn.

The many contributions to the text were edited and compiled by Dr Angela James as a member of the Linnaeus Estate.

The photographs included in this Guide were taken at Linnaeus by Robert Price and Lui Weber, and supple- mented from other databases. Rick Shearman was responsible for graphic design.

If anyone else has been omitted, then please consider yourself gratefully acknowledged.

The entire project has been funded by the members of Linnaeus Estate through the Linnaeus Education Steve Duchen Fund, and Broken Head Coastal Foundation Pty Ltd as developer of the Linnaeus Estate. On behalf of the Trustee

8 Introduction Acknowledgements 9 11 Geological History

A view of the volcanic plug, Wollumbin (Mt Warning), from the rim of the eroded volcano. Linnaeus is situated toward the upper left hand side of the image. The 200 million year old metasediment hills meet the coastal sands at Linnaeus and Broken Head Nature Reserve.

These here hills are as old as the trees forms the flats. Lennox Head is an old lava flow not completely eroded away. This landscape tells a story, a tale that stretches back 200 million years. At that time was part of the super-continent Gondwana and a deep ocean trench occupied the space where Linnaeus is situated today. Meanwhile the sandstone and granite mountain ranges of New Clays, silts and sands transported by streams and rivers from nearby eroding plateaus deposited layers in South Wales were gradually eroding away, pulverised over the ocean trench. Over time these sediments consolidated into rocks that were buckled and uplifted, and in millions of years by the action of water and ultimately deposited turn eroded into a landscape of hills and valleys. into the ocean as sand. The prevailing southeast winds and waves pushed this sand up against the coast and gradually northward, Volcanic activity followed around 20 million years ago, covering this landscape with a super-volcano over forming the beaches and coastal dunes of northern NSW. 100km in diameter. The volcano was centred on present-day Wollumbin (Mt Warning), a one-hour drive northwest of the Estate. This mountain, the ancient plug of the volcano, can be seen from the beaches of Byron Bay.

Over time, high rainfall formed streams and rivers that partially eroded away the overlying volcanic rocks, leaving behind a gigantic erosion crater known as a caldera (the Tweed Valley) with Mt Warning at its centre. Radiating outward from the rainforest-clad crater rim, like spokes in a wheel, countless fresh-flowing The Hoop Pine Araucaria cunningamii belongs to an ancient group streams cut deep gorges and broad valleys into the landscape. It was this erosion that revealed and shaped of conifers that includes the recently discovered Wollemi Pine. This the metasediments that form the hills of the Linnaeus Estate today and deposited much of the material that family of conifers goes back 200 million years in the fossil record, making it literally as old as the hills.

12 i. Geography i. Geography 13 Ecological History Broken Head Nature Reserve

Lush rainforest at Broken Head. When you step into these forests you step back in time. Why not take a walk in the Nature Reserve and discover what this wonderful place has to offer?

Echoes from the ‘Golden Age’ The Nature Reserve at Broken Head is one of the most exceptional

Linnaeus is situated in a region that preserves both the climate and the lush vegetation of the ‘golden age’ areas of coastal rainforest on the north coast of in Australia’s prehistory. When you step into these forests you step back in time. Australia began existence The rainforest and brushbox forest of this Reserve have comparable as an independent island continent when it detached from Antarctica about 45 million years ago during the scientific and conservation value to Iluka Nature Reserve which is Eocene period. included in the Gondwana Rainforests of Australia World Heritage area. It was the final large fragment to separate from the southern super-continent Gondwana, which also originally included Africa, India, South America and New Zealand. Australia was a much wetter place back The Broken Head Reserve contains a high concentration of threatened then, with lush forests growing in what are now the deserts of the outback. Fossilised forests from around and species, and species at their known limits of dist- Lake Eyre in closely resemble the rainforest and brush-box forests found at Linnaeus today, ribution such as Coast Euodia Melicope vitiflora and Southern with many virtually identical to those preserved in the fossil record. Tapeinosperma Tapeinosperma repandulum. Over millions of years, as Australia dried out, these forests retreated to the lushest remaining locations. The It is remarkable to walk in this Reserve where lush palms and cycads Byron Bay district and its hinterland is one of these refuges, one of the largest areas remaining on the east grow only metres from surf crashing onto the beaches of secluded coast of Australia that is suitable for these ancient forests to survive. The Linnaeus Estate protects a small coves. The coastal fringe of the Reserve provides important shelter piece of this precious ‘golden age’ inheritance. and breeding sites for a number of rare and threatened sea birds, many of which migrate from the Northern Hemisphere each year.

14 i. Geography i. Geography 15 The Heathland Cape Byron Marine Park

Banksia serrata is a species of woody shrub or tree of the Banksia in the Proteaceae family, featuring serrated, dark green and large, yellow or Green Turtles Chelonia mydas are commonly seen around Julian Rocks. Photo: Corinna Byrne greyish-yellow spikes. Heathlands are a peaceful place to walk and enjoy colorful wildflowers Linnaeus is located adjacent to the Cape Byron Marine Park, a 22,000 hectare and -feeding animals marine protected area with outstanding natural values, including sandy beaches, rocky shores and reefs hosting coral communities To the south of Linnaeus behind the dunes there is a significant area of coastal heath containing fire resis- tant plants such as the Banksia and other wild that burst into colourful display during summer, late The Park is home to dolphins, turtles and seabirds along with diverse tropical and temperate fish and winter and spring. Forests of scribbly gum and paperbarks, and large stands of grass trees also occur in this marine plants. Some threatened animals recorded here include the Little Tern, the Grey Nurse Shark and area. The plants of these ecosystems attract large numbers of nectar-eating , birds and mammals. the Loggerhead Turtle. Migrating whales, mainly Humpbacks, pass through the Marine Park each year.

Heathlands are a peaceful place to walk and enjoy colorful wildflowers and nectar-feeding animals, including insects, the white-cheeked and Zoning Map of the Marine Park (overleaf) other honeyeaters by day, and rare blossom bats at night. The ideal time to visit is early morning or late afternoon when the sun is less Areas in pink, including Broken Head just north of Linnaeus, are harsh and the honeyeaters are most active. Springtime is the most sanctuary zones where fishing activities are prohibited. Recreational rewarding part of the year to visit as the wildflowers are at their peak. boating and diving and environmental education and research are allowed. If you wish to identify the plants you see or learn more about this For some unknown reason many insects found fascinating ecosystem, refer to the Heathland field identification guide in heathland, such as the beetles above, are iridescent, including an iridescent blue moth. later in this publication. The Marine Park contains a variety of habitats including rocky reefs with coral.

16 i. Geography i. Geography 17 Reprintedwith permission, Cape Byron Marine Park Zoning Map of the Cape Byron Marine Park Zoning Map of the Cape Byron Marine Park

19 21 The Flora and Ecological Communities of Linnaeus

Freshwater ponds and The Crab building

Ecosystems are communities of plants and animals living together for endemism. Over 60 species of plants occur in this region and nowhere else on earth, and many of the animals are also unique. This natural fact, coupled with extensive clearing of lowland vegetation during and interacting with each other and their non-living environment settlement, means that this area harbors very high numbers of threatened species and a number of endan- gered ecosystems. Many of these species and ecosystems may become extinct within one or a few decades Most people recognize at least some broad ecosystem types such as Rainforest or forest, but unless the threatening processes driving them toward the brink of extinction are stopped. did you know that both of these forest types are actually composed of many distinct ecosystems with their own unique plant and animal communities? Ecosystems differ from one another in many ways. Different In an attempt to prevent such extinctions in New South Wales the State Government enacted the Threatened physical conditions such as rock-type, rainfall, altitude, latitude and aspect determine the types of plants Species Conservation Act. The objective of this legislation is to conserve threatened biodiversity. Biodiver- and animals that can survive and thrive in a given place. Different microenvironments support different sity is the variety of all life. This includes species, populations and communities of plants and animals. It is ecosystems. For example, in the Byron Bay district rainforest near the coast (littoral rainforest) on sand is against the law to harm listed biodiversity without a permit, and penalties for doing so include large fines different in many ways to coastal rainforest further south and north. Regional or bioregional distinctive- and jail terms. ness, or endemism, are terms used to describe this variation within the same ecosystems across different regions. This distinctiveness gives each region its own unique ecological ‘flavour’ and, for this region, one The Linnaeus Estate conserves a number of coastal and floodplain ecosystems that were extensively aspect of this flavour is the high concentration of rare and threatened species and ecosystems. destroyed for agriculture and coastal development. Of these ecosystems, most are listed as endangered ecological communities and they contain over ten threatened species of plants and a number of threat- Threatened species and ecosystems are those that, due to human interference or to natural scarcity, are ened animals. Threatened species are completely dependent on good-quality, intact ecosystems such as uncommon in the landscape and are vulnerable to, or endangered by, extinction because certain processes those conserved here at the Linnaeus Estate. Maintaining intact ecosystems at Linnaeus protects a precious, threaten their continued existence. Such processes include vegetation clearing, environmental weed inva- increasingly scarce inheritance and is contributing to prevent some beautiful and unique species from being sion, collection by enthusiasts, and land development. The Byron Bay district and surrounds is a hot-spot wiped off the face of the earth forever.

22 ii. Ecosystems & Flora ii. Ecosystems & Flora 23 Threatened plants found at Linnaeus

Scented Acronychia littoralis Family: Conservation status: Endangered These small trees are a relative of oranges, lemons and other Citrus. Their leaves possess numerous oil dots and are pleasantly aromatic when crushed. They have small creamy yellowish flowers and a 1-2cm diameter divided into four lobes by shallow grooves. Found only from Port Macquarie NSW to Fraser Island QLD in or adjacent to littoral rainforests on deep coastal sand, this species has suffered badly from coastal development. Within this range it is scattered and extremely uncommon. The Linnaeus Estate protects one of the largest populations left on Earth. Similar species: Acronychia imperforata differs in having round fruit not divided into lobes. This species also lacks visible oil dots. Acronychia wilcoxiana differs in having larger and more deeply lobed cream to white fruit.

The vulnerable White Lace Flower hendersonii Hairy Mueller’s Walnut / Green- Leaved Rose Walnut Endiandra muelleri subsp. bracteata Rare or Threatened: What’s in a name? These here hills are as old as the trees Family: Rare species are those that are restricted in distribution to a relatively small area. A species may be rare and This landscape tells a story, a tale thatConservation stretches back status: 200 million Endangered years. At that time Australia was part of the threatened, although many species are considered rare but not threatened. Confused? super-continent Gondwana and a deepThis ocean relative trench of theoccupied Avocado the isspace a rainforest where Linnaeus tree to 30m is situated tall. It hastoday. Clays, silts and sands transported bybroad streams and and hairy rivers leaves from with nearby up to eroding seven pairsplateaus of veins. deposited Hairy layers new in The key difference is that rare species are not considered to be under threat because they are relatively the ocean trench. Over time these sedimentsgrowth isconsolidated reddish turning into rocksgreen. that were buckled and uplifted, and in abundant in protected areas like National Parks or there are no identified processes threatening their exis- turn eroded into a landscape of hills and valleys. tence. Threatened species, however, are classed as either endangered or vulnerable to extinction because It grows in both the rainforest and the brush box forest on the their situation is more precarious. Below are the definitions of endangered and vulnerable. Volcanic activity followed around 20Estate. million In years New Southago, covering Wales this this species landscape is restricted with a super-volcano to the Northern over 100km in diameter. The volcano wasRivers centred between on present-day Maclean Wollumbin and Tweed (Mt Heads Warning), and it alsoa one-hour occurs drive in Endangered: likely to become extinct in the wild within one to two decades if current threatening processes northwest of the Estate. This mountain,. the ancient plug of the volcano, can be seen from the beaches of continue. Byron Bay. Similar species: Endiandra hayesii The leaves of this species differ in having greater Vulnerable: not under immediate threat of extinction although likely to become endangered in the medium Over time, high rainfall formed streamsthan and seven rivers pairs that of veinspartially and erodedin tending away to bethe more overlying velvet-hairy volcanic on rocks,the term if current threatening processes continue. leaving behind a gigantic erosion. undersides. Endiandra muelleri subsp. muelleri The leaves of this species differ in The plants documented on the following pages are in a precarious position. Many rely entirely on a handful generally being smaller and lacking hairs. of scattered forest patches for their continuing existence. The protection afforded to some of this forest by the Linnaeus Estate helps ensure their ongoing survival.

24 ii. Ecosystems & Flora ii. Ecosystems & Flora 25 Threatened plants found at Linnaeus

White Lace Flower Stinking Cryptocarya Archidendron hendersonii Cryptocarya foetida Family: Mimosaceae Family: Lauraceae Conservation status: Vulnerable Conservation status: Vulnerable These small trees are a relative of the wattles. Their leaves are This relative of the Avocado is a small to medium sized tree found glossy and hairless. They have groups of up to ten fluffy, creamy- in littoral rainforest, usually on sand. It has dark green leaves with white flowers and an orange, curled pod that splits to reveal glossy a pale yellow, slightly zigzagged mid-vein. The fruit is black and black displayed strikingly against a red or yellow interior. rounded, measuring about 1cm diameter. Very few mature trees of this species are known, although they are locally abundant in some Found from the area near Linnaeus on the Richmond River NSW places as seedlings, saplings and sub-adults. northward into Queensland in Littoral Rainforest and occasionally coastal Lowland Subtropical Rainforest. This species has suffered This species grows in northeastern New South Wales and southeast badly from the clearing of lowland and coastal rainforests. It is very Queensland only. At the Linnaeus Estate this species is known from uncommon in New South Wales. the Littoral Rainforest on sand near the Interpretive Centre. Similar species: Veiny Lace Flower Archidendron muellerianum Has less shiny, more strongly veined blunt leaflets and a seedpod that does not constrict between seeds. Archidendron grandiflorum Has larger, more divided leaves with many - lets and pink tipped flowers.

Hediotis, Sweet False Galium Rusty Plum Oldenlandia galioides Niemeyera whitei These here hills are as old as the trees Family: Rubiaceae Family: Sapotaceae Conservation status: Endangered This landscape tells a story, a tale thatConservation stretches back status: 200 million Vulnerable years. At that time Australia was part of the This plant is a small inconspicuous herb with opposite leaves that super-continent Gondwana and a deepThis ocean small trench to medium-sized occupied the tree space is a where relative Linnaeus of the tropical is situated Sapote today. grows in swamps and moist areas on floodplains and coastal plains. Clays, silts and sands transported byfruit streams trees and and rivers grows from in lowland nearby rainforests eroding plateaus and adjacent deposited wet layerseuca- in It dies back and goes to seed at times, bearing thousands of brown the ocean trench. Over time these sedimentslypt and consolidated brushbox forest. into rocks Its young that were shoots buckled are covered and uplifted, in dense and in seed capsules. At Linnaeus this species grows amongst grasses and turn eroded into a landscape of hills andrusty-brown valleys. hairs. sedges in a wetland area with fluctuating water levels between the This species grows from the Macleay River in northeastern New Crab and the ocean. Volcanic activity followed around 20 million years ago, covering this landscape with a super-volcano over 100km in diameter. The volcano wasSouth centred Wales on present-daynorthward to Wollumbin southern Queensland.(Mt Warning), At a the one-hour Linnaeus drive (O. gaileoides Photo Denis Cox) northwest of the Estate. This mountain,Estate the this ancient species plug is knownof the volcano, from the can wet be Brush-Box seen from Forest the beaches in the of Byron Bay. catchment of the water supply.

Over time, high rainfall formed streams and rivers that partially eroded away the overlying volcanic rocks, leaving behind a gigantic erosion.

26 ii. Ecosystems & Flora ii. Ecosystems & Flora 27 Threatened plants found at Linnaeus Littoral Rainforest

Red Lilly Pilly Syzygium hodgkinsoniae Family: Conservation status: Vulnerable This small tree, also known as the Smooth-Barked Rose Apple, is restricted to, and sparsely distributed within, the area between the Richmond River in northeastern New South Wales and Gympie in southeast Queensland. The flowers of this species are quite showy and have a pleasant honey scent. They develop after fertilization into a conspicuous bright red spherical fruit about 4cm in diameter. At the Linnaeus Estate they are known from the ‘hidden dam’ in the catchment of the water supply and in one place near the beach north of the Centre. This species was first collected at Lennox Head by, and named after, one of the family of James Hodgkinson, the first European owner of the Linnaeus land.

Littoral Rainforest, Broken Head Nature Reserve, just to the north of the Estate. Maundia Maundia triglochinoides Littoral rainforest is a form of subtropical rainforest that grows near Family: Juncaginaceae Conservation status: Vulnerable the ocean. It contains species from subtropical and drier rainforests, Maundia grows in shallow freshwater wetlands where it is rooted in and many of its own unique species. the mud and projects its leaves, flowers and fruit above the water. Like all rainforest in Australia, littoral rainforest is part of an ancient At Linnaeus this species can be seen in the Roadside Ponds around lineage, a precious biological inheritance from ancient times over 45 the timber bridge. These ponds were constructed when the Estate million years ago. The rainforests of central eastern Australia are was developed and this species has since colonized the ponds. recognised internationally for their diversity and uniqueness, and for the clues they give us about the evolution of the world’s plants and animals. In fact, these rainforests are so similar to those preserved in the fossil record from tens of millions of years ago that biologists consider them as living museums. Many species of both plants and animals remain unchanged from times when dinosaurs roamed this land. Amongst them are many species found nowhere else in the world, and many that are rare or threatened with extinction. Further information about threatened flora species that have been recorded on the Estate is provided in Appendix A. Comprehensive listings of other vegetation species that may occur on the Estate are provided in Appendix B. A wide variety of are available in the Rainforest for mammals, birds and bats to eat.

28 ii. Ecosystems & Flora ii. Ecosystems & Flora 29 Littoral Rainforest

1 1 2 3 4 5

6 6 7 8 9 10

Various plants that you may find in the rainforest at Linnaeus

Littoral rainforest forms distinct zones according to salt exposure. On wind-sheared foredunes stunted Coast 1 Hoop Pine 6 Coast Tuckeroo Tuckeroo Cupaniopsis anacardioides, Coast Banksia Banksia integrifolia and Pandanus Pandanus tectorius Araucaria cunninghammii Cupaniopsis anacardioides form a low closed canopy only head high. 2 Chain Fruit 7 Kreysigia ruscifolia Tripladenia cunninghamii Less hardy rainforest species shelter behind these pioneers forming a taller canopy. These species include Three-veined Laurel Cryptocarya triplinervis, Broad-Leaved Lilly Pilly Acmena hemilampra and Beach Acro- 3 Creek Lilly Pilly 8 Peanut Tree / nychia Acronychia imperforata. Acmena smithii Red-fruited Kurrajong Sterculia quadrifida Away from the beach the rainforest becomes lusher, with swampy areas harbouring Bangalow Palms and 4 Beach Acronychia Acronychia imperforata 9 Austral Sarsparilla large Crinum Lilies. Fig Trees provide food for many fruit-eating birds and fruit bats. Other large trees such Smilax australis as Hoop Pine, epiphytes such as the Birdsnest Fern Asplenium nidus and many and shrubs also grow 5 Scentless Rosewood in this sheltered littoral rainforest zone. Synoum glandulosum 10 Lawyer / Wait-a-While Calamus muelleri uses barbed An identification guide follows for some of the plants that you may find in the Rainforest. A list of recom- tendrils to latch on to nearby mended readings may be found at the end of this Guide for those who seek more detailed identification texts. plants

30 ii. Ecosystems & Flora ii. Ecosystems & Flora 31 Littoral Rainforest

Small Bolwarra Eupomatia bennettii The Bolwarra Eupomatia laurina (above) and The Brush Pepper Bush Tasmannia insipida (flower, top right and fruit, bottom right) are both found on the Lin- naeus Estate. The Brush Pepper Bush belongs to a family so primitive that its wood resembles that of pine trees rather than all other flowering plants. Ancient Flowering Plants es es asses oses Eupomatia Gr R Daisies Australia has two centres of survival for the world’s most primitive flowering plants, relics from the Magnolia Lilies Apples & Relativ Laurels Reeds ers & Relativ dawn of the angiosperms. The Wet Tropics Region near Cairns has the earth’s greatest concentration of Tasmannia Bananas a Ging ancient lineages. The Gondwana Rainforests of Australia World Heritage Area, including

ustrobaily Mt Warning and Nightcap National Parks inland from Linnaeus, is the second most important refuge in AmborellaWater LiliesA Australia for these ancient flowers. The forests of Broken Head Nature Reserve and Linnaeus harbour the Monocots same primitive plants. These plants are similar to the first fossil flowers from 120 million years ago. The First 120 Million Among the world’s most ancient flowering plant genera isEupomatia , pictured above. It dates back to around Flowering Plant Years Ago 120 million years, 55 million years before the dinosaurs became extinct and around 80 million years before the first daisies Asteraceae evolved. It is the only genus in its family and there are only three Eupomatia A Simplified Family Tree of Flowering Plants species on earth, all unique to Australia. They are pollinated by a particular type of weevil, and it is possible that this group of plants and their weevil pollinators have been in this mutually beneficial relationship for Eupomatia and Tasmannia, plants that still live on Linnaeus today (shown in red), belong to one of the earliest over 100 million years. The resemblance of this flower to a water lily is no accident as they belong to the lineages to arise around 120 million years ago. Most familiar flowering plants including roses, daisies, and same ancient group of flowering plants. While the ancestors of water lilies adapted to aquatic life,Eupomatia their many relatives (Eudicots, shown in blue) have evolved only since the demise of the dinosaurs some 65 evolved to inhabit the rainforest understory. million years ago. This understanding of plant evolution has only become clear in the last decade with the advent of genetic fingerprinting techniques that have revolutionised the field.

32 ii. Ecosystems & Flora ii. Ecosystems & Flora 33 Brushbox Forest

1 2

3 4

Brushbox Lophostemon confertus

The Brushbox Lophostemon confertus is a relative of the Eucalypt. 1 Hard Quandong obovatus A tree with fringed flowers and blue Unlike the Eucalypts though, it has a dark green, relatively shady canopy. 2 Coffee Bush / Native Privet oblongifolia A shrub common in Brush Box forest 3 Shining Burrawang Lepidozamia preoffskyana A large primitive cycad with the largest cone of any gymnosperm Lophostemon confertus forests occur on well-drained medium to high fertility soils in sheltered, less fire- prone areas. 4 Gunn’s or Slender Tick Trefoil Desmodium gunnii A small groundcover

On moist soils such as here at Linnaeus, the Brushbox forest supports a lush understorey of rainforest Brush Box Brush Box Forest species and a ground layer of ferns and herbs. Vines, sporting common names like “Wait-a-While” and Headland Forest “Lawyer Vine”, are a conspicuous feature, sprawling over shrubs and smaller trees. Themeda Grassland Littoral Rainforest The Brushbox forests and Rainforest protected here at Linnaeus boast many of the same attributes that have & Swamp Forest afforded these types of forests in Central Eastern Australia recognition by the United Nations as having Littoral Rainforest world heritage values. Metasediment Hill Metasediment Hill

For more plant species in Brushbox Forests consult the Littoral Rainforest and Swamp Forest sections.

Enriched Coastal Sand Alluvium

The diagramme above shows the occurrence of Brushbox Forest in relation to geology and other ecosystems present at the Linnaeus Estate

34 ii. Ecosystems & Flora ii. Ecosystems & Flora 35 Swamp Forests

Paperbark Swamp forest An unfolding frond of the Bats-Wing Fern Histiopteris incisa

Swamp forests grow in intermittently-inundated areas of flood plains and Swamp Oak Forest is dominated by Swamp She-Oak Casuarina glauca. This forest type thrives in fresh water coastal plains, and generally have waterlogged soils even when not inundated with a small amount of salt influence from salt spray or minor intrusion into the water table. Swamp Mahogany forest is dominated by Swamp Mahogany Eucalyptus robusta which is a food plant for They once spanned thousands of square kilometers along the coastal regions of northern NSW. These the Koala. forest types were extensively cleared and drained to support agriculture and human habitation. Four types of Swamp Forests grow on the Linnaeus Estate - Paperbark Swamp Forest, Swamp Oak Forest, Swamp Mahogany Forest and Swamp Rainforest.

Paperbark Swamp forest is dominated by the Broad-leaved Paperbark Melaleuca quinquenervia and Willow- Bottlebrush Callistemon seligna. This forest type shelters some fascinating species such as the giant Swamp Orchid Phaius australis which grows to over 2 metres tall. The King Fern has fronds that can measure up to 5 metres on a fully mature specimen. They are part of a group of ferns that is known from the fossil record over 300 million years ago, but is now found in only a few places in Australia due to a gradual drying of the continent.

