Monosaccharides

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1 Monosaccharides Monosaccharides are carbohydrates that cannot be further hydrolysed to simpler units having the basic formula Cn(H2O)n , where n = 3 or more. The smallest ones, for which n = 3, are glyceraldehyde and dihydroxyacetone. Monosaccharides are often given more detailed names that describe both the total number of carbon atoms and the functional groups (aldehyde and ketone groups). Depending on the number of carbon atoms, monosaccharides are subdivided into trioses, tetroses, pentoses , hexoses and so on. Mono saccarides are further subdivided into aldoses or ketoses depending on whether they contain aldehyde or ketone group for example hexoses whitch are monosaccharides containing 6 carbon atoms are further classified into: • Aldohexoses containing 6 carbon atoms and aldehyde group e.g. glucose. • Ketohexoses containing 6 carbon atoms and ketone group e.g. fructose Classification of monosaccharides Number of Category Examples Carbons Name Aldose Ketose 3 Triose Glyceraldehyde Dihydroxyacetone 4 Tetrose Erythrose Erythrulose Ribose Ribulose 5 Pentose Xylose Xylulose Glucose 6 Hexose Fructose Galactose 2 Structural formulae of monosaccharides The structure of glucose can be represented in one of the following ways: 1. The straight chain formula. H C O H C OH HO C H H C OH H C OH CH2 OH glucose (straight chain formula) 2. Fischer projection formula where the aldehyde (or ketone) group reacts with an alcohol group on the same sugar to form a hemiacetal or hemiketal ring . OH H C H C OH HO C H H C OH H C O CH2 OH glucose (hemiacetal, Fischer projection formula) 3. Haworth formula where the cyclic structure is represented in six membered pyranose ring or five membered furanose ring. CH2OH H O H H OH H OH OH H OH glucose (Haworth formula) Monosaccharides of Biological Importance 3 1- Glucose (grape sugar) Glucose is an aldohexose It is the major source of energy in humans and animals. It is the main sugar in the blood. It is converted into other carbohydrates in the liver and other tissues e.g. galactose, fructose, ribose and glycogen. 2- Galactose Galactose is an aldohexose It is synthesized in mammary gland It binds to glucose to form the disaccharide lactose (sugar of milk). It can be converted into glucose in the liver. 3- Fructose (fruit sugar) Fructose is a ketohexose It is present in semen acting as the main energy source for the spermatozoa It is a constituent of disaccharide sucrose (cane sugar). It can be converted into glucose in the liver. 5- Ribose and deoxyribose Ribose and deoxyribose are aldopentoses They enter in nucleic acids structure. Ribose enters in the structure of high energy phosphate compounds as ATP, GTP and CTP Also, ribose enters in the structure of coenzymes such as NAD and FAD. .

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Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
CARBOHYDRATES: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION Color index: . Very important . Extra Information. “ STOP SAYING I WISH, START SAYING I WILL” 435 Biochemistry Team *هذا العمل ﻻ يغني عن المصدر المذاكرة الرئيسي • The structure of carbohydrates of physiological significance. • The main role of carbohydrates in providing and storing of energy. • The structure and function of glycosaminoglycans. OBJECTIVES: 435 Biochemistry Team extra information that might help you 1-synovial fluid: - It is a viscous, non-Newtonian fluid found in the cavities of synovial joints. - the principal role of synovial fluid is to reduce friction between the articular cartilage of synovial joints during movement O 2- aldehyde = terminal carbonyl group (RCHO) R H 3- ketone = carbonyl group within (inside) the compound (RCOR’) 435 Biochemistry Team the most abundant organic molecules in nature (CH2O)n Carbohydrates Formula *hydrate of carbon* Function 1-provides important part of energy Diseases caused by disorders of in diet . 2-Acts as the storage form of energy carbohydrate metabolism in the body 3-structural component of cell membrane. 1-Diabetesmellitus. 2-Galactosemia. 3-Glycogen storage disease. 4-Lactoseintolerance. 435 Biochemistry Team Classification of carbohydrates monosaccharides disaccharides oligosaccharides polysaccharides simple sugar Two monosaccharides 3-10 sugar units units more than 10 sugar units Joining of 2 monosaccharides No. of carbon atoms Type of carbonyl by O-glycosidic bond: they contain group they contain - Maltose (α-1, 4)= glucose + glucose -Sucrose (α-1,2)= glucose + fructose - Lactose (β-1,4)= glucose+ galactose Homopolysaccharides Heteropolysaccharides Ketone or aldehyde Homo= same type of sugars Hetero= different types Ketose aldose of sugars branched unBranched -Example: - Contains: - Contains: Examples: aldehyde group glycosaminoglycans ketone group.
