The Visual Language of Symbolic Form: 18 A Preliminary Study of

Nader Ardalan

As a practicing architect in the Islamic methodology has been employed. First, by ing a bridge to the historical traditions of world, my views reflect the concerns of analyzing the origins of and that unfortunately one who has practically and philosophi­ studying the transformation of ancient have fallen into a state of obscurity. cally encountered the issues of traditional pre-Islamic building types into mosques, it Without concentrating on issues beyond architecture and its potential integration is possible to discern a distinct set of the present scope of this study, we will within the contemporary context. generic "Islamic" forms and typologies of address briefly the vast subject of the My fifteen years of experience in this field spatial organization. Second, a compara­ meanings and intentions of this language. have taught that and archi­ tive survey of the major mosques of the Our work supports the position that art in tecture traditionally place the highest Muslim world makes it possible to cata­ is rooted in the principle of Divine value on the achievement of beauty. This logue the relative occurrence of these Remembrance and that the value of true is a natural outgrowth of the Koran, the generic forms and typologies over the last creativity lies in the ability of that art to fountainhead of the Islamic perspective, fourteen hundred years. The results of this resonate a profound accord between man, which emphasizes goodness, truth and preliminary study, while still in the process nature and the Absolute. knowledge while placing the primary of completion, indicate the existence of a concern upon alJsan al-'amala (Beautiful definite visual language possessing both Deeds). As another example of this a vocabulary and a grammar. The vo­ emphasis, the ninety-nine Holy Attributes cabulary basically deals with the aesthetic Transformations as Beginnings of God are referred to as asma' al-lJusna concepts and models of the parts of the (Beautiful Names). Therefore, it is under­ mosque. It concerns such issues as con­ The study of the transformations of pre­ standable that in Islam the fundamental stituent forms, surface pattern, colour Islamic monuments is an important first mandate of architecture, apart from ful­ selection and modes of material usage. step in the definition of what constitutes a filling necessary functional requirements, The grammar, on the other hand, relates visual vocabulary relevant to Islam. For should be to manifest a purposeful sense to various systems of organizing these example, lessons can be gained by ob­ of beauty. Meaningful beauty in Islamic parts into a coherent whole within the serving those parts of pagan, Christian, architecture requires both a quantitative framework of Islamic concepts of place­ Zoroastrian and Hindu buildings which dimension of concern, achieved mainly making. were maintained intact and those which through a process of pragmatic environ­ Some qualifying remarks are, however, were modified or entirely removed to mental adaptation, and a qualitative necessary. First, while there seems to be a make them Islamic spaces. A similar dimension, expressed principally through distinct visual language that is uniquely lesson can be gained from the study of Islamic aesthetics. Islamic, there exists a multiplicity of what has been added. Thus, through a This paper concentrates upon a few major dialects related to various ecological and systematic study of inclusions and exclu­ themes of the aesthetics of Islamic cultural regions of the Muslim people. sions, we can trace the birth of Islamic architecture and is intended as a com­ Second, some parts of the vocabulary and architecture. plement to the more quantitative con­ grammar have achieved, through accretion In reviewing a number of notable trans­ siderations expressed by others in the and evolution, highly charged symbolic formations as representative samples of seminar. In particular, it offers a meanings upon which there may still be the different ecological/cultural regions of preliminary survey of the visual language general societal agreement, while other the Islamic world, primary emphasis will of symbolic forms found in the archi­ parts of the language are very regionally be placed upon the Masjid al-Haram at tecture of the mosque. The mosque has bound. An example of this is the , and the Hagia Sophia. A more been selected for study because it occurs which receives a high emphasis in the zone brief review of mosques at , in varying shapes and sizes as a funda­ of Persian culture but is rather unde­ Cordoba, Delhi and Fars, Iran, will show mental part of city planning in all Muslim veloped in the African, Saudi Arabian and both the multiplicity and the unity of the cultures from Spain to China, and because Indonesian cultural zones. Third, the earliest beginnings of mosque architecture. it possesses the most charged set of visual visual language to be presented is only a symbols. An important reminder of the "kit of tools" related to a mode of pivotal role of the mosque in Islamic architectural expression. Just as a diction­ thought is the saying of the Prophet ary and a handbook of style do not by inscribed upon the gateway of the Qu!b themselves guarantee a masterpiece of Mecca Minlir: "He who builds a mosque for God, literature, the different levels of aesthetic God will build for him a similar one in beauty depend upon the creative excel­ In terms of sacred geography, Mecca is Paradise. " lence of the user. Nevertheless, docu­ considered by the Koran to be the To achieve an understanding of the visual menting the parts and structural systems of "mother of all cities" and, in a meta­ language of mosque design, a two-part this visual language is necessary for build- phorical sense, the "naval of the earth." 19 The Visual Language of Symbolic Form: A Preliminary Study of Mosque Architecture