Swamp rainforest occurs on areas of intermediate drainage between littoral rainforest or wet Brushbox/ Eucalypt forest and swamp forests. The Broad-leaved Paperbark is often a prominent component of these Far left: King Fern Todea Barbara forests. Left: Swamp rainforest

36 ii. Ecosystems & Flora ii. Ecosystems & Flora 37 Swamp Forests

1 2 3 4 5 6

7 8 9 10 11 12 13

This flora guide should allow you to identify the most common species found in all the swamp forests on the 1 Broad-leaved Paperbark 8 Bangalow or Piccabeen Palm Estate, including swamp-rainforest. A list of recommended readings may be found at the end of this Guide Melaleuca quinquenervia Archontophoenix cunninghamiana for those who seek more detailed identification texts. 2 Pink Euodia 9 Austral Sarsparilla / Melicope elleryana Barbed-Wire Vine Smilax australis 3 Swamp She-Oak Casuarina glauca 10 Native or Wavy Leaf Ginger Alpinea arundelliana 4 Birdsnest Fern Asplenium australasicum 11 Small-Leaved Climbing Fern Lygodium microphyllum 5 Callicoma or Black Wattle Callicoma serratifolia 12 Swampwater Fern Blechnum camfieldii 6 Staghorn Fern Platycerium superbum 13 Harsh Ground Fern Hypolepis muelleri 7 Swamp Mahogany Eucalyptus robusta

38 ii. Ecosystems & Flora ii. Ecosystems & Flora 39 Wallum Heathland (Dry Coastal Heath)

Wallum Banksia are widespread in Dry Coastal Heath The arrangement of the seed capsules of Wallum can often make for striking caricatures. It is easy to see how May Gibbs was inspired to write children’s stories based on the characters found in the Australian bush. The word Wallum was used by indigenous people to refer to the Wallum a similar role to the nutrient-gathering root fungi. Their leaves are generally small and stiff, pointed and extremely durable. This allows the leaves to conserve water and nutrients, and deters wallabies and other Banksia Banksia aemula, a shrub or small tree commonly found in this animals from eating them. All these remarkable plants have adapted to overcome the harsh conditions that ecosystem type prevent other plants from growing in this habitat. An identification guide follows for some of the many species of the Wallum. A list of recommended readings The term Wallum or Wallum Heath now generally refers to all lowland heath communities, whether Wallum may be found at the end of this Guide for those who seek more detailed identification texts. is present or not. Wallum was the inspiration for the ‘Old Man Banksias’ of the popular children’s stories ‘Snugglepot and Cuddlepie’ by Australian author May Gibbs. The natural distribution of Wallum Heath in Australia is between Coffs Harbour in NSW and Gladstone in QLD, although it has been much reduced in extent through sand mining and development for human settlement and agriculture.

Dry coastal heaths are dominated by a high diversity of flowering shrubs. They grow on sandy soils that are too infertile to support the growth of trees. The lack of trees means that there is enough light for many smaller shrubs, grasses, sedges and lilies to grow. Most heathland plants have special adaptations, including symbiosis with particular fungi in their roots that help the roots to extract scarce nutrients from the very poor soils. Members of the Pea and Mimosa families, such as wattles, have nodules in their roots housing special bacteria that are able to fix nitrogen from the air, similar to the way that artificial fertilizer is made by industry. Members of the Proteaceae family, including Banksias, have special cluster roots that perform

40 ii. Ecosystems & Flora ii. Ecosystems & Flora 41 Wallum Heathland (Dry Coastal Heath)

1 2 3 4 Yellow Flowered Heathland Plants 1 Banksia aemula Wallum Banksia Proteaceae 2 Banksia oblongifolia Dwarf Banksia Proteaceae 3 Bossiaea ensata Sword Bossiaea 4 retorta var. retorta Showy Bush Pea or Twisted Parrot Pea Fabaceae 5 Gompholobium virgatum Wallum or Leafy Wedge Pea Fabaceae 5 6 7 8 6 Persoonia virgata Sand Narrow-Leaved Geebung Proteaceae 7 Petrophile canescens Conesticks Proteaceae White Flowered Heathland Plants 8 dulcis Midyim or Midgenberry Myrtaceae 9 daphnoides Daphne Heath Epacridaceae 9 10 11 12 10 tetragona Fringed Myrtle Myrtaceae 11 Conospermum taxifolium Smoke Bush or Yew-leaved Coneseed Proteaceae

12 Homoranthus virgatus Narrow Leaved or Twiggy Honey Myrtle Myrtaceae 13 ericoides Pink Beard Heath Epacridaceae 14 Leucopogon leptospermoides Teatree Beard Heath Epacridaceae 15 Leucopogon margarodes Forest Beard Heath Epacridaceae 13 14 15 16 16 Melaleuca nodosa Yellow Paperbark or Prickly Teatree Myrtaceae 17 Monotoca scoparia Prickly Broom Heath Epacridaceae 18 Pimelia linifolia Slender Rice Flower Thymeliaceae 19 Ricinocarpos pinifolius Wedding Bush Euphorbiaceae 20 Xanthosia pilosa Woolly Xanthosia Apiaceae 21 Zieria laxiflora Heath Sandfly Bush or Wallum Zieria Rutaceae 17 18 19 20 Heathland Plants with Pink or Purple Flowers 22 stricta Blue Dampiera 23 pulchella Heart-leaved Heath Epacridaceae 24 Sowerbaea juncea Vanilla Lily Anthericaceae 25 Tetratheca thymifolia Black-eyed Susan Tremandraceae

21 22 23 24 Ferns, Grass and Grass-Like Heathland Plants 26 Caustis recurvata Curly Wigs or Curly Grass Cyperaceae 27 Pteridium esculentum Bracken Fern Dennstaedtiaceae 28 Themeda australis Kangaroo Grass Poaceae

25 26 27 28 ii. Ecosystems & Flora 43 Kangaroo Grassland on Headlands

4 5 6 7

1 2 3 8 9 10 10

At least three species of ground orchid can be found in the grassland.

1 Slipper / Large-tongue Orchid 6 Native Bluebell Although not strictly headlands, the hills on the seaward side of the Cryptostylis subulata Whalenbergia gracilis Linnaeus Estate are close enough to the beach to experience the same 2 Small Onion Orchid 7 Hairy Guinea Flower physical conditions of gusty salt-laden winds Microtis unifolia vestita

On the seaward face of these hills, in places down slope from the Knob, patchy areas of Kangaroo Grass 3 Ladies Tresses Orchid 8 Rough Guinea Flower Spiranthes sinensis Hibbertia aspera Themeda australis occur. Amongst the grasses occurs a variety of stunning wildflowers including ground orchids. This plant community is listed as an endangered ecological community in New South Wales due to 4 Common Fringed Lily 9 Eggs and Bacon / Blunt Bush Pea its scarcity and scattered distribution. Thysanotus tuberosus Pultenaea retusa

At least three species of ground orchid (pictured above) can be found in this ecosystem, together with other 5 Kangaroo Grass 10 White Everlasting Daisy flowers that are true beauties of the Australian bush such as the striking mauve fringed-lily (4, at right). So Themeda australis Helichrysum elatum go up to the Knob and have a look out at the ocean, but don’t forget to look down amongst the grasses so you don’t miss these little beauties.

An identification guide follows for some of the plants that you may find in the Grasslands. A list of recom- mended readings may be found at the end of this Guide for those who seek more detailed identification texts.

44 ii. Ecosystems & Flora ii. Ecosystems & Flora 45 Freshwater Wetlands

1 2 3 4

5 6 7 7

A wetland constructed at Linnaeus Estate The freshwater wetlands on the Estate support a diverse range of animals.

Countless freshwater wetlands have been filled and/or drained for agriculture An Invasion That’s a Bit Fishy 1 Crimson Percher Diplacodes haematodes and development since Europeans first arrived in Australia – they are listed A little fish is creating big problems for Australia’s freshwater 2 Pacific Black Duck as an Endangered Ecological Community to reflect their precarious position wetlands and streams. Gambusia, known as the mosquito Anas superciliosa fish, was introduced from Central America in an attempt to There are very few large wetlands left, and many of the remaining fragments are extremely vulnerable to biologically control mosquitoes. 3 Eastern Dwarf Tree Frog damage from runoff containing sediment and/or pollutants and invasion by exotic species. Healthy fresh- Litoria fallax water wetlands are incredibly beautiful, diverse and productive systems. They are home to, or are used There is no evidence, however, that they have been more by, an amazing variety of animals including birds, reptiles, frogs, fish, insects, mammals and spiders. The 4 Intermediate Egret effective at doing so than the native fish they now largely Ardea intermedia forested hills and sensitive development at Linnaeus have helped maintain these freshwater wetlands in a replace. Like the cane-toad, they have proved to be a healthy state, allowing them to maintain and export biodiversity. disastrous introduction as they compete aggressively with 5 Blue Tiger native fish, insects and frogs, and attack and prey on many Freshwater wetlands and their fringing vegetation provide us with many valuable ecosystem services. native species and their eggs. They act as powerful filters that trap sediment and metabolise organic waste material. Their water storage 6 Jabiru/Black-Necked Stork capacity is extremely important in helping to mitigate floods. The plants and saturated soils in wetlands also Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus lock up countless tonnes of carbon. 7 White Faced Heron Egretta novaehollandiae

46 ii. Ecosystems & Flora ii. Ecosystems & Flora 47 Freshwater Wetlands The Coastal Dunes

3

1 2 4

Above are some plants found in freshwater wetlands. A list of recommended readings may be found at the end of this Guide for those who seek more Beach-Spinifex and Goats-Foot vine on the fore-dune on Seven Mile Beach detailed identification texts.

1 Swamp Water Fern Vulnerable or endangered birds Blechnum indicum The dunes along the beach are a dynamic and beautiful part of Linnaeus

The freshwater wetlands on the Estate are also potential habitat 2 Maundia Virtually the whole dune system along this coast has been sand mined, and most of what you see today is for a number of vulnerable or endangered birds. Below is a table Maundia triglochinoides a combination of misguided attempts to rehabilitate the dunes by humans and natural regeneration. The of the rare birds that could be seen. original dune vegetation on this part of the coast was quite different to what you see today. A small patch 3 Lepironia of the original fore-dune littoral rainforest still exists on the northern boundary of the Estate. Three species Lepironia articulata Common Name Scientific Name Conservation Status were introduced in order to stabilise the dunes after mining - the horsetail she-oak, bitou-bush and the Australasian Bittern Botaurus poiciloptilus Vulnerable 4 Cape Blue Waterlily coastal tea tree. None of these occur here naturally. Black Bittern Ixobrychus flavicolis Vulnerable Nymphaea caerulea subsp. Zanzibariensis Virtually sterile beach sand is washed up and blown by the wind to form a fore-dune where hardy plants like Brolga Grus rubicunda Vulnerable Beach-Spinifex and Goats-Foot vine colonise, stabilising the sand and beginning the process of soil forma- Bush Hen Amaurornis olivaceus Vulnerable tion and further accumulation of sand. Comb Crested Jacana Irediparra gallinacea Vulnerable As organic material and nutrients build up in the beach sand so does its capacity to support larger species Magpie Goose Anseranas semipalmata Vulnerable such as Pandanus, Banksia, and Cupaniopsis (Tuckeroo). Through a constant process of the vegetation Painted Snipe Rostratula benghalensis Vulnerable stabilising and trapping shifting sand, the dune system can ‘grow’ outward, reclaiming areas that were once beach or even ocean. The older dunes, a little further inland, become more sheltered and continue to trap Grab your bird book and see whether you can spot any of the windblown sand, growing further. Plants such as and Casuarinas fix nutrients from atmospheric birds on the above list.

48 ii. Ecosystems & Flora ii. Ecosystems & Flora 49 The Coastal Dunes

1 2 3 4 5 6

7 8 9 10 10 11

nitrogen, further enriching the soil and allowing nutrient-demanding rainforest species such as Cupaniopsis 1 Beach-Spinifex 6 Beach Flax Lily 9 Horsetail She-Oak and Acronychia to establish. Cupaniopsis and Acronychia are both coastal rainforest species and, along with Spinifex sericeus Dianella congesta Casuarina equisetifolia var. incana Banksia integrifolia and other coastal rainforest species, can eventually form coastal rainforest on enriched 2 Goats Foot / 7 Variable Groundsel 10 Tuckeroo dunes. See the Littoral Rainforest section of this book for more information. Beach Morning Glory Senecio lautus subsp. maritima Cupaniopsis anacardioides Ipomoea pes-caprae Some Plants of Note on the Dune System 8 Coast Banksia 11 Pandanus / Screw Pine 3 Pigs Face Banksia integrifolia subsp. integrifolia Pandanus tectorius glaucescens Angular Pigface Carpobrotus glaucescens has a distinctive magenta flower with a yellow centre. The fruit ripens to a deep red and the gooey contents can be squeezed out and eaten, possessing a salty strawberry- 4 New Zealand Spinach Strand Zone Wind Sheer Zone Foredune Littoral Rainforest like flavour. This fruit was prized by Aboriginal people. Tetragona tetragonioides - Spinifex - Banksia - Diverse species - Carpobrotus - Pandanus - Ipomoea - Cupaniopsis New Zealand Spinach Tetragonia tetragonioides was recognised by Captain Cook as being related to a species 5 Beach Sally Wattle that he collected in New Zealand to help ward off scurvy in his crew. When cooked it is a palatable green Acacia sophorae with a high vitamin C content, ideal for preventing scurvy and very accessible to seafarers because of its coastal habitat.

An identification guide follows for some of the plants that you may find in the Coastal Dunes. A list of recom- mended readings may be found at the end of this Guide for those who seek more detailed identification texts. Soil profile forming Formed soil profile allows No soil profile Nutrients and organic rainforest species to grow High tide mark New sand matter forming

50 ii. Ecosystems & Flora ii. Ecosystems & Flora 51 53 Fauna Communities

1 2 3

Vulnerable species you may come across at Linnaeus.

1 Sooty Oystercatcher The New South Wales north coast has an incredible diversity of animals Haematopus fuliginosus and animal groups 2 Beach Stone Curlew Esacus neglectus Linnaeus and its surrounds support a high diversity of plant communities and plants necessary for the survival of a wide variety of animals. The area has the second highest animal diversity on the Australian 3 Rose-crowned Fruit Dove continent after the Wet Tropics of north Queensland. Within the mammal groups this area has the highest Ptilinopus regina diversity of marsupials and microbats in Australia. Frog diversity is equal to any area of equivalent size in the wet tropics, and almost half of Australia’s bird species are found here. Invertebrate diversity is still poorly documented, and no doubt hundreds or even thousands of species remain to be discovered.

The region has a high concentration of species that are living links to the ancient fauna of the super continent Gondwana, some from as long as 115 million years ago. There are also a number of species that are found nowhere else in the world and numerous threatened species.

The fauna guides provided here give only a taste of the diversity present in this area. Further information about threatened fauna species that have been recorded on the Estate is provided in Appendix A. Comprehensive listings of other fauna species that may occur on the Estate are provided in Appendix C. A list of recommended readings may be found at the end of this Guide for those who seek more detailed texts.

54 ii.iii. Ecosystems Fauna & Flora iii. Fauna 55 Threatened Animals

Jabiru or Black-necked Stork The Wallum Sedge Frog The Eastern Long-Eared Bat Queensland Blossom Bat Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus Litoria olongburensis Nyctophilus bifax Syconycteris australis Conservation status: Endangered Conservation status: Vulnerable Conservation status: Vulnerable Conservation status: Vulnerable

This stunning stork stands to 1.5m tall. It has red The Wallum Sedge Frog spends its time in or close In New South Wales this bat, also known as the The blossom bat is the smallest of all Australian legs and a glossy, somewhat iridescent green-black to the water on sedges and rushes where it hunts Northern Long-eared Bat, is found only on the bats in the flying fox group Megachiroptera. At six head and neck. for insects and their larvae. During wet weather coastal plain from Coffs Harbour northward. It centimeters long with a pointy nose and covered in This combination of size and striking colour makes the male frog call can be heard, like a buzzing lives mainly in lowland subtropical rainforest, very soft brownish fur it also has to take the cake it one of Australia’s most spectacular bird species. , trying to lure a female to the water to mate. wet eucalypt and wet brush box forest and as the cutest of the flying foxes. The female frogs will select a male based on the swamp forests, although it seems to favour littoral If you are lucky you may see one of these birds at It is highly specialised for feeding on nectar and Linnaeus as they occasionally use the freshwater particular qualities of his call, from which she can rainforest and coastal banksias forest, just like ascertain information about his physical condition. those found here at Linnaeus. relies on a variety of habitats for a year round wetland. supply. During the day it roosts in tree hollows or This frog grows to about 25mm long. Its colour This small insectivorous bat, like all micro-bats, the foliage of flowering trees and shrubs, moving varies from light green to light brown above, with locates its insect prey at night using echolocation. out into surrounding heathland, paperbark and a dark brown and cream stripe running down the It is capable of navigating through complex habitats banksia forests at night. side and a brown-flecked throat. It lives in suitable such as rainforest using only high-frequency sound habitat from Fraser Island in Queensland to near to build up an ‘image’ of its surrounds in the dark. In these habitats it forages using smell and sight Banksia Grafton in New South Wales. Its critical feeding and Its echolocation is so precise it can hone in on to locate nectar-bearing flowers such as integrifolia Melaleuca quinquenervia breeding habitat appears to be coastal paperbark rapidly moving flying insects in complete darkness. and that are swamps, hind-beach lagoons and coastal heath common at Linnaeus. This species has suffered from the loss of hollow containing acidic groundwater, making Linnaeus This species has suffered badly from the clearing an ideal habitat. This species is adversely affected trees, stands of palms and rainforest trees as the extent of its coastal plain habitats has been severely of coastal rainforest, heathland, swamp forest and by grazing and use of pesticides, and suitable banksia scrub. It is a good example of a species that areas of good quality freshwater wetlands are reduced. Many of the remaining fragments of habitat are small and isolated from one another. is dependent on a number of habitats for survival. now extremely rare. The wetlands on the Linnaeus To maintain viable population levels this species Estate are amongst the very few wetlands standing Continuous habitat such as that protected at requires fairly large, continuous areas of habitat between this species and extinction. Linnaeus and Broken Head Nature Reserve is with a variety of ecosysystems. Similar species: extremely important for the survival of this species in the long term. Without these high quality Protected areas like Linnaeus and the surrounding The Eastern Sedge Frog or Dwarf Tree Frog Litoria Nature Reserves are vital to prevent this precious, fallax. This species differs from the Wallum Sedge habitats this species would almost certainly face extinction. extremely cute bat from slipping over the brink of Frog in having a shorter, less pointed snout and it extinction. lacks the brown flecking on the throat. Photo : David Milledge

56 ii.iii. Ecosystems Fauna & Flora iii. Fauna 57 Threatened Animals

Migratory and Wading Birds

There are many rare birds that make use of the beach and Marine Park. Some of these may also, on occasion, use the freshwater wetlands. Below is a list of the vulnerable and endangered species that could potentially be seen on the beach and out to sea and, for some, occasionally in the freshwater wetlands.

Common Name Scientific Name Conservation Status Terek Sandpiper Xenus cinereus Vulnerable Sooty Oystercatcher Haematopus fuliginosus Vulnerable Sanderling Calidris alba Vulnerable Pied Oystercatcher Haematopus longirostris Vulnerable

Osprey Pandion haliaetus Vulnerable Little Tern Sterna albifrons Endangered White-Eared Monarch Mitchell’s Rainforest Snail Monarcha leucotis Thersites mitchellae Lesser Sand Plover Charadrius mongolus Vulnerable Greater Sand Plover Charadrius leschenaultia Vulnerable Conservation status: Vulnerable Conservation status: Critically Endangered Great Knot Calidris tenuirostris Vulnerable The White Eared Monarch is a small flycatcher with This land snail lives in swamp rainforest and low- distinctive patterned plumage coloured in grey, land subtropical rainforest on floodplains. It is only Broad-billed Sandpiper Limicola falcinellus Vulnerable black and white. It has a characteristic hovering found between Ballina and Tweed Heads. Black-tailed Godwit Limosa limosa Vulnerable flight as it forages for food. Clearing for agriculture, especially sugarcane, and Beach Stone-Curlew Esacus neglectus Endangered In New South Wales it is restricted to the northeast urban development has lead to a massive reduction region between Iluka and Tweed Heads and as far in habitat for this species. It is a large snail that has west as the Richmond Range. a shell up to 55mm wide and 50mm high with a Potentially Occurring Threatened Species Its core habitats are coastal rainforest, wet euca- strongly elevated spire giving it a triangular profile. lypt and brush box forest and swamp forests. It also The shell is deep reddish chestnut to black in colour There are many species of threatened animals that have been recorded from adjacent or nearby habitats that appears to favour vine tangles on the edge of forests with twin orange and brown stripes on each spiral are likely to be here undetected, may pass through, or may colonize in future. Further information about and the canopy of well-developed rainforest. of the shell. This snail has been recorded hiding in threatened fauna species that may occur on the Estate is provided in Appendix A. fallen palm fronds. It has been adversely affected by the gradual Common Name Scientific Name Conservation Status clearing and burning of these habitats. This large rainforest snail is now facing extinction from habitat loss. Wallum Froglet Crinia tinnula Vulnerable Bush Hen Amaurornis olivaceus Vulnerable Wompoo Fruit-Dove Ptilinopus magnificus Vulnerable Superb Fruit-Dove Ptilinopus superbus Vulnerable

Rose-Crowned Fruit-Dove Ptilinopus regina Vulnerable Black Flying Fox Pteropus alecto Vulnerable Little Bent-Wing Bat Miniopterus australis Vulnerable Common Bent-Wing Bat Miniopterus schreibersii Vulnerable Greater Broad-Nosed Bat Scoteanax ruepellii Vulnerable Image : Tom Tarrant Photo David Milledge Common Planigale Planigale maculata Vulnerable

58 ii.iii. Ecosystems Fauna & Flora iii. Fauna 59 Mammals

3 4

1 2 5 6

All three major evolutionary lineages of mammals are present in Australia 3 The Bush Rat Rattus fuscipes A common native rodent with a Roman nose and pale brown fur. It feeds on seeds, fruit and insects. and Papua-New Guinea and nowhere else on earth 4 Fawn-footed Melomys Melomys cervinipes Monotremes include the Echidna and Platypus. Marsupials include Kangaroos, Wallabies, Bandicoots, Koala A pleasant native mosaic-tailed mouse from moist forests including rainforests (not usually found in houses). It is an and Possums. Placental mammals are represented by a diversity of native rodents and humans, as well as a agile climber and feeds on fruit, seeds, and insects. It can be identified by the uneven scales on its tail and fawn foot colouration. large number of micro-bats and five mega-bats. 5 Little Bent-wing Bat Miniopterus australis A very small cave-roosting bat that forages on small insects below the canopy of well-timbered habitat. In spring 1 Swamp Wallaby Wallabia bicolor adult females move to specific nursery caves shared with the large bent-wing bat. The little bent-wing bat relies on A common wallaby with dark brown colouration and heavy body from swamps and rainforest areas. The genetic large numbers of the larger bats to raise cave temperatures to that necessary to raise young. The main threat to the make-up of the Swamp Wallaby is so different to other wallabies that it is the sole member of the genus Wallabia. survival of the little bent-wing bat is the disturbance of maternity sites. 2 Short-beaked Echidna Tachyglossus aculeatus 6 Grey-headed Flying Fox Pteropus poliocephalus The echidna is one of only three primitive egg-laying mammals (Monotremes) in the world. This spiny animal is A large flying fox (Megabat) listed as vulnerable to extinction in NSW. It has a grey head and orange neck and feeds common throughout Australia, including . It feeds on ants and termites, digging with its powerful claws. The on fruits and nectar. It roosts in large noisy camps in rainforests and swamp forests, and may fly long distances each female lays eggs into her pouch and then the puggle (young) licks milk that seeps from special mammary pores (not night searching for favourite foods. nipples). The puggle is ousted from the pouch once it starts developing spines - for obvious maternal comfort reasons.

60 ii.iii. Ecosystems Fauna & Flora iii. Fauna 61 Birds

3 4 5

1 2 6 7 8

Linnaeus is situated in the Border Ranges region of New South Wales Over 300 species of bird can be seen in this area, the most common of which are shown in this Guide. For serious bird watching a dedicated bird field guide is essential. A list of recommended readings may be found that supports almost half of Australia’s bird species. at the end of this Guide for those who seek more detailed identification texts.