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1. Nucleotides A. Pentose Sugars – 5-Carbon Sugar 1) Deoxyribose – in DNA 2) Ribose – in RNA B. Phosphate Group C. Nitroge
1. Nucleotides a. Pentose sugars – 5-Carbon sugar 1) Deoxyribose – in DNA 2) Ribose – in RNA b. Phosphate group c. Nitrogenous bases 1) Purines a) Adenine b) Guanine 2) Pyrimidines a) Cytosine b) Thymine 2. Types of Nucleic Acids a. DNA 1) Locations 2) Functions b. RNA 1) Locations 2) Functions E. High Energy Biomolecules 1. Adenosine triphosphate a. Uses 1) Active transport 2) Movement 3) Biosynthesis reactions b. Regeneration 1) ADP + Pi + Energy → ATP 4. Classes of proteins a. Structural – ex. Collagen, keratin b. Transport – Hemoglobin, many β-globulins c. Contractile – Actin and Myosin of muscle tissue d. Regulatory - Hormones e. Immunologic - Antibodies f. Clotting – Thrombin and Fibrin g. Osmotic - Albumin h. Catalytic – Enzymes 1) Characteristics of enzymes • Proteins (most); ribonucleoproteins (few/ribozymes) • Act as organic catalysts • Lower the activation energy of reactions • Not changed by the reaction • Bind to their substrates o Lock-and-key model of enzyme activity o Induced-fit model • Highly specific • Named by adding -ase to substrate name; e.g., maltose/maltase • May require cofactors which may be: o Nonprotein metal ions such as copper, manganese, potassium, sodium o Small organic molecules known as coenzymes. The B vitamins like thiamine (B1) riboflavin (B2) and nicotinamide are precursors of coenzymes. • May require activation; e.g., pepsinogen pepsin in stomach chief cells 4. Factors Affecting Enzyme Action • pH o pepsin (stomach) @ pH = 2; trypsin (small int.) @ pH = 8 • Temperature o Denatured by high temp’s. • Enzyme inhibitors o Competitive inhibitors o Noncompetitive inhibitors • Effect of substrate concentration and reversible reactions and the Law of Mass D.
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Structural Features
1 Structural features As defined by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry gly- cans are structures of multiple monosaccharides linked through glycosidic bonds. The terms sugar and saccharide are synonyms, depending on your preference for Arabic (“sukkar”) or Greek (“sakkēaron”). Saccharide is the root for monosaccha- rides (a single carbohydrate unit), oligosaccharides (3 to 20 units) and polysac- charides (large polymers of more than 20 units). Carbohydrates follow the basic formula (CH2O)N>2. Glycolaldehyde (CH2O)2 would be the simplest member of the family if molecules of two C-atoms were not excluded from the biochemical repertoire. Glycolaldehyde has been found in space in cosmic dust surrounding star-forming regions of the Milky Way galaxy. Glycolaldehyde is a precursor of several organic molecules. For example, reaction of glycolaldehyde with propenal, another interstellar molecule, yields ribose, a carbohydrate that is also the backbone of nucleic acids. Figure 1 – The Rho Ophiuchi star-forming region is shown in infrared light as captured by NASA’s Wide-field Infrared Explorer. Glycolaldehyde was identified in the gas surrounding the star-forming region IRAS 16293-2422, which is is the red object in the centre of the marked square. This star-forming region is 26’000 light-years away from Earth. Glycolaldehyde can react with propenal to form ribose. Image source: www.eso.org/public/images/eso1234a/ Beginning the count at three carbon atoms, glyceraldehyde and dihydroxy- acetone share the common chemical formula (CH2O)3 and represent the smallest carbohydrates. As their names imply, glyceraldehyde has an aldehyde group (at C1) and dihydoxyacetone a carbonyl group (at C2).