The bait al-'atiq, the ancient house installed (al-lJajar al-aswad) to mark the The walls of the Ka'ba have been en­ located in Mecca, is our primary source of beginning of the circumambulation. From shrouded since pre-Islamic times, and this knowledge of this most sacred Islamic its primary shape, the form came to be tradition has continued to the present. The place. known as the Ka'ba: "the Cube." cloth has varied from a black and white striped pattern to all white, all red, red Mythology relates that Adam first built Some twenty-six hundred years later, by the great cube of the Ka'ba, while the covered in black, and to the black brocade the time of the Prophet Mui).ammad, the that now adorns the Ka'ba. Koran records that Abraham was divinely form had evolved into a flat roofed cube ordered to construct this archetypal house constructed of alternating courses of stone The metamorphosis of the Ka'ba attests to of worship. It is instructive to remember and teak wood. The interior walls con­ its essential constancy, for on the whole, here the Koranic admonition addressed to tained pictures of Abraham, Mary and the very little has been added or taken away Abraham: "Behold, we gave the site to Child amidst angels as well as trees and from this ancient house over the last four Abraham, of the [Sacred] House, [saying]: vegetal motifs. In the ensuing centuries thousand years. Perhaps the only singular 'Associate not anything with me.'" (Sura the cube-like edifice was reconstructed monumental act of exclusion was per­ XXII,26) several times, assuming different sizes, formed by the Prophet in eliminating from This affirmative act of providing "some­ proportions, number of doors and varying the outer perimeter the pagan idols which thing" (the Ka'ba), followed by a negating interior structures and decorations. The had surrounded the Ka'ba. directive indicating "nothingness," is an present Ka'ba dates nearly four hundred Circumambulation of the Ka'ba has been apparently paradoxical yet telling sign of years to the Ottoman period, but it rests an associated act of this sacred place since the basic character of Islamic aesthetics. upon the foundation stones of Abraham's its inception. However, the growing As a fundamental architectural criteria of first construction. number of annual pilgrims, together with mosque design, it is similar to the Islamic testament of the shahada: la ilaha ilia lIah (There is no god, but Allah). The shahtida states a profound basic concept of a dynamic God, a simultaneously denying yet affirming perception of "Ultimate Reality." Through the process of simili­ tude, much used in Islamic logic, an extension of the shahada concept regarding all manifestations of God may be possible. Taken in this light, the Koranic admonition to Abraham regarding the Ka'ba assumes additional meaning and helps to establish the basic principle of transcendence observable in great Islamic art and architecture. In addition to the philosophic implications of the Koranic references to the Ka'ba, the historical transformations leading to the present Masjid al-Haram are instructive in our search for the basic vocabulary of Islamic forms. In this study it is valuable to distinguish the morphology of the Ka'ba proper from peripheral place changes. Fortunately, both aspects have been meticulously recorded in history. Legend has it that the Ka'ba constructed Istanbul, Turkey Hagia Sophia, dome by Abraham and Isma'il was a roofless Photo: V. Prentice square about the height of a man with its comers set to the cardinal directions. In the eastern comer the Black Stone was The Visual Language of Symbolic Form: A Preliminary Study of Mosque Architecture 20

