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University of Nigeria University of Nigeria / Research Publications FOMBO, Gregory Fah Author Author PG/ Ph.D/98/25334 Title International Politics of Border Conflicts: A Study of the Nigeria-Cameroon Dispute, 1960-2002 Social Science Faculty Faculty Political Science Department Department March, 2006 Date Date Signature INTERNATIONAL POLITICS OF BORDER CONFLICTS INTERNATIONAL POLITICS OF BORDER CONFLICTS: A STUDY OF' THE NIGERIA-CAMEROON DISPUTE, 1960-2002 FOMBO, GREGORY FAH (~~l~h~198h5334) A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (PhD) DEPARTMENT OF POLITICAL SCIENCE UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA NSUKKA SUPERVISOR: G. AFORKA NWEKE MARCH 2006 APPROVAL PAGE Fombo, Gregory Fah, a postgraduate student in the Department of Political Science with Registration Number PGIPhDi98125334, has satisfactorily completed research requirements for the award of Doctor of Philosophy in Political Science (International Relations). The work embodied in this thesis is original and has not been submitted in part or in full for another degree of this or any other university, to the best of our knowledge: Pro #k' essor Obasi Igwe (Head of Department) / ' Professor Okechukwu lbeanu (External Examiner) DEDICATION In memory of: paddy njeh (Fom60 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS In the course of this research, I benefited greatly from the advice of my supervisor, G. Aforka Nweke, who has always insisted that it is the test of fire that makes good steel. I also gratefully appreciate the assistance of the academic staff of the Department of Political Science, especially Dr 0. Ogban-Iyam, Dr Jonah Onuoha, Dr A-M Okolie, Professors A.H. Asobie, M. Ikejiani-Clark, 0. Ibeanu, Obasi Igwe and E.C. Amucheazi from whom I learnt a lot in seminars and comments at various stages of this work. I obtained materials from the Cameroon National Archives Buea, Ministry of External Relations, Yaounde, SOPECAM Yaounde, International Relations Institute of Cameroon Library, Yaounde, the Nigerian Institute of International Affairs Library, Lagos and, of course, the Nnamdi Azikiwe Library, University of Nigeria, Nsukka. I am grateful for their assistance. Particularly, I am obliged to Mr N.T. Imo, Mrs G. P. Anozie and Mrs Helen Inyang-Ubi of the Nnamdi Azikiwe Library, Mr James Agbo of the NIIA Library, Lagos, Mrs Rosemary Shafack of the University of Buea Library and Prince Henry Mbaine of the National Achieves, Buea. Many others in government departments also provided me with vital information especially Mr Gerald Shila of the Ministry of External Relations, Yaoundk and Pa David Kukar. The Bureau of Intelligence and Research, US Department of State, is acknowledged for maps on pages 35-37; the BBC for map on page 38, the ICJ for maps on pages 95, 156, 157, 160 and 170; and Nigeria for maps on pages 125 and 126. I also deeply appreciate the assistance of Mr and Mrs Peter and Blessing Osuji who hosted me while on research in Lagos.. Without the financial, moral and spiritual assistance of my parents, brothers and sisters and a network of extended family members on whom I depended entirely for sponsorship, I could not have continued with my protracted stay in school. I am especially indebted to my Dad HRH Fon Fombo of Njindom, Mum, Dorothy W. Fombo and Grandfather, Nelson Anjeh for their spiritual intercession. Mr Ferdinand Fombo and Late Paddy A. Fombo were my principal financial benefactors. The entire Cameroonian community in Nsukka and a host of friends and colleagues were very inspiring in seeing this research through. I am especially grateful to Dr and Mrs Kennedy Chah, Messrs George Akuchu, Willy Fonta, Nnaemeka Okereke, Innocent Okafor, Uche Ogbuaya and John Ogirai, as well as, Ms Peps Tanyi, Mrs Harriet Foleng and Ms Elsie E. Akah. Members of my Nsukka family - Mrs Rosemary Shafack, Nancy Njilele, Dr Luc Ngongeh, Tabi I. Chum, Gerald Anoh, Francis Awah and Emma E. Kengo - were most instrumental when the spirit was drooping. Together with Ms Onyinye C. Anozie, my humble self and the rest of the staff of Awandanz Conzputers who typed the work, Emma Kengo kept an eagle eye over the typesetting. In spite of this depth of debts, I remain responsible for any pitfalls in the content of this thesis. Greg F. Fombo University of Nigeria, Nsukka March, 2006 TABLE OF CONTENTS . 11 Titlepage .. .. .. .. ... Certification Page .. .. .. 111 Dedication .. .. .. .. iv Acknowledgements .. .. .. v Table of Contents .. .. vi List of Maps .. .. 1X Acronyms .. .. X List of Cases .. .. xi Abstract .. .. .. xii CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION Background .. 1 Statement of Problem 4 Objective of Study .. 7 Significance of Study 8 Scope .. 9 Literature Review .. 9 Methodology .. 19 Sources of Data .. 