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An artifact study of Harmonist patterned silk textiles, 1826-1852
Swinker, Mary Elizabeth, Ph.D.
The Ohio State University, 1991
Copyright ©1991 by Swinker, Mary Elizabeth. All rights reserved.
UMI 300 N. Zeeb Rd, Ann Aibor, MI 48106
AN ARTIFACT STUDY OF HARMONIST PATTERNED SILK TEXTILES,
1826-1852
DISSERTATION
Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for
the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate
School of The Ohio State University
By
Mary Elizabeth Swinker, B.A., M.A.
*****
The Ohio State University
1991
Dissertation Committee: Approved by: Dr. Lucy R. Sibley
Dr. Kathryn A. Jakes Co-Advisor^ Dr. John C. Messenger
Dr. Hazel 0. Jackson -Advisor ^nt of Te^iles id Clothirig College of Human Ecology Copyright by Mary Elizabeth Swinker 1991 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
My appreciation to my co-advisors, Dr. Lucy Sibley and
Dr. Kathryn A. Jakes goes beyond the hours of work they put
in reading, commenting, and meeting with me to complete this project. They made my Ph.D. program more than courses, tests, and a dissertation by involving me in challenging and
exciting research projects. Special thanks to Dr. Sibley
for involving me in the Etowah research projects and Dr.
Jakes for stimulating my interest in Textile Science .
To my committee Dr. John C. Messenger and Dr. Hazel 0.
Jackson I extend my sincere thanks for their interest and
help during the dissertation process. Thanks to Laura Adkins for all her statistical help.
She persevered to find the best way to analyze the data.
Her interest in the project and hard work with the analysis
are greatly appreciated. To Donald Smith and Tom Coulton of Hunter Associates Laboratory, Inc. I extend my sincere thanks for the loan of
a HunterLab Miniscan.
Appreciation goes to Mr. Raymond V. Shepherd and his
staff at Old Economy Village for supporting my research
project. Special thanks goes to Ruth Hahn, Pat Leiphart,
ii Pat Belich, and Cleo Bronaugh for making me feel welcome and at home at Old Economy. My appreciation for the 1990 Graduate Scholarship goes to the Pennsylvania Home Economics Association and for the
Mary Lapitsky Graduate Fellowship to the Department of
Textiles and Clothing, The Ohio State University. The monies helped defray the cost of this project.
Special thanks goes to Dr. Harold E. Wingard, Dean of the College of Human Ecology and Health Sciences at Indiana
University of Pennsylvania, for supporting my three year leave request and the Doctoral Faculty Support Grant request.
I would also like to acknowledge my colleagues in the
Consumer Services Department at Indiana University of
Pennsylvania. Their support and encouragement was greatly appreciated. Special thanks goes to Joan C. Schmitt who has been my link to Indiana and who did countless errands for me. To two fellow graduate students Jean D. Hines and
Cheunsoon A. Song I extend my appreciation for their friendship and help throughout this endeavor. We shared the
"tears" and "cheers" of this program. I'm glad we went through it together.
Thanks goes to my family, my brothers Bob, John, and
Bill, my sister Patty, my sister-in-law Linda and my brother-in-law Mark. They offered encouragement and love
iii throughout the program. A special thanks to John who unselfishly gave up his free time to help me move. Thanks also goes to my nephews Mark, Andy, and Michael and my niece Christine who were forgiving when I missed their special days.
Most importantly, I want to extend my love and thanks to my parents who were the guiding force in my completing this degree. Their love for me and faith in my ability was the support I needed throughout this endeavor. I dedicate this work to them.
IV VITA
1975 ...... B.A. Notre Dame College of Ohio, South Euclid, Ohio.
1975-1976...... Adult Vocational Education Teacher, East Liverpool School District, East Liverpool, Ohio.
1977-197 8...... Graduate Teaching Assistant, Department of Clothing and Textiles, Kent State University, Kent, Ohio.
1 9 7 8 ...... M.A. Kent State University, Kent, Ohio.
1978-1979 ...... Instructor, Home Economics Department, University of Minnesota, Duluth, Duluth, Minnesota.
1979- ...... Assistant Professor, Consumer Services Department, Indiana University of Pennsylvania, Indiana, Pennsylvania.
1988-1991...... Graduate Research Associate, Department of Textiles and Clothing, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio.
FIELDS OF STUDY
Major Field: Textiles and Clothing Historic and Archaeological Textiles Minor Field: Anthropology TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... ü
VITA ...... V LIST OF T A B L E S...... » ...... ix LIST OF FIGURES...... xii
LIST OF P L A T E S...... xv
CHAPTER p a g e
I. INTRODUCTION...... 1 Problem Statement...... 2 Purpose...... 11 Limitations to the Study...... 12 Definitions...... 14
II. RELATED LITERATURE...... 16 Communal Societies...... 16 The Harmony Society, 1804-1824...... 20 The Harmony Society, 1824-1905...... 27 Silk Cultivation Industry in America. . 39 Silk Manufacturing Industry in America. 43 Silk Production at Economy...... 47 Chemical Structure of Silk and Properties...... 55 Silk Cultivation and Manufacturing. . . 57 Design in Silk Textiles...... 62 Theoretical Framework...... 66 Research Hypotheses ...... 69 Hypothesis...... 69 Sub-hypothesis 1 . 70 Sub-hypothesis 2...... 70
VI CHAPTER PAGE
III. METHODOLOGY...... 71 Part I: Analysis of Harmonist Textiles. 72 Samp l e ...... 72 Data Collection Instrument .... 73 M e t h o d ...... 74 Fiber Assessment...... 74 Yarn Structure...... 76 Fabric Weave Structure. . . . 76 G r a i n ...... 76 Fabric Thickness...... 78 Fabric Count...... 78 Fabric Width...... 79 Selvage W i d t h ...... 79 Placement of M o t i f s...... 80 Coloration...... 80 Data Collection on Site...... 82 Data Collection in Laboratory. . . 84 Data Analysis...... 85 Part II; Documentary Correspondence . . 87 S a m p l e ...... 87 Data Collection Instrument .... 88 Data Analysis...... 88
IV. PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION FOR PART 1...... 89 Part I: Analysis of Harmonist Textiles. 90 S a m p l e...... 90 Physical Attributes...... 92 F i b e r ...... 92 Discussion...... 95 Yarn...... 96 Discussion...... 100 Fabric Structure...... 101 Fabric Design ...... 121 Discussion...... 140 Testing Sub-hypothesis 1 ...... 148 Discussion...... 156
V l l CHAPTER PAGE
V. PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION FOR PART I I ...... 161
Part II: Documentary Correspondence . . 162 S a mple...... 162 Testing Sub-hypothesis 2 ...... 167 Cultivation...... 168 Manufacturing ...... 171 Legislation...... 173 Exhibition...... 175 Information Acquisition . . . 177 Discussion...... 178
VI. INTERPRETATION OF FINDINGS...... 179
VII. SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS...... 195 Summary...... 195 Recommendations...... 205
APPENDICES A. Definitions...... 208
B. Articles of Association...... 216 C. American Silk Manufacturers, 1829-1839 . . . 219
D. Catalog of Harmonist Pattern S i l k s ...... 222
E. Worksheet: Textile Examination Record. . . . 231
F. Worksheet: Harmonist Correspondence...... 235
G. Pattern Design Plates...... 238
H. Plots of Variances...... 259 I. Results of F-tests...... 298
LIST OF REFERENCES...... 317
V l l l LIST OF TABLES
TABLE PAGE
1. Number of Fragments Per Pattern Design. 91 2 . Summary of Fiber Verification, Harmonist Textiles...... 93
3. Visual Appearance of Fibers Under the Microscope. . . . 94
4. Summary of Warp and Weft Fiber Width. . . . 95
5. Summary of Yarn Structure ...... 98
6. Summary of Yarn Twist Per Centimeter. . . . 100
7. Description of Fabric Structure ...... 102
8. Summary of Fabric Grain ...... 117
9. Summary of Fabric Thickness ...... 118
1 0 . Summary of Fabric Count in 2.54 Centimeters 119 11. Summary of Fabric Width ...... 120 12. Summary of Evaluation of Selvages and Width 121 13. Summary of Pattern Designs...... 127
14. Summary of Space Between Motifs and Repeats 132 15. Summary of Pantone Assignment of Color for Background and Pattern...... 134
16. Summary of Background Colors, L, a, b Colorimetric Values ...... 137
17. Summary of Background Colors, L*, a*, b* Values...... 139
IX t a b l e PAGE 18. Stylistic and Structural Characteristics by Fabric Structure...... 144 19. Bartlett's Test for Equality of Variance. . . 150
20. Pooled Estimates of Common Pattern Variances. 153
21. Adjusted p-Values from F-test of Pattern Variance = Minimum Pattern Variance . 155
22. Comparison of Pattern Variances of Attribute to Minimum Variance of Attribute...... 157
23. Pattern Designs Where Pattern Variances are Less than or Equal to the Minimum Pattern Variance of an Attribute by Fabric Structure ...... 160
24. Summary by State of Correspondence...... 163
25. Harmonist's Business and Personal Correspondence About Silk ...... 165
26. Nature of Correspondence...... 167
27. Comparison of the Harmonist Silk Industry to United States Silk Industry in the Nineteenth Century...... 187 28. Comparison of Pattern Variances for Warp Fiber Width, F-test...... 299
29. Comparison of Pattern Variances for Weft Fiber Width, F-test...... 300
30. Comparison of Patteiu Variances for Warp Yarn Twist, F - t e s t ...... 301
31. Comparison of Pattern Variances for Weft Y a m Twist, F - t e s t ...... 302
32. Compeirison of Pattern Variances for Fabric Grain, F-test...... 303
33. Comparison of Pattern Variances for Fabric Thickness, F-test...... 304
34. Comparison of Pattern Variances for Warp Fabric Count, F-test ...... 305
X t a b l e PAGE 35. Comparison of Pattern Variances for Weft Fabric Count, F-test ...... 306 36. Comparison of Pattern Variances for Fabric Width, F-test...... 307 37. Comparison of Pattern Variances for Selvage Width, F-test ...... 308
38. Comparison of Pattern Variances for Space Between Motifs, F-test...... 309
39. Comparison of Pattern Variances for Space Between Repeats, F-test ...... 310
40. Comparison of Pattern Variances for Warp "L*" Values, F-test...... 311
41. Comparison of Pattern Variances for Warp "a**" Values, F-test...... 312 42. Comparison of Pattern Variances for Warp "b*" Values, F-test...... 313 43. Comparison of Pattern Variances for Weft "L*" Values, F-test...... 314 44. Comparison of Pattern Variances for Weft "a**" Values,.F-test...... 315 45. Comparison of Pattern Variances for Weft "b*" Values,.F-test...... 316
XI LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE PAGE
1. Map of Economy...... 29 2. Diagram of Locations on Fragments for Measurements...... 75
3. Pattern Repeats...... 77 4. Plot of Variances of Standardized Warp Fiber Width by Pattern...... 260
5. Plot of Variances of Standardized Weft Fiber Width by Pattern...... 261
6. Plot of Variances of Standardized Warp Y a m Twist by Pattern...... 262
7. Plot of Variances of Standardized Weft Yarn Twist by Pattern...... 263
8. Plot of Variances of Standardized Fabric Grain by Pattern...... 264
9. Plot of Variances of Standardized Fabric Thickness by Pattern ...... 265
10. Plot of Variances of Standardized Warp Fabric Count by Pattern...... 266
11. Plot of Variances of Standardized Weft Fabric Count by Pattern...... 267 12. Plot of Variances of Standardized Fabric Width by Pattern...... 268
13. Plot of Variances of Standardized Selvage Width by Pattern...... 269
14. Plot of Variances of Standardized Space Between Motifs by Pattern...... 270
xri FIGURE PAGE 15. Plot of Variances of Standardized Space Between Repeats by Pattern...... 271
16. Plot of Variances of Standardized Warp "L*" Values by Pattern...... 272
17. Plot of Variances of Standardized Warp "a*" Valuesby Pattern...... 273
18. Plot of Variances of Standardized Warp ”b*" Valuesby Pattern...... 274
19. Plot of Variances of Standardized Weft Valuesby Pattern...... 275
20. Plot of Variances of Standardized Weft "a*" Valuesby Pattern...... 276
21. Plot of Variances of Standardized Weft "b*" Values by Pattern...... 277
22. Plot of Variances of Standardized Physical Attributes for Pattern 1...... 278
23. Plot of Variances of Standardized Physical Attributes for Pattern 2...... 279
24. Plot of Variances of Standardized Physical Attributes for Pattern 3...... 280 25. Plot of Variances of Standardized Physical Attributes for Pattern 4...... 281
26. Plot of Variances of Standardized Physical Attributes for Pattern 5...... 282
27. Plot of Variances of Standardized Physical Attributes for Pattern 6...... 283
28. Plot of Variances of Standardized Physical Attributes for Pattern 7...... 284
29. Plot of Variances of Standardized Physical Attributes for Pattern 8...... 285
30. Plot of Variances of Standardized Physical Attributes for Pattern 9...... 286
31. Plot of Variances of Standardized Physical Attributes for Pattern 1 0 ...... 287
xiii FIGURE PAGE 32. Plot of Variances of Standardized Physical Attributes for Pattern 11 ...... 288 33. Plot of Variances of Standardized Physical Attributes for Pattern 12 ...... 289 34. Plot of Variances of Standardized Physical Attributes for Pattern 15 ...... 290
35. Plot of Variances of Standardized Physical Attributes for Pattern 16 ...... 291 36. Plot of Variances of Standardized Physical Attributes for Pattern 17 ...... 292
37. Plot of Variances of Standardized Physical Attributes for Pattern 18 ...... 293
38. Plot of Variances of Standardized Physical Attributes for Pattern 19 ...... 294 39. Plot of Variances of Standardized Physical Attributes for Pattern 21 ...... 295
40. Plot of Variances of Standardized Physical Attributes for Pattern 22 ...... 296 41. Plot of Variances of Standardized Physical Attributes for Pattern 27 ...... 297
XIV LIST OF PLATES
PLATE PAGE
I. George R a p p ...... 22
II. Silk Factory at Economy...... 34
III. Gertrude R a p p ...... 37
IV. Pattern Design 6 #06.67.24.139, Lifesize Photograph Magnified 1.59 Times for Presentation...... 103
V. Pattern Design 6 #06.67.24.139, IX Photograph Magnified 7.47 for Presentation...... 104
VI. Pattern Design 18 #06.67.24.146, Lifesize Photograph Magnified 1.49 Times for Presentation...... 105
VII. Pattern Design 18 #06.67.24.146, IX Photograph Magnified 7.47 for Presentation...... 106
VIII. Pattern Design 2 #06.65.15.5, Lifesize Photograph Magnified 1.59 Times for Presentation...... 107
IX. Pattern Design 2 #06.65.15.5, IX Photograph Magnified 7.47 for Presentation...... 108
X. Pattern Design 12 #OE80.17.129, Lifesize Photograph Magnified 1.59 Times for Presentation...... 109
XI. Pattern Design 12 #OE80.17.129, IX Photograph Magnified 7.47 for Presentation...... 110
XV PLATE PAGE
XII. Pattern Design 17 #06.67.24.127, Lifesize Photograph Magnified 1.59 Times for Presentation...... 112
XIII. Pattern Design 17 #06.67.24.127, IX Photograph Magnified 7.47 for Presentation...... 113
XIV. Pattern Design 22 #06.67.24.209, Lifesize Photograph Magnified 1.49 Times for Presentation...... 114
XV. Pattern Design 22 #06.67.24.209, IX Photograph Magnified 7.47 for Presentation...... 115
XVI. Pattern Design 4 #06.65.15.8, Lifesize Photograph Magnified 1.43 Times for Presentation...... 123
XVII. Pattern Design 4 #06.65.15.8, IX Photograph Magnified 7.47 for Presentation...... 124
XVIII. Pattern Design 27 #06.67.24.218, Lifesize Photograph Magnified 1.59 Times for Presentation...... 125
XIX. Pattern Design 27 #06.67.24.218, IX Photograph Magnified 7.47 for Presentation...... 126
XX. Pattern Design 7 #06.67.24.58, Lifesize Photograph Magnified 1.59 Times for Presentation...... 128
XXI. Pattern Design 7 #06.67.24.58, IX Photograph Magnified 7.47 for Presentation...... 129
XXII. Pattern Design 1 #06.68.8.251, Lifesize Photograph Magnified 1.63 Times for Presentation...... 130
XXIII. Pattern Design 1 #06.68.8.251, IX Photograph Magnified 7.94 for Presentation...... 131
XVI PLATE PAGE
XXIV. Pattern Design 3 #06.67.24.41, Lifesize Photograph Magnified 1.43 Times for Presentation...... 239
XXV. Pattern Design 3 #06.67.24.41, IX Photograph Magnified 7.47 for Presentation...... 240
XXVI. Pattern Design 5 #OE80.17.132, Lifesize Photograph Magnified 1.43 Times for Presentation...... 241
XXVII. Pattern Design 5 #OE80.17.132, IX Photograph Magnified 7.47 for Presentation...... 242
XXVIII. Pattern Design 8 #06.67.24.32, Lifesize Photograph Magnified 1.74 Times for Presentation...... 243
XXIX. Pattern Design 8 #06.67.24.32, IX Photograph Magnified 7.47 for Presentation...... 244
XXX. Pattern Design 9 #06.67.24.33, Lifesize Photograph Magnified 1.44 Times for Presentation...... 245
XXXI. Pattern Design 9 #06.67.24.33, IX Photograph Magnified 7.47 for Presentation...... 246
XXXII. Pattern Design 10 #06.67.24.70, Lifesize Photograph Magnified 1.53 Times for Presentation...... 247
XXXIII. Pattern Design 10 #06.67.24.70, IX Photograph Magnified 7.06 for Presentation...... 248
XXXIV. Pattern Design 11 #06.67.24.76, Lifesize Photograph Magnified 1.49 Times for Presentation...... 249 XXXV. Pattern Design 11 #06.67.24.76, IX Photograph Magnified 7.47 for Presentation...... 250
xvix PLATE PAGE XXXVI. Pattern Design 15 #06.67.24.119, Lifesize Photograph Magnified 1.59 Times for Presentation...... 251
XXXVII. Pattern Design 15 #06.67.24.119, IX Photograph Magnified 7.47 for Presentation...... 252
XXXVIII. Pattern Design 16 #06.67.24.180, Lifesize Photograph Magnified 1.49 Times for Presentation...... 253
XXXIX. Pattern Design 16 #06.67.24.180, IX Photograph Magnified 7.47 for Presentation...... 254
XL. Pattern Design 19 #06.67.24.186, Lifesize Photograph Magnified 1.59 Times for Presentation...... 255
XLI. Pattern Design 19 #06.67.24.186, IX Photograph Magnified 7.47 for Presentation...... 256
XLII. Pattern Design 21 #06.67.24.208, Lifesize Photograph Magnified 1.49 Times for Presentation...... 257
XLIII. Pattern Design 21 #06.67.24.208, IX Photograph Magnified 7.47 for Presentation...... 258
XVili CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A large collection of nineteenth century silk textiles produced in the United States by the communal group The Harmony Society is part of Old Economy Village's collection of artifacts and was the focus of this study. Old Economy
Village, in Ambridge, Pennsylvania, is a nineteenth century historical site which is under the supervision of the
Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission. This museum is composed of the governmental, the commercial, and the religious centers of the village of Economy (Reibel, 1972).