Each habitat on the Estate has its own community of bird species, from the beach with its wader birds 1 Alisterus scapularis 5 Sacred Kingfisher Todiramphus sanctus and seabirds, to the fore dunes and heath abounding with honeyeaters. The littoral rainforest supports an A green parrot with red markings including the head of A medium Kingfisher from various habitats. incredible variety, including fruit-eating pigeons and the mound-building bush turkey. The open grassed males. Favours rainforest areas. Eats fruit and seeds. Similar to Collared Mangrove and Forest Kingfishers. areas support grain-eating birds such as finches, and predatory birds hunting above for mice and . The freshwater wetlands are visited by a variety of water birds including the threatened Jabiru or Black- 2 Rainbow Bee-Eater Merops ornatus 6 Golden-headed Cisticola Cisticola exilis necked Stork. The only species of bee-eater in Australia. It digs a A small bird from grassy areas and wetlands. narrow tunnel up to 1 metre long in a bank or sandy flat When talking plant pollination most people think of bees, but birds and bats are the main players in the soil and lays four to five eggs in a chamber at the end. 7 Chestnut-breasted Mannikin Lonchura castaneothorax rainforest. In Australia more than 70 species of birds are nectar feeders, with honeyeaters and lorikeets being the most important. Australia and its neighbouring islands are the only places in the world where the 3 Rainbow Lorikeet Trichoglossus haematodus Finch with brown colouration. Feeds on grains in grassed areas. dominant trees are pollinated by birds and bats. A very colourful flock-forming parrot. Has a brush tongue adapted for feeding on nectar and pollen. 8 Red-browed Firetail Finch Aegintha temporalis As birds cannot smell, flowers are often brightly coloured and produce copious quantities of nectar. When 4 Laughing Kookaburra Dacelo novaeguineae A small finch with red brow and tail. Feeds on grains. birds and bats feed on the nectar they become covered in pollen that then spreads as they fly from plant A large Kingfisher with laughing call heard at dawn to plant. and dusk. Eats insects and reptiles including snakes.

62 ii.iii. Ecosystems Fauna & Flora iii. Fauna 63 Birds

9 10 11 12 13 14

15 16 17 18 19 20

9 Variegated Fairy Wren Malurus lamberti 15 Australian Wood Duck or Maned Duck Chenonetta jubata A small wren with twittering call. Males have striking blue cap and rust red shoulders. Females are pale brown. Feeds A mid-sized duck with small bill and brown lines or spots. Male has darker head and mane. This bird often feeds in on insects. wet grassy areas rather than open water.

10 White-bellied Sea Eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster 16 Grey Fantail Rhipidura fuliginosa The second largest eagle in Australia, with white head and underside and gray wings. Expert at catching fish with a A small insectivorous bird that dances and fans tail on a perch. Similar birds include Willy-Wagtail and Rufous Fantail. swoop. 17 Cracticus nigrogularis 11 Black-shouldered Kite Elanus axillaris A mid-sized black and white bird feeding mainly on lizards and insects, it is highly agile in flight and can snatch prey A small Raptor with white body and dark eye patches and shoulders. Hunts small mammals and reptiles. in mid air. The butcherbirds boast one of the most beautiful and complex vocal repertoires of any bird song. They are accomplished mimics. 12 White-faced Heron Ardea novaehollandiae 18 Strepera graculina A heron common in most wetlands. An intelligent large black bird with white under tail and wing tips. The call gives this bird its name. The currawong eats lizards, insects, fruit, and small birds. 13 Australian Pelican Pelecanus conspicillatus A distinctive water bird capable of swallowing large fish. The pelican has a white body and head, black wings and 19 Brahminy Kite Haliastur indus very large bill. A mid-sized raptor with distinctive red-brown wings and white head and breast. It feeds on fish in estuaries and the sea. 14 Pacific Black Duck Anas superciliosa 20 Australian White Ibis Threskiornis molucca A common duck, dark brown with paler edges to each feather. Both sexes are similar. A common large bird of wetland areas, much maligned for its adaptability to feeding on landfill sites, though more pleasant in its natural habitat.

64 ii.iii. Ecosystems Fauna & Flora iii. Fauna 65 Birds

21 22 23 24 25 26

27 28 29 30 31 32

21 Spangled Drongo Dicrurus bracteatus 27 Dusky Moorhen Gallinula tenebrosa A black bird with distinctive fish-like tail, iridescent highlights and metallic call. During courtship males dive vertically A bird from swamps and freshwater wetlands with a white head shield. Similar to the Australian Coot that also has at high speed, pulling up only at the last moment. Migrates seasonally to New Guinea. a white head shield.

22 Great Egret Ardea alba 28 Noisy Pitta Pitta versicolor The largest white egret in Australia, this is a majestic bird, especially when in breeding plumage with long white fluffy A striking bird from rainforest areas with green-yellow, brown and electric blue markings. It is a specialised snail feathers, black bill, and green face. It feeds in shallow water. eater that cracks its prey on a favourite rock. Its distinctive “walk to work” call was traditionally considered to be an omen of rain. 23 Australasian Darter Anhinga melanogaster A dark coloured, slim, fish-eating water bird with snake-like neck, sharp bill and webbed feet. The Darter swims 29 Rose-crowned Fruit-dove Ptilinopus regina underwater, surfacing regularly to breathe or swallow fish. It is similar to cormorants that are heavier-bodied with A stunning fruit dove that frequents rainforests, paperbark forests and eucalypt woodlands. hooked broader bills. 30 White-headed Pigeon Columba leucomela 24 Boobook Owl Ninox novaehollandiae A large fast-flying flock pigeon of rainforest and wet eucalypt forest. The smallest common Owl. Also called Morepork, due to its repeated Kookoo call heard at night. 31 Silvereye lateralis 25 Emerald Ground Dove Chalcophapsi indica This tiny bird is capable of flying vast distances. It eats insects, fruit and seeds. A small shy bird with iridescent green wings found walking around the leaf litter in dense forests including rainforests. It feeds on fallen fruits and seeds. 32 Purple Swamphen Porphyrio porphyrio The swamp hen feeds in wetland areas. 26 Eastern Rosella Platycercus eximius A colourful parrot from grasslands, open forests, and woodlands. This species feeds on seeds and roots, nesting in hollow tree limbs.

66 ii.iii. Ecosystems Fauna & Flora iii. Fauna 67 Birds

33 34 35 36 37 38

33 Australian Brush-turkey Alectura lathami 36 Osprey or Fish Hawk Pandion haliaetus A large ground-dwelling bird from moist forests, it scratches in the leaf litter searching for invertebrates. This bird A large graceful fish-eating bird of prey that occurs along the coastlines, river systems and lakes of every continent belongs to the Megapodes, a group of birds that incubate eggs in large mounds of leaf litter using the heat of decaying except Antarctica. It is unusual in that it is a single species that occurs nearly worldwide. The Osprey was one of the leaves to hatch the eggs. The male bird builds this mound and carefully tends it after the female has laid her eggs. He many species described by Carolus Linnaeus in his 18th century work, Systema Naturae. It has a white head and body, adds or removes leaves to maintain the critical temperature measured by his sensitive thermometer-like bill. Their brown wings, and a bold dark mark through the eye and down the neck. Large nests are made of sticks and are usually presence indicates a healthy food chain. built in forks of trees next to freshwater or brackish lakes and streams. Ospreys can often be seen scouting and diving for fish in the waters off Linnaeus. 34 Pheasant Coucal Centropus phasianinus Often seen creeping through grass or underbrush searching for its prey – mostly frogs and insects. When disturbed it 37 Tawny Frogmouth Podargus strigoides will often run rather than fly, or fly low and clumsily, with the flight often ended by a crash landing into grass. They A nocturnal bird that is commonly mistaken for an owl although it is more closely related to a group of insectivorous have two different plumages, one each for the breeding and non-breeding seasons. In their breeding plumage they birds known as Nightjars. Tawny Frogmouths feed primarily off insects but are known to take small mammals and have black heads, necks and underbodies, upper parts and wings with black, cream and rufous barring and tails that frogs. Their flight is silent and their call is a low frequency, regular, repetitive “moop, moop, moop, moop, moop”. By are black with orange barring. When the breeding season ends they revert to a cinnamon brown to reddish chestnut night they often perch in open areas looking and listening for their prey and are commonly seen on roadside posts. By colour streaked with creamy white. Despite its pheasant-like appearance it is actually a type of cuckoo. day they sit perched in trees, often on dead branches, where they hold their body stiff and straight, their colouring and shape giving them the appearance of a dead broken branch - the perfect camouflage. 35 Scarlet Honeyeater Myzomela sanguinolenta Native to the east coast of Australia, Indonesia and New Caledonia. The male is a striking bright red with black tail 38 Wedge-tailed Eagle Aquila audax and wings, and whitish under parts while the female is uniformly brown with dull white under parts. They are small One of the largest birds of prey in the world, feeding on ground-dwelling animals, including mammals and reptiles. birds that are often present but unseen feeding on nectar at the tops of tall Eucalyptus. Their beautiful nest is a small Females of the species are larger than the males with reports of wingspans reaching 3 metres in some specimens. cup shaped from fine bark and grass bound with spider web and lined with soft materials. They may be seen foraging Wedge-tails are found throughout Australia, most commonly in open woodland with a good grassy ground cover. closer to the ground at times, particularly in the Banksia forests at Linnaeus. Under the right conditions they are capable of soaring for hours on end without beating their wings.

68 ii.iii. Ecosystems Fauna & Flora iii. Fauna 69 Reptiles

2 3 4

1 5 6 7

Reptiles are a fascinating, adaptable and diverse group. Australia has 2 Carpet Python Morelia spilota variegata A non-venomous python that constricts its food. The female of this species coils around her eggs to protect them and more reptiles than any other similar-sized area on earth. shivers in order to generate heat that speeds up their incubation. This behaviour is extremely rare in the world.

This is partly because of our harsh, variable climate that favours animals which have low energy require- 3 Red-bellied Black Snake Pseudechis porphyriacus ments and can become dormant during hard times. Most reptile diversity is in the drier regions of Australia, A venomous and potentially dangerous (though not very aggressive) snake that feeds on frogs and small mammals. with wetter areas like the Byron Bay region having comparatively lower reptile diversity. That said, there 4 Eastern Water Dragon Physignathus lesueurii are a number of , snakes, dragons, geckos, turtles and monitor lizards in the area. A large common dragon that favours streams and water bodies. Breeding males have red and yellow markings.

Following are some of the reptiles that you are likely to see on the Estate, although there are many, many 5 Bearded Dragon Pogona barbata more in the area. The bearded dragon was once common in suburban backyards, but is becoming less abundant due to habitat loss. 6 Eastern Brown Snake Pseudonaja textiles A list of recommended readings may be found at the end of this Guide for those who seek more detailed The second most venomous land snake in the world after the Inland Taipan. While usually a uniform shade of brown, identification texts. they can have various patterns including speckles and bands, and range from a very pale fawn colour through to black. Brown snakes are opportunistic feeders and will consume almost any vertebrate animal, including frogs, lizards, snakes, birds and rodents. 1 Lace Monitor or Goanna Varianus varius This large is related to the Komodo dragon and is one of the top predators in the ecosystems of the Estate. 7 Green Tree Snake Dendrelaphis punctulata This slender snake grows 1-2 metres and its colour varies in eastern Australia from olive-green, dull green to blue- green colouring. It has no fangs and its bite is harmless. It eats small reptiles and frogs that it engulfs head first.

70 ii.iii. Ecosystems Fauna & Flora iii. Fauna 71 Frogs

1 2 3 4 5 6

7 8 9 10 11 12

The Border Ranges region has one of the highest amphibian diversities 1 Wallum Sedge Frog Litoria olongburensis 7 Peron’s Laughing Frog Litoria peronii A threatened narrow-bodied frog from acidic waters in A frog with emerald spots, cackling call and the ability on the Australian continent. sandy coastal heath and wetlands. to change from dark to light colouration.

Coastal sandy wallum heathlands, freshwater wetlands, moist forests, rainforests and cool mossy moun- 2 Eastern Sedge Frog or Dwarf Tree Frog Litoria fallax 8 Ruddy Tree Frog or Desert Tree Frog Litoria rubella taintops provide an array of varied habitats for frogs. Our knowledge of rainforest frogs is very recent. A common small frog from freshwater wetlands and A common small frog with a pinkish-brown back from About half of them have only been scientifically studied and named since 1970, and more are being found. forested streams. drier forests, woodlands and grasslands. However, faster than they are being discovered the frogs seem to be disappearing. 3 Graceful or Dainty Green Tree Frog Litoria gracilenta 9 Broad-palmed Rocket Frog Litoria latopalmata Mid-sized tree frog with colourful leg markings from A common frog often found in grassy areas. Like all rainforest creatures frogs are an integral part of the ecosystem – eating and being eaten by a wide wet coastal forest areas. range of other animals. Tadpoles, in particular, feed on leaves and convert them into protein forming a vital 10 Striped Marsh Frog Lymnodynastes peronii link in the food chain. However, frogs are especially vulnerable to such things as pollution, insecticides and 4 Red-eyed Tree Frog Litoria chloris A common frog in wetlands and disturbed areas. herbicides because they absorb moisture through their skin. Consequently, they are widely recognized as a A common small frog from a variety of wet habitats 11 Great Barred Frog Mixophyes fasciolatus ‘barometer’ for the well being of our environment. Frogs have been around for a long time. They were tough including forests and wetlands. A large frog from an ancient lineage. enough to survive the age of the dinosaurs - so what is happening to them now? 5 Laughing Tree Frog Litoria tyleri A frog with laughing call from moist forests. 12 The Cane Toad Bufo marinus Following is a selection of local frog species. A list of recommended readings may be found at the end of this Introduced from South America. It is regarded as one of Guide for those who seek more detailed texts. 6 Common Green Tree Frog Litoria caerulea the most disastrous introductions to Australia because A common large green frog from moist habitats. of the way it displaces and predates native frogs and poisons native animals that consume it.

72 ii.iii. Ecosystems Fauna & Flora iii. Fauna 73 Butterflies

1 2 3 4

5 6 7 8

Since most butterflies are dependant in their larval (caterpillar) stage on 4 Regent Skipper Euschemon rafflesia This is considered to be amongst the worlds most primitive. One sex is anatomically like a moth. Its host plant particular host plants, the high plant diversity in this area also means is the Wilkiea species of small rainforest trees. high butterfly diversity. 5 Black Jezebel nigrina This butterfly is distasteful to birds. The similar Jezebel Nymph Butterfly mimics this species to avoid being eaten by Selected species found on Linnaeus Estate are described here. A list of recommended readings may be found birds. Host plants are Mistletoes. at the end of this Guide for those who seek more detailed identification texts. 6 Wanderer or Monarch plexippus This Butterfly migrated across the Pacific Ocean to reach Australia with the spread of its host plants Milkweed and 1 Australian Painted lady Vanessa kershawii Balloon Bush. The distinctive striped caterpillars can be easily found on the plant. They are poisonous to birds. A strikingly patterned butterfly whose caterpillars feed on everlasting daisies includingHelichrysum elatum. 7 Blue Tiger or Blue Wanderer Tirumala hamata 2 Caper White A native butterfly in the same family as the Wanderer, it feeds on native plants in the milkweed family. Host plants: Dog These butterflies migrate vast distances. Their host plant is the Native Caper Bush arborea. Strangling Vine Cynanchum carnosum and Wax Plant australis.

3 Meadow Argus Junonia villida 8 Common Crow A widespread butterfly that can feed on a variety of plants, including the Dune Fanflower Scaveola calendulacea on This is an abundant butterfly with striped larvae. It feeds on the Ivy Silkpod VineParsonsia straminea that is common the beach and dunes, and also the weed Lantana. in Paperbark swamp forests and other moist forest. The female is pictured here.

74 ii.iii. Ecosystems Fauna & Flora iii. Fauna 75 Butterflies

9 10 11 12

13 14 15 16

9 Richmond Birdwing Ornithoptera richmondiana 13 Long-tailed Pea-blue Lampides boeticus This is the region’s largest butterfly. It has suffered greatly from the clearing of lowland subtropical rainforests and has A small shining blue butterfly with hair-like tails on its wings. Host plant: Lanceleaf RattleboxCrotolaria lanceolata. become extinct between Caboolture and Nerang where it was once abundant. Host plant: Richmond Birdwing Butterfly Vine Paristolochia praevenosa. 14 Small Green-banded Blue Psychonotis caelius 10 Varied Swordgrass Brown Tisiphone abeona morrisi A small butterfly with dark shining blue above and aqua markings below. Host plant: Red AshAlphitonia excelsa. This subspecies is found in the swamp forests of Northern NSW and once occurred south from Brisbane, although 15 Rayed Blue Candalides heathi heathi coastal development and burning of swamps have almost eliminated it from Queensland. Host plant: Tall Saw-sedge Gahnia clarkei. This small butterfly is purple or blue on the upper wings, depending on sex, and pearly white below, with striped legs and antennae. Host plants include RiceflowerPimelea linifolia and Plantains of the Plantago species. 11 Varied Eggfly Hypolimnas bolina The males of this species have white egg-shaped spots on the upper wings that are ringed in blue. Host plant: Pastel 16 Small Grass-yellow Eurema smilax Flower Pseuderanthemum variable. A small yellow butterfly from grassy areas. Host plant: Partridge Pea Chamaechrista species. There are four other similar yellow species in the area. These butterflies mate only with their own species by recognizing UV-light wing 12 Evening Brown Melanitis leda patterns that can be seen with UV photographic equipment. This cryptic butterfly looks like a dead leaf. It is so well hidden that it tends to go unnoticed until flying rapidly from underfoot. The main host plant is Kangaroo Grass Themeda triandra.

76 ii.iii. Ecosystems Fauna & Flora iii. Fauna 77 Spiders

1 2 3 4 5

1 6 7 8 9 10

The vast majority of spiders are harmless or beneficial to humans. 1 Huntsman Sparassidae sp. 6 Triangular Spider Arkys lancearius Found under bark on dead trees and stumps (notably wattles) but they can also be found on the ground. 7 Brown Crab Spider Sidymella bicuspidata They are important predators of many species that humans consider pests such as cockroaches, flies and mosquitoes. 2 Common Garden Orb Weaver Eriophora transmarine 8 The Green Flower Spider Diaea evanida A nocturnal species. Waiting here to grab insects visiting the flower. This huntsman (above) is not deadly to humans but it is deadly to cockroaches and flies. They are often found in human dwellings, and quietly and vigilantly provide organic insect control totally free of charge! 3 St Andrew’s Cross Spider Argiope keyserlingi 9 Garden Jumping Spider Opisthoncus sp. makes a distinctive cross in its web and sits with its legs 10 Green Jumping Spider Mopsus mormon An identification guide follows for some of the more commonly seen spiders. A list of recommended readings in a cross arrangement. Seen here eating a Cicada may be found at the end of this Guide for those who seek more detailed texts. 4 Golden Orb Weaver Nephila plumipes A large spider with a strong yellow web.

5 The Net-casting Spider Deinopis subrufa Throws a small web onto its prey.

78 ii.iii. Ecosystems Fauna & Flora iii. Fauna 79 Dragonflies and Damselflies

1 2 3 4

5 6 7 8

1 Common Flatwing Damselfly 5 Pale Hunter Dragonfly Dragonflies and damselflies are large, conspicuous insects generally Austroargiolestes icteromelas Austrogomphus amphiclitus found near freshwater habitats. They are an ancient and successful 2 Wandering Ringtail Damselfly 6 Graphic Flutterer Dragonfly group that was around long before the dinosaurs evolved. Austrolestes leda Rhyothemis graphiptera

The order Odonata is divided into two suborders, the Anisoptera containing the dragonflies, and the Zygop- 3 Scarlet Percher Dragonfly 7 Blue Skimmer Diplacodes haematodes Orthetrum caledonicum tera containing the damselflies. Odonata closely resemble the oldest flying insects known from fossils. These fossil ‘dragonflies’ were very large, with one species reaching 71 cm in wingspan. Odonata means “toothed 4 Fiery Skimmer Dragonfly 8 Black Headed Skimmer jaws”, and the larger species of dragonflies and damselflies may give you a harmless bite. Orthetrum villosovittatum Crocothemis nigrifrons

Dragonflies are generally more robust than damselflies. Most have the eyes touching at the top of the head, and their forewings and hindwings are different in shape. Most dragonflies rest with their wings held out flat. The more delicate damselflies have eyes that are far apart, and forewings and hindwings of similar shape. Most damselflies rest with both pairs of wings held together over their abdomens.

There are over 300 species of dragonflies and damselflies in Australia.

80 ii.iii. Ecosystems Fauna & Flora iii. Fauna 81 Beetles

2 3 4

1 5 6 7

Botany Bay Diamond Weevil Chrysolopus spectabilis was one of the first Australian insects to be scientifically described from material collected in 1770 by Joseph Banks. Beetles constitute the largest and most diverse order of insects on earth, making up about 30% of all animals. There are eight times as many 1 Bay Diamond Weevil 5 Leaf Beetle beetle species as there are fish, amphibian, reptile, bird and mammal Chrysolopus spectabilis Lamprolina sp. species put together. 2 Flower Beetle 6 Eucalyptus Tortoise Beetle Eupoecila australasiae Paropsis maculata The beetle order, Coleoptera, is the only order of insects that has hardened front wings (called elytra) that protect the hindwings and cover the breathing pores. This enables beetles to control their body temperature 3 Common Christmas Beetle 7 Rhinoceros Beetle and retain water. This adaptation has also enabled them to expand into many habitats such as leaf litter, logs Anoplognathus porosus Xylotrupes gideon and soil, that would otherwise damage the wings of less well-protected insect groups. Beetles have diverse 4 Acacia Longicorn Beetle mouthparts, and they eat anything from hardwood to the ooze from rotting fungi. Penthea sp.

It is easy to see why beetles are one of the most successful groups of animals in the world. There are over 300 000 species of beetles worldwide and over 28 000 species spread across 117 families in Australia. New species are being discovered all the time.

82 ii.iii. Ecosystems Fauna & Flora iii. Fauna 83 Phasmids and Mantids Cicadas and Katydids

1 2 3 4

Stick insects and praying mantids were once treated as Orthopterans but The drone of cicadas and katydids is one of the most recognisable sounds are now in their own orders - and Mantodea respectively. of summer in Australia.

Phasmids are insects that eat leaves and resemble leaves or sticks. They are usually green or brown but Cicadas are classified in the order Hemiptera, which includes all insects with piercing and sucking mouth- may reveal brightly coloured underwings when they fly. They have developed many unusual shapes to parts, such as bugs, aphids and scale insects. There are more than 200 Australian species of cicadas, most of camouflage themselves to avoid detection by predators. The order Phasmatodea includes the longest insects which belong to the one large family, the Cicadidae. Cicadas are raucous and ear-splitting singers. The song is in the world. a mating call produced by the males only. Each species has its own distinctive call and only attracts females of its own kind. Some large species such as the Greengrocer/Yellow Monday and the Double Drummer Mantids are carnivorous predators that are best known for their remarkable camouflage throughout various produce a noise intensity in excess of 120 dB. In contrast, some small species have songs so high in pitch stages of their life cycle. Many adults resemble sticks, twigs or leaves, their eggs could be mistaken for seeds, that the noise is beyond the range of our hearing. Some cicada species only sing at dusk. Often these species and juveniles often mimic ants. There are about 118 species of praying mantids in Australia. are weak fliers (as in the case of the Bladder Cicada). They gain some protection from predatory birds by confining their activity to dusk. 1 Giant Prickly Stick Insect 3 Green Bladder Cicada Cystosoma saundersii Katydids belong to the family Tettigoniidae in the order Orthoptera. The family is very large, containing approximately 1,000 described species in Australia, with many more undescribed. Other members in the 2 Green Praying Mantis 4 Leaf-mimicking Katydid Orthodera ministralis Mastigaphoides sp. family include grasshoppers, locusts, and crickets. Most of them are green in colour with leaf shaped wings that are held roof-like over the body. Its members display a variety of habitat and dietary preferences,

Sourced from the Australian Museum website: http://australianmuseum.net.au/ feeding on pollen and nectar, vegetation, insects and invertebrates.

84 ii.iii. Ecosystems Fauna & Flora iii. Fauna 85 87 Bundjalung Aboriginal Cultural Heritage

The wedding tree on the Evans River is a Kurrajong tree – it was a gift from the Wahlubal tribe at Tabulam when a wedding took place at Gumma Garra Gumma Garra Scarred Tree

Bundjalung Jugun (country) covers a large area of land in northern NSW and south- Customs and Traditions east QLD and is bordered by Iluka to the south, Logan River and Allora to the north Prior to European settlement on mainland Australia, Aboriginal people lived with the landscape, plants and Tenterfield to the west. and animals that made up their country, and resources such as food were plentiful all year round. They lived by tribal laws handed down from elders and a very distinct social structure was maintained within a There are many language groups within Bundjalung Jugun and below is a list of some of the language groups community. Some examples of this are the specific roles and duties carried out by men and women in food and their locations. collection, education of children and enforcement of tribal law. Language Group Location Tournaments, corroborees and other large ceremonial gatherings were a part of Bundjalung life and these Widjabal-Wiyabal Lismore/Nimbin events were opportunities for people from neighbouring tribes to gather together and learn new song and Arakwal Byron Bay/Brunswick Heads dance, watch performances, trade goods, catch up with friends and look for prospective partners. In different Minjungbal Ocean Shores to Tweed seasons, people would travel to these events at significant locations including bora rings.

Bandjalang Evans Head Wollumbin (Mt Warning) was a special place for all Bundjalung tribes, although access to the mountain was Nyangbal & Jali Ballina/Lennox Heads restricted to the “clever men” as its power and spirit was considered far too strong for normal gatherings. The name means “Fighting Chief of the Mountains” and this area was used for ritual combats, mass battles The ancestors of the Bundjalung clans were three brothers, Yahbeeri, Mahmoon and Birrum who came by and initiation of young boys. sea in a bark canoe from south to north, landing at different locations and establishing freshwater sites, tribal laws, bora rings and traditional knowledge for the generations to come.