the growth in stature of the religion, has mosque. Of course, twentieth-century Damascus, Cordoba, Delhi created the need periodically to expand Turkish culture has relegated the Hagia and elaborate the surroundings of the Sophia to status, but our concern The mosque of Damascus offers an Ka'ba. Originally, at the time of the is with the five hundred years of its instance of a double transformation. A Prophet, the Ka'ba, the associated Muslim usage. pagan Roman temple of the third century Zamzam Well and the station of Abraham In the interior of the Hagia Sophia the A.D., set within a temenos, was trans­ were located in a small, open courtyard, altar and all liturgical objects of worship formed first into a Christian and then a forty metres in diameter, surrounded by were removed; all biblical figures, such as Muslim place of worship. The plan of the houses of the city of Mecca. Gradually, the mosaics depicting the Virgin and Child church lay on an east-west axis with the the space was enlarged to include other and St. John the Baptist were covered in altar located in the apse to the west. With symbolic objects such as several plaster; the faces of two seraphim and two the Islamic conquest, the shell of the and the four pavilions of prayer repre­ cherubim in the four pendentives of the church was retained while an arcade was senting the four schools of Islamic dome were transfigured by gilded stars, added to the north. In time, three thought. Finally, an arcade and mosque and most notably, the image of Christ in were also constructed. By virtue emerged to encircle the Ka'ba. This was the dome was replaced by a sunburst of its geographic location, the basilica completely rebuilt by Sin an in the six­ medallion enriched with the Sura of Light. space of the interior was dramatically teenth century in a most modest manner. altered by the placement of the mil]riib The Masjid al-Haram of the Ottoman Among acts of inclusion in the interior and on the southern wall, changing period remained basically unchanged for was the placement in the old apse of a by ninety degrees the spatial orientation of nearly four hundred years until the recent mil]riib, minbar, sultan's throne and raised the building. Instead of looking down the major extension and modifications com­ places for the recitation of the Koran. large hierarchical nave, the emphasis was pleted by the Government of Saudi These objects were situated with a slight placed on the breadth of a seemingly Arabia. Today, the open space measures orientational adjustment to the south in endless space of equality. nearly 150 by 300 metres and the new the direction of Mecca. Opposite the Masjid al-Haram can accommodate more mil]riib space great fonts for ablution were Cordoba represents a reverse transforma­ than 100,000 people at one time. placed. Considerably later, in the nine­ tion. An Islamic place was here turned teenth century, the series of large cal­ into a Christian place. The original The evolving design of the Masjid ligraphic discs that now adorn the interior Moorish mosque was unusual for several al-Haram has been characterized by were installed. In sum, however, the reasons, but it was most unique by virtue several distinct architectural forms occur­ spherical geometry of the interior space of its "room mil]riib" which remains even ring over the centuries: courtyard, arcade was left unaltered. Rather, the direction, in the Christian period. Significantly, the (), gateways, and, in a the "furniture" and the signs were small cathedral that now has been inserted minor yet definite way, dome. The latter is changed, and hence, the particular sym­ into the vast arcaded space of the old found in all of the Sinan arcades and in bolic meaning of space. mosque is oriented almost ninety degrees the contemporary ~afa-Marwa area of the from Mecca toward the rising sun. Aside mosque. On the exterior, aside from the removal of from the minarets that have become bell the cross atop the great dome, additive towers and the floral decorations that have steps predominate. Soon after the con­ remained virtually unchanged, it would be version of the Hagia Sophia, a wooden hard to discern the changes that have Hagia Sophia minaret was erected in the northeast, later occurred. replaced by a masonry minaret. Then a In Constantinople, nearly eight hundred second minaret of stone was erected to the The Qu!b ad-Din Aybak Mosque and the years after the Hijra, on May 29, 1453, southeast. Finally, the twin minarets of adjacent Qu!b Minar in Delhi of the one of the last Islamic transformations of Sinan were completed on the opposite twelfth century A.D. represent yet again significance took place. On that day, comers in the sixteenth century. More another aspect of historical transforma­ Sultan MuQ.ammad marched triumphantly than any other transformative act, the four tion. Here, as in many examples elsewhere into the great "Cathedral of the Heavenly minarets have changed the architectonic in the Muslim world, transformation Wisdom," the sum manifestation of the impression of the building. However, it is involved borrowing the parts of existing Byzantine Empire and the Eastern Holy what has remained untouched-the space pre-Islamic buildings. Although all the Church, climbed upon the table of the and form of a central domical plan-that elements of the classic mosque can be sacraments, turned to Mecca, and said his has had the most lasting influence. All seen-gateway, courtyard, porch, minaret prayers. This act inaugurated a series of subsequent great mosques of Turkey have (in this case a towering giant of seventy­ changes whereby an architectural master­ emulated the transformed and prototypical five metres), mil]riib, dome and plinth­ piece of the sixth century was made into a Hagia Sophia. some of the actual stone columns and 21 The Visual Language of Symbolic Form: A Preliminary Study of Mosque Architecture