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Download Product Insert (PDF)
PRODUCT INFORMATION D-(+)-Glyceraldehyde Item No. 16493 CAS Registry No.: 453-17-8 Formal Name: (2R)-2,3-dihydroxy-propanal Synonyms: D-Glyceraldehyde, D-Glycerose, NSC 91534 MF: C H O CHO 3 6 3 HO FW: 90.1 Purity: ≥85% OH Supplied as: A neat oil Storage: -20°C Stability: ≥2 years Information represents the product specifications. Batch specific analytical results are provided on each certificate of analysis. Laboratory Procedures D-(+)-Glyceraldehyde is supplied as a neat oil. A stock solution may be made by dissolving the D-(+)-glyceraldehyde in the solvent of choice. D-(+)-Glyceraldehyde is soluble in organic solvents such as ethanol, DMSO, and dimethyl formamide, which should be purged with an inert gas. The solubility of D-(+)-glyceraldehyde in these solvents is approximately 30 mg/ml. Further dilutions of the stock solution into aqueous buffers or isotonic saline should be made prior to performing biological experiments. Ensure that the residual amount of organic solvent is insignificant, since organic solvents may have physiological effects at low concentrations. Organic solvent-free aqueous solutions of D-(+)-glyceraldehyde can be prepared by directly dissolving the neat oil in aqueous buffers. The solubility of D-(+)-glyceraldehyde in PBS, pH 7.2, is approximately 10 mg/ml. We do not recommend storing the aqueous solution for more than one day. Description D-(+)-Glyceraldehyde is an intermediate in carbohydrate metabolism. It is phosphorylated by triose kinase to produce D-glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate, an intermediate in glycolysis, gluconeogenesis, photosynthesis, and other metabolic pathways.1-3 References 1. Ronimus, R.S. and Morgan, H.W.
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Multi-Enzymatic Cascades in the Synthesis of Modified Nucleosides
biomolecules Article Multi-Enzymatic Cascades in the Synthesis of Modified Nucleosides: Comparison of the Thermophilic and Mesophilic Pathways Ilja V. Fateev , Maria A. Kostromina, Yuliya A. Abramchik, Barbara Z. Eletskaya , Olga O. Mikheeva, Dmitry D. Lukoshin, Evgeniy A. Zayats , Maria Ya. Berzina, Elena V. Dorofeeva, Alexander S. Paramonov , Alexey L. Kayushin, Irina D. Konstantinova * and Roman S. Esipov Shemyakin and Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry RAS, Miklukho-Maklaya 16/10, 117997 GSP, B-437 Moscow, Russia; [email protected] (I.V.F.); [email protected] (M.A.K.); [email protected] (Y.A.A.); [email protected] (B.Z.E.); [email protected] (O.O.M.); [email protected] (D.D.L.); [email protected] (E.A.Z.); [email protected] (M.Y.B.); [email protected] (E.V.D.); [email protected] (A.S.P.); [email protected] (A.L.K.); [email protected] (R.S.E.) * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +7-905-791-1719 ! Abstract: A comparative study of the possibilities of using ribokinase phosphopentomutase ! nucleoside phosphorylase cascades in the synthesis of modified nucleosides was carried out. Citation: Fateev, I.V.; Kostromina, Recombinant phosphopentomutase from Thermus thermophilus HB27 was obtained for the first time: M.A.; Abramchik, Y.A.; Eletskaya, a strain producing a soluble form of the enzyme was created, and a method for its isolation and B.Z.; Mikheeva, O.O.; Lukoshin, D.D.; chromatographic purification was developed. It was shown that cascade syntheses of modified nu- Zayats, E.A.; Berzina, M.Y..; cleosides can be carried out both by the mesophilic and thermophilic routes from D-pentoses: ribose, Dorofeeva, E.V.; Paramonov, A.S.; 2-deoxyribose, arabinose, xylose, and 2-deoxy-2-fluoroarabinose.