88 iv. History of Human Occupation iv. History of Human Occupation 89 Bundjalung Aboriginal Cultural Heritage

Traditional Cultural Resources Name of Animal Species Traditional Use/s Koala Skin (clothing), meat (food) Plants Spiders and webs Gauze for wounds Bundjalung Jugun provided a diverse range of resources, including many species of native plants that were Fruit bats Food used for food, medicine, materials, clothing and decoration. The Table below outlines some of the local plant species and their uses: Ducks/Swans Food, decorations Echidna Food, medicine, decorations Name of Plant Species Traditional Use/s Pandanus Tree Bread/fruit (nuts), dilly bags Native hibiscus Medicine/String/Fire stick Crafts Geebungs Fruit Aboriginal people undertook many crafts and these crafts were taught to the younger generation from an Grass Tree Resin, food, spears early age. Crafts such as the making of tools, weapons, clothing and ceremonial costume were taught to both Lilly Pilly Food/Jam males and females to ensure they gained the appropriate skills to support daily survival and cultural life. Matt and Bull Rush String and baskets Some of the resources used to assist these crafts included grass and vines, animal skins and fats, ochres, resins, shell, rock, bark and wood. Maiden Hair Ferns Insect sting (young growth) Paperbark Blanket/food storage Spears Trees and bark Shelter, storage, canoe, shield, axe, spears Spears were mainly used for hunting and, to a lesser extent, as a combat weapon. They were about 2-3 Corkwood Fish traps metres long and had spearheads made of stone, bone and shell, with some areas also using mammal and fish Wait-a-while Tool for gathering food teeth. Spearheads were fastened to the wooden shaft by gum or strips of kangaroo hide and they varied in length from 1-3 metres depending on the task for which they were made. Spear-throwers, known as woomera, were commonly used in all areas of Australia. They were made of soft Species such as acacia, pittosporum, melaleuca, grevillea and eucalypt were traditionally prized for their wood and acted as an extension of the thrower’s arm, helping to project the spear with greater force. healing properties. The roots of the acacia were mashed and soaked to make a syrup that was used for coughs, colds and laryngitis. Eucalyptus was prepared for a variety of ailments ranging from gastro-illnesses Shields to heart troubles. Melaleuca or tea-tree oil was used as an antiseptic. All men used shields as a protection in battle and as a cover while stalking prey. Shields varied in size, shape and decoration and it seems each group took much pride in choosing a specific style of shield to differentiate Animals them from other groups. Most shields were fashioned from a single piece of timber and were usually 30cm Bundjalung Jugun provided many species of native animals that were used for food, medicine, materials, across the centre and up to 60cm long, tapering to a point at each end. clothing and decoration. The Table below outlines some of the local animal species and their uses: Message Sticks Name of Animal Species Traditional Use/s A message stick was a type of passport that every traditional man carried if he had reason to leave his own Kangaroo/Wallaby Skin (clothing), meat (food) area. It was a smallish piece of timber covered with carved marks of various kinds. It was a visible sign to Shell Fish & Fish Species Food, tools, decorations members of all other groups, no matter what their totem or language, that this traveller had good reason to Goanna Food, oil (medicine) be where he was.

Snake Food Digging Sticks Emu Food, oil (medicine), decorations The women in all areas used digging sticks, which had been sharpened to a point and hardened at one end Turtles (Fresh and Saltwater) Food, container (shell) by fire. They varied in length and were used daily in search for food.

90 iv. History of Human Occupation iv. History of Human Occupation 91 Bundjalung Aboriginal Cultural Heritage

Coolamons bora ring was built to traditional design, consisting of a large ring with a raised bank around its edge for the onlookers to sit and watch the ceremonies. The large ring was linked by a long pathway to a similar smaller This word refers to a watertight dish and most were skilfully hollowed from a suitable section of tree trunk. ring where secret ceremonies took place. At the large ring, neighbouring tribes visiting the Minjungbal Some were also painted and decorated. Coolamons were used in many ways including by Aboriginal women people for feasts, trade or battles would gather for ceremonies. to collect yams, edible roots and seeds. They were also used to carry water, hold ochre and even to carry small children during long trips. Gumma Garra Scarred Tree and Wedding Tree Aboriginal Sites in the Northern Rivers Region At Evans Head, along the Gumma Garra walking track, a scarred tree stands, and you can also find the “wedding tree” on the edge of the Evans River. The scarred tree is a Tallow Wood and its bark has been There are several sites in our local area that are recognised as “Aboriginal Places” and all of these places are removed by Aboriginal people to make a small canoe or to repair a canoe. Tallow wood was chosen as it was protected under the NPWS Act. Some of the sites that can be visited in the Northern Rivers Region include: resistant to insect attack and could be made waterproof. The bark would be cured over a fire and hardened by the smoke. The ends were then tied together and mud or resin from the grass tree was rubbed on to Lennox Head Aboriginal Place waterproof the ends. A fire could then be lit in the centre of the canoe to cook small fish during journeys. In Gibbons Street in Lennox Head you will find a large ceremonial ring only a few hundred metres from the The “wedding tree” is a Kurrajong. This species of tree is naturally found on the Tablelands, so this seed ocean. This ring is about 30 metres in diameter with a raised bank up to thirty centimetres high around the would have been traded or given to the Bandjalang people as part of dealings with tribal groups from the perimeter. This bora ground would have been used for initiation ceremonies and corroborees. Up to the age west. This tree was used for ceremonies such as a wedding, and young men and women from differing tribes of twelve young boys were taught skills such as hunting and fishing as well as lessons of self-control and would be brought here to partake in the union of marriage. the responsibilities of tribal life. They would then undergo major initiation and preparation ceremonies at this site. Prior to ceremonies the men would prepare themselves by rubbing honey and charcoal into their hair. Using red, yellow and white ochres as paints, their faces and chests would be painted red, and legs and Bundjalung Jugun Bush Tucker and Language arms decorated with stripes, dots, wavy lines, straight lines or circles. Feathers, shell or bead bands around their waists and necks completed the decorations. Once the boys were initiated they too would be painted Bundjalung English in honour of their initiation. This ‘making of men’ could take up to a week or more. Gahgun Kookaburra Along North Creek in Ballina there is a very large shell midden, which extended for nearly three kilometres. Jalum Fish In 1892 a surveyor reported finding this midden and estimated that it was so large it must have been used for Guraman Kangaroo about 1800 years. Today most of this midden has been destroyed due to urban development, with the small Jenna Jenna Echidna remaining part being a site of much interest to archaeologists. Gubble Snake A midden is the remains of many meals of shellfish and may also contain charcoal from campsites, bones of Ngooding Emu fish and birds, mammals and reptiles. Some middens were also used for the disposal of human bones. The types of shell found in the North Creek midden include oysters (98%), whelks, pipis, cockles, mussels and smaller shells. This area was a popular meeting place for many tribes in the local area and at certain times of the year many would gather to take advantage of the plentiful food supply. Activities during this time included feasting, entertaining, singing, dancing, athletic tests, mock fights and trading. These festivities would last up to 2-3 weeks.

The settlers used the shells of the midden deposit for the construction of roads, footpaths, floors of oyster beds, land fill and lime burning, all of which contributed to the degradation of this important Aboriginal site.

Minjungbal Ceremonial Ring On the estuary of the Tweed River, the Minjungbal people constructed a bora ring for ceremonial uses such as corroborees and initiations. You can visit the ring today at the Minjungbal Museum in Tweed Heads. The Information for this section was kindly provided by the Department of Environment and Climate Change NSW and the NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service.

92 iv. History of Human Occupation iv. History of Human Occupation 93 European Settlement

conditional purchase in 1866, had an area of 80 acres, and encompassed Lennox Head (the headland, not the village, which then did not exist).4 A traveller in 1880 reported that ‘On Lennox Head lives an old Victorian squatter named Hodgkinson, said to have been wealthy at one time, but unfortunate.’ He was called ‘pippy’ Hodgkinson, ‘from his partiality for the bivalve of that name’.5

The traveller was Archibald Meston, who wrote a detailed account of his journey on horseback along the coast from Brisbane to the Clarence River in 1880. After leaving Cape Byron, Meston rode ‘along a beach of three miles’ [Tallow Beach] to ‘a rocky point’ [Broken Head], where he made a detour, travelling for two miles through ‘dense scrub of an infinite variety of luxuriant vegetation.’ Emerging from the scrub onto the next beach [Seven Mile Beach], Meston and his companion dismounted and ‘had a bathe in the surf’, while their horses ‘nibbled some vegetation’. As ‘whiting and schnapper were in shoals’, they also did some fishing.6

Meston reported no signs of habitation near the northern end of Seven Mile Beach. He would have passed near to Hodgkinson’s hut, which by September 1879 had been erected close to the coast on Portion 12, Parish of Newrybar, but intervening sand dunes and vegetation would probably have made it invisible to anyone travelling along the beach. Nevertheless, the fact that Hodgkinson was found living at Lennox Head, begs the question of who, if anyone, was living at his Seven Mile Beach property. It is unlikely that this question can ever be answered, although it does seem possible that the hut was built more to create the appearance of compliance with the provisions of the lands legislation than to provide anyone with a permanent residence.

Between 1866 and the early 1880s, James Hodgkinson and members of his family took up more than 1,400 acres of land in the Ballina, Lennox Head, and Broken Head areas. In addition to James’s original portion at Lennox Head, and his holding at Seven Mile Beach, he also had land elsewhere in the Parish of Newrybar. Extract from the 1879 Crown plan of Hodgkinson’s Portion 12, Parish of Newrybar Further blocks were selected in the names of his son Albert James (b.1854), and daughters Virginia (b.1850), Constanza Rose (b.1855) and Hebe Medora (b.1857). A quick scan of early editions of Department of Lands The Hodgkinson Years parish maps reveals that the Hodgkinson family eventually had at least nine portions totalling 1,020 acres in the Parish of Newrybar, and at least ten portions totalling 440 acres in the adjacent Parish of Ballina. In The present Linnaeus Estate comprises all of Portions 12 and 21, virtually all of Portion 71, and a major addition to these, Mary Hodgkinson, James’s wife, purchased two allotments in Byron Bay at the first sale part of Portion 70, in the Parish of Newrybar, County of Rous. Portion 12 of 60 acres, on which most of the of Crown lands there in July1886.7 present Linnaeus buildings have been erected, was the first of these to be selected. It was applied for as a conditional purchase in 1878 by James Hodgkinson. When this land was surveyed in September 1879, it had been improved to the extent of one hut valued at £20 and clearing to the value of £5.1

Hodgkinson soon extended his Seven Mile Beach land holding by selecting a further area of 60 acres in June 1880. This was Portion 21, immediately south of Portion 12.2 To these he soon added Portion 70 (120 acres), to the north of Portion 12; Portion 71 (120 acres), to the south of Portion 21; Portion 72 (160 acres), to the 1 Conditional Purchase 78.411, 12 September. Surveyor General’s Plan no. R1779.1759, surveyed 23 and 24 September 1879. 2 west of Portions 12 and 21; and Portion 73 (120 acres), to the west of Portion 72. All four were selected in Additional Conditional Purchase 80.156, 24 June. Surveyor General’s Plan no. R2092.1759, surveyed 9 October 1880. 3 3 Additional Conditional Purchases 82.463, 15 June, and 82.469, 22 June. Surveyor General’s Plan no. R2601.1759, surveyed 14 December 1882. June and July 1882, bringing the area of the property to 640 acres. Portions 72 and 73 are entirely outside the present Linnaeus Estate. 4 Conditional Purchase 66.3503, 27 September. Surveyor General’s Plan no. R.258.1759, surveyed 1867. Hodgkinson’s purpose in selecting this land is not known, but it seems probable that it was of a speculative 5 ‘From Brisbane to Grafton, Along the Coast’, Queenslander, 22 May 1880. nature, and that he had no intention of residing on or farming it. Several pieces of evidence support this belief. 6 ‘From Brisbane to Grafton, Along the Coast’, Queenslander, 15 May 1880. James Hodgkinson arrived in the Richmond River District in the 1860s, and first selected land on the coast, 7 Northern Star, 31 July 1886. seven miles north of the Richmond River heads. His Portion 20, Parish of Ballina, which was applied for as a

94 iv. History of Human Occupation iv. History of Human Occupation 95 European Settlement

European History of the Linnaeus Estate William and Mary Bryant It was to be another twenty years before the next explorers came across northern New South Wales. They An edited and abridged version of a paper by Josh Rosenthal SIT Study Abroad, Byron Bay, December 2005 were a group of prisoners who came over in the First Fleet, leaving England on May 13th 1787 and arriving Project Advisor: Dr Peter Brennan, SIT Academic Director at their final destination, Botany Bay, on January 26th 1788. William and Mary Bryant, a husband-wife pair, led the group. The pair had met while in transit from England to Australia, and shortly after the fleet The Linnaeus Estate (from this point on, known as Linnaeus) is situated on 111.1 hectares with 1.5 km of arrived at Port Jackson they were married (Hughes, 1986). What ensured their relative success was the fact coastal frontage. Before settlement, the entire property was part of a much larger area of rainforest known that William was a fisherman. The following is a passage from Robert Hughes’ (1986) bookThe Fatal Shore: as the Big Scrub. It contains a diversity of ecosystems, including littoral rainforest, swamp sclerophyll forest, wet sclerophyll forest, sedgeland, frontal dune complex, and grassland. In 2005 the beach in front of A fisherman was just what the half-starved colony needed. Governor Phillip put Bryant in charge of the boats that Linnaeus was ranked number four on a list of the top ten beaches in the world. It was described as having hauled the fishing nets every day in the harbour. But the black-market opportunities were too good for a Cornish “beautiful white sand, fabulous surf and it’s absolutely pristine. It’s empty and clean and very underdevel- smuggler to resist. He was caught selling some of his fish on the sly, instead of delivering them all to the Govern- oped” (Australian Financial Review, 2005). ment store; for this he got one hundred lashes. If he had not set his heart on it before, Bryant was now determined to escape. At worst, he would rather drown quickly at sea than starve inch by inch on land. He had access to the boats but had no weapons, tools, navigational instruments, charts or food.

Explorers Eventually Bryant traded for the items he needed with a Dutch captain. “On March 28th 1791, the Bryants, their two children, and seven other convicts climbed into the Governor’s own six-oar cutter” (Hughes, Captain James Cook 1986). They sailed from Botany Bay up the east coast to Timor. On June 5th they reached Timor, passing themselves off as survivors of a shipwreck on the Australian coast. One night, while they were waiting for On Tuesday, May 15th 1770, Captain James Cook, commander of the Endeavour, became the first explorer to transit back to England, William got drunk and spilled the beans about being prisoners. set eyes on the shores of Northern New South Wales. To mark the occasion, Cook (1770) took notice of the area’s most prominent landmarks, Cape Byron and Mount Warning: While little is known about the actual voyage, Ryan and Smith (2001) assume two things about it. First, “Their small heavily-laden open vessel is likely to have kept close to the coast for safety.” And second, A tolerable high point of land bore northwest by west distant 3 mile; this point I named Cape Byron (Latitude “tossed by storms along this coast (NSW) the group struggled to maintain their northward flight, making 28°37’30”S, Longitude 206° 30’W). It may be known by a remarkable sharp peaked Mountain lying inland north- landfall at probably one or possibly two places along the north coast of New South Wales.” If this is true, west by west from it. From this point the land trends north 13° west. Inland it is pretty high and hilly but near the then the group of convicts most certainly sailed past Linnaeus. Could the group have braved the surf and shore it is low. To the southward of the point the land is low and tolerable level. landed on the beach as well?

Ryan and Smith’s book, Time and Tide Again, makes a number of points about Cook’s journal entry. First “Mt. Matthew Flinders Warning remains a remarkable sight but the navigator’s need for a distinctive marker appears to have exag- gerated the artist’s view of the height and steepness of this and its surroundings” (Ryan and Smith, 2001). The next explorer to sail past the area was the “indefatigable” Matthew Flinders. Flinders first passed the Second “…with the journey coming closer to those northern islands already mapped, it is understandable north coast of New South Wales in the Norfolk in 1799 looking for a great inland river; however, he passed that Cook would apply the name of a famous naval figure whose example was particularly useful for this the area at a safe distance (Ryan and Smith, 2001). The next time he passed the area was on July 25th 1802: journey” (Ryan and Smith, 2001). The figure was none other than Captain John Byron, who published “The sun was near setting at the time Cape Byron bore west, three or four miles” (Flinders, 1802) his story about being shipwrecked and enduring five years of hardships before arriving back in England. Perhaps the chain of association for Cook began with the sight of porpoises off the Cape – for Byron’s ship In 1803, Flinders sailed past the area again on a trip coloured by shipwreck. The following excerpt is from was named the “Dolphin”(Ryan and Smith, 2001). Regardless of what actually inspired Cook to name the Exploring the Mysterious South (nd), and illustrates just why his next passage was going to be different: Cape after Byron, the important thing is that he documented the Cape, because it gives a point of reference to Linnaeus. A brisk wind from the south-east blew the ship away from her escorts, Cato and Bridgewater. Flinders had enjoyed a good dinner and was below decks ‘conversing with the gentlemen in the gun room’. Suddenly there was a crack Cook (1770), in his journal, recorded, “At noon we were by observation in the Latitude of 28° 39’S, and of sails and at the same time the lookout cried out ‘Breakers ahead’! All three ships were heading for a reef. Almost Longitude 206° 27’W; Course and distance sailed since Yesterday at Noon N6°45’E, 104 Miles”. This means colliding, Bridgewater went on to safety and Porpoise and Cato crashed on to a coral bank, which became known as that Cook covered 167.3km in a day, or 6.972km/h. And since Linnaeus is 12km away from Byron Bay, it can Wreck Island. Many crewmen were killed. be estimated that Cook passed Linnaeus at approximately 10:17am on May 15th 1770.

96 ii.iv. EcosystemsHistory of Human & Flora Occupation iv. History of Human Occupation 97 European Settlement

Flinders made his way back to Port Jackson in a cutter named The Hope. During their trip down the coast Settling the Region they kept near the shore because “the probability of being lost is greater in making three hundred miles in an open boat at sea than in running even six hundred along shore” (Flinders, 1803). During their journey Infiltration of Regional NSW they passed Linnaeus during the daytime. As Ryan and Smith (2001) point out “the journey was speedy and in its own way heroic –similar to that of the northward flight of the Bryants, but in the opposite direction.” Settlement in NSW followed a very distinctive pattern: there was a direct correlation between penal colonies After they had made it safely to Port Jackson, Flinders was given the Cumberland, and returned north to and the presence of cedar-getters. As mentioned earlier in this paper, the first fleet arrived in Australia in Wreck Island, once again passing Linnaeus. 1788. Shortly after, the first cedar-getters were felling trees on the Hawkesbury in 1790 (Mackey, 2001).

According to Mackey (2001), soon after the Hunter River was discovered, cedar was cut from its banks. The Johns Further proof of this pattern can be seen with the establishment of the Newcastle penal colony. In this case, earlier cedar-getters of the area were undoubtedly prisoners who were employed by the government After Flinders, two explorers named John came to the northern NSW area. John Oxley in 1818 came upon (Mackey, 2001). Oftentimes there was little or no difference between escaped convicts and cedar-getters. two northern rivers, the Macquarie and the Hastings. Four years later, in February/March 1822, John Bingle Penal colonies and cedar-getters might have occurred close together because they were both confined to an sailed up the northern coast in the Sally on his way to Moreton Bay. He recorded in his journal that he was area that was near a river system, mainly for transportation. Usually Squatters were not too far behind the subjected to severe gales while in the area of Byron Bay, resulting in his ship being blown off course by sawyers, because as tree felling occurred more land was opened up for use as pasture. 40 miles (Ryan and Smith, 2001). Oxley returned around October 1823 in the boat The Mermaid on a trip to Moreton Bay. On this trip he discovered the Tweed River and the Brisbane River. Furthermore Oxley As more and more lands were cleared in the south, the cedar-getters migrated further north, where lands reported that the Moreton Bay area was fertile and had a lot of timber resources. were relatively untouched. Cedar-getters established camp in 1836 on the Macleay River (Mackey, 2001). According to Olley (1995), in his book Squatters of the Richmond, Richard Craig, an emancipated convict, was Because of Oxley’s report and land-development issues of the time (the government trying to establish free the first European to report on the possibilities of pastoral and cedar-getting applications on the Clarence settlement in the Hunter River valley), in 1824 a penal colony was established in Moreton Bay replacing River bank. Thomas Small Senior and Francois Girard despatched vessels with cedar-getters in 1836. In 1839 the New Castle Penal Colony. Robert Hughes’ (1986) following excerpt can best sum up the penal system in others left in search of “squattage land” after hearing about Craig’s report (Olley, 1995). The first cedar- Australia: “In Australia it was easy to escape. The hard thing was to survive”. Many prisoners were able getters on the Richmond, Jimmy Pearce, Tommy Chilcott, and George Cooper, set up camp on the riverbank to escape. Ryan and Smith (2001) point out that these convicts attempted to travel southwards along the opposite Pelican Creek (Mackey, 2001). There was proof of this camp in 1843, although it is quite possible coast, some arriving at Port Macquarie and New Castle. This implies that convicts frequently walked upon that it was established well before then (Mackey, 2001). Linnaeus’ beach, as it was probably easier to travel around than through the Big Scrub. Around this time the first squatters to the Richmond River area arrived. In 1840 George Stapleton visited Captain Henry John Rous the Yulgilbar country. Yulgilbar station still operates today in an area of land north of Grafton, in the Clarence River catchment, near the small Aboriginal township of Baryulgil. Shortly after Stapleton left, On June 15th 1827, the Governor of NSW, Ralph Darling, aboard Captain Henry John Rous’ frigate, The Edward Ogilvie departed for Armidale to register the Yulgilbar run. On September 12, 1840, Stapleton paid Rainbow, saw the majestic beauty of Byron Bay. After seeing this landscape, Darling ordered Rous to inves- ten pounds for a squatting license next to Olgivie’s station. The squatting license also had Messrs Clay as a tigate and find a navigable river and a spot for safe anchorage around Byron Bay. It took Rous over a year to part owner. Stapleton and Clay arrived on the property between March 26th and April 3rd 1841—over six return to Byron Bay and complete the tasks that the Governor had given him. On August 20th 1828, HMS months after the issue of the license. At the time, if the person(s) who were issued a squatting license were Rainbow dropped anchor at Byron Bay. The next few days, Rous explored the delta of what he called the not occupying the land within a six-month period, anyone could then occupy it. Clay and Stapleton, upon Tweed River. Rous was unaware that this river had already been discovered and named the Clarence. On arriving, discovered two men, Pagan and Evans, with their sheep, occupying their licensed run. The group August 26th the Rainbow explored twenty miles of the river Rous named the Richmond. While in the area, of men came to an agreement: Clay and Stapleton would give up their claim on the run in exchange for Pagan Rous also named Lennox Head. During this time the master of the Rainbow, William Johns, mapped out Cape and Evans finding an equally good run. On the next day Clay and Stapleton rode along the Richmond River Byron Bay. Johns noted the best anchorage sites for small vessels and large vessels, the best landing spot, eventually arriving in Casino in April 1841. This is where they settled and through this settling they ushered and the salt-water lagoon that is now known as Belongil Creek. With the mapping out of Byron Bay, the area in an era of major population centres. It is important to note that Stapleton cut a road from Copmanhurst was ready to be infiltrated. to the Richmond. If anything this road would only help the migration of other squatters to the Richmond River area.