masonry used in the building construction also reflected in the gateway and portico, and, whenever possible, site visits to belong to the Hindu temples upon whose important parts of a "positive space" determine the relative level of emphasis of foundation stones the mosque was con­ design attitude. the eight generic forms and the regularity structed. The domical, mandalic form highlights a of adherence to a typology of spatial third principle of centrality and symmetry. organization. In particular, information for The dome, when in evidence, normally Far Eastern mosques was inadequate and provides the special sacred space within the results for this geographic zone are ChaMr Tiiq and Eyvan which the milJrab is located. In Southeast only tentative. Asia and other forest ecologies, this sacred In reviewing the survey charts, some Rather than review a particular historical space often takes the form of a pyramidal definite patterns are observable. For building, our final example of a trans­ roof with wooden rafters. Regardless of example, the Arab cultures of Arabia, formation centres on two types of pre­ the particular shape, the idea of centrality Iraq, Syria, Egypt, North Africa and Islamic building forms belonging to the remains constant. Moorish Spain are heavily represented by Sasanian period: the chaMr taq and the the hypo style mosque with a flat roof or a eyvan. These have influenced nearly all From the ritual of daily and congrega­ flat roof with dome accents. In East and later Persian mosques, culminating in such tional prayer, two other generic forms West Africa the flat hypo style type seems masterpieces as the Friday Mosque and have evolved: the minaret and the place of to predominate, although great dynamics the Masjid-i Shah of Isfahan. ablution. The plinth has come into being of design, which could in time alter this as a necessary consequence of single plane Formed by a cubic base of four supporting trend, are evident. The interpretations courtyard designs set upon land with a elements connected by and covered here may also be misleading, as the minimum degree of topographic slope. by a dome, the chaMr taq or tetrapylon sampling for this large region was small The symbolic value of a raised place is was the sacred place of the Zoroastrian and the buildings were investigated only further in evidence in the placement of eternal flame. With the Islamic conquest, through plans and photographs. mosques on hilltops as in many Turkish such sacred spaces were easily converted and Indo-Pakistani examples. The Indian subcontinent (including into mosques by the inclusion of a milJrab. and Bangladesh) represents a Such a simple transformation can be seen To reiterate, the following recurring forms unique cultural identity, although ecologi­ in the small mosque at Yazd-i Kasht in of mosque architecture constitute the cal variations have influenced the design Fars. major elements of inclusion that have of mosques there considerably. Mosques in evolved over the centuries: milJrab, From the great ceremonial of the Iran, Central Asia and Afghanistan show minaret, gateway, courtyard, portico, Sasanians came the eyvan or great porch. strong affinities of type. Predominantly of place of ablution, plinth and dome. Acts An example of the form, which was the four-eyvan variety, they rely heavily of exclusion are relatively few and are quickly integrated into the architecture of upon the chaMr taq concept of place­ primarily restricted to the removal of Persian mosques, can be seen at Niriz in making. Turkey is also one of the more specific imagery that would limit the Fars in a mosque dating from 970 A.D. homogeneous areas, having evolved the transcendent unity of the Divine. This central dome plan within its own regional aspect is most telling of the eclectic and borders and being basically of one eco­ integrative nature of Islamic architecture. logical zone. Visual Characteristics of In an effort to determine the prevalence of Mosque Architecture the aforementioned generic forms and the Despite the preliminary nature of this regional character of the spatial order of survey, it is important to note that all eight generic forms were found in each of From the preceding sample study of their organization, I have surveyed one the six geographic zones and that they transformation, it is possible to deduce a hundred and thirteen major mosques appeared in no less than 83% of the basic list of recurring generic forms as well throughout the Islamic world. In this mosques surveyed. The incidence of as some principles of spatial organization. survey, the Muslim world is categorized courtyards was 93%; minarets, 89%; There is a definite concern for orientation according to regional, ecological and (pyramidal also included), 83%; in space expressed both in the cosmic cultural variations as expressed by the gateways, 100%; , 86%; plinths, orientation of the Ka'ba (set with corners typology of their mosque design. Six 87%; places of ablution, 97% and, of to cardinal directions) and in the ter­ groups have been identified at this restrial alignment of mosques toward preliminary stage, but the number of course, milJrabs, 100%. Mecca. The architectural device for this categories could grow as more information In the mosque typologies, the results are purpose is the milJrab. A second principle is collected about the zones and the for the most part regionally bound, but is introversion, characterized by courtyard typologies of mosques. Each mosque was there is also a spread of cultural types and central dome planning. This concern is analyzed according to plans, photographs beyond the regional borders. Turkish The Visual Language of Symbolic Form: A Preliminary Study of Mosque Architecture 22