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DNA Stands for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid
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(12) United States Patent (10) Patent No.: US 8,604,000 B2 De Kort Et Al
USOO8604000B2 (12) United States Patent (10) Patent No.: US 8,604,000 B2 de Kort et al. (45) Date of Patent: Dec. 10, 2013 (54) PALATABLE NUTRITIONAL COMPOSITION 2011/0027391 A1 2/2011 De Kort et al. COMPRISING ANUCLEOTDE AND/ORA 2013, OO12469 A1 1/2013 De Kort et al. NUCLEOSDE AND A TASTE MASKING 2013, OO18012 A1 1/2013 Hageman et al. AGENT FOREIGN PATENT DOCUMENTS (75) Inventors: Esther Jacqueline de Kort, Wageningen EP O 175468 A2 3, 1986 (NL); Martine Groenendijk, EP 1216 041 B1 6, 2002 EP 1282 365 B1 2, 2003 Barendrecht (NL); Patrick Joseph EP 1656 839 A1 5, 2006 Gerardus Hendrikus Kamphuis, EP 1666 092 A2 6, 2006 Utrecht (NL) EP 18OO 675 A1 6, 2007 JP 64-080250 A 3, 1989 (73) Assignee: N.V. Nutricia, Zoetermeer (NL) JP 06-237734. A 8, 1994 JP 10-004918 A 1, 1998 JP 10-136937 A 5, 1998 (*) Notice: Subject to any disclaimer, the term of this JP 11-071274. A 3, 1999 patent is extended or adjusted under 35 WO WO-0038829 A1 T 2000 U.S.C. 154(b) by 213 days. WO WO-01 (32034 A1 5, 2001 WO WO-02/088159 A1 11, 2002 WO WO-02/096464 A1 12/2002 (21) Appl. No.: 12/809,431 WO WO-03 (013276 A1 2, 2003 WO WO-03/041701 A2 5, 2003 (22) PCT Filed: Dec. 22, 2008 WO WO-2005/039597 A2 5, 2005 WO WO-2006/031683 A2 3, 2006 (86). PCT No.: PCT/NL2O08/050843 WO WO-2006,118665 A2 11/2006 WO WO-2006, 127620 A2 11/2006 S371 (c)(1), WO WO-2007/001883 A2 1, 2007 (2), (4) Date: Dec.