26 References and Notes 27 CHAPTER 2: EUROPEAN IMPERIALISM AND THE CREATION OF THE NIGERIA-CAMEROON BOUNDARY Geography of the Nigeria-Cameroon Boundary .. .. 39 Historical Evolution of the Boundary .. .. 4 1 Post-German Era Boundary Instruments 1916- 1946 .. .. 45 British Administration and Obfuscation of the Nigeria-Cameroon Colonial International Boundary .. 46 End of Trusteeship and Independent Nigeria-Camcroon Boundary 5 1 Reactions to the Results .. .. .. 55 Implications of the Results .. 5 6 References and Notes .. .. .. .. 58 - - - - --- _CHAPTER 3: GEOPOLITICS OF-THE NIGERIA-eAMERBONBORDER- Location of Disputed Territories and their Strategic Value .. 62 Economic Value of Disputed Territory .. .. .. 63 Ethnicity and the Disputed Areas .. .. .. 7 1 Peopling of the Chad and Bakassi Areas .. .. .. .. 75 References and Notes .. .. .. .. .. 7 7 CHAPTER 4: THE DIPLOMACY OF RESOLVING NIGERIA- CAMEROON CONFLICT, 1964-1981 DanareIBoudam Land Dispute .. .. .. .. 8 1 Yaounde I Border Commission Meeting .. .. .. 83 The NgohICoker Line .. .. .. .. .. 84 The Maroua Declaration .. .. .. .. 8 7 Unravelling of the Maroua Declaration and the Abandonment of Demarcation Scheme .. .. .. .. .. .. 90 Desirability of a Clear Boundary .. .. .. .. .. .. 94 Post-Maroua Boundary Politics .. .. 100 References and Notes .. .. .. .. .. ,. 102 CHAPTER 5: REGIME TYPES AND THE DYNAMICS TO WAR, 1981-1993 The May 198 1 Border Incidence .., .. .. Nature of the Crisis .. Narrow Escape from the Precipice .. Resolution of the May 1981 Crisis .. .. Continuity and Change in Leadership and Leadership Styles Nigerian Press, Public Opinion and the Slide to War .. Countdown to the 1993 Crisis .. References and Notes .. .. CHAPTER 6: THE 1993 CRISIS AND MEDIATION The Nature of the Border War Conflict Resolution Measures .. .. French Involvement and Mediation .. .. .. Role of Togo and other African Offers in Mediation .. OAU and UN Involvement .. .. References and Notes CHAPTER 7: THE INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE RULING ON THE NIGERIA-CAMEROON BOUNDARY CASE Parties to the Case .. .. .. .. 152 Issues at Stake and ~rpnenisof the parties .. 152 Reactions to the Ruling .. .. 173 Consequences of the Judgment .. .. 179 Critique of the Conduct of the Case .. 181 References and Notes .. 187 vii CHAPTER 8: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS Conclusion .. .. Recommendations .. .. .. .. .. Projections .. .. References .. .. .. .. BIBLIOGRAPHY AND SOURCES .. .. APPENDICES .. .. .. ... Vlll LIST OF MAPS Maps 1-3: Various Sections of the Nigeria Cameroon Boundary from Lake Chad to the Bight of Biafra .. .. .. .. 35-37 Map 4 Flashpoints of the Disputed Border .. .. .. 38 Map 5 Nigeria-Cameroon Maritime Boundary showing Point G to be East of the Equidistance Line .. .. 93 Map 6 Nigerian Map of Maritime Zone prior to 1992 Revision showing Bakassi as part of Cameroon .. .. 125 Map 7 Nigerian Map of Maritime Zone after 1992 Revision showing Bakassi as part of Nigeria .. .. .. 126 Maps 8 Lacustrine Boundary as Determined by ICJ 156 + Maps 9 Boundary in the Lake Chad Area .. 157 Map 10 Contentious areas on the Land Boundary .. .. 160 Map 11 Gulf of Guinea showing Third Party Interests.. .. 171 LIST OF CASES Burkina Faso V. Republic of Mali Cameroon v Nigeria: Equatorial Guinea Intervening, 2002 Canada v. United States of America, 1984 Denmark V. Norway, 1993 Libyan Arab Jamahiriya v. Chad, 1994 Qatar V. Bahrain, 2001 ACRONYMS AG Action Group BBC British Broadcasting Corporation CCNC Consultative Committee for the Northern Cameroons CEMAC Communaut6 Economique et Monitaire de 1'Afrique Centrale CNAB Cameroon National Archives Buea DO District/Divisional Officer ECOWAS Economic Community of West African States EEC European Economic Community EU European Union ICJ International Court of Justice b IRIC Institute des Relation International de Cameroun International Relations Institute of Cameroon KGB Komitet Gosudarstvennoi Bezopasnosti (Committee of State Security) KNC Kamerun National Congress KNDP Kamerun National Democratic Party WP Kamerun Peoples Party LCBC Lake Chad Basin Commission MNCs Multinational Corporations NBA Nigerian Bar Association NCNC National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons NIIA Nigerian Institute of International Affairs NPC Northern People's Congress NPN National Party of Nigeria OAU Organisation of African Unity UC Union Camerounais UDEAC Union DouaniPre et Economic de 1 'Afrique Centrale UNKJNO United Nations Organisation UNGAOR United Nations General Assembly Official Records UPC Union des Population du Cameroun ABSTRACT The emergence of many African countries from colonial rule in the 1950s and 60s brought grim prospects of widespread border conflicts. These fears were borne out of the fact that European diplomats who had only limited knowledge of local realities artificially forged most of the boundaries of African territories.
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