Big Scrub Penetration

As mentioned before the cedar-getters came to the Richmond River area in 1842-43. They quickly logged

98 ii.iv. EcosystemsHistory of Human & Flora Occupation iv. History of Human Occupation 99 European Settlement the trees along the Richmond River banks. According to Ryan and Smith (2001), as this happened, they a steady trickle of new selectors into the area. In the 1870s and 1880s Lismore’s population grew immensely. soon changed their logging strategies, focusing their activities in the hill country, going wherever they could According to Ryan (1979), in his book Lismore, the population growth was an indirect result of the Land harvest timber. They cut their logs in the Big Scrub and hauled them to the edge of the coastal escarpment by Act of 1861: means of the bullock team. At certain spots where the slope was not too great, the giant logs were then slid or rolled over the edge to the coastal lands below. From there they were ‘snigged’ by bullocks to the beach, Initially many of them chose land in the more settled areas of the state but because of the size of their holdings they dragged through the surf and loaded into ships. found it difficult to make a living. It was twenty years after the Act before many of them awoke to the possibilities of the Far North Coast where a bountiful climate and seemingly endless supply of rich timbers made prospects on These spots on the escarpment became known as ‘shoots’, each usually bearing the name of the cedar-getter the selection far more attractive than in more arid areas of the state. who established his base camp at that spot. One such cedar-getter was Joseph Cooper who gave his name to Cooper’s Shoot. Other shoots in the Byron Bay area were McLeod’s Shoot, Skinner’s Shoot and Possum Gold Around the Northern Rivers Shoot. Another important thing that Ryan and Smith mention is that “The great timberjinkers smashed down the undergrowth and the saplings and gouged the earth to create the first roads or tracks in the scrub The Richmond River area received a further increase in population when John Sinclair found gold on the country.” Shores of Ballina in 1871 (Morley, 1981, 3). A correspondent who travelled from the Tweed to Ballina docu- mented people mining for gold on Seven Mile Beach (Smith and Ryan, 2001). Further information about gold Penetration into the Big Scrub would come in a few forms, as Ryan and Smith (2001) document. Travel- mining schemes on Seven Mile Beach can be found in Appendix E. lers going to and from Ballina and the Tweed would most likely pass the area on the coast. Ships, seeking protection from the strong southerly gale, would most assuredly have taken harbour in the protected Bay. Gold mining was more profitable at the start and slowly diminished over time, but it was enough to attract There were also bushmen who travelled through the Big Scrub, such as George Cooper. George Cooper most people to the area. This increasing population of the area and shrinking land availability made the more likely came to the Byron Bay area by way of Ballina. Furthermore at the time, it was very popular to have formidable lands, such as the Big Scrub, look more enticing. What made the Big Scrub even more enticing a news reporter travel through the bush country and write about their adventures. In 1871 a correspondent was the fact that it “offered the selector an income from sale of timber while he cleared his property” (Ryan for Town and Country Journal travelled south from the Tweed through the Big Scrub to Ballina with a few and Smith, 2001). As a result the Byron Bay area, one hundred years after Captain Cook sailed by, was going companions. If someone were walking from the Byron Bay area to Ballina or vice-versa then, they would to have its first settler. have walked along the coast, which was the easiest line of travel. Therefore, travellers at the time would have passed along the beach where Linnaeus now stands. Settling Byron Bay

The Golden Age of Settlement The first settler to the Byron Bay area seems to have originated in either Ballina or Lismore. Ryan and Smith (2001) believe that most historians are wrong about the Lismore route and say, “The evidence suggests that The era of the cedar-getter was coming to an end. This does not mean that people stopped cutting down they (the selectors) followed the tracks of the old cedar-cutters from the southern settlement at Tintenbar cedar, but rather they adopted a more sedentary lifestyle. This new phase started in the latter part of 1851. and Ballina.” Another highly debatable topic about the selectors of the Byron Bay area is: “Just who was the When Edward Hargraves conducted a survey in the sheep country west of Sydney he “uncovered lucrative first settler?” There are two different answers to this, both of which are given by Ryan and Smith (2001). gold deposits” (Exploring the Mysterious South, nd). Because of this discovery the population of New South “If we take the Lands Department records of alienation of land then, that honour by virtue of registration Wales doubled from 1851-1861, and Australia’s total population rose from 400,000 people to over 1,200,000 must go to Thomas Skelton.” Yet, David Jarman makes the claim that he in fact was there before the date people. Olley (1995) notes about the new profession that “very few men were successful at making a living.” Thomas Skelton was, June 2nd 1881. “The final word on all this comes from the Byron Bay Record Issue of 16 After the gold rush, Australia had a much larger population, most of which demanded land on which they May 1908: ‘David Jarman, President of Byron Shire Council, died on May 10th. Was a resident of Byron Bay could farm. This culminated with John Robertson’s Land Act of 1861 on October 18th. “The act enabled for 25 years…’ That would have made the date of his arrival 1883.” After Thomas Skelton in 1881, he was anyone to select a block of land at one pound per acre with a minimum of 40 acres and a down payment of soon followed by eight selectors: “Joseph Wright, Eli Hayter, Edward Boyle, George Glissan, James Glissan, five shillings per acre and payment of five percent charged on the remainder of the purchase price” (Ryan George Blum, and George Birney.” and Smith, 2001). After this Act “the Crown Lands of the colony including the pastoral leases were open to free selection before survey. However selections were limited to from 40 to 320 acres” (Olley, 1995). One Many of these settlers began a dairy industry, signalling the need for more organised settlement. Most of thing the Act did was allow most people the possibility of becoming a landowner. the communities in the Byron Bay hinterland owe their existence to the clearing of the Big Scrub for dairy farms. Stores, post offices, churches and hotels were established to serve the growing community of farmers, During the 30-year period between the 1840s and the 1870s there was great development in population and the progress of the settlement of Big Scrub lands can be gauged by the establishment of schools. Public centres such as Grafton, Casino, and Ballina. During this time shops, churches, newspapers, schools, land schools were established at Coorabell in 1891, Opossum Creek (as it was originally known) in1899, Tyagarah offices, and banks opened within these areas (Ryan and Smith, 2001). With the Land Act of 1861, there was (now known as Ewingsdale) in 1895, Myocum in 1903, and near the old timber camp of Cooper’s Shoot in 1904, when dairying was in full swing.

100 ii.iv. EcosystemsHistory of Human & Flora Occupation iv. History of Human Occupation 101 European Settlement

The coming of the railway was another impetus for settlement. When the line opened from Lismore to Byron discoveries. He realised then he could separate white zircon from the rest of the sand by adding acid. Bay and beyond in 1894, Granuaille (later known as Bangalow) was the last station before Byron Bay. The First Cumberland obtained patents for his process; then he convinced a major mining company to buy him intensification of farming activity between these two places, as well as the continuing needs of the timber out. In June 1934, Zircon-Rutile Limited was formed as the first public company to treat black sands for industry, led to the opening of additional stations at Talofa in 1895 and St Helena in 1898. their zircon. Since they were going to be mining on the North Coast of New South Wales, they built a plant in Byron Bay, a fairly central point to where their leases were. In November 1934, when the plant began Linnaeus construction, mining commenced on Seven Mile Beach. This mining was fairly similar to its earlier prede- cessor, gold mining, as it was mined manually in parties. Teams of six men worked an 18-metre stretch at a time. The men formed two lines of three men exactly three metres apart, converging to a central point. The The First Selectors sand was then hauled to the Byron Bay factory (which opened in April 1935) to be processed. This mining continued for 18 months, with enough stockpiled sand for the plant to allow it to run for quite sometime. The area on which most of the Linnaeus buildings now stand was first selected by James Hodgkinson in Unfortunately for Zircon-Rutile, the market was too small and they had to close the factory in November 1878. The next owner of the property, as documented by the Lands Department of NSW, was Joseph Stone, 1935. The plant reopened and operated on a much smaller scale, which eventually turned a profit. Zircon- who bought the property on September 12th 1905. Unfortunately very little is known about what activities Rutile kept the practice of hand mining till 1945. This changed when they installed a tabling plant at Seven Stone did on the property. It is probably safe to say that he felled some timbers, maintained agriculture, and Mile Beach. They were also the first people to employ a dragline in sandmining. had a pasture for dairying. Most likely he had to clear an area in which he could maintain a living and have a house. As a result, it would make sense that he cleared some land. Maintaining some agriculture would Seven Mile Beach was mined for quite some time. As techniques improved, becoming more efficient, sand seem fairly obvious, since people back then had to produce some of, if not all their food. Dairying not only was re-mined (pers. comm. Ron Boggis, 11/10/05). During these years, the tabling plant at Seven Mile Beach produced food for the farmer but also provided a very lucrative market for farmers around the area. At would go through various stages of being operational and not operational (Mining Record). Owen said he the time Stone purchased the land, Norco had become the largest butter producer in Australia. Since their had very little to do with the sandmining. He did recall, however, seeing the mining companies mine the factory in Byron Bay was a relatively short distance away, it would be conceivable for Stone to contribute sand during the 1950s and 1960s. Furthermore he remembered that they were Americans and not Aussies, to them. Further supportive evidence that Stone might have produced dairy is the fact that there was a which would indicate that Zircon-Rutile Limited was bought out. In fact Ron Boggis said that Associated cheese factory established right at Broken Head. According to the Lennox Head Heritage Society (2005), Minerals Consolidates Ltd., an American company, bought out Zircon-Rutile Limited around the 1960s (pers. “The Rockleigh Cheese Factory was established in 1910 by James (Jim) Ainsworth at his Broken Head dairy comm., 11/10/05). An actual date was found by comparing the mining records. Zircon-Rutile’s record ended farm, Lennox Head. A well located on the farm supplied all the water for cheese making, as well as domestic February 15th, 1966, and then Associated Minerals Consolidates’ record begins March 23rd 1966. So the and farm use.” transition happened in between those times. Interestingly enough, in the Associated Minerals Consolidates’ mining record, it shows that the company undertook measures for the rehabilitation of the dune system The early, quiet Tom Jarrett years through the planting of casuarinas and other species (Records of Mining, September 1972). In the Record, however, it does not mention anything about planting Bitou Bush. Both Ron and Owen said that the mining After Stone, Thomas Henry Jarrett owned the property from December 16th, 1926. After the end of World in the area stopped in the 1960’s. According to the Associated Minerals Consolidates’ records, mining War 11 the Lynn family drove up from the south to work Jarrett’s property. Owen Lynn recalls the first time continued to the mid 70s. The two statements can be reconciled by the simple fact that Owen and Ron were his family drove up in their Oldsmobile: “it sounded as though we were going to drive right into the ocean” talking specifically about Seven Mile Beach, whereas Associated Minerals was still mining further north. (pers. comm. 11/3/2005). It was Owen’s point that back then everything was quieter, more serene. It is almost like this land had lain untouched for so many years. Soon after the Lynns came to the property this Dairying quietness, this virgin land, would feel the destructive hand of man. A transcript of Owen’s recollections of his life at Linnaeus can be found in Appendix F. After the mining had started, Owen recalled that dairying took place on the property. Owen confirmed the presence of a dairy bale in the 1950s. He also recalled that Tom Jarrett owned the dairy by the quarry. Owen Sand Mining claimed that the other dairy on the property belonged to Jack T. Alcorn. It appears that some time after Stan Lynn, Owen’s dad, purchased the property that he used to share farm, he sold a plot of land to Alcorn. Ian Morley’s (1981) book, Black Sands, tells the story of what was to occur. It all started with a married This would make sense, because Owen also said that Alcorn had 85 acres of land on the northern side of the couple, the Cumberlands, who were spending a lot of time mining for gold on the beach between the years property (pers. comm., 11/3/05). 1930 and 1932. This was the time of the Great Depression and things were desperate. They were mining on the beaches north of Ballina. They did not own any mining titles; however, Mrs. Cumberland had obtained a Owen described the property as second-class dairy land since “the ground was too sandy, and the hills too number of mining leases in 1930. These leases included the rights to mine zircon, rutile, ilmenite, gold, plat- clayey” (pers. comm., 11/3/05). Regardless of the quality of dairy produced, Owen repeated the notion that inum and tin. In 1931 the Cumberlands were living in a tent behind the dunes right adjacent to Seven Mile Norco had the best butter around. During the time of Owen Lynn’s occupation, the dairies on the property Beach. After a day of mining, Cumberland washed his hands and had one of those great accidental scientific

102 ii.iv. EcosystemsHistory of Human & Flora Occupation iv. History of Human Occupation 103 European Settlement had a separator in which the cream was separated from the milk. The cream was then stored and readied for then detailed all the transfers after this point. According to her, the property was broken up, and transferred pick-up by Norco. In 1946, the separator used a diesel engine, since electricity had not quite made it out to from Stan Lynn to a man named Mortimer and to Jack Alcorn. The piece that Mortimer owned was then sold the farm as of then. Also the cream, he said, often went sour as result of no refrigeration. As for the milk, it to a Byron Bay chemist by the name of John David. Both Jack Alcorn’s and John David’s portion were bought did not go to the Rockleigh Cheese Factory, but rather to the piggery. According to Owen, it was around this up by a man with the surname Foxgold. It is important to note that while the owners changed the property time that the Rockleigh Cheese Factory went out of business. A further hit to the dairy industry indicated remained relatively the same. By the year 1983, Kurt Schaeffer had become the owner of the property. This by Owen was the fact that, after the Second World War, the English stopped buying Australian butter and transfer and consolidation of land titles broke the typical pattern of farming that had been taking place on instead started to buy European butter (pers. comm., 11/3/05). the property since it was originally settled. As in Byron Bay, Linnaeus’ former land uses were being phased out, with tourism becoming the main industry of Byron Bay and the area around it. Other activities on the Property Kurt Schaeffer proposed the building of a private university in conjunction with Southern Cross University, As mentioned before, the dairy Jarrett owned was across from the quarry. The quarry it seems has always but this did not proceed. been a private quarry, and not a council quarry. The quarry has benefited everyone who has owned the property. Owen recalled that people would come to pay to use the quarry all the time. Besides benefiting the In 1996 the property was purchased by Broken Head Coastal Foundation Pty Ltd, who planned and imple- owner as a source of income, the owners have often times used it for their own personal buildings. mented the development of the Linnaeus Estate.

Another property usage has been agriculture. The two main crops grown on the property have been pump- kins and bananas. According to Owen the pumpkin farming started in 1952, when the Ferguson tractors came out. The pumpkins would be sold in Lennox Head, but the bananas went by truck to Lismore where there was a farmers’ cooperative. Owen said that it took bananas 18 months from planting to harvest. Commonly, these bananas would be packed in timber boxes and shipped to Sydney. Maize was also harvested on the property. Also quite a bit of logging went on in the areas near the Ballina-Byron Bay Road (Phil McMaster, pers. comm., 11/27).

Ocean Fishing Works Cited

Where the sand mines used to be there is now another industry in existence—fishing. Ron Boggis and Barry Adams, M. Personal Communication, interview, 11/23/05 Harding are both fisherman. They have been fishing around Seven Mile Beach and the Byron Bay area for Bay Books Ltd. Exploring the Mysterious South. Singapore: Bay Books Ltd. the majority of their lives. According to Ron, he has been fishing since he was eight—the time when he fished Boggis, R. and Harding, B. Personal Communication, interview, 11/10/05 baitfish near the jetty and then sold his catch to a fishing supply store (pers. comm., 11/10/05). The species Cook, J. (nd). The Endeavour. of fish that one could catch here included mullet, bream, yellow fin, snapper, and whiting. Department of Mines. Records of Mining from 1953 to 1966. The mullet lives in fresh water rivers. During the breeding season, winter, the mullet migrates to the ocean. Department of Mines. Records of Mining from 1966 to 1975. While the mullet is in the river system it eats mud and algae. When it migrates to the ocean the mullet Flinders, M. (2000). Terra Australia. Victoria: The Text Publishing Company. (Original work published 1814). does not eat; it just uses the stored body fat it already has. According to Barry, when a mullet arrives at the Heritage Office and Department of Urban Affairs and Planning. (1996). Regional Histories of New South Wales. ocean “it can flush the mud and algae out of its system in two hours” (pers. comm., 11/10/05). Interestingly Hughes, R. (1986). The Fatal Shore. London: Guild Publishing. enough, before a mullet is able to mate, they do a summertime practice migration run. Furthermore females Jarrett, Kevin. Personal Communication, interview, 11/23/05 that are carrying the roe fetch a price six to eight times higher than their male counterparts. The mullet’s Lynn, O. Personal Communication, interview, 11/3/05 scientific name is Mugil Cephalus Linnaeus, following the classification system of Carl Linnaeus. McMaster, P. Personal Communication, interview, 11/27/05 The estate was subsequently named after Carl Linnaeus. Morley, I. (1981). Black Sands. St. Lucia: University of Queensland. The Owners of the Past Mackey, N. (2001). European Settlement in the Clarence River District Before 1850. Grafton: McPhee Print. Olley, W.J. (1995). Squatters on the Richmond, Lismore. In 1954 Tom Jarrett passed away. His wife then sold the property to Stan Lynn, Owen’s dad. Tom Jarrett’s Ryan, M. and Smith R. (2001). Time and Tide Again. Lismore: Northern River Press. son said the property was sold as one-block (pers. comm., 11/23/05). Mabel Adams, a Linnaeus neighbour, Ryan, M. (1979). Lismore. Australia: The Currawong Press.

104 ii.iv. EcosystemsHistory of Human & Flora Occupation iv. History of Human Occupation 105 107 Appendix A: Flora and Fauna Survey Summary

A Flora and Fauna survey of the Estate by Peter Parker Environmental The layout of traps for vertebrate species was determined by the forest structure, combined with specific site features (e.g., gullies or flyways for megachiropteran and microchiropteran bats etc.). Systematic survey Consultants Pty Ltd, September 1997 methodology is detailed in the Table below and the methodology adopted indicated.

This flora and fauna study was prepared for land at Broken Head (Lots 2 & 9 DP 729112) on behalf of the Sampling methodology adopted at the site Broken Head Coastal Foundation Pty Ltd. To the south, the site is bounded by the Byron-Ballina Shire boundary and to the west it fronts Ballina Road. To the east it is separated by a strip of Crown land from Survey methodology Survey dates, 1997 Seven Mile Beach. Hair-tube trapping 10-12 January A systematic flora and fauna survey was undertaken at the site during January 1997 and various specific Spot lighting 10-12 January, 21 August surveys were undertaken up until September 1997. This report documents the results of these surveys. Bird transects 10-12 January, 18 August & 21 September Bird play-back calls 10-12 January Summary Frog call detection 10-12; 27-28 January, 17 February, 27 March & 20-21 August Bat acoustical sampling 10-12 January • A total of fourteen vegetation associations in seven communities was recorded and mapped at the Broken Bat harp-netting 10-12 January Head site. Bat mist-netting 10-12 January • The floristics recorded at the site were influenced by soils, moisture and exposure. Littoral rainforest Reptile litter searches 10-12 January occurred on deep coastal sands both on the flats and slopes. Koala searches 10-12 January • Swamp forest and sedgeland occurred on the lower lying portions of the site. These forests were dominated Vertebrate skeletal analysis 10-12 January by broad-leaved paperbark, pink-tipped bottle brush, swamp she-oak and swamp mahogany. Vertebrate scat analysis 10-12 January • Woodland and forest dominated by coast banksia, brushbox, pink bloodwood and grey ironbark occurred on foot-slopes and ridges. These regenerating forests were interspersed among pasture and native grasses. • The frontal dune community was characterised by coastal wattle, coastal tea tree, bitou bush and regen- erating littoral rainforest species. • Four vulnerable vertebrate species, the Wallum tree frog, the white-eared monarch, the Queensland blossom bat and the northern long-eared bat were recorded. It is likely that an additional ten vulnerable vertebrate species may occur at the site based on the variety of habitats recorded and the local distribution records of threatened species. • The endangered plant species, scented acronychia, was located in significant numbers (> 200 stems) in littoral rainforest.

Field Surveys

A systematic flora and fauna survey was undertaken by this consultant at the site between 10 and 28 January 1997. Additional surveys were undertaken during rainy periods on 17 February and 27 March and several site visits were undertaken up until September 1997.

Vegetation was mapped and an inventory of species compiled on 27 March and 18 August 1997.

108 v. Appendices & Further Reading v. Appendices & Further Reading 109 Appendix B: Flora Survey (Parker, 1997)

Scientific name Common name Scientific name Common name Scientific name Common name Scientific name Common name

FERNS DICKSONIACEAE ARECACEAE JUNCACEAE Calochlaena dubia common ground fern Archontophoenis cunning- bangalow palm Juncus krausii maritime rush ADIANTACEAE hamiana GLEICHENIACEAE Juncus usitatus tussock rush Adiantum aethiopicum soft maidenhair Gleichenia dicarpa pouched coral fern CAESALPINIACEAE JUNCAGINACEAE Adiantum formosum giant maidenhair fern Lygodium microphyllum climbing maidenhair fern * colutioides winter senna Triglochin procera water ribbons Adiantum hispidulum rough maidenhair Sticherus flabellatus shiny fan fern * Senna floribunda smooth cassia Triglochin striata streaked arrow grass Adiantum silvaticum maidenhair Sticherus lobatus spreading fan fern LUZURIAGACEAE Cheilanthes distans cloak-fern COMMELINACEAE Sticherus tener silky fan fern Geitonoplesium cymosum scrambling lily ASPIDIACEAE Commelina cyanea scurvy weed LYCOPODIACEAE Lastrolepis acuminata shiny shield fern ORCHIDACEAE Lycopodium laterale slender club moss CYPERACEAE Cymbidium madidum northern cymbidum ASPLENIACEAE Baumea juncea bare twig-rush POLYPODIACEAE Cymbidium suave snake orchid Asplenium australasicum bird’s-nest fern Caustis recurvata curley sedge Platycerium bifurcatum elk-horn fern PHILYDRACEAE AZOLLACEAE Cyperus difformis dirty dora Platycerium superbum stag-horn fern Philydrum lanuginosum wooly frogmouth Azolla filiculoides var. rubra azolla * Cyperus eragrostis umbrella sedge Cyperus exaltatus tall flat sedge PHORMIACEAE BLECHNACEAE GYMNOSPERMS (Conifers) Cyperus polystachos bunchy flat sedge Dianella caerula blue flax lily Blechnum cartilagineum gristle fern Eleocharis minuta tiny spike rush Dianella revoluta rolled flax-lily Blechnum indicum swamp fern ARAUCARIACEAE Eleocharis sphacelata spike rush POACEAE Scientific name Common name Araucaria cunninghamii hoop pine Fimbrystylis ferruginea fringe rush * Andropogon virginicus whisky grass Doodia aspersa prickly rasp fern ZAMIACEAE Fimbrystylis nutans fringe rush * Axonopus affinis carpet grass CYATHEACEAE Lepidozamia peroffskyana shining burrawang Gahnia aspersa red-fruited saw sedge * Chloris gayana Rhodes grass Cyathea australis rough tree fern Gahnia clarkei tall sawsedge Cynodon dactylon couch Cyathea cooperi straw treefern ANGIOSPERMS (Flowering plants) Lepidosperma laterale sword sedge * Eragrostis curvula lovegrass (complex) DAVALLIACEAE Lepironia articulata giant sedge - Monocotyledons (palms, palm-lilies and cycads) Schoenoplectus mucronatus a sedge Hemarthria uncinata var. matgrass Nephrolepis cordifolia fishbone fern uncinata AGAVACEAE Scirpus nodosus DENNSTAEDTIACEAE Imperata cylindrica var. major blady grass Cordyline rubra palm lily Histiopteris incisa bats-wing fern DIOSCOREACEAE * Melinis minutiflora molasses grass Cordyline stricta narrow-leaf palm lily Hypolepis muelleri harsh ground fern Dioscorea transversa native yam Oplismenus imbecillis basket grass

Hypolepis rugulosa ruddy ground fern AMARYLLIDACEAE FLAGELLARIACEAE Ottochloa gracillima forest grass Pteridium esculentum bracken Crinum pedunculatum swamp lily Flagellaria indica whip vine * Paspalum conjugatum sourgrass * Paspalum dilatatum paspalum

* denotes introduced or naturalised species * denotes introduced or naturalised species

110 v. Appendices & Further Reading v. Appendices & Further Reading 111 Appendix B: Flora Survey

Scientific name Common name Scientific name Common name Scientific name Common name Scientific name Common name

POACEAE (continued) APIACEAE ASTERACEAE (continued) EUPHORBIACEAE * Paspalum paspalodes water couch Centella asiatica centella * Senecio lautus fireweed Alchornea ulicifolia native holly * Pennisetum clandestinum kikuya Hydrocotyle bonariensis Breynia oblongifolia breynia Phragmites australis common reed Platysace ericoides heath platysace Bridelia exaltata brush ironbark torulosa forest oak * Rhynchelytrum repens red Natal grass Glochidion ferdinandii var. cheese tree Casuarina glauca swamp oak ferdinandii * Setaria sphacelata canary seed grass Alyxia ruscifolia prickly alyxia Casuarina equisitifolia var. horse-tail oak Glochidion summatranum umbrella cheese tree Stenotaphrum secundatum buffalo grass incarna Ervatamia angustisepala banana bush Macaranga tanarius macaranga Themeda australis kangaroo grass CELASTACEAE Parsonsia straminea common silkpod Mallotus discolor white kamala Zoysia macrantha prickly couch Hedrainthera porphyropetala hedrainthera ARALIACEAE Mallotus philippensis red kamala RESTIONACEAE Polyscias elegans celery wood CONVOLVULACEAE Omalanthus populifolius bleeding heart Restio tetraphyllus spp. feather plant Ipomoea brasiliensis goats-foot ipomea meiostachys Schefflera actinophylla umbrella tree CUNONIACEAE * Ipomea cairica coast morning glory SMILACACEAE ASCLEPIADACEAE Callicoma serratifolia callicoma CUNONIACEAE Ripogonium discolor prickly supplejack * Araujia hortorum moth vine Callicoma serratifolia callicoma Smilax australis austral sarsparilla * curvassica redhead cotton bush Hibbertia obtusifolia blunt-leaved guinea flower Smilax glyciphera sweet sarsaparilla * fruiticocus narrow-leaf cotton-bush DILLENIACEAE Hibbertia dentata guinea flower * Gomphocarpus physocarpus balloon cotton bush Hibbertia obtusifolia blunt-leaved guinea flower TYPHACEAE guinea flower Marsdenia rostrata common milk vine Hibbertia dentata guinea flower Typha orientalis broad-leaved cumbungi Hibbertia vestita hairy guinea flower ASTERACEAE Hibbertia scandens guinea flower XANTHORRHOEACEAE DROSERACEAE * Ageratina adenophora crofton weed Hibbertia vestita hairy guinea flower Lomandra longifolia matrush Drossera spathulata spoon-leaf sundew * Ageratina riparia mist weed DROSERACEAE Xanthorrhoea macronema bottlebrush grass tree * Ageratum houstonianum blue billygoat weed Drossera spathulata spoon-leaf sundew ZINGIBERACEAE * Ambrosia psilostachya perennial ragweed Elaeocarpus grandis blue quandong ELAEOCARPACEAE Alpinia caerulea native ginger * Baccharis halimifolia groundsell bush Elaeocarpus obovatus hard quandong Elaeocarpus grandis blue quandong * Biddens pilosa cobbler's pegs Elaeocarpus reticulatus blueberry ash - Dicotyledons Elaeocarpus obovatus hard quandong * Cirsium vulgare spear thistle EPACRIDACEAE Elaeocarpus reticulatus blueberry ash * Crassocephalum crepidioides thickhead Acrotriche aggregata tall ground Carpobrotus glaucescens pigface EPACRIDACEAE * Chrysanthemoides bitou bush Leucopogon parviflorus beach beard-heath monilifera spp rotundata Acrotriche aggregata tall ground berry ANACARDIACEAE Trochocarpa laurina tree heath * Conyza albida tall fleabane Leucopogon parviflorus beach beard-heath Euroschinus falcata var. ribbonwood EUPHORBIACEAE falcata * Erigeron bonariensis flea bane Trochocarpa laurina tree heath * Hypochoeris radicata flatweed Alchornea ulicifolia native holly