Economy was the third and final home of the religious communal living group known as The Harmony Society. The museum consists of numerous artifacts including buildings,
furnishings, household items, tools, farming and manufacturing equipment, art work, books, clothing and
textiles, and an extensive collection of administrative, legal and business records, and business and personal correspondence of the Harmonists.
Throughout the history of The Harmony Society, the
group engaged in textile production. The founder, George
Rapp, was a weaver, and so it is not surprising to discover 2 a strong emphasis on textile production. It was the intent of this research to study the patterned silk textiles of the
Harmonists and the technical skill and knowledge employed in their production. Not only did the Harmonists manufacture silk textiles, but they cultivated the silkworm (Bombvx
Mori) as did other groups during this period. They were successful in cultivating silk between 1826-1852.
Problem Statement
Because the production of silk textiles requires much hand labor as well as technical skill and mastery, silk textiles are not produced in twentieth century United
States. Of the numerous attempts at silk production in the
United States during the nineteenth century, only some
achieved success in production. The ability to produce
textiles with consistency in yarn and fabric was limited.
One such successful attempt occurred in the early nineteenth century among a religious communal society known as The
Harmony Society. Why this group was successful, if only for
twenty-six years, is the subject of this inquiry. Several attempts were made to raise mulberry trees and cultivate silkworms in the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries in Virginia and Georgia. It was believed that
farmers who planted mulberry trees could raise silkworms and
produce raw silk successfully. Silk cultivation is a labor
intensive operation with the raising of silkworms and the 3 reeling of raw silk being done almost entirely by hand
(Thompson, 1922). Even with the British Parliament's incentives and duty free tariffs, the early attempts in Virginia and Georgia failed. In Virginia, silk cultivation could not compete with the profitability of tobacco, and in
Georgia silk could not compete with cotton, especially with the invention of the cotton gin (Heusser, 1927; Manchester,
1916).
Hope was revived in the nineteenth century for the development of a successful silk industry in the United
States. Many advancements, current events, and government support in the form of bills were available to aid in creating a successful silk industry.
This strong thrust for a silk industry in the nineteenth century corresponded with the advancements made in the development of a domestic textile industry in the
United States. The first factory production of textiles was started with the cotton spinning mill in 1793 by Samuel
Slater in Pawtucket, Rhode Island. The growth of the industry was slow until the War of 1812, when blockades and embargoes cut off imports and forced the United States to look within for their needs. The industry grew rapidly especially with protective tariffs, after the war. A major advancement was the introduction of the power loom in 1814 by Francis Cabot Lowell (Jarnow & Judelle, 1974). 4
Several technical advancements were made in the silk industry during the nineteenth century. Advancements were made in machinery such as a silk-reeling or winding machine designed after the Piedmontese reel made in Genoa. It was produced by D. Tees and R. F. Pomeroy of Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania in 1826. Other developments were made in silk- throwing machines; in silk-doubling machines; and the introduction of the Jacquard loom in the United States
(Heusser, 1927). The Jacquard loom was first brought to the United States in 1824 by William J. Horstmann, a silk manufacturer (Brockett, 1876; "A History," 1950). In 1840, Edmund Morris of Burlington, New Jersey introduced the
Burlington Silk Worm Frame which was developed for the purpose of feeding silkworms (Morris, 1840). In addition to advancements in machinery, there was a switch to a factory system of silk production between 1750 and 1850; there was a move from home operations to filatures and silk manufacturing factories (Singer, Holmyard, Hall, & Williams,
1958).
Another hope for the industry was the use of the Morus multicaulis mulberry tree which was raised in China for silk cultivation. Gideon B. Smith of Baltimore was the first to plant this type of tree in the United States in 1826. It was discovered that, in comparison with the black, or
Italian white mulberry, it grew faster and the leaves were larger. Without extensive testing of the tree, in the 5
United States, nurserymen and silk cultivators invested heavily into the Morus multicaulis tree with great expectations. Unfortunately, the Morus multicaulis could not withstand the Northern climate and because of the heavy investment by the silk cultivators losses were extensive and many cultivators went out of business (Heusser, 1927).
On December 12, 1838, at the National Silk Convention the American Silk Society was founded. Its objective was
"to promote the production and manufacture of silk in the
United States" (Smith, 1839a, p. 8). In January, 1839 the Journal of the American Silk Society and Rural Economist was published by the American Silk Society "for the purpose of diffusing practical information on the culture of silk in the United States" (Smith, 1841, p. 50). The strong interest for a silk industry is evident in the following advertisement in the Journal.
The important fact is now established beyond any question, that the people of the United States can make silk cheaper and better than any other nation upon earth. It has been proved by unimpeachable testimony, that the entire cost of producing silk ready for market, does, not exceed two dollars and twenty-five cents per pound, and its lowest value is four dollars and fifty cents ; also, that one acre of ground planted in morus multicaulis, will produce, the first year the trees are planted, forty-eight pounds of silk, leaving a clear profit to the producer of one hundred and eight dollars! It has also been proved that the children and females of any farmer’s family can, with the greatest possible ease, produce from fifty to a hundred pounds of silk every year, without any cost whatever to the expenses of the farm after the trees are planted; and therefore, that the whole amount of silk will be so much clear gain, say from $225 to $450. With these facts we submit to an intelligent people whether it is not a great and an important object for them to introduce the culture of silk in every farmer's family in the Union (Smith, 1841, p. 50).
Other publications on the subject were available to those interested in silk cultivation. The Burlington Silk
Record was published monthly for the purpose of diffusing
"among those interested in the Silk Culture, a knowledge of
the recent important improvements in the art, as well as
general information on the subject, and to stimulate and
foster its extension in the United States, by circulating
the experience of silk growers, as they may be communicated
for publication" (Morris, 1842). It was first published in
October, 1840 by Edmund Morris, Burlington, New Jersey.
Other publications of this time period include The Silk Culturist and Farmer's Manual by F. G. Comstock of Hartford,
Connecticut; Silk Magazine by Walter B. Walker of New York;
Family Visitor and Silk Culturist by T. Foster of New York; Fessenden's Practical Farmer, and Silk Manual by G. C.
Barrett of Boston; and The Silk-Worm by S. Blydenburgh of
Albany, New York (Heusser, 1927).
The United States Government became involved in silk
culture in 1826. A report from the Committee on Agriculture
was directed to the Secretary of the Treasury indicating
that a manual be developed on the growth and manufacture of silk. The manual was compiled in 1828 and entitled "Letter from the Secretary of the Treasury, Transmitting the Information Required by a Resolution of the House of 7
Representatives on May 11, 1826 in Relation to the Growth and Manufacture of Silk, Adapted to the Different Parts of the Union" (Heusser, 1927, p. 117; Brockett, 1876). Many sessions of Congress addressed the issue of the silk industry. Numerous states passed bills encouraging sericulture.
Peter Delabigarre, a New York agriculturist addressed the subject of sericulture to the New York State Agricultural
Society. He stated; "Gentlemen, you have in your hands all the means requisite for success, and for enriching yourselves by the culture of silk. It remains with you to compare and judge your many attempts in it, and discover wherein they have been defective" (Heusser, 1927, p. 117;
Brockett, 1876, p. 36).
In the May, 1841 issue of the Burlington Silk Record a summary was reported of the March, 1841 issue of the Journal of the American Silk Societv and Rural Economist. It was written that silk cultivation could lessen the United
States' foreign debt.
. . .Our productions must be increased to pay foreign debts or lesson our imports. Cotton cannot be increased, nor the production of bread stuffs: both are over done, and the same may be said of tobacco. The remedy is a new product, and that must be SILK (Morris, 1841, p. 50).
Even with the legislative interest in silk culture during this period silk imports continued to increase
significantly. This led to a large trade deficit on silk goods (Heusser, 1927; Brockett, 1876). Government 8 protection in the form of a tariff on silk goods did not come about until 1861. This delay in government support aided in the decline of the industry.
The development of communal societies during the nineteenth century is another factor which could have aided in the development and success of a domestic silk industry.
A communal society is a group of people "who have attempted to live communally, sharing material goods and a common life style" (Hostetler, 1974, p. 2). The communal society was an ideal operation for the cultivation of silk because sericulture is labor intensive. Within our society where labor receives "viable" living wages, sericulture is not economically feasible. In accordance with this view Walter
B. Walker, editor of Silk Magazine, commented on prospects for success in silk culture; . . .The cost of labor is the big factor from the time the eggs are hatched. The growing worms must be carefully tended through every stage of their growth, and-after they have spun their cocoons,- these in turn have to be carefully watched and tended. When it comes to reeling the raw silk from the cocoons, the factor of labor and the element of skill becomes so much greater, and it is almost a certainty that this cheap and skilled labor cannot be obtained in this country. . . (Heusser, 1927, p. 132).
However, the communal society provided a source of
inexpensive labor. In this circumstance, sericulture could be economically feasible. This research shows that the religious communal group known as the Harmonists was an example of a successful 9 attempt at sericulture for twenty-six years during the nineteenth century. Information about their efforts is recorded in the travel accounts of Friedrich Wilhelm von
Wrede in 1842, Sandor Farkas de Bolon in 1831, and James
Silk Buckingham in 1839 (Reibel, 1978). The Harmonist silk industry was also acknowledged in two journals : The Silk
Culturist and Farmer's Manual (October, 1836) by F. G.
Comstock and the March, 1839 and December, 1840 issues of the Journal of the American Silk Societv and Rural Economist by Gideon B. Smith (Arndt, 1972). Another source of information about the cultivation and manufacture of silk by the Harmonists is the Silk Letter Book. 1842-1852. compiled by the Harmonists. It contains the outgoing business correspondence concerning the Society's silk business.
The above accounts record the Harmonist experimentation in silk cultivation, the setup of their facilities, the profitability of their industry, and the government involvement in the silk industry. From these accounts it is known that the Harmonists planted several types of mulberry trees, cultivated different types of silkworms, had hand looms, a Jacquard loom, and a loom which produced seven ribbons at one time. It is also known that several different types of silk fabrics, plain and figured, were manufactured including satins, velvets and taffetas. Primary documents show that developing a domestic textile
industry was important to the Harmonists. In an attempt to 10 solicit aid for government involvement, articles of clothing were made and presented to the Pennsylvania legislature. It is also reported that President Tyler was to have had clothing of "Economy Silk" (Arndt, 1945). In this study incoming and outgoing correspondence was examined to obtain information on the technical knowledge in silk cultivation and production of the Harmonists.
Another arena for information about the Harmonists came from an examination of the textiles themselves. Old Economy
Village has an important collection of textiles belonging to the Harmonists. This collection contains garments manufactured at Economy and worn by the Harmonists. Also part of the collection are textile fragments of varying sizes and shapes. Some are scraps which were left over from cutting the garment pieces. Others are components of garments which may have been used as patterns or pieces of garments which were never assembled. There are also bolts of fabrics. Textile fragments from this collection were selected for examination in this research.
Many research projects in textiles and clothing center on historical documents as the primary source of information because the actual textiles may be limited or nonexistent.
This study incorporated the historical documents as well an examination of the surviving textiles. This dual approach gives added support to accuracy of findings in historic
textiles studies. 11
Harmonist silk textile research contributes to a better understanding of the Harmonist community. It also adds to the knowledge of silk cultivation and manufacturing in the
United States during the nineteenth century.
Purpose
The focus of this study was an investigation of the patterned silk textiles of the Harmonists. Patterned silk
textiles are more difficult to produce requiring more skill by the weaver and more sophisticated equipment than plain woven fabrics. For this reason patterned silk textiles were
chosen to be examined. In this study patterned textiles or
weaves are ones in which the patterning can be achieved by a
modification of the three binding systems (tabby, twill, and
satin) or by the addition of supplementary warp and weft
yarns to create a motif or design.
A material cultural approach, where artifacts are used
as primary sources of information in order to make reference
about a culture, was employed for this study. The
Harmonist's business and personal correspondence related to
their silk business was used to assess the technical
knowledge they held concerning silk cultivation and
manufacturing. By examining the textile fragments the
stylistic and structural characteristics of the Harmonist
patterned silk textiles were identified and the physical
attributes were evaluated in order to infer the technical 12 skill of the Harmonists in silk textile production. The textiles used in this study are ones which have been catalogued as Harmonist, which have not been made into garments, and which are presently part of the collection at
Old Economy Village. Physical attributes of fiber, yarn, and fabric were examined. Macroscopic, microscopic, photographic, physical, and instrumental examination of the textile fragments were used to measure the consistency of the attributes within a fragment between like fragments and throughout the total sample.
The objectives of the study are as follows:
1. To determine the stylistic and structural characteristics of Harmonist patterned silk textiles by
employing nondestructive methods of evaluation of
selected textile fragments found at Old Economy
Village.
2. To assess the technical knowledge and skill in silk textile production demonstrated by the Harmonists
through examination and evaluation of the physical
attributes of the textile fragments and an appraisal of
the Harmonists' silk industry using their business and
personal correspondence related to their silk business.