central dome plans in North Africa and Selected Bibliography Egypt are the product of Ottoman stylistic imperialism. The presence of the Iranian ACE N Ardalan, Consultant. Masjid al-Haram four-eyvan plan in Iraq and the Indian (Teheran, 1976). subcontinent reflects similar historical Ali, Abdullah Yusuf The Holy (New York, processes. 1946)

One overpowering question for further Ardalan, Nand L. Bakhtiar Sense of Unity (Chicago, inquiry arises as a result of this study. Is 1973) the prevalance of these eight generic forms Burckhardt, T Art of Islam (London, 1976) a mere coincidence, the result of auto­ cratic impositions, or does their repetition Creswell, K A C Early Muslim Architecture represent a natural Islamic language of (Oxford, 1Q32). visual forms for mosque design? Our Grabar, 0 Formation of Islamic Art (New Haven, preliminary evidence points to the latter. 1973). Moreover, what can be learned from the Grube, E T The World of Islam (New York, 1966) study of mosque typologies of spatial Kahler, H Hagia Sophia (New York, 1967) organization? Assuming that an ecological imperative is at work with cultural Kuran, A The Mosque in Early identity, do the adaptive forms thus (Chicago, 1968) produced have applications beyond the Lynch, K Image of the City (Cambridge, Mass., mosque? A fruitful direction for future 1960) action lies in the development of a Michell, G. Architecture of the Islamic World (London, complete inventory of major Islamic build­ 1978) ings. If systematically undertaken ac­ Pope, A A Survey of Persian Art (London, 1938) cording to the various ecological and cultural zones of the Muslim world, other Scerrato, U. Monuments of Civilization: Islam building types such as the and (London, 1976) can be analyzed for their generic forms and ordering typologies. A compendium of such studies would provide a useful "road map" to the more relevant forms appropriate today for each of the ecological/cultural zones of Islam. With greater refinement, the study could address other architectural dimensions which have been forgotten. This much needed remembrance could help make explicit the multiplicity of expressions inherent in the world of Islam and, through an understanding of the generic nature of transcendent forms, surfaces and patterns, create a new sense of visual beauty worthy of Islamic culture. 23 The Visual Language of Symbolic Form: A Preliminary Study of Mosque Architecture