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Nucleosides & Nucleotides
Nucleosides & Nucleotides Biochemistry Fundamentals > Genetic Information > Genetic Information NUCLEOSIDE AND NUCLEOTIDES SUMMARY NUCLEOSIDES&NBSP; • Comprise a sugar and a base NUCLEOTIDES&NBSP; • Phosphorylated nucleosides (at least one phosphorus group) • Link in chains to form polymers called nucleic acids (i.e. DNA and RNA) N-BETA-GLYCOSIDIC BOND&NBSP; • Links nitrogenous base to sugar in nucleotides and nucleosides • Purines: C1 of sugar bonds with N9 of base • Pyrimidines: C1 of sugar bonds with N1 of base PHOSPHOESTER BOND • Links C3 or C5 hydroxyl group of sugar to phosphate NITROGENOUS BASES&NBSP; • Adenine • Guanine • Cytosine • Thymine (DNA) 1 / 8 • Uracil (RNA) NUCLEOSIDES • =sugar + base • Adenosine • Guanosine • Cytidine • Thymidine • Uridine NUCLEOTIDE MONOPHOSPHATES – ADD SUFFIX 'SYLATE' • = nucleoside + 1 phosphate group • Adenylate • Guanylate • Cytidylate • Thymidylate • Uridylate Add prefix 'deoxy' when the ribose is a deoxyribose: lacks a hydroxyl group at C2. • Thymine only exists in DNA (deoxy prefix unnecessary for this reason) • Uracil only exists in RNA NUCLEIC ACIDS (DNA AND RNA)&NBSP; • Phosphodiester bonds: a phosphate group attached to C5 of one sugar bonds with - OH group on C3 of next sugar • Nucleotide monomers of nucleic acids exist as triphosphates • Nucleotide polymers (i.e. nucleic acids) are monophosphates • 5' end is free phosphate group attached to C5 • 3' end is free -OH group attached to C3 2 / 8 FULL-LENGTH TEXT • Here we will learn about learn about nucleoside and nucleotide structure, and how they create the backbones of nucleic acids (DNA and RNA). • Start a table, so we can address key features of nucleosides and nucleotides. • Denote that nucleosides comprise a sugar and a base.
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Part 1 in Our Series of Carbohydrate Lectures. in This Section, You Will Learn About Monosaccharide Structure
Welcome to Part 1 in our series of Carbohydrate lectures. In this section, you will learn about monosaccharide structure. The building blocks of larger carbohydrate polymers. 1 First, let’s review why learning about carbohydrates is important. Carbohydrates are used by biological systems as fuels and energy resources. Carbohydrates typically provide quick energy and are one of the primary energy storage forms in animals. Carbohydrates also provide the precursors to other major macromolecules within the body, including the deoxyribose and ribose required for nucleic acid biosynthesis. Carbohydrates can also provide structural support and cushioning/shock absorption, as well as cell‐cell communication, identification, and signaling. 2 Carbohydrates, as their name implies, are water hydrates of carbon, and they all have the same basic core formula (CH2O)n and are always found in the ratio of 1 carbon to 2 hydrogens to 1 oxygen (1:2:1) making them easy to identify from their molecular formula. 3 Carbohydrates can be divided into subcategories based on their complexity. The simplest carbohydrates are the monosaccharides which are the simple sugars required for the biosynthesis of all the other carbohydrate types. Disaccharides consist of two monosaccharides that have been joined together by a covalent bond called the glycosidic bond. Oligosaccharides are polymers that consist of a few monosaccharides covalently linked together, and Polysaccharides are large polymers that contain hundreds to thousands of monosaccharide units all joined together by glycosidic bonds. The remainder of this lecture will focus on monosaccharides 4 Monosaccharides all have alcohol functional groups associated with them. In addition they also have one additional functional group, either an aldehyde or a ketone.