Limitations to the Study
It is impossible to identify all patterned silk
textiles produced by the Harmonists. This study was limited 13 to those artifacts which are located at Old Economy Village and are catalogued as Harmonist. Only flat patterned silk textiles (excluding shawls and scarves) were included in this study. The fragments must have at least one selvage, one pattern repeat and be 15.2 Many textile assessment methods require destruction of the textile. This is unacceptab1e in the evaluation of historic textiles because they are irreplaceable. In this study modifications were made to standard methods of textile evaluation, or alternative methods were developed in order to preserve the textiles. In addition, because some of the textile examination was conducted at Old Economy Village, standard laboratory conditions could not be replicated and some modifications were needed to be made in viewing the textile specimens. The Harmony Society, 1786-1951, had an extensive record keeping system as evident by the microfilm project undertaken by the Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission in 1983. Seven hundred and nineteen volumes and one hundred and seventy two boxes of documents were microfilmed (Baumann, 1983). "Included in the materials are records that reflect the organization and composition of the Society, its business interests and activities, and its interrelationships with the community at large" (Baumann, 14 1983, p. 13). With the scope and depth of these materials it was impossible to review all documents which may be related to this study. The study was limited to the personal and business correspondence concerning the silk industry. It is believed that information about their technical knowledge in silk production can be derived from these documents. Definitions Terms used in this study are listed below. Other terms related to textiles and silk are in Appendix A. Artifact is "any object made by man with a view to subsequent use" (The American College Dictionary. 1964, p. 71). Culture is "the way of life characteristic of a particular human society" (Nanda, 1987, p. 403). Material Culture is "the study through artifacts of the beliefs-values, ideas, attitudes, and assumptions-of a particular community or society at a given time" (Prown, 1982, p. 1). Patterned Textiles or Weaves are ones which "deviate from the basic alternation of plain weave" (Emeiry, 1980, p. 123). The term also can include "the weaves of color- patterned fabrics with or without the specific qualification that they be weaves in which patterning is effected by means of supplementary sets of warp and/or weft" (Emery, 1980, p. 15 123). Burnham (1980) defines pattern as the "arrangement of the ornamentation" (p. 96). Sericulture is "the rearing and keeping of silkworms for the production of raw silk" (The American College. 1964, p. 1106). Silk is "the fine fiber spun by the caterpillars of moths belonging chiefly to the Bombyx genus; silk yarn, thread, and cloth" (A dictionary. 1915, p. 79). CHAPTER II RELATED LITERATURE During the nineteenth century there were two unique factors which are important to this investigation of Harmonist silk textiles. The first is the rise of communal societies in the United States because The Harmony Society was an early religious communal group, organized in the United States in 1805. The second is the advancement made in textile technology and experiments attempted in silk cultivation in the United States. Between 1826 and 1852 the Harmonists successfully cultivated silk and manufactured silk textiles. The following review examines these two importcucit developments. Communal Societies A communal society is a group of people "who have attempted to live communally, sharing material goods and a common life style" (Hostetler, 1974, p. 2). In the nineteenth century numerous communal living groups were established. Between the years 1780-1860, 91 different communal groups were in existence in the United States (Kanter, 1972). 16 17 Kanter (1972) identified three reasons for the founding of communal groups. These include religious, politico- economic, and psychosocial reasons. There also is a time factor associated with these reasons of foundation; because Kanter (1972) identified corresponding periods for the different types of societies: communal societies were founded in 1680-1845 because of religious reasons, and societies founded in 1820-1930 appeared to have politico- economic reasons as the motivating factors for their existence. The psychosocial communal groups are the most recent societies and were started after World War II. They were especially strong in the 1960’s. The earliest community groups were established with religious ideals as their basis, and they sought places to reside in order to practice their faith. In general they came from European separatist and pietist sects fleeing from religious persecution by dominant churches of the period (Kanter, 1972). These religious groups modeled their communities upon the religious scriptures in the Book of Acts (Hostetler, 1974). Since they based their lives on fundamental Biblical truths and lived in shared harmony, cooperation, and possessed all things in common with their fellow believers, these groups believed that they had found the path to salvation (Kanter, 1972; Tyler, 1944). The first religious community in the United States was established in 1680 in northern Maryland and was called the 18 Lobadist Community. One of the most famous early groups, the Community of the Women in the Wilderness in Pennsylvania was established in 1694. Another Pennsylvanian group was the Ephrata Cloister, a German pietist sect located in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania in 1724. The most successful religious community, organized in 1787 at Mt. Lebanon, New York, was the Shaker Community The community expanded to New England, Ohio, and Kentucky (Duss, 1943; Hinds, 1908). Other examples of the nineteenth century religious separatists’ communal groups include the Bethel and Aurora communities of Missouri and Oregon, the Zoar community of Ohio, the Amana community of Iowa, and The Harmony Society of Pennsylvania (Tyler, 1944). The politico-economic communal groups or utopias resulted from the poor social and economic conditions created by the Industrial Revolution (Kanter, 1972). The type of philosophy governing these utopias is sometimes referred to as American Socialism. Robert Owen and Charles Fourier are credited with the development of these groups (Noyes, 1966). These movements were instituted to improve life for all through cooperative efforts. Examples of the politico-economic communal groups include Fourier's Brook Farm in Massachusetts, The North American Phalanx in New Jersey and the Wisconsin Phalanx. Robert Owen's society in New Harmony, Indiana (renamed by Owen) is important to this study because he purchased the 19 30,000 acres of land from George Rapp, founder of The Harmony Society and developer of Harmony, Indiana (Hinds, 1908). More will be discussed about this in the description of The Harmony Society. Compared with the religious communal group the socialist group had a considerably shorter existence. Many of the socialist groups lasted less than two years with a few lasting up to fifteen years (Noyes, 1966; Kanter, 1972). The religious groups had a much longer life span with some, including The Harmony Society, lasting for one-hundred years (Kanter, 1972). The third type of communal society is the psychosocial type. These groups reject the established society. Their philosophy was to "do your own thing". These groups were popular in the 1960's in the form of hippie communes (Kanter, 1972). All three types of the communal societies have been popular in the United States. The large quantity of land available was not the only attracting feature for these societies to settle in the United States. Oved (1988) has identified five reasons for the development of communes in the United States. First, the open frontier was ideal for settlers who were looking for an isolated existence. Second, the early settlements were set up as independent communities which permitted the group to keep their uniqueness in the United States. Third, in these early days 20 the American communities were looking for an ideal society. The founding fathers of the United States were striving for a perfect society. Fourth, freedom of religion was especially important for the religious sects who were looking to practice their faith as they believed. Finally, the United States' openness to immigration permitted groups to come in and set up communal societies. The communal society of this study fits into the above classifications. The Harmony Society, was one of the early religious groups which came to the United States in the early nineteenth century in hopes of finding a place where they would live together as a group and practice their faith. The Harmony Society, 1804-1824 The Harmony Society, a religious communal experiment in the United States, started in the late eighteenth century in Württemberg, Germany. It developed out of the religious strife and disagreement in the established Lutheran church (Kring, 1973). The Pietist movement began during the late seventeenth century when a Lutheran minister named Spener "insisted upon a more sincere and consistent religious practice" (Knoedler, 1954, p. 1). He and his followers wanted to study the Bible and follow its teachings. They set up private religious meetings which were called "collegia pietatis", and as a 21 result were given the nickname "Pietists" (Knoedler, 1954, p. 1). The established church tried to suppress these gatherings with punishments of imprisonment. This encouraged a radical movement leading to development of the "Separatists", and withdrawal from the established church (Bole, 1904). A Separatist believed that a true Christian must live a life of self-denial, and be willing to suffer ridicule and persecution because of the purity of his life. They asserted the right of laymen to study and interpret the Bible, and to teach others the truths they found in it (Knoedler, 1954, p. 5). One separatist group was founded by George Rapp in Germany. B o m in 1757 in Iptingen, Württemberg, he was a vine-grower, and during the winter months a weaver working on a hand-loom (see Plate I). He married Christina Benzinger in 1783, had two children, John (father of Gertrude) and Rosina (Duss, 1943; Knoedler, 1954; Tate, 1925; and Williams, 1866). George Rapp was not trained as a minister, but he was a lay preacher (Federal Writers' Project, 1937). He studied the Bible, especially the New Testament. "He became convinced that generally the so- called Christians did not live up to the duties and practices required by the doctrine of Christ and his apostles" (Knoedler, 1954; Williams, 1866). He began preaching to local Lutherans because of his strong religious convictions and accumulated a large following. His 22 Plate I. George Rapp Taken from: Hinds, W. A. (1908). American communities and cooperative colonies. Chicago: Charles H . Kerr. 23 Christian church was started in 1785 with a following of 2,000 (Arndt, 1972; Reibel, 1984). His followers believed in a literal interpretation of Luther's translation of the Bible, especially the Book of Revelation. They saw Christ as the key to salvation with the second coming as the center of their religious doctrine (Kraybill, 1983). In the early 1800's, after mild persecution which consisted of small fines and an occasional jail sentence, Rapp decide to emigrate. In 1803, with his son John and Dr. Frederick Conrad Haller, George Rapp came to America. He planned to create in America a religious community that was "as near to heaven on earth as humanly possible" (Reibel, 1984, p. 19). Seven hundred and fifty followers of George Rapp emigrated to the United States in 1803-04 (Reibel, 1984). They settled in Southwestern Pennsylvania, Butler County, along the Connoquenessing River, 25 miles northwest of Pittsburgh and founded the town Harmony, Pennsylvania (Arndt, 1987). They purchased 3,000 to 5,000 acres for between $10,000.00 to $15,000.00 (Arndt, 1972; Bole, 1904; Federal Writers' Project, 1937; Knoedler, 1954). Their working capital at that time was $23,000.00 (Arndt, 1972). In 1805 the religious community was organized under the name of The Harmony Society, and the articles of association were drawn up and signed by the members on February 15, 24 1805. The original agreement was in German (see Appendix B for the approved translation.) The agreement contains five articles. The subscribers pledge themselves : (1) To give absolutely all their property to George Rapp and his associates. (2) To obey the rules and regulations of the community and to work for its welfare. (3) If they should desire to withdraw from the Society, not to demand any reward for labor or services. In return, George Rapp and his associates pledge themselves : (1) To supply the subscribers with all the necessaries of life, both in health and sickness, and after their death, to provide for their families. (2) In case of withdrawal, to return them the value of property contributed, without interest, and to give a donation in money, to such as contributed nothing (Bole, 1904, pp. 278-279). In the articles of association George Rapp and his associates adopted the subscribers as members of the community. This entitled each the privilege of being present at every religious meeting. Each member and their children would receive religious and academic instruction (Williams, 1866). The first two years at Harmony were full of hardships. In 1807 the practice of celibacy was adopted unofficially. Husbands and wives then lived like brothers and sisters, but separate housing for men and women was not established. The practice of celibacy freed the community from the expense of rearing children and provided women with more time to work. 25 This aided the rise of productivity and wealth within the community (Knoedler, 1954, Federal Writers’ Project, 1937). The Harmonists started out as farmers, on five thousand acres, following the lifestyle of the German farming community from which they came. They brought with them many skilled craftsmen of weavers, carpenters, coopers, blacksmiths, tailors, and wheelwrights (Federal Writers’ Project, 1937). With these skilled workers, the community gradually became a manufacturing community. Some of the items they first produced include shoes, hats, harnesses, barrels, and farm implements (Reibel, 1972). The first textile production by the Harmonists started in Harmony. Their textile enterprise was started with the purchase of Merino sheep around 1808, and they are considered the first in Pennsylvania to raise sheep (Reibel, 1972). With the move to manufacturing came the need to get their goods to market, a difficult task because they were more than twelve miles from the Ohio River and from access to trade routes. As a result, the Harmonists decided to move to a location along the Wabash River in Indiana (Federal Writers’ Project, 1937). They sold their entire holdings, including all their buildings to Abraham Ziegler, a Mennonite, for $100,000.00 in 1814 (Knoedler, 1954). With their success at Harmony, Pennsylvania assured, the Harmonists were able to purchase a larger piece of land 26 in Indiana. In 1815, the Harmonists purchased approximately 30,000 acres of land along the Wabash River for $71,000.00 (Bole, 1904). They also named this newly established community Harmony and set aside part of the adjacent land for farming and part for manufacturing. To support their industrial interests, they built a three-story waterpower merchant mill, a large factory for cotton and woolen cloth, two saw mills, an oil and hemp mill, two granaries, and a brick and stone warehouse (Federal Writers' Report, 1937). The processing of cotton fiber was done in a steam engine driven mill. While in Indiana, a profitable business venture of marketing wine was begun (Reibel, 1984). During this period two events took place which strengthened Harmonist communal lifestyle. The first was the addition of 130 new members from Württemberg in 1817 (Federal Writers' Report, 1937). The total population in 1820 is reported as 741 with 378 males and 363 females (Bole, 1904). The second event was the voluntary burning of the record book containing the amount of property each member contributed (Federal Writers' Report, 1937). This action made the members equal in the community. In 1824, the Harmonists made a decision to move again. Many reasons have been speculated as to the move, including the spread of malaria and the hostility of neighbors. Another reason might have been the lack of land in Harmony, Pennsylvania for farming and the surplus of land in Harmony, 27 Indiana for manufacturing. Both sites were too far removed from the markets and sources of raw materials for the Harmonist’s manufacturing enterprises (Federal Writers' Report, 1937; Reibel, 1984). The property, livestock and equipment along the Wabash was sold for $190,000.00, in 1824, to Robert Owen, a British industrialist, who started his own social community and renamed it New Harmony (Federal Writers' Report, 1937; Knoedler, 1954). In their final move, the Harmonists returned to Pennsylvania to a location along the Ohio River and northwest of Pittsburgh (Reibel, 1984). The Harmony Society, 1824-1905 In 1824, the Harmonists purchased 3,164 acres of land for $43,607.50 (Knoedler, 1954). This property was located sixteen miles from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. It was situated on the northern bank of the Ohio River upon a level plain extending east and west and one mile in width from the river to the first gradual ascent (Arndt, 1984). Twelve hundred acres of the land form a level plateau eighty feet above the river flanked by the hills and native forests (Arndt, 1971). The name given to their third residence was "Ekonomie." The reason for the name stems from thinking of "a divine economy, a city in which God would dwell among men, a city in which perfection in all things was to be attained" (Arndt, 1972, p. 308). 