ZONE I Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, North Africa, GENERIC FORMS MOSQUE TYPOLOGY Palestine, , Spain, Syria 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6

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• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • A A • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • .... • • • • "- • • ~ 'i), • • f ...," j • • • • "- .Samarra • • • • " • Baghdad • • • • . .Fez eKula • • • • Rabat • • • • eMarrakesh • • • • • Tinmal • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • J 1• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • I • • al A F R C A ---- Kufa, Iraq: plan of Great Mosque as rebuilt by Ziyadh ibn Abihi in 670 A.D. An early hypostyle mosque After K. A. C. Creswell

Location of principal mosques of Middle East, North Africa and Spain

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Kairouan, Tunisia: plan of Great Mosque. A hypostyle mosque incorporating dome over mi~rab 25 The Visual Language of Symbolic Form: A Preliminary Study of Mosque Architecture

Dome over miJ:1rab space of Great Mosque of Kairouan Photo: S. Blairll. Bloom

Minaret of Great Mosque of Kairouan as seen Interior of Great Mosque of Kairouan from northwest Photo. S Blair/f. Bloom Photo: S. Blairll. Bloom The Visual Language of Symbolic Form: A Preliminary Study of Mosque Architecture 26

ZONE II Turkey GENERIC FORMS MOSQUE TYPOLOGY 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6

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Location of principal mosques of Turkey 27 The Visual Language of Symbolic Form: A Preliminary Study of Mosque Architecture

Edirne, Turkey: interior of the Seli:miye mosque Photo: M. Niksarlt

Isometric view of the Selfmiye. An Ottoman central dome mosque Drawn by Kani Kuzucular Reproduced courtesy of Dogan Kuban The Visual Language of Symbolic Form: A Preliminary Study of Mosque Architecture 28

ZONE III Afghanistan, Central Asia, Iran GENERIC FORMS MOSQUE TYPOLOGY 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6

00 d I'l Q) "c',:: u Q) < .--B-I'l I ~ Q) ~] I'l E I'l i'i:::'" 0 "0 Q) tl Q» ,'" t).g .... I'l ~ 0 g .D Q) ~ 0 $< "&~ '@ C c'" .... Q) ..c: g ~ Q) ...... ;:It: ,'"...... ;:l 0 (g ~.... Q) ..c:. ;:l t:: E 0.. o E S '" 0 € E ;:l E ..c: -t:: t:: 0 ~ 0 ::0 .... ~o ~o Q) Q) 0 :§ U :§ 0 tI j:l., f < ::e ::eO ::eO & u (5 uu NO LOCALE NAME 1 ANAU Jamal Ad-Dm Mosque ~? ~ X 15 ARDESTAN Friday Mosque • • • • • • X 2 • ~ ~ ~ 11-12t 3 BALKH Abu Nasr Parsa •0 • • • ~ ~? X 15 • • • .,? • Now Gunbad • ~? 4 • O? 0 • • 0 X 9 5 BUKHARA Kalayan Mosque • • ~ • ~ ~ X 16 6 DAMGHAN Tarik Khana •~ ~ •~ 0 ~ X 8 ISFAHAN • • • 7 Friday Mosque • • • • • • ~ • X 8-17t 8 Masjid-i Shah • • • • ~ • X 17 9 Masjid-i 'All ~ • • 0 X 17 10 Sheikh Lutfallah • •0 •0 • •0 ~ •0 X 12 KERMAN • • • 11 Friday Mosque • ~ ~ 0 ~ X 14 12 MASHHAD Gowhar Shad • • • 0 ~ X 15 NAYIN • • • • OQ 13 Friday Mosque • • ~ X 10 SAMARQAND • • • • • • 14 Bib! Khanum • ~ ~ • ~ ~ X 14 15 SHIRAZ Vakil Mosque • ~ ~ •., ~? ~ X' 18 16 TABRIZ Blue Mosque • • O? •0 ~ ~? XC 15 VARAMIN • • • • X 17 Friday Mosque • • ~ • • 0 ~ 14 18 YAZD Friday Mosque • 0 ~ X' 14 ZAVAREH • • • • • • 19 Friday Mosque • • • • • • ~ ~ X 12 Inventory of generic forms and typology of selected mosques • Strong emphasis Q Qantit Compiled by N. Ardalan ~ Medium emphasis • One-Eyvtin o Nonexistent •• Two-Eyvtin ? Insufficient information t Converted from Sasanian structure

c Anau. '( U.S.S.R U.S.S.R. Bukhar~a.marqanq.