* denotes introduced or naturalised species * denotes introduced or naturalised species

112 v. Appendices & Further Reading v. Appendices & Further Reading 113 Appendix B: Flora Survey

Scientific name Common name Scientific name Common name Scientific name Common name Scientific name Common name

EUPHORBIACEAE (continued) LAURACEAE (continued) MYRTACEAE (continued) Breynia oblongifolia breynia Endiandra sieberi hard corkwood coronata creek sandpaper fig turpentine Bridelia exaltata brush ironbark Endriandra discolor rose walnut Ficus fraseri sandpaper fig Syzygium leuhmannii riberry Glochidion ferdinandii var. cheese tree Endriandra sieberi hard corkwood Ficus obliqua small-leaved fig Syzygium oleosum blue lilly pilly ferdinandii australis brown bollygum Ficus watkinsiana strangler fig Glochidion summatranum umbrella cheese tree OLEACEAE Neolitsea australiensis green bollygum Maclura cochinchinensis cockspur thorn Macaranga tanarius macaranga * Ligustrum sinense small-leaved privet Mallotus discolor white kamala LORANTHACEAE MYRSINACEAE Notelaea longifolia form glabra large mock-olive Muellerina celastroides mistletoe Rapanea howittiana brush muttonwood Mallotus philippensis red kamala PASSIFLORACEAE Rapanaea variabilis muttonwood Omalanthus populifolius bleeding heart MALVACEAE * Passiflora edulis edible passionfruit

EUPOMATIACEAE * Sida rhombifolia Paddy's lucerne MYRTACEAE * Passiflora subpeltata White's passionflower Acmena hemilampra broad-leaved lilly pilly Eupomatia laurina bolwarra MELASTOMACEAE PITTOSPORACEAE Acmena smithii creek lilly pilly FABACEAE Melastoma affine native lasiandra Pittosporum revolutum hairy pittosporum Subfamily FABOIDEAE Austromyrtus dulcis migenberry MELIACEAE Pittosporum undulatum sweet pittosporum Daviesia arborea bitter pea Callistemon pachyphyllus swamp bottlebrush Synoum glandulosum scentless rosewood POLYGONACEAE Glycine clandestina glycine Callistemon saligna pink-tipped bottlebrush Periscaria hydropiper knotweed Hardenbergia violacea hardenbergia MENISPERMACEAE Eucalyptus gummifera red bloodwood Periscaria strigosa spotted knotweed acutifolia hovea Stephania japonica var. snake vine Eucalyptus intermedia pink bloodwood discolour Kennedia rubicunda dusky coral pea Eucalyptus robusta swamp mahogony PROTEACEAE MENYANTHACEAE Oxylobium robustum tree shaggy pea Eucalyptus siderophloia grey ironbark Banksia ericifolia var. heath-leaf banksia macrantha Villarsia exaltata erect marsh flower Pultenaea villosa hairy bush pea laevigatum coast tea tree Banksia integrifolia var. coast banksia * Macroptilium atropurpureum siratro MIMOSACEAE Leptospermum liversidgei lemon-scented tea tree integrifolia Swainsonia sp Darling pea Archidendron muellerianum veiny lace flower Leptospermum polygalifolium common tea tree Lomatia silaifolia crinkle bush subsp. cismontanum Trifolium repens white clover Persoonia adenantha broad-leaf geebung Leptospermum trinervium black teatree Persoonia linearis narrow-leaf geebung GOODENIACEAE Acacia longissima Leptospermum whitei White's tea tree RHAMNACEAE Velleia spathulata spoon-leaf Acacia melanoxylon blackwood Lopohostemon confertus brushbox Acacia sophorae beach sally wattle Alphitonia excelsa red ash LAURACEAE Melaleuca nodosa prickly tea tree Acacia ulicifolia prickley Moses Cassytha pubescens devil's twine Melaleuca quinquenervia broad-leaved paperbark ROSACEAE * Cinnamomum camphora camphor laurel MONIMIACEAE Pilidiostigma glabrum plum myrtle Rubus hillii molucca bramble Cryptocarya glaucescens jackwood Wilkiea heugliana veiny wilkiea Rhodamnia rubescens brush turpentine Rubus rosifolius rose-leaf bramble Cryptocarya triplinervis three-veined cryptocarya Rhodomyrtus psidioides native guava

* denotes introduced or naturalised species * denotes introduced or naturalised species

114 v. Appendices & Further Reading v. Appendices & Further Reading 115 Appendix B: Flora Survey Appendix C: Fauna Survey (Parker, 1997)

Scientific name Common name Scientific name Common name Scientific name Common name Recorded at site Expected to occur at site

RUBIACEAE SOLANACEAE MAMMALS Canthium coprosmoides coast canthium Duboisia myoporoides duboisia

Canthium lamprophyllum large-leaved canthium * Solanum capsicioides devil's apple BURRAMYIDAE Morinda jasminoides morinda * Solanum mauritianum wild tobacco Acrobates pygmaeus feathertail glider x Pomax umbellata * Solanum nigrum blackberry nightshade CANIDAE RUTACEAE STERCULIACEAE * Canis familaris dog x Acronychia imperforata beach acronychia Commersonia bartramia brown kurrajong * Vulpes vulpes fox x Acronychia littoralis scented acronychia Sterculia quadrifida red-fruited kurrajong DASYURIDAE Acronychia wilcoxiana silver aspen THYMELAEACEAE Antechinus flavipes yellow-footed antechinus x bennettiana Bennett's ash Pimelia linifolia subsp. linifolia slender rice flower FELIDAE Flindersia schottiana cudgerie Wikstroemia indica wikstroemia * Felis catus feral cat x Halfordia kendack saffron heart ULMACEAE Mellicope elleryana pink euodia LEPORIDAE Aphananthe philippinensis rough-leaved elm Phebalium squamulosum silver basswood * Oryctolagus cuniculus rabbit x Trema tomentosa native peach Ziera smithii sandfly ziera MACROPODIDAE VERBENACEAE SANTALACEAE Wallabia bicolor swamp wallaby x floribundum smooth clerodendrum Exocarpus latifolius broad-leaved ballart MOLOSSIDAE * Lantana camara lantana Mormopterus sp. 1 x * Verbena bonariensis purpletop coriaceus beach alectryon Nyctinomus australis white-striped mastiff bat x VIOLACEAE Cupaniopsis anarcardioides tuckeroo MURIDAE Viola hederaceae native violet australis native tamarind Hydromys chrysogaster water rat x triquetra hop-bush VITIDACEAE Melomys burtoni grasslands melomys x nervosa green tamarind Cissus antarctica watervine * Mus musculus house mouse x semiglauca guioa Cissus hypoglauca five-leaf water vine # Planigale maculatus common planigale x pseudorhus foambark tree Rattus fuscipes bush rat x Mischocarpus pyriformis yellow pear fruit Rattus lutreolus swamp rat x Sarcopteryx stipata steelwood * Rattus rattus black rat x SAPOTACEAE PERAMELIDAE Planchonella chartaceae thin-leaved coondoo Isoodon macrourus northern brown bandicoot x Perameles nasuta long-nosed bandicoot x

* denotes introduced or naturalised species * denotes introduced or naturalised species; # threatened species

116 v. Appendices & Further Reading v. Appendices & Further Reading 117 Appendix C: Fauna Survey

Scientific name Common name Recorded at site Expected to Scientific name Common name Recorded at site Expected to occur at site occur at site

PETAURIDAE BIRDS Petaurus breviceps sugar glider x ACANTHIZIDAE Pseudocheirus peregrinus common ringtail possum x Gerygone olivacea white-throated gerygone x PHALANGERIDAE Sericornis frontalis white-browed scrubwren x Trichosurus caninus mountain brushtail possum x Sericornis magnirostris large-billed scrubwren x PTEROPODIDAE ACCIPITRIDAE # Pteropus alecto black flying-fox x Accipiter cirrhocephalus collared sparrowhawk x Pteropus poliocephalus grey-headed flying-fox x Accipiter fasciatus brown goshawk x Pteropus scapulatus little red flying-fox x Accipiter novaehollandiae grey goshawk x # Syconycteris australis Queensland blossom-bat x Aquila audax wedge-tailed eagle x RHINOLOPHIDAE Aviceda subcristata pacific baza x Rhinolophus megaphyllus eastern horse-shoe bat x Circus approximans swamp harrier x

TACHYGLOSSIDAE Circus assimilis spotted harrier x Tachyglossus aculeatus short-beaked echidna x Haliaeetus leucogaster white-bellied sea-eagle x Hieraaetus morphnoides little eagle x VESPERTILIONIDAE Milvus indus brahminy kite x Chalinolobus gouldii Gould's wattled bat x Milvus sphenurus whistling kite x Chalinolobus morio chocolate wattled bat x AEGOTHELIDAE # Miniopteris australis little bent-wing bat x Aegotheles cristatus Australian owlet-nightjar x # Miniopteris schreibersii common bent-wing bat x # Nyctophilus bifax North Queensland long-eared bat x ALCEDINIDAE Nyctophilus gouldi Gould's long-eared bat x Alcedo azurea azure kingfisher x # Scoteanax rueppellii greater broad-nosed bat x Dacelo novaeguineae laughing kookaburra x Scotorepens orion eastern broad-nosed bat x Todiramphus macleayii forest kingfisher x Scotorepens sp broad-nosed bat x Todiramphus sanctus sacred kingfisher x Vespadelus pumilus the little forest bat x ANATIDAE Vespadelus regulus southern forest bat x Anas castanea chestnut teal x Anas gibberifrons grey teal x Anas platyrhynchos mallard x Anas superciliosa pacific black duck x Chenonetta jubata maned duck x

118 v. Appendices & Further Reading v. Appendices & Further Reading 119 Appendix C: Fauna Survey

Scientific name Common name Recorded at site Expected to Scientific name Common name Recorded at site Expected to occur at site occur at site

APODIDAE COLUMBIDAE (continued) Aerodramus spodiopygius white-rumped swiftlet x # Ptilinopus magnificus wompoo fruit-dove x Apus pacificus fork-tailed swift x # Ptilinopus regina rose-crowned fruit-dove x Hirundapus caudacutus white-throated needletail x # Ptilinopus superbus superb fruit-dove x Ardea ibis cattle egret x * Streptopelia chinensis spotted turtle-dove Ardea intermedia intermediate egret x CORACIIDAE Ardea novaehollandiae white-faced heron x Eurystomus orientalis dollarbird x ARTAMIDAE CORVIDAE Artamus leucorhynchus white-breasted woodswallow x Corvus orru torresian crow x Artamus superciliosus white-browed woodswallow x CRACTICIDAE CAMPEPHAGIDAE Cracticus nigrogularis pied butcherbird x Coracina novaehollindiae black-faced cuckoo-shrike x Cracticus torquatus grey butcherbird x Coracina tenuirostris cicadabird x Gymnorhina tibicen Australian magpie x Lalage leucomela varied triller x Strepera graculina pied currawong x CAPRIMULGIDAE CUCULIDAE Caprimulgus mystacalis white-throated nightjar x Cacomantis flabelliformis fan-tailed cuckoo x CHARADRIIDAE Cacomantis variolosus brush cuckoo x Vanellus miles masked lapwing x Centropus phasianinus pheasant coucal x CLIMACTERIDAE Chrysococcyx basalis horsfield's bronze-cuckoo x Cormobates leucophaea white-throated treecreeper x Chrysococcyx lucidus shining bronze-cuckoo x Chrysococcyx minutillus little bronze-cuckoo x COLUMBIDAE Cuculus pallidus pallid cuckoo x Chalcophaps indica emerald ground-dove x Cuculus saturatus oriental cuckoo x Columba leucomela white-headed pigeon x Eudynamys scolopacea common koel x * Columba livia feral pigeon x Scythrops novaehollandiae channel-billed cuckoo x Geopelia humeralis bar-shouldered dove x Geopelia placida peaceful dove x DICAEIDAE Geophaps lophotes crested pigeon x Dicaeum hirundinaceum mistletoe bird x Leucosarcia melanoleuca wonga pidgeon x DICRURIDAE Lopholaimus antarcticus x Dicrurus bracteatus spangled drongo x Macropygia amboinensis brown cuckoo-dove x

120 v. Appendices & Further Reading v. Appendices & Further Reading 121 Appendix C: Fauna Survey

Scientific name Common name Recorded at site Expected to Scientific name Common name Recorded at site Expected to occur at site occur at site

FALCONIDAE MEROPIDAE Falco longipennis Australian hobby x Merops ornatus rainbow bee-eater x Falco peregrinus peregrine falcon x MOTACILLIDAE GRALLINIDAE Anthus novaeseelandiae Richard's pipit x Grallina cyanoleuca Australian magpie-lark x MUSCICAPIDAE HIRUNDINIDAE Zoothera heinei russet thrush x Hirundo ariel fairy martin x Hirundo neoxena welcome swallow x ORIOLIDAE Hirundo nigricans tree martin x Oriolus sagittatus olive-backed oriole x Sphecotheres viridis figbird x MALURIDAE Malurus cyaneus superb fairy-wren x ORTHONYCHIDAE Malurus lamberti variegated fairy-wren x Psophodes olivaceus eastern whipbird x

Malurus melanocephalus red-backed fairy-wren x PACHYCEPHALIDAE

MEGAPODIIDAE Colluricincla harmonica grey shrike-thrush x Alectura lathami Australian brush-turkey x Colluricincla megarhyncha little shrike-thrush x Eopsaltria australis eastern yellow robin x MELIPHAGIDAE # Monarcha leucotis white-eared monarch x Acanthorhynchus tenuirostris eastern spinebill x Monarcha melanopsis black-faced monarch x Anthochaera carunculata red wattlebird x Monarcha trivirgatus spectacled monarch x Anthochaera chrysoptera brush (little) wattlebird x Myiagra inquieta restless flycatcher x Entomyzon cyanotis blue-faced honeyeater x Myiagra rubecula leaden flycatcher x Lichenostomus chrysops yellow-faced honeyeater x Pachycephala pectoralis golden whistler x Lichmera indistincta brown honeyeater x Pachycephala rufiventris rufous whistler x Manorina melanocephala noisy miner x Petroica rosea rose robin x Meliphaga lewinii Lewin's honeyeater x Rhipidura fuliginosa grey fantail x Melithreptus albogularis white-throated honeyeater x Rhipidura leucophrys willie-wagtail x Myzomela sanguinolenta scarlet honeyeater x Rhipidura rufifrons rufous fantail x Philemon citreogularis little friarbird x Philemon corniculatus noisy friarbird x PANDIONIDAE Phylidonyris nigra white-cheeked honeyeater x # Pandion haliaetus osprey x

122 v. Appendices & Further Reading v. Appendices & Further Reading 123 Appendix C: Fauna Survey

Scientific name Common name Recorded at site Expected to Scientific name Common name Recorded at site Expected to occur at site occur at site

PARDALOTIDAE PTILONORHYNCHIDAE Pardalotus striatus striated pardalote x Ptilonorhynchus violaceus satin bowerbird x PHALACROCORACIDAE Sericulus chrysocephalus x Phalacrocorax varius pied cormorant x RALLIDAE Phalocrocorax melanoleucos pied cormorant x # Amaurornis olivaceus bush-hen x PHASIANIDAE Dryolimnas pectoralis Lewin's rail x Coturnix pectoralis stubble quail x STRIGIDAE Coturnix ypsilophora brown quail x Ninox boobook southern boobook x PITTIDAE Tyto alba barn owl x Pitta versicolor noisy pitta x STURNIDAE PLATALEIDAE * Sturnus vulgaris common starling x Threskiornis molucca Australian white ibis x SYLVIIDAE Threskiornis spinicollis straw-necked ibis x Cisticola exilis golden-headed cisticola x PLOCEIDAE Megalurus gramineus little grassbird x Lonchura castaneothorax chestnut-breasted mannikin x Megalurus timoriensis tawny grassbird x Neochmia temporalis red-browed finch x ZOSTEROPIDAE Taeniopygia bichenovii double-barred finch x Zosterops lateralis silvereye x PODARGIDAE Podargus strigoides tawny frogmouth x

PSITTACIDAE

Alisterus scapularis Australian king parrot x REPTILES Cacatua galerita sulphur-crested cockatoo x Cacatua roseicapilla galah x AGAMIDAE Calyptorhynchus funereus yellow-tailed black cockatoo x Gemmatophora muricata jacky lizard x Glossopsitta pusilla little lorikeet x Physignathus lesueurii eastern water dragon x Platycercus eximius eastern rosella x Pogona barbata bearded dragon x

Trichoglossus chlorolepiotus scaly-breasted lorikeet x BOIDAE Trichoglossus haematodus rainbow lorikeet x Morelia spilota carpet python x

124 v. Appendices & Further Reading v. Appendices & Further Reading 125 Appendix C: Fauna Survey

Scientific name Common name Recorded at site Expected to Scientific name Common name Recorded at site Expected to occur at site occur at site

COLUBRIDAE SCINCIDAE (continued) Boiga irregularis brown tree snake x Tiliqua scincoides eastern blue-toungued lizard x Dendrelaphis punctulata green tree snake x TYPHLOPIDAE ELAPIDAE Ramphotyphlops nigriscens a blind snake x Acanthopsis antarcticus common death adder ? VARANIDAE Cacophis krefftii dwarf crowned snake x Varanus varius lace monitor x Rhinoplocephalos nigrescens eastern small-eyed snake x Demansia psammophis yellow-faced whip snake x Pseudechis porphyriacus red-bellied blacksnake x AMPHIBIANS Pseudonaja textilis eastern brown snake x

Tropidechis carinatus rough-scaled snake x BUFONIDAE Vermicella annulata bandy-bandy x * Bufo marinus cane toad x PYGOPODIDAE HYLIDAE Lialis burtonis Burton's snake lizard x Litoria caerulea green tree frog x Pygopus lepidopodus common scaly-foot x L. dentata bleating tree frog x SCINCIDAE L. fallax eastern dwarf frog x verreauxii x L. gracilenta dainty green tree frog x Calyptotis scutirostum x L. lesueurii Lesueur's frog x Carlia vivax x L. nasuta rocket frog x Cryptoblepharus virgatus x # L. olongburensis Wallum tree frog x Ctenotus robustus striped x L. peronii Peron's tree frog x Ctenotus taeniolatus copper-tailed skink x L. tyleri laughing tree frog x

Eulamprus quoyii eastern water skink x MYOBATRACHIDAE Eulamprus tenuis bar-sided skink x Crinia signifera common eastern froglet x Hemisphaeriodon gerrardii pink-toungued skink x # C. tinnula Wallum froglet x Lampropholis delicata eastern grass skink x Limnodynastes ornatus ornate burrowing frog x Lampropholis guichenoti garden skink x Limnodynastes peronii brown-striped frog x Ophioscincus truncatus yellow-bellied legless lizard x L. tasmaniensis spotted grass frog x Saiphos equalis three-toed skink x L. terraereginae northern banjo frog x Saproscincus challengeri challenger skink x Pseudophryne coriacea red-backed toadlet x

126 v. Appendices & Further Reading v. Appendices & Further Reading 127 Appendix D: Linnaeus Estate Trail Guide

LEGEND

Trail Side Trail Stop & look

Places of interest – interpretation stops Trail marker

1 Hilltop Dry Brushbox Forest with Ironbark 2 Lookout 3 Water Supply and Hidden Dam 4 Freshwater Wetlands 5 Shining Burrawang Cycad Grove 6 Historical Stump 7 Scented Aspen Grove Acronychia littoralis on sand 8 Threatened Fauna 9 Paperbark Swamp Forest 10 Site of an Old Dairy 11 Littoral Rainforest 12 Swamp Rainforest 13 Swamp Oak Forest 14 Regenerated Wetland 15 Dune Swale Wetland 16 Site of an Old Dairy 17 Foredune Vegetation in a Sand Mined Area 18 Beach Access Ramp: Beach and Marine Park 19 Foredune Littoral Rainforest in an Area Not Sand Mined

0 50 100 250m

Loop length 6 kilometres / 3 hours

128 v. Appendices & Further Reading v. Appendices & Further Reading 129 Appendix E: Sunbeams From Cucumbers

‘Sunbeams from cucumbers’: an early twentieth-century gold-from- seawater extraction scheme in northern New South Wales. Brett J. Stubbs 1 – Australasian Historical Archaeology, 26, 2008

Worldwide interest developed in the late nineteenth century in devising practical means of extracting the minute amounts of gold that were by then known to be present in seawater. Of the many schemes devised, only two are known to have resulted in the construction and operation of plant on a commercial scale: one at Hayling Island, in southern England, and one at Broken Head, in northern New South Wales. This paper is an historical and archaeological survey of the latter operation which is interpreted in the context of the international gold-from-seawater fervour of which it was a product. Figure 1: Location plan. Figure 2: Plan of the Argles mining lease at Broken Head (Portion GL 17, Parish of Newrybar) based on NSW Department of Mines plan no. G16296 (surveyed July 1905).