28 A description of the town was reported in the National Gazette on October 9, 1827. The town is laid out into twelve squares, each being about fifteen rods in length and breadth, with broad streets intersecting each other at right angles. There are one hundred buildings in the town, eighty of which are dwelling houses; the other buildings are, a large meeting house, with a steeple and town clock; a large and commodious hotel; a four-story cotton and woollen factory, built of brick, in which the finest cloths are manufactured; a four-story wooden building, for a grist mill; and oil mill; a distillery; a tannery; and several other establishments for prosecuting mechanical business. They have likewise a large building for storing and selling their manufactured goods, and a three story brick building not yet finished, designed for a museum and music and dining hall. At the east end of the town there is a park in which are some deer, and a large vineyard and orchard laid out in beautiful order (Arndt, 1984, pp.180-81) (see Figure 1). By 1832, Bishop Davenport of Baltimore wrote that the community had a museum, a mathematical school, a library, and a school for drawing (Arndt, 1984). The homes were usually of brick or frame, painted white or yellow, and with doors which opened toward a garden or yard, instead of the street. The garden itself was large, and grapevines could be found on the sunny side of most houses. Both sides of the streets were lined with mulberry trees (Arndt, 1987). The Harmonists operated as a family. Each house was known by its appointed head. Surnames were unimportant because only first names were used. The household consisted of five or six members. In order that the homes operated 29 SECTION OF ECONOMY SHOWING PRINCIPAL BUILDINGS ] n il J I—1 Q T§ ] ^ à ] J f O' o'= ill«OQoao CO | 7 8 g g f n s r •O9O0Q 00 f l R'lif —o-0Saoo«QO ««caooo U, prq ] o om 14 4 1 «•OOOBpfl 3*4 AJ ] J # 1—Saw Mill 19— Hotel 2—Lumber Sheds 20—Fruit-Drying Shop 3—Hotel 21—W agon Shop 4— Planing Mill 22—Blacksmith Shop 3—Tannery 23—Livery Stables 6—Cotton and Flower Mill 24—Silk Mill 7—Cooper Shop 25—Butcher Shop 8—New School 26—Hog Sheds 9—Old School 27—Cow Stables 10— Granary 28— Horse Stables 11—Cabinet Maker's Shop 29—Stationary Threshing Machine 12—Hat Shop 30—Barns 13—Music Hall 31—Boarding House 14—Great House 32—Gardener’s House 15—Church 33—Woolen Mill 16—Tailor and Shoe Shop 34—Temple 17— Post Office and Store 35—Brick Yard 18—Green House 36— Laundry and Cider Press 37—Orchard Figure 1. Map of Economy Taken from: Federal Writers' Project, Beaver, PA. (1937) The Harmony Society in Pennsylvania. Philadelphia, PA: William Penn Association. 30 efficiently, members, especially the sick and elderly who need care, were moved from house to house (Kring, 1973). The household relationship was a brother-sister one. The men slept upstairs and the women downstairs. Although this was an unconventional situation, it is reported that the brotherly love relationship flourished (Kring, 1973). The Harmonists dressed in 1804 Swabian country style clothing (Kring, 1973). Buckingham (1942), a visiter to Economy in 1839, describes the dress of the Harmonists. The costume of the members is German, but without any very marked peculiarity. The men wear short jackets, or half-coats, and trousers, of gray cloth, with waistcoats of lilac or brown, and black hats and shoes of the ordinary kind. The women wear gowns with long sleeves, of a sort of light woolen cloth, like coarse merino, of dark colour, with a near handkerchief of silk or cotton over the shoulders, pinned down tight before, a plain white or checked apron, and a perpendicular German cap of black when in their labouring dress, and white in the evenings and on Sundays. The men wear their beards under their chins, and round the lower edge of their face, of different lengths, but shave the cheeks and upper lip down thus far; and the older men have also their white locks hanging down over their shoulders. The women wear their hair parted in the middle, and combed back smoothly under their plain caps; in both sexes the characteristics are simplicity, neatness, comfort, and economy; but there is not the slightest particle of taste or elegance in their apparel; and it would be difficult to light upon 500 persons anywhere else, I think, with so little of either masculine or feminine beauty. They appear, however, to be very happy; to venerate their leader; to be deeply impressed with their religious views, and with a sense of duty; and to labour cheerfully, and be content with the comforts, the tranc[uillity, and the protection they enjoy, without the least anxiety either for the present or the future (Buckingham, 1842, pp. 218-219). 31 The town centered around the Great House Garden. It covered about an acre and half of ground and consisted of well planned and tended lawns and flower-beds. The Duke of Saxe-Weimar Eisenach visited Economy in 1826 and described this garden, modelled after the formal gardens in Germany. There is also a garden containing several acres with flowers and vegetables, as well as a vineyard, situated on a terrace-shaped half circle on the hill, ending in a bower. I especially admired the beautiful tulips of this garden, in the midst of which is a round basin with a noble spring. Mr Rapp intends to build a temple here, in which he will place a statue of Harmony; the statue is now ready. It is the work of a carver in Philadelphia and is a colossal wooden figure, like the figure-head of a ship. In the garden are several cottages. One of them is roofed with sods and used for a pastry house. On the top is a sort of seat, where hereafter musicians are to sit; within there is a temporary frame hall. Near the garden is the green-house; this house, as well as the garden, is under the inspection of a very pretty girl. Miss Hildegard [Mutschler], a relative of Mr. Rapp and possessed of much botanical knowledge (Bernhard, 1828, p. 62). The garden is laid out in a formal pattern with paths dividing it into quarters. In the northwest corner, is the fan-shaped southern facing grape arbor. It was specifically laid out in this manner so that every row of grapes gets the needed sunlight. In the opposite corner is the Grotto which was commonly found in European gardens. The Harmonists used it for meditation. In the center is a large Pavilion which replaced the spring in 1831. In the Pavilion stands the wooden figure symbolizing Harmony (Reibel, 1972). At the southern end of the village was an orchard covering about 25 to 30 acres in which numerous kinds of 32 fruits were grown including apples, pear, peaches, cherries, plums, quinces, and gooseberries. The apple orchard was very extensive. Also in the orchard was a small cemetery enclosed by a white fence (Arndt, 1971). In 1836, a status report on farming at Economy was reported in the Indiana Farmer. They have about three thousand acres of land mostly in a high state of cultivation. Their ordinary crops are about 4000 bushels of wheat. - the same of Indian corn. - 3000 bushels of rye - 5 or 6000 of oats eind 1000 of barley. They cut upwards of 500 tons of clover and timothy hay and feed about 200 neat cattle of superior size, mostly of the Devonshire and Durhamn breed. They also keep about 40 horses and 1300 sheep. The sheep are of the Merino and Saxony breeds; and they are introducing the Bakewell and Southdown breeds, considering them preferable on account of their size and weight of fleece. They have about 200 swine. They have ten acres devoted to the cultivation of the vine, and annually make about 40 barrels of wine which sells at $1.50 a gallon they also make about 175 barrels of currant wine for domestic use, and as a substitute for ardent spirit, of which they use none, except for medical and manufacturing purposes. They cultivate several varieties of the grape, among which are the Maderia, Burgandy, Cape Isabella, Catawba Sweetwater, Tokey, &c. (Arndt, 1987, p. 240). With the move to Economy, the Harmonists placed more emphasis on manufacturing and less on agriculture. This is evident in the amount of land purchased, location of land to markets and also the facilities in the community. By 1826, they had a woolen, a cotton, and a silk mill along with other related enterprises which supported their endeavors (Arndt, 1987). The three factories were located in different parts of the town with the cotton and woolen 33 factories along the river and the silk factory located on the north side of Fourteenth Street, between present-day Merchant Street and the Belt Line Railroad (Arndt, 1987; Knoedler, 1954) (see Figure 1 & Plate II). Bernhard (1828) gives an interesting comment about the factories at Economy. . . .The factories and workshops are warmed during the winter months by means of pipes connected with the steam-engine. All the workmen, and especially the females, have very healthy complexions, and moved me deeply by the warm-hearted friendliness with which they saluted the elder Rapp. I was also much gratified to see vessels containing fresh, sweet-smelling flowers standing on all the machines. The neatness which universally reigns here is in every respect worthy of praise (pp. 158-170). Both men and women were involved in the agricultural and manufacturing enterprises. However, the women worked in the fields only during the harvest. The women worked in the silk, cotton, and woolen mills, took care of the housework, and tended the gardens. The men were responsible for the farming operations. They also worked in the grist and saw mills and kept the village in order along with other manufacturing tasks (Federal Writers' Report, 1937). The Harmonists were gardeners, tanners, shoemakers, butchers, bakers, distillers, brewers, blacksmiths, coopers, tailors, seamstresses, carpenters, bricklayers, stonecutters, wheelwrights, stocking and cloth weavers, cabinet makers, teachers, clerks, and herdsmen (Kring, 1973). 34 Plate II. Silk Factory at Economy Taken from: Bole, J. A. (1904). The Harmony Society: A chapter in German American culture history. German American Annals. 11.(5). 35 The Society contained some very talented and inventive people. One member experimented with coal oil for illumination, another set up steam power and heating pipes for the factories and a steam laundry, a third built a printing press, and lastly a person was said to have developed a cure for rheumatism by creating static electricity with a large glass wheel (Federal Writers’ Report, 1937). Frederick Rapp, adopted son of George Rapp, was in charge of the business operation at Economy. When they moved to Economy, the Harmonists brought $35,000.00 of manufactured goods to supply their trade until their operations were under way (Bole, 1904). They rapidly developed the cotton and woolen industries and the manufacturing of wine, whiskey and other products. "The most important articles of trade were cotton and woolen yarn and cloth, hats, wool, whiskey, blankets and flannels" (Bole, 1904, p. 477). By 1830, sales were being reported to be $160,000.00 (Tate, 1931). The Sales Books show that between 1830 and 1843 their sales were $384,624,39 (Bole, 1904). By 1866, they were reported to be worth $2,000,000.00 (Tate, 1925). In a short period of time the Harmonists controlled the Pittsburgh market. "In 1829 a series of articles appeared in the Allegheny Democrat, attacking them as a monopoly with which individual merchants and manufacturers could not 36 successfully compete. They had to buy wool at 'Economy prices' and the purchaser refused to pay more than 'Economy prices' for the manufactured wares" (Bole, 1904, p. 476). The silk industry which started on a small scale between 1826 and 1838 was a new endeavor for the Harmonists at Economy. It was begun when George Rapp received a few silkworms from a friend. At first the Harmonists produced silk for their own purposes. Later the industry was expanded and drew wide attention in the United States after 1838. From 1842 to 1852 Gertrude Rapp (directress of the silk business) kept a letter book containing her correspondence about the industry (Knoedler, 1954) (see Plate III). Even with the success of their industries and the financial prosperity the Society from their different endeavors the Harmonists faced major problems in 1830's. The decline of the Society started in 1832 with what is referred to as the Count Leon secession. Count Maximillian de Leon and his followers joined the Society in 1831. He began preaching about intimate relationships within marriage and an overall livelier lifestyle. This caused a great division within the Society. Count Leon with his converts tried to take over the leadership of the Society. A vote was taken, and Father Rapp maintained leadership. The dispute ended with an agreement being reached in March of 1832. The terms were that Leon and his original followers 37 Plate III. Gertrude Rapp Taken from: Reibel, D. B. & Maines, R. P. (1984). Unlikely capitalists: Harmonists as textile manufacturers. Pennsylvania Heritage. 38 would leave within six weeks, and his new converts were to leave in three months. They were to relinquish all future claims of money or property and were to be paid $105,000 in three installments within the year. Count Leon with some 170 followers, many of these being the young, moved ten miles north of Economy to what is today Monaca, Pennsylvania (Duss, 1943; Federal Writers' Project, 1937; Knoedler, 1954; Tate, 1925; Tate, 1931). The loss of members resulting from the exodus of members with Count Leon as well as the years of celibacy reduced the labor pool. The Society started to hire labor for their enterprises. Changes in the Society continued to occur with the death of it leaders. Frederick Rapp died in 1834 and Father George Rapp in 1847. In the 1850's textile production at Economy and other manufacturing enterprises were on the decline. The silk business closed in 1853 followed by the cotton and wool industries in 1864. The Society moved away from manufacturing enterprises to other economic interests (Reibel, 1984). Capital investments were made under the direction of two trustees Romelius L. Baker and Jacob Henrici. The investments were in real estate, lumber, coal, steel, oil, and banking (Baumann, 1983a). These ventures were less profitable and soon were on the decline. Gertrude Rapp, directress of the silk mill, died on December 29, 1889 (Knoedler, 1954). She was eighty-one 39 years old. She had been considered the first lady of the Society. In 1892, John S. Duss became head of the Society with less than twenty members. During his reign the Society was involved in many litigations from heirs or would be heirs. The Society's funds were depleted by these lawsuits and so on April 29, 1903 the estate was sold to the Liberty Land Company for $2,500,000.00. On December 13, 1905 The Harmony Society was officially dissolved (Baumann, 1983a). Before examining the silk industry at Economy, a history of silk cultivation and manufacturing in the United States will be reviewed. Silk Cultivation Industry in America In colonial America, several attempts were made to develop silk cultivation in the colonies. Silk cultivation was first attempted when King James I of England tried to compel the planters of Virginia to stop cultivating tobacco and start raising mulberry trees and silkworms. The raw silk was sent to English factories for processing (Manchester, 1916). This decree by King James I in the early 1600's was intended to keep the colonies dependent on England for their products. The cultivation of tobacco was a valuable and tangible commodity in the colonies and was even in the early days, used as a medium of exchange at 40 Jamestown. This was the reason for the push for mulberry cultivation, and the rearing of silkworms (Heusser, 1927). In 1623, an act was passed by the Colonial legislature requiring ten mulberry trees to be planted on every hundred acres. The fine for noncompliance was twenty pounds of tobacco. A premium was given of fifty pounds of tobacco for every pound of reeled silk produced (Heusser, 1927). Added incentives were given in the following years. . . . In 1657,. . . the Virginia Assembly offered 10,000 pounds of tobacco to any planter who should export 200 worth of raw silk or cocoons in a single year; 5,000 pounds of tobacco to anyone producing 1,000 pounds of raw silk; or 4,000 pounds of tobacco to anyone producing silk exclusively (Manchester, 1916, p. 33). After 1669 the period of silk cultivation declined. There were an abundance of mulberry trees and thriving silkworms, but it was not profitable compared to tobacco and so was abandoned (Heusser, 1927). In 1732, settlers were given land in Georgia for the purpose of cultivation of silkworms. One hundred white mulberry trees were given for every ten acres of land. In 1749, the British Parliament enacted a duty free tariff on raw silk that was cultivated in Georgia. A filature was established in Savannah for the purpose of reeling the silk in 1749 showing an emphasis on cultivation (Heusser, 1927). By 1759 the silk cultivation in Georgia was on the decline. Decreasing amounts were exported until 1772 (Heusser, 1927). Even with the benefits from England, the 41 silk producers in Georgia could not compete with the cotton producers especially with the invention of the cotton gin (Manchester, 1916). During the late eighteenth and the early nineteenth centuries silk cultivation was introduced in Connecticut and Pennsylvania. Dr. Nathaniel Aspinwall, who had a large nursery of white mulberry trees, planted a large quantity in New Haven and Mansfield Connecticut. By 1810, three counties were producing $28,500 worth of raw and sewing silk not counting the waste silk for spinning. Aspinwall also was responsible for getting the mulberry tree into Pennsylvania (Manchester, 1916). In 1770, a public filature in Philadelphia was established and in 1771, about 2300 lbs. of silk were brought there to be processed (Heusser, 1927). The beginning of the nineteenth century brought with it hope for the cultivation of silk, even if at the time it was not considered prosperous. Silk was cultivated in Connecticut, Delaware, Maryland, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. By 1826, silk culture had begun in Ohio, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Illinois (Heusser, 1927). The great crisis of the nineteenth century for the American silk industry, which led to the ultimate decline of silk cultivation, came with what is known as the "Morus Multicaulis Mania.” The Morus multicaulis tree is a type of mulberry raised in China for silk cultivation. Gideon B. Smith of Baltimore was the first to plant the Morus 42 multicaulis in the United States in 1826. It was discovered that, in comparison with the black, or Italian white mulberry, it grew faster and the leaves were larger. The nurserymen imported large quantities of the trees from France and sold them for enormous profits. The price of the trees were three to five dollars for a hundred in 1834 and steadily increased up to five hundred dollars. By 1839 it was discovered that the Morus multicaulis was not hardy enough for the Northern climate without special care. The growers and nurserymen gambled on the trees and both lost (Heusser, 1927). The final blow to the silk cultivators was the blight in 1844 which affected almost all the mulberry trees in the country. This caused the loss of trees and silkworms and drove most of the growers out of business (Manchester, 1916). During the middle and end of the nineteenth century silk-raising became a fad. Promoters showed how silk cultivation was an ideal home activity through pamphlets on "how to do it" (Wilson, 1979). An example of instructions on silkworm cultivation was found in the November, 1854 issue of Godev's Ladv's Book entitled "Rearing and Management of Silk-Worms" ("Rearing," 1854, pp. 393-394). Several unsuccessful attempts have been made to revive the production of raw silk. The major reason these efforts were unsuccessful is that silk cultivation is a household 43 process which requires patience and human hand labor. The United States, with its highly paid labor and machine operations, cannot compete with the lower paid household labor of the Far East (Manchester, 1916). Silk Manufacturing Industry in America The first silk fabrics produced in Colonial America were done in the home. With the hand reeling and throwing, and the weaving on crude foot-powered looms, silk manufacturing was not successful (Manchester, 1916). The fabric that was produced was stiff, fuzzy, and lacking of luster and colorfastness (Wilson, 1979). With the development of factory methods of production, the quality of silk improved and was considered some of the best in the world. Rodney and Horatio Hanks are credited with the starting the first silk mill in Mansfield, Connecticut in 1810 (Brockett, 1876). "They attempted to manufacture sewing- silk and twist by means of machinery made by themselves, and propelled by water-power" (Brockett, 1876, p. 50). They stayed in business until 1828. Their failure was due to the crude machinery used (Brockett, 1876). The second attempt at silk manufacturing was made by William H. Horstmann. This native of Cassel, Germany, established a factory in Philadelphia in 1815. He manufactured silk trimmings, ribbons, fringes, tassels. 