...... ,-,/ I~ .BaIkh ...... "-, ) • _ ~ashhad. l ,/ SYRIA Damghan i __ f / .Varamin j ~ RAN .> ~ ( AI'GHANIST AN r'i • Zavareh I R A Q .? i • Ardestan \ • • Nayin i '- Isfahan _ i J~' ..... Yazd '-, --­ i Location of principal mosques of Afghanistan, \.7 i S .Kerman / Central Asia and Iran \. r "-"~--' ...... - ...... Y­ • Shiraz \ '--,' -j./" "" -\ PAKISTAN SAUDI ARABIA .., ,rf r ! 29 The Visual Language of Symbolic Form: A Preliminary Study of Mosque Architecture

Isfahan' entrance to Masjid-i Shah Photo V Prentice

Isfahan, Iran: plan of Masjid-i Shah. A Safavid four-eyvfm mosque After V Vogt-Goknil The Visual Language of Symbolic Form: A Preliminary Study of Mosque Architecture 30

ZONE IV Bangladesh, India, Pakistan GENERIC FORMS MOSQUE TYPOLOGY 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6

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Location of principal mosques of Bangladesh, Lahore, Pakistan' plan of Wazfr Khan A hypostyle mosque with domical vaulting India and Pakistan After La Roche 31 The Visual Language of Symbolic Form: A Preliminary Study of Mosque Architecture

Delhi, India' a view of the Friday Mosque Photo. D. SareenlAga Khan Awards

Djenne, Mali. set up outside Great Mosque Photo: M. AI-HaririlAga Khan Awards The Visual Language of Symbolic Form: A Preliminary Study of Mosque Architecture 32

ZONE V East and West Africa GENERIC FORMS MOSQUE TYPOLOGY 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6

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Location of principal mosques of East and West Africa 33 The Visual Language of Symbolic Form: A Preliminary Study of Mosque Architecture

ZONE VI Far East GENERIC FORMS MOSQUE TYPOLOGY 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6

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Jakarta, Indonesia. Azziadah Mosque Photo: H-U KhanlAga Khan Awards The Visual Language of Symbolic Form. A Preliminary Study of Mosque Architecture 34

Hang-Chou •

Location of principal mosques of the Far East

A village mosque between Kuala Lumpur and Malacca, Malaysia Photo H-U KhanlAga Khan Awards 35 The Visual Language of Symbolic Form: A Preliminary Study of Mosque Architecture

ORIGINS MOSQUE TYPOLOGY Hypostyle Hypostyle ZONE GEOGRAPHIC Four- Central TOTAL Pre-Islamic Islamic Hypostyle with Dome w/Domical Other NO LOCALE Eyvan Dome NUMBER Accent Vaulting EGYPT, IRAQ, JORDAN, I NORTH AFRICA, 4 38 4 28 3 2 3 2 42 PALESTINE, SAUDI ARABIA, SPAIN, SYRIA II TURKEY 1 14 2 2 1 10 15 AFGHANISTAN, III CENTRAL ASIA, 2 17 3 14 2 19 IRAN BANGLADESH, IV INDIA, 2 12 10 4 14 PAKISTAN EAST & WEST 1 V AFRICA 14 10 2 1 14 VI FAR EAST 1 8 1 1 7 9 Totals 10 103 14 33 19 21 17 9 113 Percentage 9 91 12 29 17 18 16 8 100

Frequency of typology of 113 mosques according to geographic zone Compiled by N Ardalan