INTRODUCTION of New South Wales. His results, presented to the Royal Society of almost simultaneously. quietly disappeared, the Australian Mining Standard surmising that New South Wales in October 1895, and later published in London An earlier and much better known gold-from-seawater it had ‘gone the way of the Electrolytic Marine Salts…Company’ The possibility that seawater might contain dissolved gold was in Chemical News, were ‘in favour of gold being present…in the scheme, that of the Electrolytic Marine Salts Company at North (Anon. 1905c). Perhaps unsurprisingly, there is no mention of speculated and experimented upon widely by scientists in the latter proportion of about .5 to 1 grain per ton’. Although that represented Lubec, Maine, was nothing other than an elaborate hoax. Its story Ramsay’s involvement in this venture in either of his biographies by half of the nineteenth century. The eventual measurement of small an enormous amount for the whole ocean, Liversidge cautioned that has already been well told (Hallett 1955, Mason 1965, Railton Tilden (1918) and Travers (1956). amounts of the precious metal in seawater from various parts of the ‘at the present day it would probably not pay to extract the gold’ 1986, Plazak 2006:208–214), so it is mentioned here only briefly. Before the advent of Industrial and Engineering Trust Limited, world inspired fortune-seekers to devise means of harvesting it. (Liversidge 1895, 1896). Wurtz (1896) described Liversidge’s results This scheme was devised by Prescott Ford Jernegan (1866–1942), Snell licensed an earlier version of his process to the brothers Although the concentrations were minute, the enormous volume of as ‘the first positive confirmation of the discovery published in 1872 a Baptist minister in Connecticut and Florida, who had heard of the Umberto and Henry Charles Ciantar, who undertook to establish a the world’s oceans potentially could supply an immense amount of by Sonstadt of the presence of gold in solution in the water of the work of Sonstadt. Jernegan announced in 1896 that the means of gold-from-seawater factory on the Mediterranean island of Malta. gold if an economical method could be devised to extract it. oceans’. A few years later, Pack, an assayer at the United States mint extracting gold from seawater had been revealed to him in a dream. Instead of erecting a factory, the Ciantars took out a patent for the In an address to the American Association for the Advance- in San Francisco, found gold in the water of the Pacific Ocean in the Rather than patent the process, he kept it a secret, then sold millions process, and sold it to Atomised Gold Recovery Limited. Snell took ment of Science in 1866, Henry Wurtz suggested that the oceans proportion of about half a grain to the ton, confirming the results of of shares in his Electrolytic Marine Salts Company to gullible New legal action against the Ciantars for revealing his secret process, ‘may contain more than two hundred and fifty million times more Sonstadt and Liversidge (Anon. 1899; Pack 1898). Englanders. A plant at North Lubec was built in an abandoned and they against him to recover money lent in connection with its gold than the total present wealth of mankind in this metal’, despite John Don of Otago, New Zealand, also investigated the matter. grist mill, which had been set up to harness tidal currents. The mill development. In the former matter, the jury returned a verdict for its presence in concentrations that were so small as to be ‘beyond the He applied one of Sonstadt’s methods and one of his own to the building was fitted out with a bank of ‘accumulators’, devices that Snell, but, taking into account that the process had never produced a limits of our present…modes of chemical detection’ (Wurtz 1868). measurement of the amount of gold in seawater, his several deter- purportedly extracted gold and silver from seawater that passed profit and was considered unlikely to be a commercial success, only The earliest attempts to measure the amount of gold in seawater minations giving an average content of 0.071 grains of gold per ton through them. Instead, gold and silver from jewellery and other one farthing damages was awarded (Times, London, 8 and 9 March were probably those of Edward Sonstadt, who reported his results in (Don 1897). Luther Wagoner of San Francisco reported in 1901 that sources was secreted into the factory, then presented as having been 1907). Indeed, the whole scheme reminded Justice Darling of the 1872. Many years earlier, Malaguti et al. (1850 a, b, c) had demon- he had succeeded in measuring the amount of gold in seawater; he extracted from the ocean. The company began shipping bullion in savant in Swift’s Gulliver’s Travels who had been working for eight strated the existence in seawater of silver, copper and lead, but not extracted 12.6 mg of gold per metric tonne of water, equivalent to March 1898, but the swindle was exposed later the same year. years on a process for extracting the sunbeams from cucumbers of gold. about 0.2 grains per ton, somewhere between the determinations of The first apparently genuine gold-from-seawater scheme was (they were to be put in hermetically sealed phials, and let out to Sonstadt experimented with samples of seawater from the Liversidge and Don (Wagoner 1901). instigated in southern England several years after the exposure of warm the air in inclement weather). coast of the Isle of Man, and concluded that they contained gold, After reviewing the work of Sonstadt, Liversidge and Pack, Jernegan’s hoax. A company was formed in London early in 1904 but in a proportion ‘certainly less than one grain in the ton’ (one and conducting his own experiments, de Wilde, of the University under the title Industrial and Engineering Trust Limited to develop THE BROKEN HEAD SCHEME grain being equivalent to about 65 mg). He went as far as to suggest, of Brussels, concluded that there was a very great difference in the a process invented by the English engineer Henry James Snell however, that one of his methods ‘might be practically applied to amount of gold in water from various localities, but if the concentra- (1842–1927). The company, which included some eminent capitalists The second of the two known, apparently genuine gold-from- the exploitation of the gold in sea-water, which might be received at tion of gold was not less than 32 mg per tonne (0.5 grains per ton) it among its shareholders, retained one of Britain’s most distinguished seawater schemes began to appear late in 1904 at Broken Head high water in large tanks, and emptied at low water’ (Sonstadt 1872). could be extracted easily and economically (de Wilde 1905). scientists, Sir William Ramsay, to investigate Snell’s process. After (lat. 28° 44’ S, long. 153° 37’ E), between Cape Byron and Lennox Sonstadt emphasised in 1892 that the amount of gold in seawater The confirmation by Liversidge—and later by others— that carrying out trials with a small plant erected at Hayling Island, near Head on the northern coast of New South Wales (Fig. 1). It was the was ‘far less than one grain per ton’ (Sonstadt 1892). gold was contained in seawater, stimulated the minds of inventors Portsmouth, and capable of dealing with 40–50 tons of seawater at a creation of Australian mining engineer Alfred Argles (c.1851–1938), Despite Sonstadt’s experiments, the President of the Society worldwide, and from the latter part of the 1890s, numerous patents time, Ramsay concluded that ‘there is no doubt but that Mr Snell has who used his own money to fund this venture, a fact taken by the of Chemical Industry, Edward C. C. Stanford, stated in 1894 that ‘the were sought for various processes for its extraction. Of the many proved that gold can be profitably obtained from sea water on a large Australian Mining Standard as evidence of his bona fides (Anon. presence of gold [in seawater] has not been satisfactorily proved’ schemes that were devised, however, only two are known to have scale’ (Anon. 1905b). Coming from the man who had recently been 1904b). (Stanford 1894). Perhaps taking Stanford’s remark as a challenge, been put into commercial practice: one at Hayling Island, in southern awarded the Nobel Prize for Chemistry, no better recommendation of Excavations for a reservoir at the northern end of Seven Mile Archibald Liversidge, Professor of Chemistry at the University of England, and another (the subject of this paper) at Broken Head, Snell’s process could be wanted. Beach, abutting Broken Head, had commenced by the end of 1904, Sydney, late in 1894 commenced testing seawater from the coast New South Wales, both in the early twentieth century, in fact, By October 1905, Industrial and Engineering Trust Limited had and two 12 inch (300 mm) diameter iron pipes had been installed on

1. School of Environmental Science and Management, Southern Cross University, PO Box 157, Lismore NSW 2480.

130 v. Appendices & Further Reading v. Appendices & Further Reading 131 Figure 4: Lengths of pipe (approx. 180 mm outside diameter) and rail Figure 5: Plan showing reservoir, tanks and other features recorded in the (approx. 120 mm height) exposed after removal of sand by storm waves in 1905 survey of the Argles mining lease, together with various remnant fea- Figure 3: A sectional elevation of the Argles gold-from-seawater apparatus. Components include the wave motor (1) with flared openings or receivers (3), Summer 2007–2008. tures identified in 2007–2008 (distinguished by grey shading). Based on de- and running along inclined rails (2), telescopic pipe (4), intake pipe (5), reservoir (6) and sludge vat (7). Based on the detailed description and diagrams in tails on NSW Department of Mines plan no. G16296. Australian patent no. 2963/05. the sea side of the reservoir, to fill and empty it. ‘Nine or ten’ men through and across various metallic pipes and silvered plates ‘to gold per ton would give Argles ‘a handsome profit’ (Anon. 1906a, b). The most conspicuous remains are several concrete platforms were employed on the construction at that time (although its opera- assist in freeing the gold in a metallic form’. No descriptive report is known of the Broken Head operation (Figs 6, 7) which are situated on the side of the rocky headland at a tion when complete was expected to employ only two to four men). The canvas-lined reservoir, which was situated about 100 m after that of the visiting journalists early in 1906. It is unknown range of elevations (A). These are associated with four circular tanks Early in 1905, Argles took out a mining lease over 5 acres (2.5 ha) from the sea at low tide, had a capacity of about 10,000 cubic metres precisely when and why it ceased operation, although it seems to shown in the 1905 plan. These tanks are probably those described of land encompassing his construction site. Further machinery, pipes of water. It was constructed partly in the beach terrace and partly have been remarkably short lived. The annual report of the New early in 1906 in the following terms: ‘On two or three terraces like and vats were landed at the port of Byron Bay in February 1905. excavated out of the rocky base of the headland (which consists of South Wales Department of Mines for the year 1906 reiterated step above step one sees a number of circular wooden vats from Local newspapers carried detailed reports of the almost complete hard Palaeozoic age meta-sedimentary rocks). The dimensions of the that Argles had ‘erected a plant at a stated cost of £3,500, with the 12 to 20 feet [3.5 to 6 m] in diameter connected by pipes with the project in January 1906, and the annual report of the New South reservoir are uncertain, but assuming that the mining lease plan is avowed object of recovering gold from the sea water’, and the value [main] reservoir and with each other’ (Anon. 1906b). The precipi- Wales Department of Mines for the year 1905 recorded that Argles accurately to scale, it was about 70 m long and 25 m wide. Published of this plant was included in the ‘estimated value of [gold mining] tated sludge from the reservoir underwent cyanide treament in these had ‘erected a plant with the avowed object of recovering gold from descriptions give its dimensions variously as 240 feet long by 150 machinery and plant’ for the Ballina Mining Registrar’s Division for vats (Anon. 1904a). sea-water’ (Anon. 1904a, b, 1905a, 1906a, b). feet wide (73 x 46 m) (Anon. 1904a, b, 1906a) and, more consis- that year. Similar entries do not appear in the Department’s report With more careful examination of the headland it is possible to Before proceeding, it must be pointed out that the remains at tent with the survey plan, 200 feet by 100 feet (61 x 30 m) (Anon. for 1907, implying that Argles went out of business during that find several points at which pipes were cemented to the rocks (B). this site were located and briefly described, but incorrectly explained 1906b). year. This is supported by evidence that Argles diverted his ener- At some of these points, short lengths of rusted pipe (about 70 mm in a 1990 archaeological study of Broken Head undertaken for Byron When the reservoir was filled to a certain level, the contents gies from 1907 into developing another of his inventions, a plant for inside diameter) remain in position (Figure 8); at others, the cement Shire Council. The unresearched speculation identified the site as were allowed to settle while the water was drawn off from the recovering gold from a more conventional source—seams of heavy that remains bears the imprint of the pipe which it formerly held a seawater pump for a 1930s rutile-zircon sandmining operation surface. The residue or sludge that settled at the bottom of the minerals in beach sand (Annual Reports of the New South Wales in place. The larger size of imprint is consistent with the diameter (Collins 1990). Survey plans in connection with the Rutile Zircon reservoir was pumped into a vat (7) and subjected to cyanide Department of Mines for the years 1909 and 1911). It seems prob- (about 180 mm outside) of three loose lengths of pipe and one flange Limited operation on Seven Mile Beach indicate, however, that treatment to recover the gold. The wave motor, as well as filling able that some of the original plant, including the wave motor, was discovered at the site (all uncovered by the Summer storms). For the ‘remains of old works’ were present on the site even in 1935 the reservoir, provided the hydraulic power to elevate the sludge used in connection with this later (also short-lived) development. both types the orientation of the pipe at each point was determined, (Department of Mines plans of ML2 and ML3, Parish of Newrybar). and to operate the subsequent treatment process. The cyanide but this is insufficient to reveal its function. Part of the Argles operation is depicted in a July 1905 survey process of gold extraction (the McArthur-Forrest process) was first ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE Further examination of the site at low tides revealed the pres- plan, undertaken in connection with the granting of his mining lease patented in Great Britain in 1887, and came into use a few years ence of several cuttings, or channels, in the rocks. Two of these (C), over the site (Fig. 2). The best record, however, comes from a patent later. In Australia its use increased rapidly from the late 1890s, and Very little remains in 2007–2008 of the Broken Head gold-from- each around 15 m long and about 1 m wide, coincide in position (Australian patent no. 2963/05) applied for by Argles in April of the it soon replaced competing technologies, particularly the less effi- seawater plant. Its position is revealed to the careful observer mainly with ‘pipes’ indicated on the 1905 mining lease plan. These were the same year for an ‘improved process and apparatus for the extrac- cient ‘amalgamation’ process, which involved the use of mercury to by some rusted steel mounting bolts, cuttings in rock, concrete plat- 12 inch diameter pipes through which the reservoir was filled and tion of gold from sea water’. A sectional elevation of the apparatus extract gold from crushed ore by the formation of a mercury-gold forms or foundations, remnants of pipe cemented to rocks, and loose emptied (Anon. 1904a, b, 1906a); no remains of these have been described in the patent is shown in Figure 3. amalgam, followed by the application of heat to drive off the low pieces of iron pipe and rail. Fortunately, heavy seas in late December found. A further set of cuttings (D) is associated with the wave motor Central to the scheme was a wave motor (the subject of a boiling point mercury and leave the gold (Anon. 1897; Lougheed 2007 and early January 2008 removed about 1.5 m of depth of sand and with the delivery of water to the main reservoir, and probably separate Australian patent, no. 2380/05) to provide power for the 1987). Amalgamation was the basis of Snell’s Hayling Island scheme, from the site, exposing components, including the lengths of iron elsewhere. The most easterly of these (Fig. 9) is approximately 3 process, thereby lessening its cost of operation. The wave motor (1) and ostensibly of Jernegan’s at North Lubec. pipe and rail (Fig. 4), that were not visible when the initial field m wide, and on its gently seaward-sloping base can be discerned ran along inclined rails (2) and had flared openings or receivers (3) Argles planned to fill his reservoir twice, and treat about work was undertaken in the Spring of 2007. A survey of the site was (despite an ample covering of cunjevoi and other intertidal marine facing the sea. The energy of the waves, while driving the motor 20,000 tons of water, each day. Based on experiments that he had undertaken in February 2008, and a plan was prepared showing the fauna and flora) a pair of parallel grooves, spaced about 700 mm up the incline, forced the seawater through the motor and through conducted on various parts of the English coast a few years earlier, positions of all identifiable components. Some of these are shown in apart. These are presumed to mark the position of the rails which a telescopic pipe (4) to an intake pipe (5) leading to the reservoir he was confident of extracting at least half a grain of gold per ton of Figure 5 in relation to the features recorded in the 1905 mining lease formerly bore the wave motor. (6). Before reaching the reservoir, the seawater was dosed with a water, yielding at least 20 ounces (about 600 g) of gold per day ‘with survey, undertaken while the plant was still under construction. The Therefore, it has been possible to establish the general layout hot precipitating solution of lime and iron oxide, then was passed trifling expense’. The recovery of as little as one-tenth of a grain of extant components fall into four main categories (A–D in Fig. 5). of the site, including the positions of the wave motor and some pipe-

132 v. Appendices & Further Reading v. Appendices & Further Reading 133 Figure 6: One of several concrete platforms constructed on the side of the Figure 7: View from above two concrete platforms, looking northwest. The Figure 8: Remnant of iron pipe (approx. 70 mm Figure 9: This cutting, approx. 3 m wide, is the site of the patent wave motor. The motor moved along headland to support vats for cyanide treatment; looking east. This is the far platform is that depicted in Figure 6. The near one is approx. 1.9 m square, inside diameter) cemented to rock (camera lens inclined rails mounted to the base of the cutting, which slopes gently downward away from the viewer; lowest in elevation and is the westernmost of those depicted in Figure 5. Its and is approx. 2.5 m higher in elevation than the other. cap gives scale), looking southeast. looking east. This cutting is also visible in the left background of Figure 8. upper level is approx. 1.5 m square; the circular column is approx 0.5 m in diameter (A4 folder gives scale). work, and the general position of the main reservoir and associated to be futile. Judge Darling had likened the Hayling Island variant patents. Phil McMaster, of The Linnaeus Estate, Broken Head, gave Note: Further research since the publication of this article in 2008 has tanks. A more detailed reconstruction is precluded by the dearth of to a fictional attempt to extract sunbeams from cucumbers, and invaluable support by facilitating my access to the site and helping in revealed that the sold-from-seawater scheme was indeed a victim of archaeological evidence and the absence of any photographic record others more expert in mining matters were no less sceptical. The many ways with field work. Chris Abbott and Simon Bailey of Chris heavy seas. Violent storms caused damage to equipment and delayed of the operation. subject was raised by George Beilby in his presidential address to Abbott Surveying, Ballina, surveyed the site and prepared a plan of the starting of the works, and later caused their abandonment. the chemistry section of the British Association for the Advance- the physical remains of the scheme. The document supply librarians Brett Stubbs, August 2010 CONCLUSIONS ment of Science meeting in Johannesburg in 1905. Beilby observed at Southern Cross University, Lismore, attended promptly and effi- that the cyaniding expert, whose business was to extract gold from ciently to my many requests. The precise fate of the Argles gold-from-seawater scheme is dilute solutions, could not profitably carry his extraction beyond a unknown, but it is likely that it was a failure. Had it been otherwise, concentration of 2 or 3 grains per ton, ‘even when the solution is BIBLIOGRAPHY it surely would have been celebrated, given the keen interest world- already in his hand’. How, he asked, could it pay to extract gold from wide in the extraction of gold from seawater. As it is, no reports of seawater, a solution ‘one-half the richness’? Indeed, McArthur, the ANON. 1897 ‘Interview with Mr McArthur (the inventor of HABER, F. 1927 ‘Das Gold im Meerwasser’, Zeitschrift fur NEW SOUTH WALES, Department of Mines, 1935 Plan of the cyanide process for the extraction of gold)’, The Economic Angewandte Chemie 40:303–314. Portion ML2, Parish of Newrybar, Couty of Rous, plan no. the scheme have been found after those published early in 1906, inventor of the cyanide process, had used it to attempt to extract Journal 7(25):119–122. HALLETT, R. 1955 ‘The great Quoddy gold hoax: one of the M19528 and no mention of it has been found after that in the Department ‘the three quarters of a grain of gold that is contained in the average ANON. 1899 ‘L’extraction de l’or contenu dans l’eau de mer’, greatest swindles of the age’, Down East 1(5):18–20. NEW SOUTH WALES, Department of Mines, 1935 Plan of Revue Scientifique ,I 381. LIVERSIDGE, A. 1895 ‘On the amount of gold and silver in Portion ML3, Parish of Newrybar, County of Rous, plan no. of Mines annual report for 1906. Even descendents of Alfred Argles ton of sea-water’ but without success (Anon. 1897). Beilby predicted ANON. 1903 Brief item re. new patent for extracting gold sea-water’, Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of M19529 who have lived all their lives in Byron Bay (not far from Broken that ‘if ever the gold mines of the Transvaal are shut up it will not from sea-water, Engineering and Mining Journal, 15 August, New South Wales 29:335–349. PACK, J. W. 1898 ‘Gold from seawater’, Mining and Scientific Head) know little or nothing about it. Whether it was unsuccessful be owing to the competition of the gold resources of the ocean’ p. 225. LIVERSIDGE, A. 1896 ‘On the amount of gold and silver in Press 77:154–155, 13 August. ANON. 1904a ‘Extracting gold from sea water’, Northern Star sea-water’, Chemical News 74:146–148, 160–161, 166– 68. PLAZAK, D. 2006 A hole in the ground with a liar at the top: because it was inherently impractical or because some disaster befell (Beilby 1905). The Nobel Prize-winning chemist Fritz Haber, who (Lismore), 7 December, p. 4. Lougheed, A. 1987 ‘The cyanide process and gold extraction in fraud and deceit in the golden age of American mining, it is unknown. That must remain a subject for further research. later developed his own method for extracting gold from seawater, ANON. 1904b ‘Gold from sea water’, Australian Mining Australia and New Zealand 1888–1913’, Australian Economic University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City. Standard, 29 December, p. 898. History Review 27:44–60. ‘P.M.H.’ 1930 ‘Black sands of the northern beaches’, Sydney Nevertheless, it is worthy of some comment here. came to the conclusion that the quantities were so small and the ANON. 1905a ‘District News—Byron Bay’, Northern Star MALAGUTI, DUROCHER and SARZEAUD 1850a ‘Sur la Morning Herald, 10 December, p. 12; 11 December, p. 10. The stormy weather and heavy seas in December 2007 and expense so great that the process could never be made profitable (Lismore), 25 February, p. 5. précence du plomb, du cuivre et de l’argent dans l’eau de la RAILTON, A. R. 1986 ‘Jared Jernegan’s Second Family’, Dukes ANON. 1905b ‘Gold from sea water’, Australian Mining mer, et sur l’existence de ce dernier métal dans les plantes County Intelligencer 28(2):51–94. January 2008 that conveniently exposed many hitherto buried (Haber 1927). Standard, 29 March, pp. 404–405. et les êtres organisés’, Annales de Chime et de Physique 28, SONSTADT, E. 1872 ‘On the presence of gold in sea-water’, components of the scheme raise the possibility that violent wave On the face of it, the Argles scheme seems to have been supe- ANON. 1905c ‘Gold from sea water’, Australian Mining 129–157. Chemical News, vol. 26, no. 671, 4 October, pp. 159–161. action during a storm may have destroyed or severely damaged the rior to that of Snell and Industrial and Engineering Trust Limited in Standard, 18 October, p. 371. MALAGUTI, DUROCHER and SARZEAUD 1850b ‘Researches SONSTADT, E. 1892 ‘Gold in sea water’, Chemical News, ANON. 1906a ‘Gold from the sea’, Northern Star (Lismore), on the presence of lead, copper, and silver, in sea-water, and vol. 65, 11 March, p. 131. plant. A search was made in local newspapers for reports of storms two ways. First, it employed the more modern and efficient cyanide 17 January, p. 3. on the existence of silver in organised beings’, The Chemist STANFORD, E. C. C. 1894 ‘The President’s Address’, Journal of in 1906 and 1907, but nothing was found to shed light on the matter. process but this may not have mattered. More importantly, the use ANON. 1906b ‘Gold from the sea’, Richmond River Times 1(5), 205–206. the Society of Chemical Industry, vol. 13, 31 July, pp. 694–700. (Ballina), 18 January, p. 2. MALAGUTI, DUROCHER and SARZEAUD 1850c ‘On the TILDEN, W. A. 1918 Sir William Ramsay K.C.B, F.R.S. Much later, however, some clues were provided by an anonymous of a wave motor to provide power for the process, lessened its cost AUSTRALIA, Department of Patents , 1905 Specifications of presence of lead, copper, and silver in sea-water, and on Memorials of his life and work, Macmillan and Co., miner who had worked a claim on Seven Mile Beach, probably in the of operation and improved its chances of profitability. Nevertheless, Inventions, vol. 12, no. 2380/05. the existence of the latter in plants and animals’, Quarterly London. late 1920s. He had been advised then by an old gold prospector that it seems that the scheme produced nothing, becoming just ‘another AUSTRALIA, Department of Patents , 1905 Specifications of Journal of the Chemical Society 3, 68–72. Times (London), 8 and 9 March 1907. Inventions, vol. 15, no. 2963/05. MASON, J. 1965 ‘The great sea-water swindle’, Yankee, TRAVERS, M. W. 1956 The Life of Sir William Ramsay K.C.B, ‘only light, portable machinery was of any good, for the sea occa- evidence of the inclination of human nature to follow up the imprac- BEILBY, G. T. 1905 ‘Presidential address, Section B, Chemistry’, February 1965, pp. 56–59, 110–112. F.R.S., Edward Arnold, London. sionally came sweeping in and removed everything within reach’; ticable, in the vain hope of a golden reward’ (Anon. 1903). in Report of the 75th meeting of the British Association for the NEW SOUTH WALES, Department of Mines, 1905 WAGONER, L. 1901 ‘The detection and estimation of small Advancement of Science, South Africa, pp. 351–363. Plan of Portion GL17, Parish of Newrybar, Couty of Rous, quantities of gold and silver’, Transactions of the American ‘masses of old machinery, swinging in the wind’ provided evidence COLLINS, J. P. 1990 ‘Aboriginal and European heritage study, plan no. G16296 Institute of Mining Engineers 31:798–810. that ‘there’s many a hope been borne out to sea on a rough night on ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Broken Head, N.S.W.’, unpublished report for Byron Shire NEW SOUTH WALES, Department of Mines, 1906 Annual WURTZ, H. 1868 ‘On a theory of gold genesis’, American Council. Report…for the year 1905 12 Journal of Mining 5:18. the northern beaches’ (P.M.H. 1930). Argles might conceivably have DE WILDE, P., 1905 ‘Sur l’or contenu dans l’eau de la mer’, NEW SOUTH WALES, Department of Mines, 1907 Annual WURTZ, H. 1896 ‘Oceanic Gold’, Engineering and Mining been the victim of such a heavy sea. The assistance of the following people is gratefully acknowledged. Archives des Sciences Physiques et Naturelles 19:559– Report…for the year 1906 Journal, vol. 62, 21 November, pp. 483–484. As for practicality, learned opinion (with some notable excep- Kathy Buckley, librarian of the Queensland Museum, Brisbane, 580. NEW SOUTH WALES, Department of Mines, 1910 Annual DON, J. R. 1897 ‘The genesis of certain auriferous lodes’, Report…for the year 1909 tions such as Ramsey and de Wilde) generally held such schemes provided me with access to the museum’s collection of Australian Transactions of the American Institute of Mining Engineers NEW SOUTH WALES, Department of Mines, 1912 Annual 27:564–668. Report…for the year 1911