44 military braid, epaulets, and carriage lace (Darby, 1924). Mr Horstmann was the first manufacturer in the United States to make use of the Jacquard loom in 1824. His son, William J. Horstmann manufactured power-looms. He designed and used them in making narrow textile fabrics in 1838 (Brockett, 1876). Wm. H. Horstmann & Sons continued on after the crisis of 1939 and was noted for upholstery fabrics and undertakers' trimmings. In 1827 the Mansfield Silk Company was formed. They developed improvements in methods and machinery for reeling and throwing and made a better quality sewing-silk. Like other manufacturers of the time, the Mansfield company attempted silk cultivation. The Mansfield Silk Company is considered the first mill in the United States to manufacture silk successfully. With limited capital and poor speculations of silk cultivation, the company was dissolved in 1839 (Brockett, 1876). In 1833-4 under the direction of Samuel Whitmarsh with the backing of prominent businessmen in Middletown Connecticut, the New York and Northampton Silk Company was started. Sample watch ribbons and satin vests were given to prominent people like Henry Clay, Daniel Webster, and Abbott A. Lawrence as a promotion for their products (Brockett, 1876). With their speculations on silk culture and the crash of 1839 forced the sale of the property to the Northampton Association, a communal society. In 1844 they 45 also failed and sold to S.L. Hill who started the Nonotuck Silk Company. The Corticelli Silk Company is a merger of the Nonotuck Silk Company and the Brainerd & Armstrong Company of New London Connecticut in 1866 (Heusser, 1927). William C. Wyckoff, who was the secretary of the Silk Association of America in 1887 compiled a list of silk manufacturers from 1829-1839. His record from the 'American Silk Manufacture' is listed in Appendix C. The problems which silk manufacturers faced during the first half of the nineteenth century included the trade regulations of luxury items, and labor and production costs. Three different accounts show the difficulties which the industry faced. A report in the Proceedings of the National Convention of the Silk Growers and Silk Manufacturers (1844) showed that the United States imported $132,607,723 of silk goods and exported only $105,992,190 for the years 1835 to 1840 The report also stated that in the year 1839 the United States purchased $32,000,000 of silk from other countries. The break down is as follows. Silks from India and China, piece goods...... $ 1,738,509 Silks from India and China, sewings...... 50,650 Silks sewings from other places 78,884 Silks raw silk...... 39,258 Silks from other places than India, veils, shawls, etc...... 345,490 Silks other manufactures from other places than India...... 18,685,295 Manufacturers of silk and worsted $2,319,884 (allowing one half 46 the value to be silk)...... 1,159,942 Total...... $22,838,028 ("The Silk Question," 1844, p. 79) It was reported also that silk was imported at a price that was one fourth more than other items including cotton, iron, wool and woolen goods, and other cloths ("The Silk Question," 1844). An article on foreign silk trade in the September, 1842 issue of the Burlington Silk Record reported on the silk imports and exports as stated by the Register of the Treasury in June of 1842. This report showed that the United States imported $238,000,000 worth of silk and silk and worsted goods from 1821 to 1841. From 1823 to 1840 the United States exported $24,686,841 of silk goods. This report showed a large trade deficit on silk goods (Morris, 1842). A third report, also published in the September, 1842 issue of the Burlington Silk Record, showed how silk culture was unprofitable in the United States. Silk was valued at $119,814 and the capital investment of thirty states was $274,374. There was no solution to this problem presented in the article (Morris, 1842). These reports were distributed for the purpose of soliciting support for government protection of United States manufactured silk goods. The protection did not come until the tariff of 1861. This delay in government support aided in the decline of the industry. 47 From the years of 1838 to 1869 numerous manufacturing firms were developed. By 1872, forty-four firms were recognized when the first meeting was held of the Silk Association of America on June 26th. (Brockett, 1876). These firms were producing a variety of silk products including, sewing-silk, machine twist, buttonhole twist, tram, spun silk, ribbons, fringe, braid, tassels, dress silk, twill silk, velvets, handkerchiefs, flags, and silk paper. The noted manufacturing firms of this period include: Cheney Brothers Silk Manufacturing Company, 1838 at South Manchester, Connecticut; Phoenix Silk Manufacturing Company, 1834 in Paterson, New Jersey; William Skinner & Sons, 1848, in Holyoke, Massachusetts ; M. Heminway & Sons, 1849, in Watertown, Connecticut; and Beling Brothers & Company, 1863, in Rockville, Connecticut (Brockett, 1876). Silk Production at Economy Silk manufacturing started in 1826 at Economy under the direction of nineteen-year-old Gertrude Rapp (granddaughter of George Rapp) (see Plate III). Simultaneous with the infancy stage of sericulture in the United States, in 1829, Gertrude was producing spun silk from tow. It wasn't until the 1830's that the Harmonists were able to reel raw silk (Reibel, 1984). 48 Frederick Rapp in 1830, wrote a letter stating how the Harmonists grew silk. . . .The manner of rearing the silk Worm in this place I will briefly describe to you; The Eggs we keep over Winter in a cool place where it does not freeze, towards Spring we place them by degrees to warmer places until vegetation is out enough to furnish mulberry leafs, then we let Worms come by laying them where it is warm, as soon as out they will require food & Keep on eating until they spin; They ought to be cleansed of their excrements every day which will attribute much to their health & progress. After they are done Spinning in order to prevent their coming out & injuring the cocoon, they must be steamed 6 to 8 minutes & afterwards well dried in the shade , & then laid by, until reeling begins. Seven cocoons are generally wound together to make one thread large enough to weave. . .(Arndt, 1984, p. 541). Gertrude, in a letter to the American Institute, New York, in 1844, which went along with her silk exhibit explains her method of sericulture. . . .1 have even the pleasure to be able to maintain, that we can do here, what probably never has been done in any of the old silk growing countries namely, to go, in regular succession, through the whole process of the silk business in one season, beginning with the raising and gathering of the mulberry seed, and ending with the manufacturing of the woven silk fabric. All of which I can proved by the following facts. On the 30 & 31st of May of this year (1844) we gathered a quantity of mulberry seed from a number of choice trees of the Canton mulberry, which is the earliest of all the kinds we are acquainted with. On the following day (June 1st) we planted part of that seed in regular rows in several well prepared beds. In about 10 days the seed came up finely, and as the weather was favorable and no weeds were suffered to grow with the young trees, they progressed beautifully and vigorously, so that on the 1st of August I was able to commence the feeding of a small lot of worms on the foliage of them; and as both trees and worms continued their growth in proportion, the quality of the 49 leaves was always very suitable to the age of the worms. On the 26th of the same month they commenced winding and producing a small lot of very fine and good Cocoons, the greatest part of which were reeled, spun, twisted, coloured and manufactured into a ribbon, the rest we kept for seed and other purposes (Arndt, 1987, p. 773; Bole, 1904, p. 486; Silk letter, n. d., p. 9). In the October, 1836 issue of the journal The Silk Culturist. F. G. Comstock reports on the silk developments at Economy. They have within a few years engaged in the culture and manufacture of silk; but that department of their manufactures is yet in its infancy. They have however, full confidence in its practicability and profit, and are extending their operations. They have already set about 10,000 white mulberry trees, from one to eight years old, and some of the Morus multicaulis and varieties of the Chinese mulberry. They fed the last season, about 500,000 worms, and made about 90 lbs. of silk. Their silk manufacture is as yet confined to vestings, lustrings, handkerchiefs and sewing silk, which is done on machinery of their own make. They have one Jackquard loom for figured vestings and several other hand looms. The specimens of satins and cravats they gave us, are decidedly the best we have seen of American manufacture, and are pronounced by competent judges to be equal to foreign. They heat the water in their cocoon basins and operate their reels by steam (Comstock, 1836, p. 147). The report in the March, 1839 issue of the Journal of the American Silk Society gives an account of the silk industry at Economy. In 1938, Economy had approximately 15,000 mulberry trees and fed 432,000 worms. This produced 1,440 pounds of cocoons which resulted in 151 pounds of raw silk. The 151 pounds of raw silk would produce 3,031 yards of dress silk (Arndt, 1972, Smith, 1839b). 50 Women and children made up the workforce for the silk industry. In the above report, the feeding of the worms was done by sixteen children, ages seven to fifteen for eight weeks at $2.00 a week. The reeling was done by twelve girls, for two weeks at $2.00. The twisting and reeling required six girls, for two weeks at $2.00. Preparing the loom was done by two children, for two hundred and fifty days, at $2.00 per week. Two weavers were employed for two hundred and fifty days, at $1.50 per day (Arndt, 1972, p. 581; Smith, 1839, p 101). The silk industry was very labor intensive just as it was in other parts of the world. Friedrich Wilhelm von Wrede in 1842 visited Economy and gave the following account of the silk factory. In the silk factory six looms were active, producing satin of the highest quality besides other fine fabrics. With the aid of a steam engine the cocoons are spun onto six reels. Everything is produced locally. Here most of the girls were employed. Their pale, sometimes rather pretty faces and their uniform attire - a simple pleated skirt and a Swabian bonnet - left me with the impression of a convent, if not a workhouse. I cannot deny that this made me shiver. The cloth factory was less busy; only a few looms were being worked, because times are hard, money is scarce, and credit is uncertain. For the same reasons, cotton fabrics were in a similar situation, being normally most lucrative with average annual sales of $80,000 for the finished products. The above- mentioned steam engine has 70 h.p. and drives, in addition to the three factories, a flour mill, and a pump that brings water 80 feet up from the Ohio to the city (Friesen, 1978, p. 308). There was some experimentation in weaving. "They employed the services successively of an Englishman, a Frenchman, and a Switzer, to instruct and assist their own 51 mechanics in the erecting of looms, and the weaving of ribbons, vestings, satins, velvets, etc., in which they soon attained a high degree of skill" (Williams, 1866, p. 66). A Jaccjuard loom was purchased in order to produce patterned and decorative silks. A single loom was used to weave seven ribbons at one time. This was a new idea developed by Gertrude (Reibel, 1984). J. S. Buckingham, a visiter to Economy in 1839 gives an account of the loom used for producing ribbons. On the following morning, Monday, we devoted the whole of the forenoon to visiting the manufactories and workshops, under the direction of Mr. Fox, the English silk weaver, and the physician. In the workshop or factory of the former, both men and women were employed in weaving silk and satin, plain and figured, all of as good quality as is produced at Lyons, or in London; and in a separate apartment of the works built exclusively for it, was an exceedingly beautiful machine, in the shape of a seven fold loom, at which, by the mere turning of a horizontal bar, like that with which water is pumped from the hose of a fire engine, seven separate ribbons, of seven different patterns, were woven at the same time. The machine was a piece of admirable workmanship, built chiefly of mahogany and ornamented with brass, the whole being made and set up by the mechanics of the community, under Mr. Fox's direction; and the working, when the patterns were fixed, with unerring precision-the labour being so simple and so easy that a child might use it for safe and healthful exercise. These were figured satin ribands of the greatest width in use among fashionable ladies for bonnets, and these were pronounced by the ladies of our party to be quite equal in texture, colour, and quality, to the best French ribbons sold in London, and at about the same price. We brought away some of each of these manufactures as specimens (Buckingham, 1842 pp. 231-232). 52 Silk was used for sewing silk (thread), plain or figured vesting fabrics, handkerchiefs, plain or figured dress silks, cravats, and ribbons. Fabrics which were produced included satins, velvets, lustrings (taffetas), and florentine (gauze weave) (Reibel, 1984; Arndt, 1987). Rich colors of royal blue; and shades of green, red, and purple were used. The silk was dyed before it was woven into fabric. Natural dyes, such as indigo (blue), logwood (black), and cochineal (red) were used to produce the vivid colors (Reibel, 1984). The Harmonist silks, produced under the direction of Gertrude Rapp, were considered as good or better than imported silks and competitive with American silks. In 1839, at the silk exhibit in New York, Gertrude won the gold medal for the best specimen of silk velvet and fancy ribbon (Arndt, 1987, p. 411-412). In 1844, Gertrude won the gold medal for her silks at the Exhibition of the Charitable Mechanic Association in Boston ("The Fourth," 1844,). The following is a description of that exhibit. 17. Miss Gertrude Rapp, Economy, Penn. Invoice of Silk. The Ladies' Figured Dress Silk was of good quality and well manufactured. The Figured Velvet Vesting was an elegant specimen of the success in manufacturing Silks in the United States. The Birds'-eye and Satin Vestings, were also worthy of commendation. The White Silk Handkerchiefs, for gentlemen, were of superior manufacture. Every article e^ibited in this lot did much credit to the manufacturer. Gold Medal("The Fourth," 1844, p. 58). 53 In 1844, at the American Institute of New York, Gertrude won the gold medal for silk goods (Silk letter, n. d., p. 15). Another example of the excellence of Harmonist silk textiles is from the report in the March, 1839 issue of the Journal of the American Silk Society written by Gideon B. Smith. Samples were sent to the American Silk Society and following is a review of the textiles. They consist of eight kinds, viz: purple silk velvet; two coloured sprigged gro de nap vesting, green and red; lilac sprigged ladies dress silk; deep or royal purple plain dress silk; light purple and yellow diamond figured vesting; black satin sprig and flower five coloured vesting; plain black satin; purple satin three coloured sprig vesting. Each of these samples is pronounced by good judges first rate goods of their kinds, and far superior in web and texture to goods usually imported. . .They prove conclusively, that silk can be made in this country. . .(Smith, 1839b, p. 101). In the December, 1840 issue of the Journal of the American Silk Society the achievements in the silk business at Economy were addressed. . . .the case of the society at Economy, in Pennsylvania, who have been making silk for ten to twelve years, and who have brought the art to a state of perfection equal to any establishment in Europe, and in some respects they have gone beyond anything of the kind in any other country. They perform the whole work of silk making, from the planting of the mulberry trees to the finishing of the finest qualities of silk goods. But what makes this case more remarkably striking and authoritative, is the well known fact that these people never pursue any branch of business that they do not find profitable. Another fact in their case speaks loudly for the domestic production of silk, and that is, that although they have looms, and all the machinery for manufacturing silk goods, they find it more profitable to raise their own raw silk than to 54 import it. Now if we had no other case of success to refer to than this, and if no other trial had ever been made of raising silk in the United States, this alone would be amply sufficient to authorize us to conclude that it is both practicable and profitable business for the people of the United States. . . (Arndt, 1972, p. 583). The Pennsylvania legislature showed interest in the development of a domestic textile industry at Economy. Sandor Farkas de Bolon addressed this interest in his travel account of 1831. . . .Here the Pennsylvania Houses and other government officials proved their sympathy with their industry; its members agreed to have a cravat and a piece of underwear made from Rapp’s silks, and a frock coat and pantaloons made of his wool, so that in the next legislature every member should be able to attend wearing homemade garments, thus exhorting their fellow citizens to the support of domestic industry. During our visit the cravats were being woven (Arndt, 1955, 202). Gertrude Rapp shows her strong interest in the development and protection of a silk industry in a letter dated February 7, 1840. . . . to convince every Patriot. that our own and our own peonies hands themselves can produce and manufacture this so highly beloved article of luxury, with which we are so fond to adorn ourselves, and in a garment of which if thus obtained, one may justly feel a noble pride, but if the product of foreign hands, we have the best reason in the world, to feel a noble shame, when we reflect, that by the way of obtaining it, we have so much and so unpatriotically contributed to squander our national treasure, burden, our country with an enormous debt, and thee by lay the sure foundation of ruin and misery. . . (Baumann, 1983b). Unfortunately the Harmonist's silk industry did not last long. Imports and the aging workers were the downfall 55 of the Harmonist's silk industry (Reibel, 1984). It closed in 1852. An examination of information about the physical and chemical structure of silk and the technology of silk cultivation and manufacturing is important. Silk is a strong protein fiber. Its good properties of moisture regain, elastic recovery, drapablilty, dyability, and comfort make it an excellent fabric for apparel. These data added to the above historical material create the basis for this study. Chemical Structure of Silk and Properties The Bombvx mori silkworm produces two filament fibers called brins, which are composed of the protein, fibroin. These brins are covered with a hot water soluble protein substance called sericin to form a single unit called a bave (Carboni, 1952; Jakes, 1988). The fibroin accounts for 70-80 percent of the weight of the have and the sericin accounts for 20-30 percent of the weight. Approximately 2-3 percent of the weight is of other mineral and coloring matter (Carboni, 1952). The fibroin is composed of about 15 amino acids, however the arrangement of these acids is unknown. It is believed that the simple amino acids of glycine, alanine, serine, and tyrosine make up the largest percentage of the fibroin (Joseph. 