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 COURT- MINARET DOME GATEWAY PORTICO PLINTH ABLUTION TOTAL YARD PLACE NUMBER ZONE GEOGRAPHIC NO. LOCALE ~ 0 ~ 0 ~ 0 ~ 0 ~ 0 ~ 0 ~ 0 ~ 0 EGYPT, IRAQ, JORDAN, • • • • • • • • NORTH AFRICA, I PALESTINE, 41 I' 39 3 30 9 3 9 26 7 18 24 28 12 2 7 29 6 6 36 42 SAUDI ARABIA SPAIN, SYRIA II TURKEY 15 8 6 1 9 4 2 12 3 7 8 10 4 1 11 4 7 7 1 15 AFGHANISTAN, III CENTRAL ASIA, 19 16 3 10 6 3 13 6 16 3 17 2 13 6 3 14 2 19 IRAN BANGLADESH, IV INDIA, 14 13 1 4 9 1 7 7 10 4 10 4 7 7 2 12 14 PAKISTAN V EAST & WEST AFRICA 14 4 9 1 11 2 1 2 2 10 14 5 9 11 3 14 14 VI FAR EAST 9 1 8 2 5 2 7 2 3 6 3 4 2 3 6 9 9 Totals 112 1 81 24 8 66 35 12 50 44 19 54 59 68 29 16 28 70 15 18 92 3 113 Percentage 100 93 7 89 11 83 17 100 86 14 87 13 97 3 100

KEY • Strong emphasis ~ Medium emphasis 0 Nonexistent ' Haram ai-Sharif, Mecca Frequency of generic forms of 113 mosques according to geographic zone Compiled by N Ardalan Comments 36

GENERIC FORMS MOSQUE TYPOLOGY 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6

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Comments find in Muslim painting and architecture direct and nondiscursive manifestation of a summits of perfection aesthetically and spiritual reality. Situated outside the Burckhardt spiritually comparable to the holy image of liturgical realm, the symbolic is of the the Blessed Virgin of Vladimir, the same order as the sacred but not coex­ stained-glass windows of Chartres or the tensive with it. For example, in the Some of our contemporaries seek to tympanum of the Moissac Abbey? I only architectural symbolism of mausoleums rehabilitate Muslim art by making light of speak of works that encompass a symbolic and the tombs of saints and princes, the its canonical rejection of image and by dimension and necessarily possess it by ubiquitous dome is the image of the sky. insisting on the influence of ethnic par­ reason of their liturgical function. The hemispherical cupola above the cubic ticularism. Some have gone so far as to base represents the union between earth declare that Islamic art does not exist in a In choosing works of Islamic art which can and sky. But that symbol contains nothing global sense, that there exists only the art be qualitatively compared to these sum­ vague or abstruse; it is not the product of of individual Muslim peoples. mits of Christian art, one does not take a "sentimental charge," but a language of examples of figurative art. Instead, one These critics forget that for every culture the spirit. there is an internal economy of artistic selects elements of sacred architecture such as the milJrab of the Great Mosque The Muslim courtyard house is another expression. Some forms have a central and of Cordoba-a work comprised of example of symbolism outside the litur­ essential role. Others (particularly in the geometry, and sacred writ­ gical realm. The centrality (its being case of semi-decorative, semi-narrative ing--or even better, an entire architectural centered on itself) and the interiority of representations of human and animal environment because that is, above all, the the house combine with the paradisiac forms) play the more or less peripheral object of Islamic art. symbolism of gardens. role of compensatory elements. Except in very special cases we know that an­ In our remarks above, we have implicitly While symbolism is not restricted to the thropomorphic imagery has never been established a parallelism between the liturgical order, the latter is necessarily tolerated within the Islamic liturgical terms "sacred," "central," "symbolic" and woven with symbolism. There exists a realm. Were this not so, it would neces­ "liturgical." But these four notions are not coincidence of universal religious symbols. Sarily indicate some sort of deficiency on equivalent in every respect. The symbolic Liturgical objects such as the milJrab and the part of Muslim artists. Where can we is always of central nature because it is the minbar are simultaneously linked to