134 v. Appendices & Further Reading v. Appendices & Further Reading 135 Appendix F: Owen Lynn Oral History

run. We used to call it a dry run. The dry cows and the heifers used OL Yeah. Yeah. It wasn’t ever run as a business. But then, I think, An interview with Owen Lynn on 13th May 2009 at Linnaeus with to be on this place, for the big farms. when they built roads, the Government authorities or Shire might We had a BIG farm; 150 cows we used to milk. So all our have come in and used it. That’s all I know. Brett Stubbs and Phil McMaster heifers—like year old heifers, two year old heifers—and they’d go in calf at two years old and start milking at about two-and-a-half years PM The buildings that were here, what do you remember of the Owen Lynn was born in 1936. His family moved to Knockrow in 1945 and then leased part of the Linnaeus property old—and then we had all the cows that were dry cows. When you buildings? They were derelict? in 1947. As a teenager Owen, with his father’s encouragement, farmed the property with small crops in order to earn milk, they milk for say…two months after they have the calf you some spending money. Owen is now a successful businessman with extensive landholdings in the area, both rural and let them back in calf, right, and it takes them nine months to have a OL The bails here at the point wasn’t too bad. I think everything commercial, and is currently the owner of The Professionals Real Estate agency in Byron Bay. calf, so they only milk for about two months, then they’re milking else—the piggeries and the sheds were pulled down opposite. Oppo- for another six months, which is eight months, then you give them site where we come in on that road now, just on your right hand side two months spell in the paddock—dry run, down here—bring them as you come round the point, the bails used to be there, and just on down for two months and they have a dry period here. They weren’t the other side, that’s where…up here on our place, on your place. BS When did your relationship with this property begin? Tell us OL Well, I think it was a fellow by the name of Tom Jarrett. I’m milking, see—that’s a spell—and they spring up and get ready to Oh, you own both of them now, don’t you. something about that. not sure. Tom Jarrett, I think. I’m not certain, but I think it was Tom have a calf, and then we’d get them home as soon as they’ve got a Jarrett. But, if you understand life those days, it’s a lot different calf to milk them. You take the calf off them and take the milk out of PM Yeah. OL I think my first recollection of this place was in about 1947. My today. And of course, my kids—they’re 40—they don’t want to them. father was a dairy share farmer at Old Byron Bay Road, Knockrow. know about it because it’s old hat. OL Up here. You’re a bloody aristocrat. Isn’t he? Owns bloody He rented this place off—I don’t know the landlord—but I know he You talk about being resourceful, we were resourceful because BS There was no milking happening down here in your time? both of them. We only had enough money to lease them. rented this place, and we used to run our heifers down here, mainly we had to survive. We had nothing. We were share farmers. And I as a winter paddock, because close to the beach it was a good, warm remember we had stamps—coupons—for food, and certain types OL No. That’s why we got to rent this place, because the dairy BS Where the concrete floor of the dairy is now, there were other winter paddock. Or that’s what they all told us those days. It had we couldn’t get unless we had them, after the war. I remember H.D. farm shut down. And I don’t know who was the last bloke dairying buildings on the other side of the present road? been a dairy farm for years before that, and the dairy was round Alcorn’s son came down over the hill—he must have had to go to a here. I don’t know. We came along after. there on the corner of the hill [points to the site a little to the south]. function, or he might have been getting married, I don’t know. He OL Yeah, on the top side of the road. On the north side of the road. There were bails and piggeries and all that sort of thing, but the old was a pretty smart sort of a bloke. He went to Mum—she had six PM Were there one or two farms? I’m pretty sure they were just there. That’s where I’d say the piggery buildings were fairly dilapidated. That’s my first recollection of the kids, and I was one of them, poor bloody Mum—anyway, he went was. place. to the kids and he said ‘I’ll give you the coupons for food; you give OL Two farms. The farm is split over there [indicating the boundary I used to drive cattle down here, right round Piccadilly Road me some coupons so I can buy some clothes. We didn’t buy clothes; on a map], and Alcorns owned that, that first piece, the southern BS Was there ever a house there? and Old Byron Bay Road and back along here and then across here hand-me-downs and Mum patched them, you know. We were trying part, where the quarry was. I think it was 140 acres or something. [indicating the route on a map]. It got very hard to do that because to get enough to eat. But then we got onto the farm, so you learn to This [the northern part] was 237 acres, this farm. And you used to OL Yeah, there was a house somewhere, I just can’t see where it was such a long way, so we used to go back [directly] across the produce your own stuff; gardens, and milk, and butter, and stuff like go over here to Singhs and there’s a little hut over there. 237 acres. it was. It must have been pulled down and shifted, because I can’t swamp—Newrybar Swamp—ride horses back there. that. So we did eat well after that. [BS: This was the combined portions 70, 12 and 21.] remember where it was. One little thing that happened to me; I had a beautiful chestnut Going back to why we were resourceful. There were a lot of [Referring to the 120 acre portion 71, which includes the horse, this was probably when I was 16 or 17, and the old man people around who didn’t own land. There was no dole. No hand- quarry] That was Alcorn’s. That’s Neville Alcorn’s father, a different PM Those concrete bits…there’s a concrete slab probably twice the said ‘There’s a flood on boy—you’re not allowed to ride across the outs or anything. You had to survive. So there were blokes cutting one to H. D. Alcorn. He was Jack Alcorn. And his offspring are still at size of this table with little upturned walls about that high and about swamp’. There’s water for probably half a kilometre. It’s not that cord wood out of tea tree off this place, anywhere and everywhere; Knockrow. So, he owned that. Neville might be able to tell you a few that thick; what was that structure? deep; it might have been two to three metres deep at the deepest, there were people clearing bits of land in the gullies—the north- things, too. He’s a bloke a little bit younger than me. Most people are where the creeks were. [Except Deadman’s Creek, which has ‘no east gullies—to grow bananas or small crops, even tomatoes and a little bit younger than me. OL Yeah. That’s the cream house; what we used to call the cream bottom in it’.] peas and beans—they used to grow those, and take them in to the house. And what we used to do was milk the cows and separate the Anyway, I brought the cattle down—it was about two o’clock railway. So, that’s the way they survived. And I survived by doing BS Was the quarry operating in your time here? milk… and I thought ‘Well, it’s going to be dark when I get home’. He [my things like that. father] went off in the car, and I went out to the road and looked So, there were people cutting cord wood. They were a lot OL No. Not much. It was there. See, some farmer would come BS The separator was in that building? up along Piccadilly Road and I said ‘Too far for me’. I went straight older—that was a job for them. They might have had a contract or along and want to fix up his roads. But, you know, we only had across the paddock. I remember swimming across that paddock. I got something for factories. But there were weekenders picking cork- horses and carts and not many trucks or [motor] vehicles. My father OL No. No. It was in the bails. See, you had a bails set up. You’d off the horse and hung onto the side of him, and swam that creek. Of wood. [BS: This would be Duboisia myoporoides, a source of scopol- had a 1928 Oldsmobile. have a hallway where you wash—wash all the stuff up; you’d have a course, that’s got nothing to do with this place, but that’s the sort of amine, used in the prevention of air- and sea-sickness.] room off that, which had the vat in, and that’s where the milk would thing that happened that made us what we are. We loved this place. BS Was Alcorn operating the quarry himself? come into it; and out of that vat it’d run down through the separator; It gave us a chance. BS Was that during the 1940s too? and you used to have cream cans there, and put them under where We brought cattle down here; we took them back. We got to OL No. No. No-one operated anything in those days. Some-one it was separating. That was the set-up for the milk. Right? There know a few of the share farmers that were here. There was Tom OL Yeah, late 40s. Early 50s. I suppose I was here to 54 or 55, or would come in and say I want to do this, and if he had a little dozer— was no milk, it was cream. You only sold cream, and the separated Adams, later on in life. There was a lot of blokes earlier. There was something like that, I think. And then someone else got the place. I but I don’t recollect anyone having a dozer those days—it was horse milk ran out and down a gutter—like a roof gutter—down to the Manga Singh, I think, or one of his relations over here next door, and don’t know who. and scoops. And they’d come in and they’d scoop a bit up and they’d piggery, or into drums where the calves were, and we used to feed he had bananas. People in this area grew bananas on the hills. Those days it was all dairy farms. The whole area. This was put it on a spring cart or a buggy and take it away. heifer calves—replacement heifer calves—and pigs, with the sepa- a dairy farm, but probably one of the poorest dairy farms because rated milk. You couldn’t sell it, because there was a milk embargo in BS Do you know who owned the property at that stage? down here the soil’s not as good. You know, the clayey hills, sandy BS So it was an informal sort of arrangement? Sydney. soil flats. So they went out of dairying here, and they used it as a dry

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BS That was up at your farm at Knockrow? OL I’d say about…I reckon straight after the war. 45–46 I reckon course. And I came back—I don’t know exactly when—and I got it stopped. And probably because the bloke that owned it went OL Well, when we got to about 17, we tried to…I wanted to be married and I got the job of share-farming the place. In the same OL They used to do the same thing here, but we didn’t. into cattle, in a bigger way. Beef cattle. Because beef cattle got a bit back on the farm. Everyone was on the farm those days, because place up there. But this had gone. He’d got out of this; he’d let better. And see, it got harder after the war. They wanted our butter when it was dairying there was so much work to keep it up. And someone else have it by then. He wasn’t renting it then. But then BS That was before your time? for a while, England did, but then they wouldn’t take our milk in we got an education. But we never used it. A lot of the farmers years later, a bloke—I forget their names—don’t know who had it. I Sydney because there was a milk zone. around here never used it. We used to try to make a quid on our thought he was a South African. I thought he was a doctor too. OL Yeah. When you got the milk separated you have cream. They Whilst the war was on we fed everyone, and dairy farming own. We used to try a lot of different things. We used to work chip- only used to pick up Monday, Wednesday and Friday. Now, in the did well, you know. But then England started, after the war, say 46, ping bananas for people in our spare time. We used to work planting PM Was there sand mining when you were here? summer time when it was really hot, they’d do Saturday morning, 47, they started producing their own stuff and so did Europe—all pineapples for people. They used to grow pineapples too here. so you’d only have Sunday off. But mostly they picked up Monday, Europe started producing butter—and they didn’t want our bloody OL I think that was just after when I was here. It was after I was Wednesday and Friday, and you’d have Saturday’s and Sunday’s butter. We used to send shiploads of it over there. So butter got BS On this property? here. But I always had a soft spot for this place, you know. Most cream, and you’d put it in that cream house. It was a cool house. harder to sell. And about the mid-50s, dairying was buggered here. people do, if they’ve been here and rode a horse round on their own. [There was a gap in the walls between the top of the concrete and You know, no good at all. Anthony was in Parliament, and he was OL No. Oh, a few. Everyone grew some pineapples. But they used I used to always ride just across here, and there’s a little gully that the bottom of the chamfer boards, filled in with netting—with bird saying get big or get out. Well, most of us got out, that knew how to to grow bananas here. But all in this area. But Ross and I came down goes down halfway between here and the next hill. A beautiful, wire—and that allowed the passage of air for cooling of the cream do something else. We ran cattle on the farms and went and worked here—we had a horse and a single-furrow plough and we ploughed beautiful place, and it opens out back up in there…there’s like a little inside]. at something else, or got a trade or something. I went and became a a bit of land over there—it was pretty rough—and we had one little cove in there. And I used to always go over there and find myself. It carpenter; a builder. harrow, and we harrowed it and bashed it around—and we grew was a solitary place—beautiful place. PM One of the little slabs near our interpretive centre has a concrete fairly long rows, but not that much, right over on that side of the column in the middle, with four bolts on top of it. What was on top of BS When did your father first lease the property down here? paddock, and we planted some corn and pumpkins together, in my PM That’s past Stahmann’s house? that? recollection. The corn didn’t do much good—I can’t remember the OL 46, 47. corn being any good—but we did get some pumpkins off it, and we OL Yeah. OL Separator. That’s how we used to do it. The separator used to be used to take them to Lennox Head—to Lake Ainsworth—and sell there like that, and then over there, through the wall, usually—we’d BS So your first recollections of the place were when your father them at weekends, and make a few shillings. BS So there was no sand mining going on out the front here in your have it cut out—you’d have belts. You used to have flat belts, but first had the place? time? then we got a bit better—we got v-belts, and they usedn’t slip off, BS While you were doing this, you weren’t working for your Dad? but bloody flat belts would be loose all the time, and we’d be half- OL Anything he had, I worked. My old man, I’ll tell you what he OL No. The only other thing was, I remember there was a chemist way through doing everything and we’d have to tighten the belts was like. We had these boards, the same as this wall here. And I used OL Oh, yeah. We were working for the farm. We were always used to come and camp here in a tent. Him and his wife and kids up, or we’d pour water on it to try to take it up, and then we even to sleep on that side, and it wasn’t lined. Two or three boys in the one living at home, and working for the farm. But we used to get a bit used to camp here. They’d go to the beach and swim and stuff, had rubbers, and burning the rubber to stick on the belt so it’d stick room. And the hallway was timber floors like this, but an old house. of time—like when he went to bowls or went somewhere else or and fish. And then just before we did lose this place, or whatever and wouldn’t come off so we could get through the milking before Bloody old house. something like that. We’d find time, somehow or other. That’s about happened to it, there was a bloke from New Guinea came here and we…The things we used to do. Yeah, I can remember that. The He used to walk down it every morning of his life, before what we did here. I’m pretty sure we did pick some corkwood— he built a little hut—on this farm. motor was out there, you see—the engine. It was usually a diesel daylight. We had to get up early and milk the cows—I’m still getting not very often—but other people did, too. I remember other people There must be a little acre out of here, or quarter of an acre or engine. It used to be kerosene sometimes. It used to be started with up before daylight, I can’t help it—before we went to school. He’d asking him if they could come and do it. [Owen recalled in discussion something, about here somewhere [pointing to a map]. There was petrol and turned to kerosene, I think. Lister [recalling a brand of go along the wall, bang, bang, bang, bang along the wall. Bang, bang, prior to the interview that only the youngest shoots and leaves were yards there. Used to be stockyards there I think. stationary petrol/kerosene engine]. There was a bloke by the name bang, bang. ‘Hands off prick, feet on floor. Wakey, wakey. Hands off picked. These were delivered to a collection point in Lismore—later of Wadsworth up the Coolamon Scenic Drive; he’s got all these sort prick, feet on floor.’ And we got to about 17 or 18—I did—and Ross the site of Richmond River High School—and ultimately sent to a PM That’s on this property? of motors. Engines. Little engines they are, to drive the dairy. The was about 17. We’d go to dances. We’d go to a dance in Bangalow factory in Sydney. A substance was extracted by distillation and this main one, it used to drive the milking machines. Keep the air up. Air or Nashua or somewhere, and we’d come home about 2 o’clock—2 was used for the manufacture of sea sickness tablets.] OL Yeah. There was a little shed there somewhere. A little hut. used to milk the cows, see. Once you got a vat three parts full, you’d o’clock was late those days—it was never all night. And I remember Owned by a New Guinean. A solitary bloke. Of course we were a put the belt on to drive the separator, so you could be separating at he’d wake us up about half past bloody four—in Summer time it PM Didn’t you mention an American company that owned the prop- bit spooky about him when we were kids, but he was a very quiet the same time as you’re finishing the milking. might have been a bit before—and I remember he had an awful erty at one point for the purpose of corkwood? bloke and kept to himself. We didn’t know anything about him. [BS: voice, bloody dreadful, tormenting you all the time. He had you The piece of land in question is perhaps two acres near the eastern BS Would the milking here have been done by mechanical means, doing something every bloody minute of your life. You never got OL I don’t know. South African wasn’t he? I think a South African boundary of Portion 70, so within the 237 acre farm leased by or would it have been hand milking? any peace whatsoever. And I said to Ross, ‘if he says that one more had the idea, but I can’t place who it was. Owen’s father, but beyond the present northern boundary of the bloody time I’ll go out and bloody thump him’. You wouldn’t thump Linnaeus Estate.] OL No. Hand milking probably went out—everyone done a bit of your own father, but… BS I think you said before that about 1955 was the end of your it, even I did—but there wasn’t many people hand milking after the We had our jobs. I used to have to get up and go and get the association here? What happened then? Was that when you had BS Looking at the original portion plans, going back to the 1880s, war. Nearly everyone had machines after the war. Then electricity cows—milkers—and Ross used to get up and make a cup of tea and grown up and left home? do the names of these owners mean anything to you: James Hodg- came in, in about 1950 I think it was. In the country areas. We never bring it down to the bails. And we’d do that, you know, milk the kinson, George James Elliott, Joseph Stone? had electricity till that; we had kerosene fridges, and before that we cows, and then at weekends—Saturday morning we’d do that, then OL I said I had to do something else, you know. Went out west never had anything. we’d bring cattle down here. Wouldn’t get home until bloody three droving, breaking horses in and stuff like that. OL [None of these names mean anything to Owen] You asked me o’clock, if you got home at that. Then you’d have to milk the cows something, Phil, and I got sidetracked. [Reminded that it was sand- BS If the dairies here, on this property, stopped operating before again that afternoon. That was our life. BS Your Dad kept the property after then? mining]. Then I got tied up, and I just got married—it might have you knew the place… been only a year or two. I was sharefarming up there [indicating BS When did the crop growing down here come into the picture? OL Yeah, he kept the property. And then they busted up, of the farm at Knockrow], and the sandmining was everywhere those

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days. The member of parliament was ‘Stepper’ Stephens [BS: S. T. PM Did they? So it was completely obliterated? Stephens, MLA for Byron Bay, 1944–1973]. And anyway, we met Ecological History up on Newrybar Swamp Drain. Right on Martin’s Lane. There’s a hut OL Yeah. Gone. And I’m not a bloody greenie or anything, but I there. We met there [indicating place on map]. don’t like that. [Discussion of a sand quarry near a swimming pool Ferrett, R., (2005). Australia’s Volcanoes. Reed New Holland, Sydney. near Martin’s Lane. Indurated sand taken from here and used for fill.] PM Is the hut still there? Flannery, T.F., (2002). The Future Eaters. Grove Press, Melbourne. OL We used to run down there and have a swim [in the lake]. We’d OL Yeah, the hut’s still there. be here working cattle in the yards [which were near the north- eastern corner of the property, but outside the present Linnaeus PM Yeah, I know that little hut. It’s on the eastern side of the drain. Estate: BS], and mustering, and we’d race down there and have a Threatened Species swim. Then we’d have a sandwich and we’d head for home again. OL Yeah. I rent that place now. Pacific Plantations own that. We Floyd, A.G., (2008). Rainforest Trees of Mainland South-eastern Australia. Revised edition. Terania had a meeting down there. Joe Johnson and all these blokes up here, PM Was there any aboriginal activity at all? Rainforest Publishing, Lismore. they’re aristocrats, and ‘they’re not going to sand mine my property’ and all the bloody rest of it. And of course I was a share farmer OL No. Nothing. NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service, Northern Directorate, (2002). and…I used to go to the primary producers’ meetings. We had a Threatened species of the Upper North Coast of New South Wales Fauna. primary producers’ meeting those days…[to discuss] how much are PM Were there middens when you went along the beach? Were you we going to get for our butter and all this sort of thing. Anyway, aware of middens? NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service, Northern Directorate, (2002). I remember we go down there. Ernie Simmons owned the place at Threatened species of the Upper North Coast of New South Wales Flora. Martin’s Lane, just down on the flat. [Some discussion about Ernie OL No. Never seen or heard of them. No. Simmons’s property. It now has an airstrip on it.] Anyway, we went down to a meeting there, see. And there PM And beach activity? Were the mullet fishermen fishing off the used to be a bloody lagoon here [on Linnaeus]. I asked the minister beach in those times? Fauna Identification [Stephens]—Johnson was supposed to speak and George Martin was the president I think—and when we got there, there was a lot OL No. Not here. Access to here was pretty hard. Braby, M.F., (2005). The Complete Field Guide to Butterflies of Australia. CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne. of people there—men—farmers—as well as the minister. They said ‘Owen, you make the speech, will you, about this sand mining; you PM The road to Lennox—the Ballina Road—was there, wasn’t it? Brock, P. & J. Hasenpusch, (2009). The Complete Field Guide to Stick and Leaf Insects of Australia. CSIRO understand…’. I was pretty rough. I said ‘Who do you bloody well Publishing, Melbourne. think owns this land?’ to the minister. Those days, unheard of. I said OL Yeah, but it was only a track. No-one used to go along it much. ‘We bought and paid for it; we work it; we live it; we cherish the It was only a track. It wasn’t used like it is today. And the only way Brunet, B. (2008). Spiderwatch: A Guide to Australian spiders. Reed New Holland, Sydney. place; we’re not going to have someone come and bloody well dig it into this place was down King’s Beach [meaning by the road across all up and ruin our income and our life’. Broken Head linking Tallow and Seven Mile Beaches]. You couldn’t Cogger, H.G., (2000). Reptiles and Amphibians of Australia. Reed New Holland, Sydney. get in this way [referring to the present road into Linnaeus]. This was PM This is inland, isn’t it? a private farmers’ track. My old man would kill you if he saw you Curtis, L.K., (2006). Kangaroos and Wallabies of Australia. Reed New Holland, Sydney. on the farm here, unless you got special permission. No-one would OL Yeah. They we going around test drilling everywhere. They had let you through onto this farm. But people who were here—owned no idea whether it was going to be economical or not. But it was it—before us probably did. Horne, P. & D. Crawford, (2005). Backyard Insects. Melbourne University Press, Melbourne. economical along here—along the sand ridges here—so they came We never went to the Bay [Byron Bay] those days from here. in here. There was a beautiful, beautiful, beautiful bloody big fresh- We used to just get out to Midgen Flat road and back home [to the Lindsey, T., (1998). Mammals of Australia. Reed New Holland, Sydney. water lake there. farm], or straight across the swamp. Lindsey, T., (1998). Spiders of Australia. Reed New Holland, Sydney. PM Where abouts Owen? PM Did you go to the Bay very often? Morcombe, M., (2003). Field Guide to Australian Birds. Steve Parish Publishing, Sydney. OL Just past where that building is there. OL Weekends, yeah, to dances and playing rugby league. Ballina Friday night, and the Bay Saturday night, when I was a young Morcombe, M. & I. Morcombe, (1987). Mammals of Australia. Golden Press, Sydney. PM Past our building? [referring to The Crab] bloke. Sometimes Mullum[bimby]. And we played rugby league in Bangalow—I did—against Byron Bay. Then I played for Mullum Queensland Museum, (2007). Wildlife of Greater Brisbane. Qld Museum Publishing, Brisbane. OL Yeah, your building. when Bangalow closed down, against the Bay. Rentz, D., (2010). A Guide to the Katydids of Australia. CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne. PM South of that? End of interview Robinson, M., (2002). A Field Guide to Frogs of Australia. Reed New Holland, Sydney. OL Yeah. Just in there. And that was a lovely big freshwater lake. And I used to come down here and I’d swim in it sometimes. It was good for the cattle too. The permanent water never, never, ever went Shields, J. & F. Crome, (1992). Parrots and Pigeons of Australia. Angus and Robertson, Sydney. dry. Never went dry. And they bloody well let the ocean into it.

140 v. Appendices & Further Reading v. Appendices & Further Reading 141 Further Reading

Simpson, K. & N. Day, (2010). Field Guide to the Birds of Australia-8th Edition. Penguin Books, Melbourne. Van Dyck, S. & R. Strahan, Eds., (2008). Mammals of Australia 3rd edition. Reed New Holland, Sydney. Wilson, S. & G. Swan, (2008). A Complete Guide to the Reptiles of Australia. Reed New Holland, Sydney. Zborowski, P & T. Edwards, (2007). A Guide to Australian Moths. CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne. Zborowski, P & R. Storey, (2003). A Field Guide to Insects in Australia. 2nd edition. Reed New Holland, Sydney.

Plant Identification Aston, H.I., (1977). Aquatic Plants of Australia. Melbourne University Press, Melbourne. Blood, K., (2001). Environmental Weeds: A Field Guide for SE Australia. Jerram Science Publishers, Mt. Waverley. Fuhrer, B.A., (2005). A Field Guide to Australian Fungi. Bloomings Books, Melbourne. IMPRINT DETAILS Harden, G., B. McDonald, & J. Williams, J, (2009). Rainforest Trees and Shrubs: A Field Guide to their Identification. Gwen Harden Publishing, Nambucca Heads. Harden, G., B. McDonald, & J. Williams, J, (2006). Rainforest Climbing Plants. Gwen Harden Publishing, Nambucca Heads. Kemp, B., (2004). Wildflowers of the North Coast of New South Wales. Reed New Holland, Sydney. Leiper, G., J. Glazebrook, D. Cox, & K. Rathie, (2008 revised edition). Mangroves to Mountains: A Field Guide to the Native Plants of South-East Queensland. Copyright Publishing, Brisbane. Queensland Museum, (2003). Wild Plants of Greater Brisbane. Qld Museum Publishing, Brisbane. Romanowski, N., (1998). Aquatic and Wetland Plants: A Field Guide for Non-Tropical Australia. UNSW Press, Sydney. Sainty, G.R. & S.W.L. Jacobs, (2003). Waterplants in Australia. Sainty and Associates, Sydney. Stephens, K. & D. Sharp, (2009). Flora of North Stradbroke Island. Queensland Environmental Protection Agency, Brisbane. Stewart, K. & B. Percival, (1997). Bush Foods of New South Wales. Royal Botanic Gardens of Sydney, Sydney. Watsford, P., (ed.) (2008). Plants of the Forest Floor: A Guide to Small Native Plants of Subtropical Eastern Australia. Photography and botanical consultancy by Robert Price and Lui Weber. Nullum Publications Brisbane. Young, A.M., & K. Smith, (2004). A Field Guide to the Fungi of Australia. UNSW Press, Sydney.

142 v. Appendices & Further Reading Cover image: Tuckeroo Cupaniopsis anacardioides Paul Redman, 2003 ISBN

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