1977). 56 The molecular chain arrangement of silk protein is like an extended accordion. This permits close packing of the molecules and intermo1ecular bonding. The silk protein also has a high degree of molecular orientation to the fiber axis. Due to this structural arrangement, silk fibers are approximately 60 percent crystalline (Jakes, 1988; Sibley & Jakes, 1984; Joseph, 1977). The longitudinal view of cultivated silk under the microscope looks smooth and transparent. The cross- sectional view shows a triangular shape with rounded corners and no markings (Joseph, 1977). The physical and chemical characteristics of silk make it a good fiber for textiles. The cultivated silk fiber measures about 500 meters in length and .001016 millimeters in width. The fiber is quite smooth and has a natural luster (Smith & Block, 1982). Silk is a strong fiber with a high wet and dry tenacity. It has good elastic recovery, moderate elongation and moderate resiliency. Silk's moisture regain is high, it has a good resistance to stretch and to shrinkage during laundering (Joseph, 1977). Silk is damaged by strong alkalies and strong acids. Sunlight accelerates the decomposition of silk. Silk is resistant to mildew and other bacteria and fungi (Joseph, 1977). 57 Silk Cultivation and Manufacturing Sericulture or silk culture is "the care of the worm that produces silk fibers, from the egg to the moth" (Wingate, 1984, p. 296). Silk production requires careful breeding and nurturing of the Bombyx mori species of moth. There are four separate processes to sericulture : 1. Harvesting mulberry leaves to feed the silkworm 2. Production of eggs from which silkworms are grown 3. Raising the silkworms and harvesting the cocoons 4. Reeling the filaments to form silk strands. (Smith & Block, 1982, p. 97). To complete the manufacturing of silk fabrics four more processes need to be included. 5. Throwing 6. Spinning 7. Fabrication 8. Finishing including Degumming and Weighting The silkworm lives only two months during which time it passes through four stages. 1. The egg. The eggs are laid once or twice a year, 300 to 500 at a time. They take about ten days to hatch. 2. The worm. The worms hatched from these eggs live one month during which they grow from 3/4 of an inch to 3 inches in length. 3. The chrysalis. The worm spends three days in spinning the cocoon and then changes to the chrysalis form, in which it remains for 20 days. 4. The moth. The moth emerges from the cocoon, lives three days, lays its eggs and dies (Thompson, 1922, p. 6). The excellence of the silk depends upon the type of mulberry leaves upon which the worm feeds; the white mulberry is considered the best. Wheh the worm is ready to spin its cocoon it stops eating. The worm extrudes the 58 liquid fiber from two orifices in its head. In spinning the cocoon the silk filaments are formed like a figure eight in regular rows (Thompson, 1922). The common shapes of the Bombyx mori cocoon are spherical, oval, waisted oval (egg shaped), and pointed. The pointed cocoon is the rarest type (Carboni, 1952). The length of the usable cocoon fiber varies from 400 to 700 yards (Thompson, 1922). After the cocoon is spun the worm is in the chrysalis stage and in order to have a continuous fiber the chrysalis is killed by placing in a hot oven or water. The silk obtained from whole cocoons is called raw silk. Some chrysalis are permitted to go into the moth stage and pierced the cocoons. The moths are used for reproduction. This silk obtained from pierced cocoons is used in spun silk (Thompson, 1922). The next stage in the process is the unwinding of the cocoon. It is placed in hot water to soften the gum (sericin). The filament is then wound onto a reel in a process called reeling (Joseph, 1977). There are a number of processes including winding, cleaning, doubling, sorting, and twisting which make up throwing. The silk at this point is referred to according to the various purposes for which it is intended: dumb singles, thrown singles, thrown silk, trams, or organzine. The singles are single stands of reeled silk that may be twisted. Ones with a hard twist are intended for gauze or 59 chiffon type fabrics. Thrown singles can be used for weaving ribbons. The tram is made up of two or more stands of raw silk and are given a slight twist. It is used as the weft y a m s in weaving. The organzine is made up of two or more yarns. A single yarn is given a right hand twist and then two or three of these are twisted together using a left hand twist. Better grades of silk are used for organzine and these are used as the warp yarns in weaving. If a sewing-silk is desired then four to six yarns are used. Sewing-silk at this stage is sometimes referred to as gum silk (Brockett, 1876; Thompson, 1922; Wylde, n. d.). In the throwing process, winding is the transference of filaments from reels to bobbins. The four-sided or six- sided frame is called a swift. While going through the swift the cleaning process may take place. Here the filament is passed through a metal prong to remove any impurities or irregularities in the filament (Wylde, n. d.). The twisting of the filaments adds strength and uniformity to the yarns. The term doubling is used to refer to the process of twisting two or more filaments together (Wylde, n. d.). After the throwing process the yarns are wound on a reel for dyeing. Silk was dyed with vegetable dyes, such as logwood. Brazilwood, and madder; and with an insect dye called cochineal (Thompson, 1922). 60 During the late part of the eighteenth century and early part of the nineteenth century, the method of dyeing silk was a household art. The chief dyes used were the yellow and red oak, chestnut, butternut, logwood. Brazilwood, redwood, nutgall, madder, indigo, annatto, and cochineal (Brockett, 1876). Dyeing can take place after the fabric is constructed, (piece dyeing). The silk fabric can also be printed as a decorative method. When dyeing silk, a mordant can be used. The mordant is a chemical substance such as tin chloride which unites the fiber and the dye to fix the color on the fiber (Thompson, 1922). This makes the fiber more colorfast. During the nineteenth century, "The mordants most in use were alum, copperas (sulphate of iron), bluestone (sulphate of copper), and occasionally muriate of tin" (Brockett, 1876, p. 133). Two processes which relate specifically to silk are degumming and weighting of silk. Degumming is the process of removing the sericin coating from the filaments through a hot, soapy water bath. Degumming when done on the finished fabric creates a softer fabric (Joseph, 1977). Degumming may also be done on yarns. The silk will lose 20 to 30 percent of its weight resulting from the process. Weight is added to silk through a chemical bath in which the silk will absorb heavy metals, such as tin and iron or other agents (Wingate, 1984). Other weighting 61 materials include sodium, magnesium, chromium, and barium, sugar, gelatin, glycerin, paraffin, and tannin. The most common weighting agents are tannin, tin, iron, and sugar (Thompson, 1922). Three hundred percent extra weight can be added by chemical baths (Thompson, 1922). Short fibers from pierced cocoons or cut fibers are spun into y a m s in a process similar to cotton spinning (Joseph, 1977). The short fibers are called tow and the resultant yarn is spun silk. Woven and knitted fabrics can be produced from silk fibers (Wingate, 1984). The most common types of weave structures used with silk fibers are plain, rib, twill, satin, leno, double, pile, and Jacquard designs (Thompson, 1922). Silk has also been combined with other natural fibers of wool and cotton. Silk is used as weft yarns and wool (worsted) is used as the warp yams. Fabrics with this combination are gloria, henrietta cloth, lansdowne, and bombazine. Silk cotton combinations are made into fabrics called voile, shantung, foulard, cotton-backed satin, velveteen, silk muslin, and silk gingham (Thompson, 1922). There have been a number of end uses for silk textiles. Silk has been used for linings, ribbons, laces, veils, ties, scarfs, collars, trimmings, handkerchiefs, hosiery, underwear, suits, coats, dresses, blouses, shirts, hats. 62 flowers, gloves, shoes or slippers, handbags, nmbrellas, draperies, and upholstery fabrics (Thompson, 1922). Design in Silk Textiles "Design may be defined as the arrangement of lines, form-shape-space, colors, and textures into a coherent whole" (Kefgen & Touchie-Specht, 1986, p. 289). There are two kinds or divisions of designs: structural and applied. Structural designs are created through construction details or method of manufacturing. Examples in textiles include stripes or checks developed in the weaving process. Applied designs are surface enrichments which are put on after the item is manufactured. Examples of applied designs are textiles which have been piece dyed or printed. Another surface design example is embroidery (Kefgen & Touchie- Specht, 1986; Thompson, 1922). There are three elements of designs: natural, conventional, or abstract. Natural designs are ones which resemble natural objects as closely as the fabric structure permits. Conventional designs are simplified natural objects which are adapted to the purpose of the ornamentation or pattern. Abstract designs are repeated patterns which have no relation to natural objects (Thompson, 1922). The design or pattern in textiles results from a series of repetitions. Burnham (1980) identifies five classes of 63 repeats; straight repeat, reverse repeat, inverted repeat, reverse inverted repeat, and drop repeat. The straight repeat is "the repetition of pattern units side by side without variation" (Burnham, 1980, p. 108). The reverse repeat is "the repetition of a pattern unit by the alternating of a straight unit with a reverse of the unit on an axis parallel to the warp" (Burnham, 1980, p. 108). The inverted repeat is "the repetition of a pattern unit by the alternating of a straight unit with a reverse of the unit on a axis parallel to the weft" (Burnham, 1980, p. 108). The reverse inverted repeat is "the repetition of a pattern unit by the alternating of a straight unit with a reverse of the unit on both warp and weft axes" (Burnham, 1980, p. 109). The drop repeat is "the transverse repetition of a pattern unit by the dropping of every alternate unit, commonly by a half-length of the unit (half-drop repeat), but also by other fractions. The dropped unit may also be reversed or inverted" (Burnham, 1980, p. 109). Weaving Technology in the Nineteenth Century In the early nineteenth century advances were made in weaving technology which had a direct bearing on silk textile manufacturing. In the beginning of the nineteenth century, Joseph Marie Jacquard presented the Jacquard loom which when first introduced was called the 'mechanical drawboy' in Lyon, France (Marcoux, 1982). It was actually 64 an attachment which took the place of the drawboy on the drawloom. The drawloom and Jacquard loom were used to produced complex patterned fabrics. The drawloom is "a hand loom for figured textiles, with a special type of figure harness to control some or all of the warp ends, and capable of controlling each warp end separately (Burnham, 1980, p. 48). The following is a description of how the drawloom works. A set of harnesses near the front of the loom, operated by the weaver, controlled the warp for the ground cloth. For weaving the figure, a series of weighted strings was attached to individual warp threads, which were then grouped together according to their place in a particular pattern, and fastened into a cord called a leash. The leashes, as many as were needed to make one repeat of the pattern, were coded and brought to the side of the loom. They were pulled by an assistant, the drawboy (often a young woman), in a certain order to raise the warp threads for a figured pattern. The weaver raised the harnesses for the ground cloth and threw the shuttle for the filling y a m s (Marcoux, 1982, p. 34). The Jacquard device replaces the simple leashes and the drawboy of the drawloom with punched cards for the automatic selection and pulling of the cords (Bumham, 1980, p. 76). The basic principles of the operation of the Jacquard loom follows. The holes in the punched cards or pattern cards represent the warp y a m s which will be raised to create a shed. The punch cards are laced together to create a section. The number of cards needed will depend on the length of the fabric to be woven. The sections are placed 65 side by side and determine the width of the fabric being woven (Birrell, 1959). The sections of pattern cards are mounted on the loom and are carried over a multisided cylinder which presents them to the needles of the Jacquard. The Jacquard needles are mounted in a horizontal position; there is a needle for each hole cut in a card. Each needle controls the position of a hook with respect to a lifting member (called a knife or a griff). Wherever there is a hole in the pattern card, the needle passes through the card, in turn allowing the hook to be raised by the knife. A harness cord is attached to the bottom of the hook and to the top of a lingo heddle. The lingo heddle consists of a wire, having an eyelet through which a warp end is threaded, and provision for attaching a weight at the bottom end. When a hook is engaged by a knife and lifted, it in turn lifts the harness cord and the lingo heddle carrying the warp end into its top position, allowing the weft (or pile wire in rug making) to pass under the warp end. After each lash (throw of weft), the Jacquard returns to its selecting position and another card is pressed against the needles (Birrell, 1959, p. 223). The Jacquard loom has the ability to create detailed complex figured fabrics. These fabrics include brocades, damasks, and brocatelles ("A History of Jacquard," 1950). The Jacquard loom was first brought to the United States in 1824. It was purchased by the William H. Horstmann Company of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and used to make trims and novelty fabrics ("A History of Jacquard," 1950). In order to examine the nineteenth century silk textiles of the Harmonist, the investigator employed a 66 material culture approach. The physical attributes of the patterned silk textiles were evaluated in order to show the skill of the Harmonists in producing nineteenth century silk textiles. Theoretical Framework Material culture studies are not new. They have been used by anthropologists and archaeologists for many years and recently by historians and social scientists. Since the emphasis of these studies is on the object as embodying primary data, the method is a relevant mode of investigation for costume and textile historians. Prown (1982) defines material culture as "the study through artifacts of the beliefs - values, ideas, attitudes, and assumptions - of a particular community or society at a given time" (p. 1). Material culture is a means of investigation in which objects are used as primary data. Material culture as a study is based upon the obvious fact that the existence of a man-made object is concrete evidence of the presence of a human intelligence operating at the time of fabrication. The underlying premise is that objects made or modified by man reflect, consciously or unconsciously, directly or indirectly, the beliefs of individuals who made, commissioned, purchased, or used them, and by extension the beliefs of the larger society to which they belonged. The term material culture thus refers quite directly and efficiently, if not elegantly, both to the subject matter of the study, material, and to its purpose, the understanding of culture (Prown, 1982, pp. 1-2). 