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8| Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids
8| Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids © 2013 W. H. Freeman and Company CHAPTER 8 Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids Key topics: – Biological function of nucleotides and nucleic acids – Structures of common nucleotides – Structure of double‐stranded DNA – Structures of ribonucleic acids – Denaturation and annealing of DNA – Chemistry of nucleic acids; mutagenesis Functions of Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids • Nucleotide Functions: – Energy for metabolism (ATP) – Enzyme cofactors (NAD+) –Signal transduction (cAMP) • Nucleic Acid Functions: – Storage of genetic info (DNA) – Transmission of genetic info (mRNA) –Processing of genetic information (ribozymes) –Protein synthesis (tRNA and rRNA) Nucleotides and Nucleosides • Nucleotide = – Nitrogeneous base –Pentose – Phosphate • Nucleoside = – Nitrogeneous base –Pentose • Nucleobase = – Nitrogeneous base Phosphate Group •Negatively charged at neutral pH • Typically attached to 5’ position – Nucleic acids are built using 5’‐triphosphates •ATP, GTP, TTP, CTP – Nucleic acids contain one phosphate moiety per nucleotide •May be attached to other positions Other Nucleotides: Monophosphate Group in Different Positions Pentose in Nucleotides • ‐D‐ribofuranose in RNA • ‐2’‐deoxy‐D‐ribofuranose in DNA •Different puckered conformations of the sugar ring are possible Nucleobases •Derivatives of pyrimidine or purine • Nitrogen‐containing heteroaromatic molecules •Planar or almost planar structures •Absorb UV light around 250–270 nm Pyrimidine Bases • Cytosine is found in both DNA and RNA •Thymineis found only in DNA
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Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids
CHAPTER 8 Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids Functions of Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids • Nucleotide Functions: – Energy for metabolism (ATP) – Enzyme cofactors (NAD+) – Signal transduction (cAMP) • Nucleic Acid Functions: – Storage of genetic info (DNA) – Transmission of genetic info (mRNA) – Processing of genetic information (ribozymes) – Protein synthesis (tRNA and rRNA) Nucleotides and Nucleosides • Nucleotide = – Nitrogeneous base – Pentose – Phosphate • Nucleoside = – Nitrogeneous base – Pentose • Nucleobase = – Nitrogeneous base Phosphate Group • Negatively charged at neutral pH • Typically attached to 5’ position – Nucleic acids are built using 5’- triphosphates • ATP, GTP, TTP, CTP – Nucleic acids contain one phosphate moiety per nucleotide • May be attached to other positions Other Nucleotides: Monophosphate Group in Different Positions Pentose in Nucleotides • -D-ribofuranose in RNA • -2’-deoxy-D-ribofuranose in DNA • Different puckered conformations of the sugar ring are possible Purine Bases • Adenine and guanine are found in both RNA and DNA • Also good H-bond donors and acceptors • Adenine pKa at N1 is 3.8 • Guanine pKa at N7 is 2.4 • Neutral molecules at pH 7 • Derivatives of pyrimidine or purine • Nitrogen-containing heteroaromatic molecules • Planar or almost planar structures • Absorb UV light around 250–270 nm Pyrimidine Bases • Cytosine is found in both DNA and RNA • Thymine is found only in DNA • Uracil is found only in RNA • All are good H-bond donors and acceptors • Cytosine pKa at N3 is 4.5 • Thymine pKa at N3 is 9.5
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Structures and Characteristics of Carbohydrates in Diets Fed to Pigs: a Review Diego M
Navarro et al. Journal of Animal Science and Biotechnology (2019) 10:39 https://doi.org/10.1186/s40104-019-0345-6 REVIEW Open Access Structures and characteristics of carbohydrates in diets fed to pigs: a review Diego M. D. L. Navarro1, Jerubella J. Abelilla1 and Hans H. Stein1,2* Abstract The current paper reviews the content and variation of fiber fractions in feed ingredients commonly used in swine diets. Carbohydrates serve as the main source of energy in diets fed to pigs. Carbohydrates may be classified according to their degree of polymerization: monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Digestible carbohydrates include sugars, digestible starch, and glycogen that may be digested by enzymes secreted in the gastrointestinal tract of the pig. Non-digestible carbohydrates, also known as fiber, may be fermented by microbial populations along the gastrointestinal tract to synthesize short-chain fatty acids that may be absorbed and metabolized by the pig. These non-digestible carbohydrates include two disaccharides, oligosaccharides, resistant starch, and non-starch polysaccharides. The concentration and structure of non-digestible carbohydrates in diets fed to pigs depend on the type of feed ingredients that are included in the mixed diet. Cellulose, arabinoxylans, and mixed linked β-(1,3) (1,4)-D-glucans are the main cell wall polysaccharides in cereal grains, but vary in proportion and structure depending on the grain and tissue within the grain. Cell walls of oilseeds, oilseed meals, and pulse crops contain cellulose, pectic polysaccharides, lignin, and xyloglucans. Pulse crops and legumes also contain significant quantities of galacto-oligosaccharides including raffinose, stachyose, and verbascose.
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