67 Material culture studies do not ignore or discount documentary or statistical data. In these studies the data obtained from the evaluation of objects and from written primary sources are used together in an analysis (Schlereth, 1985). Fleming (1974) proposes a model " Artifact Study" for material culture studies. His model distinguishes five classes of artifactual properties (history, material, construction, design, and function), some or all are subject to investigation. Fleming has defined these classes of artifact information in rather specific terms. He asserts. History includes the questions of what, where, when, why and by whom was something made and used (Fleming, 1974, p. 156). Material is the substance of which something is made (Fleming, 1974, p. 156). Construction has to do with the techniques of manufacture employed, workmanship, and way parts are organized to bring about the object's function (Fleming, 1974, p. 156). Design includes the structure, form, style, ornament, and iconography of the object (Fleming, 1974, p. 156). Function embraces both the uses (intended functions) and roles (unintended functions) of the object in its culture including utility, delight, and communication (Fleming, 1974, p. 156). It is evident from his comments that three of the property classes reflect certain information intrinsic to the artifact, i.e., that which resides within the physical object and is capable of empirical measurement. These are the material from which the artifact is made, the 68 construction of the artifact, and the design of the object. Less capable of empirical study but no less valued are the two remaining classes of properties which are its history and its function. Data about the object are available and can be collected through investigation. In a second phase, Fleming proposes that four operations are performed by the researcher. The operations of identification, evaluation, cultural analysis, and interpretation are used to examine the artifacts' properties and yield data as a result. The following is a summary of the operations associated with the study of properties. Identification includes classification, authentication, and description of the object. An important function of this operation is having accuracy of the information (Fleming, 1974). Evaluations can be done in two ways. Judgments can be made as to the aesthetic quality and workmanship of an object resulting in a ranking of the qualities. Judgments can also be made through a quantifiable comparison of objects (Fleming, 1974, pp. 156-157). Cultural Analysis is used to examine the relationship of the artifact to aspects of its own culture. "The purpose in cultural analysis is to isolate characteristics common to the group that enable the researcher to make inferences of a general nature about the society that produced and/or used the body of artifacts (Fleming, 1974, p. 158). Interpretation is used to examine the relationship of the artifact to the present culture (Fleming, 1974, p. 161). This research project is a descriptive study examining the history, material, construction, and design, of the patterned silk textiles of the Harmonists. The history of 69 the Harmonists and their silk industry was compiled from documentary information, and the business and personal correspondence of the Society. The raw material or fiber was identified through microscopic techniques. The yarn and fabric structures, design, and color were identified through macroscopic, photographic, and colorimetric techniques. The operations used to study the properties in this research include identification, evaluation, and cultural analysis. The patterned silk textiles were identified as to design, color, fiber content, and y a m and fabric structure. The technical skill and knowledge of the Harmonists in cultivating and manufacturing silk were evaluated using the physical attributes of fiber, yarn, fabric, and color and the compilation of information about their raw materials, tools, and skilled labor pool. From the above information cultural inferences were made as to their success in cultivating and manufacturing silk in the nineteenth century. Research Hypotheses The following hypothesis and sub-hypotheses were tested in this study. Hypothesis The Harmonists demonstrated the necessary technical knowledge and skill for successful sericulture and silk textile production. 70 Criterion for acceptance: Consistency in the finished silk textile product and a demonstration of the knowledge in getting a precise and consistent product. Sub-hvpothesis 1 The nineteenth century patterned silk textiles produced by the Harmonists exhibit a consistent level of precision in fiber, yarn, and fabric structure. Criterion for acceptance: Presence of a consistent level of precision in the physical attributes of fiber, yam, and fabric. Sub-hvpothesis 2 The Harmonists demonstrated the necessary technical knowledge of raw materials, fabric production processes, and tools for successful sericulture and silk textile production. Criterion for acceptance: Primary and secondary documentary evidence of technical knowledge of raw materials, tools, and a skilled labor pool. CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY The purpose of this study is to investigate the patterned silk textiles of the Harmonists in order to assess the technical knowledge and skill of the Harmonists in producing silk. The research was conducted in two parts. First, the stylistic and structural characteristics of selected flat patterned silk textile fragments were examined using microscopic, macroscopic, and colorimetric analytical techniques. The evaluation of the physical attributes of fiber, yarn, and fabric were used to discern the skill of the Harmonists in sericulture and manufacturing of silk. A second part involved a critical analysis of the business and personal correspondence of the Harmonists. This correspondence included information occurring in the Silk Letter Book. 1842-1852 (outgoing correspondence) as well as pertinent secondary sources. Information compiled from primary and secondary sources was used to discern the technical knowledge in the cultivation and manufacture of patterned silk textiles by the Harmonists in the United States during the early nineteenth century. In this chapter the sampling technique, worksheet used, data collection, and 71 72 analysis employed are discussed for both parts of this research. Part I: Analysis of Harmonist Textiles Stylistic and structural characteristics of the patterned silk pieces were examined by the investigator. Sample A total of 377 flat silk textile fragments have been catalogued at Old Economy Village. In examining the investigator identified 329 catalog cards which listed the relevant textile as being Harmonist-manufactured, and 48 were listed as not Harmonist-manufactured. In this study "Harmonist" textiles refer to those textiles which were catalogued at Old Economy as being Harmonist because they were ones for which the silk was cultivated and fabric woven at Economy. The evidence for identification of Harmonist silks as "Harmonist" is supported by the presence of a display of silk textiles mounted in a wood and glass cabinet and located at Old Economy Village. It was prepared for an 1844 exhibit at the American Institute in New York (Bole, 1904; Reibel & Maines, 1984). There is no evidence that the display has been disturbed or changed. The same textile patterns occur in the textiles of the original display and the catalogued textiles examined in this study. Of the 329 Harmonist fragments, 219 are patterned weave fragments, 83 73 are plain weave fabrics, and 27 are unpattemed pile weave fabrics. Among the 219 fragments are 29 different pattern designs as were identified from their catalog description and from visual inspection (see Appendix D ). For this evaluation, from the 219 fragments, the textile fragments selected had to have at least one selvage, one repeat of the design, and had to be at least 15.24 centimeters square. Ribbon and scarfs were not included since ribbons did not meet the criteria for inclusion and scarfs were a finished product. All remaining catalogued fragments which fit the criteria were evaluated using the worksheet in Appendix E. Of the 219 pieces, eighty-five fit the criteria for selection. Of the twenty-nine pattern designs, twenty had fragments which could be used in the evaluation (see Appendix D ). Data Collection Instrument The worksheets from other textiles studies (Farrell, 1975; Sibley, 1981) were reviewed for applicability to this study. Farrell's worksheet was used for seventeenth century Dutch silks with all evaluation done on site. Sibley's was used for Coptic textiles with tapestry ornament in wool and linen. Since neither could be used without substantial revisions, the investigator developed a worksheet designed to collect data concerning the stylistic and structural 74 traits of the Harmonist silks. Evidence of skill and knowledge remained a primary objective in the examination. There are three categories of information in the Harmonist worksheet: fiber, yarn, and fabric. Within these categories the physical attributes of fiber morphology, fiber width, yarn structure and twist, fabric structure, grain, fabric thickness, fabric count, fabric width, selvage, space between motifs, space between repeats, and coloration were evaluated (see Appendix E). Method Fabric and yarn evaluation was performed on site at Old Economy, and a one inch yarn was taken from both the warp and weft directions of each sample on site for fiber evaluation performed in the Material Analysis Laboratory at The Ohio State University. Fabric and yarn evaluation measurements were taken at five randomly dispersed locations within the fabric, each containing warp and weft yarns unique to that location (see Figure 2). These locations were used for measurements of space between motifs and repeats, for color assessment, fabric counts, and measurement of thickness. Fiber Assessment Fiber type was verified by the use of brightfield and polarized light microscopy. Visual assessment of the fibers 75 Figure 2. Diagram of Locations on Fragments for Measurements 76 under the microscope was made of the fibers with respect to color, apparent degradation, and size. Five measurements in millimeters were taken using the micrometer eyepiece. Yarn Structure Yarn structure was identified as simple or complex, spun or filament, single or plied in a routine manner for each textile. The number of twists per centimeter was measured using a metric ruler at five different locations along the warp and weft yarns. Fabric Weave Structure The fabric structure and design were determined for each fragment. The fabric structure was identified using Emery's classification of simple and complex weave structures. The fragments were also identified as to the fabric design: natural, conventional, and abstract. A fabric design is also made up of a series of repetitions. Pattern repeat was classified according to Burnham's (1980) five categories based upon location and repetition of pattern (see Figure 3 & Appendix A ). Grain In order to evaluate the alignment of the yarns in the fabric, the degree to which the weft yarns deviated from a ninety degree angle to the warp y a m s was measured using a 77 \ \ \ \ / \ \ \ \ \ \ / \ / \ \ \\ \ / \ /\ \ \ \\ / \ / \ STRAIGHT REPEAT REVERSE REPEAT \ \ \ \ \/\ / // / \ / \ / \\ \ \ / \ / \ / / / / \ / \ / INVERTED REPEAT REVERSE INVERTED REPEAT 7" \ \ \ \ / \ \ \ \ / \ \ \ / / \ \ \ \ \ \ \ / \ / STRAIGHT REVERSE DROP REPEAT Figure 3. Pattern Repeats Taken from; Burnham, D. K. (1980). A textile terminology warp & weft. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. 78 projection of a slide of each fabric because fabric rectilinearity (on-grain) displays yarns which are at a ninety degree angle to each other. Two measurements were taken for determining fabric alignment. This research was initially designed to have five measurements taken using a stereoscope and measuring devices to determine whether fabric is on-grain. The closeness of the fabric structure and the small size of the yarns required magnification to view the yarn interactions, but the limited space under the stereoscope made it impossible to obtain five measurements. Therefore, slides made of fabrics magnified IX were employed. Fabric Thickness Using a Custom Scientific C & R Tester Model 05-55, five fabric thickness measurements were made to .00025 cm. The measurements were taken at the five locations listed in Figure 2. Fabric Count Five locations were used for fabric count (see Figure 2). Using a stereoscope and metric ruler, the researcher counted yarns in a 2.54 cm (1 inch) area in both the warp and weft directions. A 1.27 centimeter border around the fabric was not used for counts in order that the counts were not may on distorted edges from the selvage or the cut edge. 79 Fabric Width The fabric width was measured in centimeters at five different locations throughout the fabric using a tape measure (see Figure 2). The length of each fragment was measured along the selvage. Points 2.54 cm from the two cut edges were used as the starting and ending points in order to determine the placements for measurements. Five equidistant locations along the length of the fabric between the two points served as the sites for measurement of width. The first measurement was taken 1.27 centimeters from top cut edge and the last measurement was 1.27 centimeters from bottom cut edge. Selvage Width The selvage width was measured in centimeters at five different locations throughout the fabric using a tape measure (see Figure 2). The measurement was made on one selvage edge. Points 2.54 cm from the two cut edges were used as the starting and ending points in order to determine the placements for measurements. Five equidistant locations along the length of the fabric between the two points served as the sites for measurement of selvage width. The first measurement was taken 1.27 centimeters from top cut edge and the last measurement was 1.27 centimeters from bottom cut edge. 80 Placement of Motifs Five measurements in centimeters of the space between motifs and the space between repeats were taken using a tape measure (see Figure 2). Space between motifs is the space between isolated motifs in a line across the fabric. The space between repeats is the space between the pattern repeats and measured along the length of the fabric. Coloration Fabric color assessment was performed in two ways. An initial identification of the background and motif colors of the fabrics was made by using the Pantone Professional Color System. This system was chosen because it has been advertised as the most widely distributed international color standard for textiles and because it is portable. This system uses a 6-digit numerical code which defines a color's position in color space. The first pair of numbers specifies the value of the color. Ten levels are used for value starting at 10 (lightness) to 19 (darkness). The second pair of numbers specifies the hue. There are 64 colors starting at 01 for yellow going to 64 which is green- yellow. The last pair of numbers is the degree of saturation. This is also divided into 64 steps with 00 being a natural gray and 64 being the strongest color (Pantone. 1990). A disadvantage of the system is its 81 subjectivity; it is dependent on the visual appraisal made by the observer. One evaluation of color was made by placing the Pantone color squares flat on top of the fragment which was placed flat on the standard gray surface for evaluation. For the evaluation, the two 250 watt daylight lamps, one on each side, were positioned at 45 degree angles from the fragment and eight inches from the platform. Observations, by the evaluator, were made from two feet directly above the fragment so that the line of sight was perpendicular to the fragment. A HunterLab MiniScan Spectrocolorimeter version MS/S 4500L, a portable color measurement system, was employed in the second method of color evaluation. The geometric condition of sample examination was an illumination angle of 45 degrees with a viewing angle of 0 degrees. This was used in order to view the color without interference from specular reflection. The daylight illuminant D65 with 10 degrees field of view was used. D illuminants are considered the most representative of daylight. D illuminants are "identified by the first two digits of the color temperature so that the 6500K curve is known as D65" (Hunter, 1975). The largest viewing area (25 mm) was employed. The colorimetric values recorded were the Hunter Lab L, a, b and CIELAB L*, a*, b*. The 'L* "designates the lightness of the sample, where 100 represents white and zero 82 represents black (Hunter Associates Laboratory, Inc. [HunterLab], 1990, p. 4). The 'a' "indicates redness when positive or greeness when negative" (HunterLab, 1990, p. 4). The 'b' "indicates yellowness when positive or blueness when negative" (HunterLab, 1990, p. 4). CIELAB values were used in the quantitative evaluation because they are currently recommended for use in industry. The Hunter Lab readings were taken because from the numbers generated, the locations of color in the three dimensional L, a, b color space is easily visualized. The CIELAB values are slightly higher than the Hunter Lab values. Using the portable spectrocolorimeter, five readings were taken in both the warp and weft directions at the locations used for physical assessment (see Figure 2). Each textile fragment was placed flat on a standard gray background, and the colorimeter was placed on top. Data for the fabric analysis phase of the study were collected at two different times. Data were collected on site at Old Economy Village and in the Materials Analysis Laboratory at The Ohio State University as described below. Data Collection on Site The data which were collected at Old Economy Village were obtained by evaluating the textile fragments in the textile collection storage and workroom on the second floor of one of the original buildings. Each fragment was 83 examined, and measnrements were recorded on a worksheet. A Bausch & Lomb Model #ASZ30L3 Stereoscope with nominal magnifications of 7X to 3OX was used to examine yarn twist and type, and for viewing fragments for fabric counts. To aid in evaluating color and in taking photographs, the investigator used a copystand with two 250 watt daylight bulbs. A standard photographic gray card served as the background for observations of fragments and photographs under two 250 watt daylight bulbs. The fragments were placed flat on the standard gray surface for evaluation. For the evaluation, the two lamps, one on each side, were positioned at 45 degree angles from the fragment and eight inches from the platform. Observations, by the evaluator, were made from two feet directly above the fragment so that the line of sight was perpendicular to the fragment. Photographs were taken with Fujichrome 50D daylight slide film from a Cannon AEl camera with a macro lens and a IX adapter. The camera was placed twelve inches from each specimen, the predetermined distance necessary to obtain an overall photograph of the pattern design and repeat. For each IX photograph, the adapter was used and the camera was approximately six inches from the object. Adjustments of distance to the fragment were made for focus. Photographs taken at IX magnification showed the fabric structure. Other equipment used on site included the portable HunterLab MiniScan Spectrocolorimeter version MS/S 4500L, 84 Pantone Coatings Color Paper Selector for color assessment, and a Custom Scientific C & R Tester Model CS-55 for thickness. The structural data were recorded into the database Paradox 3.5 (Borland Corporation, 1990), chosen for its relational capabilities in order simplify data entry for statistical analysis. Data Collection in Laboratory Additional data were collected in the Materials Analysis Laboratory at The Ohio State University, Campbell Hall. A Zeiss Axioplan Research Microscope and a Bausch & Lomb Stereo Zoom Stereoscope were used for the fiber and fabric examination. A stage micrometer was used to calibrate the microscope eyepiece micrometer divisions under 200X magnification. Fuj ichrome 64 tungsten film was used for all the photomicroscopy. Fabric structure was examined using the Bausch & Lomb stereoscope with external light sources (Nikon MKII bifurcated fiber optic light with Halogen lamp and Intralux 4000 ring illuminator). Photomicrographs were taken at magnifications of 6.44X and 15.52X of the twenty different pattern designs. Yarn samples taken on site were further divided in the laboratory. Individual fibers from these yarns were examined using optical microscopy under 200X magnification 85 in brightfield and polarized light. These techniques were employed to examine fiber size, shape, and crystallinity. Data Analysis For Part I, descriptive statistics of means and standard deviations were calculated for the eight measured physical attributes of fiber morphology, fabric count, yarn twist, fabric widths, fabric thickness, coloration, pattern repeat, and selvage width of the fragments within each pattern design. These statistics are used to describe each of the stylistic and structural characteristics of different pattern designs. For each of the physical attributes measurements were pooled over all the patterns to obtain an overall mean and overall standard deviation. Comparisons could not be done across patterns because the units of measure were different. In order to make the measurements unit free and compare between attributes the measurements were standardized. The measurements were standardized by subtracting the overall mean and dividing by the overall standard deviation. Variances of standardized data were plotted in order to assess the variability of each of the measures within a particular pattern design and compare the variability among pattern designs. A test for equality of variances within a pattern was done using Bartlett's test. For each pattern within which 86 variances were equal, a pooled estimate of the common pattern variance was obtained (is referred to as pattern variance). The pooled estimate was a weighted average with the weight equal to one less than the number of observations in the fragment, given by the following equation: iDi-1)5,=+ ... +(n.-l)5u = (nx-l)+ ... +(n^-l) where k = # of fragments (within a pattern) nj = # of measurements in fragment j, i=l,...,k Sj® = sample variance for fragment j, j=l,...,k In order to compare the pattern variances for a single physical attribute, the minimum variance was identified and each of the pattern variances were compared to the minimum by means of an F-test. Since multiple hypotheses were involved, Kimball's Inequality was used to estimate experiment-wise error rate. For a single attribute, each of the n individual comparisons was conducted using a significance level of 1-(1-*)^'", where represents the overall significance level for the n joint comparisons. It could then be concluded that the variance is greater than the minimum variance if p < l-(l-a)^'" individual significance level. Equivalently the individual p-values (p) were transformed to the adjusted p-value of l-(l-p)". 87 Part II: Documentary Correspondence In this part of the study personal and business correspondence including the Silk Letter Book. 1842-1852 was examined, by the investigator, for notations on the cultivation, manufacturing (including reeling, spinning, weaving, and dyeing), legislation, and exhibitions of Harmonist silk textiles. Other pertinent information including the number of the correspondence, to whom the correspondence was addressed, and the date of the correspondence were examined. The information was recorded on a worksheet (see Appendix F ). Through a critical analysis of the primary and secondary documentary evidence the investigator ascertained the technical knowledge of the Harmonists in cultivating and manufacturing silk textiles. Sample The sample consisted seventy-seven handwritten letters from the Silk Letter Book. 1842-1852. The remaining forty- four letters examined came from the records compiled by Karl J. R. Arndt in his two volumes Economy on the Ohio 1826- 1834. and George Rapp's Years of Glorv: Economy on the Ohio 1834-1847. In order to limit interpretations of information only letters which were not edited or translated from the two volumes of Karl J. R. Arndt were used for the study. 88 Data Collection Instrument The worksheet for this part of data collection is divided into five categories, cultivation, manufacture, legislation, exhibition, and other (see Appendix F). These categories include information about the raw materials, equipment and labor used, processes in production, and the size and scale of the Harmonists industry. Data Analvsis For Part II, the primary and secondary documentary evidence (Harmonist business and personal correspondence) was compiled according to the nature of the correspondence, the number of the correspondence, to whom the correspondence was addressed, and the date of the correspondence. An external appraisal to assure credibility of the primary and secondary sources was made. In order that the secondary sources be classified as reliable resources only letters which were complete and had not been translated were used. The nature of the correspondence was examined according to four categories, cultivation, manufacture, legislation, and exhibition. An internal appraisal of the primary and secondary documentary evidence was made in order to make inferences about the Harmonist's technical knowledge of raw materials, fabric production processes, tools, and skill of the labor pool for silk cultivation and textile production. CHAPTER IV PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION FOR PART I The purpose of this study was to identify the stylistic and structural characteristics of Harmonist patterned silk textiles and to assess the skill and technical knowledge of the Harmonists in silk cultivation and manufacturing. The study was conducted in two parts, the first was the examination of the physical attributes of fiber, yarn, and fabric in Harmonist textiles. The second part of the study was an examination of the business and personal correspondence of the Harmonist related to silk cultivation, manufacturing, legislation, and exhibition, and findings will be presented in chapter five. This chapter includes a description of sampling of the textile fragments, identification of physical attributes in fiber, yarn, and fabric of the textile fragments, and the analysis of data related to the skill of the Harmonist in silk cultivation and manufacturing. 89 90 Part I : Analysis of Harmonist Textiles Sample The sample was derived from an examination of all the catalog descriptions of flat textile pieces at Old Economy Village. From these descriptions 219 fragments were identified as patterned silk textiles, and similar descriptions were grouped together into pattern design categories. The 219 fragments were examined to ensure that the catalog descriptions accurately described each fragment and that the fragments fit into the pattern design category in which it had been placed. The fragments were also examined in order determine whether the descriptions were correct. It should be noted that no attempt was made at this stage to identify fabric structures. However, like structures with a particular pattern design make up a pattern design category. From this process twenty-nine pattern design categories were identified. The pattern design category numbers, catalog descriptions and corresponding catalog numbers of the fragments contained in each category are listed in Appendix D. Based on the criteria necessary for the analysis of one selvage, one repeat of design, and a size of at least 15.24 centimeters square (6 inches), eighty-five fragments from twenty pattern designs were selected. The number of fragments and their corresponding pattern design category numbers are listed in Table 1. Nine pattern designs have 91 no fragments which meet the criteria for selection, five have one fragment per pattern design. The majority of the pattern designs have three to six fragments. The largest number of fragments in one pattern design is nineteen. Table 1. Number of Fragments Per Pattern Design. Pattern Number Percent Design Fragments of Total 1 (abstract cut-velvet) 3 4 2 (flower & leaf cut-velvet) 4 5 3 (six stitches make blocks) 3 4 4 (flower & leaf in blue) 1 1 5 (two colored stitches make dot) 8 9 6 (small connecting squares) 6 7 7 (five different flowers) 6 7 8 (blocks with leaves & stems) 4 5 9 (diamonds) 1 1 10 (small diagonal lines) 4 5 11 (lacy design forming stripes) 1 1 12 (flower with stem & dots) 4 5 13 (very small diamonds) 0 0 14 (leaves & circles) 0 0 15 (small dots solid color) 4 5 16 (figure on plain background) 3 4 17 (bars with irregular figures) 3 4 18 (scroll) 19 22 19 (two small diamonds) 6 7 20 (beige floral design) 0 0 21 (five petal flower no stem) 1 1 22 (large three flower design) 3 4 23 (flower made of three diamonds) 0 0 24 (rose pattern with stem) 0 0 25 (flower with feathery leaves) 0 0 26 (floral pattern in brown) 0 0 27 (two flowered design with stem) 1 1 28 (connecting squares in cut-velvet) 0 0 29 (floral design in cream) 0 0 Total 85 100 92 Physical Attributes The physical attributes of the textiles are divided into three groups: fiber, yarn, and fabric. The fiber group includes fiber type and morphology. The yarn group includes yarn structure and twist per centimeter. The fabric group is divided into two sub-groups of structure and design/color. The structure sub-group, type of weave, fabric count, grain, selvage appearance and width, fabric width, and fabric thickness. The design sub-group includes pattern design, motif identification, pattern repeat, continuous or isolated designs, space between motif, space between repeats, and color. EibsE Fibers were examined in order to verify the fiber content and to assess the fiber morphology, apparent degradation, and size. Optical microscopic examination shows that all fibers in the warp direction of each pattern design are silk filaments. Ninety percent of the pattern designs have silk filament fibers in the weft direction. In two pattern designs (1%), a combination silk filament (tow), silk staple (waste silk), and cotton staple are found. In Table 2, pattern design five is divided into (a) and (b) to show that three of the fragments in pattern design five are all silk and five of the fragments are a combination of silk and cotton in the weft yam. 93 Table 2. Summary of Fiber Verification. Harmonist Textiles, Pattern Number of Fiber Content Design Fragments Warp Weft 1 3 Silk Silk 2 4 Silk Silk 3 3 Silk Silk/Cotton" 4 1 Silk Silk 5(a) 3 Silk Silk 5(b) 5 Silk Silk/Cotton" 6 6 Silk Silk 7 6 Silk Silk 8 4 Silk Silk 9 1 Silk Silk 10 4 Silk Silk 11 1 Silk Silk 12 4 Silk Silk 15 4 Silk Silk 16 3 Silk Silk 17 3 Silk Silk 18 19 Silk Silk 19 6 Silk Silk 21 1 Silk Silk 22 3 Silk Silk 27 1 Silk Silk Total 85 "Four yarns make up one weft unit. one yarn is cotton. The visual appearance of the fibers under the microscope shows smooth fibers in the warp direction in all pattern designs. In the weft direction sixty percent of the pattern designs have fibers which appeared smooth. Forty percent of the pattern designs have fibers in the weft which have a "crusted” (flaky and iirregular) surface (see Table 3). 94 Table 3. Visual appearance of Fibers Under the Microscope. Visual Visual Pattern Appearance Appearance Design Sample" Warp, 20OX Weft, 200X 1 3 smooth crusted 2 4 smooth crusted 3 3 smooth crusted 4 1 smooth smooth 5 8 smooth crusted 6 6 smooth smooth 7 6 smooth smooth 8 4 smooth smooth 9 1 smooth crusted 10 4 smooth smooth 11 1 smooth smooth 12 4 smooth crusted 15 4 smooth smooth 16 3 smooth smooth 17 3 smooth smooth 18 19 smooth crusted 19 6 smooth smooth 21 1 smooth crusted 22 3 smooth smooth 27 1 smooth smooth Total 85 "Sample = number of fragments. Another visual assessment done under the microscope is the color of fibers. In ninety-five percent of the fibers, the colors under the microscope appear strong and uniform. In pattern design fifteen, colors vary from a reddish purple to blue. In pattern designs four and nine, fibers appear differentially faded with areas of what appear to be the original color occurring throughout. Measurements of fiber width are also done under the microscope. The average warp fiber width ranges from .0107 95 mm. to .0143 mm. with the mode average of .0124 mm. and .0126 mm. The weft fiber width average measurements range from .0119 mm. to .0143 mm. with the mode average of .0133 mm. (see Table 4). Table 4. Summary of Warp and Weft Fiber Width. Pattern Total # of Warp Weft Design Observations Mean, mm. Sd* Mean, mm. Sd- 1 15 .0131 .003 .0122 .002 2 20 .0132 .010 .0129 .013 3 15 .0126 .002 .0116 .002 4 5 .0140 .002 .0125 .002 5 40 .0122 .002 .0136 .002 6 30 .0133 .002 .0121 .002 7 30 .0128 .002 .0135 .002 8 20 .0126 .002 .0123 .002 9 5 .0130 .001 .0120 .002 10 20 .0124 .002 .0133 .002 11 5 .0125 .003 .0143 .001 12 20 .0118 .012 .0138 .014 15 20 .0107 .003 .0131 .002 16 15 .0123 .002 .0120 .002 17 15 .0121 .003 .0119 .003 18 95 .0127 .002 .0133 .002 19 30 .0124 .002 .0133 .002 21 5 .0143 .001 .0143 .003 22 15 .0116 .002 .0121 .002 27 5 .0113 .001 .0130 .003 Total 425 *Sd = standard deviation Discussion. From the examination of the fibers, the investigator discovered that the Harmonists used both silk filaments and silk staple fibers. They were able to spin staple silk (waste silk) fibers. Fiber examination also indicated that silk staple yarns could be combined with 96 cotton staple yarns in a fabric. The Harmonists also used twisted silk filament y a m s and tow filaments yarns in fabric constructions. Tow silk was found in the weft direction only. There is no indication what the crusting seen on fiber surfaces is limited to the surface of the weft fibers. The crust may have been a weighting or sizing agent, or unremoved sericin as in raw silk. Y a m In the silk textiles examined, one to three yarns act as a single yarn in the warp direction. All yarns in the warp direction are made of filament fibers and are of the simple type. Fifteen (75%) pattern designs have 2-ply yams, four (20%) pattern designs are single yarns and one (5%) pattern design has both single and 2-ply yarns in the warp direction. Fourteen pattern designs with 2-ply yarns are S twist ply. Two patterns have 2-ply yarns that are Z twist ply. All four pattern designs with single yarns are of S twist. All single y a m s which make up the S twist ply in 2-ply y a m s have Z twist as the single. For the two pattern designs that are Z twist ply in 2-ply yarns the single y a m s could not be identified. Examination of weft yarns shows that two to five yarns act as a single y a m in the weft direction. All pattern designs have filament yarns in the weft direction. In two pattem designs two y a m s in the unit are staple, with one 97 being cotton and one being silk. The yarns are all the simple type. Eighteen (90%) pattern designs have single yarns in the weft direction. Two (10%) pattern designs have a combination of single and 2-ply yarns in the weft direction. Fifteen pattern designs with single yarns are of Z twist. One pattern design with single yarns is of S twist. One pattern design with single yarns has yarns which are Z twist and ones which are S twist. The twist of yarns in one pattern design with single yarns could not be identified. The two pattern designs with both 2-ply yarns and single yarns have Z twist ply in the 2-ply yarns and S twist in the single yams. The single yarns which make up the 2-ply y a m s could not be identified. These results are summarized in Table 5. 98 Table 5. Summary of Yarn Structure. Yarns Pattern Per Staple/ Simple/ Single/ S/Z Design Unit Filament Complex Ply Twist 1 warp 1 Filament Simple Single S weft 5 Filament Simple 1-2 Ply Z Ply 4 Singles S Single 2 warp 1 Filament Simple Single S weft 5 Filament Simple 1-2 Ply Z Ply 4 Singles Z Single 3 warp 1 Filament Simple 1-2 Ply S Ply Z Single weft 4 2 Filament Simple Single Z 2 Staple Simple Z 4 warp 1 Filament Simple 1-2 Ply S Ply Z Single weft 2 Filament Simple Single Z 5 warp 1 Filament Simple 1-2 Ply S Ply Z Single weft 4 2 Filament Simple Single Z 2 Staple Z 6 warp 2 Filament Simple 2-2 Ply S Ply Z Single weft 2 Filament Simple Single Z 7 warp 2 Filament Simple Single S weft 2 Filament Simple Single Z 8 warp 1 Filament Simple 1-2 Ply Z Ply weft 2 Filament Simple Single s 9 warp 2 Filament Simple 2-2 Ply s Ply z Single weft 4 Filament Simple Single z 10 warp 3 Filament Simple 3-2 Ply s Ply z Single weft 2 Filament Simple Single z 11 warp 3 Filament Simple 1-2 Ply s Ply 2 Singles weft 2 Filament Simple Single z 99 Table 5 continued Yarns Pattern Per Staple/ Simple/ Single/ S/Z Design Unit Filament Complex Ply Twist 12 warp 1 Filament Simple 1-2 Ply S Ply Z Single weft 3 Filament Simple Single Z 15 warp 1 Filament Simple 1-2 Ply S Ply Z Single weft 4 Filament Simple Single 2 S/2 Z 16 warp 1 Filament Simple 1-2 Ply S Ply Z Single weft 2 Filament Simple Single Z 17 warp 3 Filament Simple 3-2 Ply S Ply Z Single weft 2 Filament Simple Single Z 18 warp 1 Filament Simple 1-2 Ply S Ply Z Single weft 4 Filament Simple Single Z 19 warp 2 Filament Simple Single S weft 2 Filament Simple Single Z 21 warp 1 Filament Simple 1-2 Ply S Ply z Single weft 3 Filament Simple Single z 22 warp 3 Filament Simple 3-2 Ply s Ply z Single weft 4 Filament Simple Single z 27 warp 1 Filament Simple 1-2 Ply z Ply weft 4 Filament Simple Single Twists per centimeter in warp yarns range from average of 7.00 to 11.60 with the mode average of 9.60. Twists per centimeter in weft yarns range from and average of 0.00 to 12.40 with the mode average of 0.00 and 1.00. 100 The 0.00 average indicates that there were no twists in the y a m s which could be counted ( see Table 6 ). Table 6. Summary of Y a m Twist Per Centimeter. Pattem Total # of Warp Weft Design Observations Mean Sd* Mean Sd* 1 15 9.60 0.83 9.07 1.98 2 20 9.60 1.04 11.10 1.02 3 • 15 7.53 2.23 11.33 1.45 4 5 11.60 1.67 8.00 2.00 5 40 11.15 1.42 12.40 1.71 6 30 10.90 1.58 2.07 2.92 7 30 7.00 5.27 0.00 0.00 8 20 11.10 1.65 1.00 2.13 9 5 10.80 2.28 1.00 1.00 10 20 10.60 1.85 4.44 3.76 11 5 9.80 1.48 5.20 1.09 12 20 10.60 1.14 5.10 3.34 15 20 10.20 1.58 3.30 4.22 16 15 8.86 0.99 5.67 1.05 17 15 10.93 1.67 4.13 2.56 18 95 10.00 1.13 4.08 3.56 19 30 10.26 1.63 1.87 2.45 21 5 11.20 1.10 9.60 1.67 22 15 7.79 2.22 5.93 0.80 27 5 9.60 0.89 0.00 0.00 Total 425 *Sd = standard deviation Discussion. From the examination of yarns one finds that the Harmonists used multiple yarns and combinations of yarn types in the formation of fabric stmctures. They had the technology to twist yarns in either the S or Z direction. They made ply yarns with the twist in the single yarns in one fabric direction and the twist in the ply yarn 101 in the other direction, which is a typical construction for ply yarns. In the examination of both the fiber and yarn it can be noted that the crusting was found only on single yarns in the weft direction. Fabric Structure Using Emery's classification of woven fabrics, six fabric structures were identified (see Table 7). Two fabric structures which are composed of ten (50%) pattern designs are classified as simple weaves. Simple weaves are warp- weft structures that have only one set of longitudinal, or warp, elements and only one set of transverse, or weft elements. Variation of structure is effected by varying either the numerical order in which the elements or units of one set interlace with those of the other, the alignment of the interlacings, or both. . . It is characteristic of simple interlacings that the structure of one face of the fabric is reflected on the opposite face. No element appears on only one face; and if there are weft floats on one face, there are correlated warp floats on the other (Emery, 1980, p. 75). Plates IV and V are an example of fabric structure "C" as identified in Table 7. Plates VI and VII are an example of fabric structure "E". Four of the fabric structures which are composed of ten (50%) pattem designs are classified as compound weaves. Compound weaves are fabric structures which have more than two basic sets of warp and weft elements. 102 In those compound structures in which a simple weave, complete in itself, serves as a 'ground* or 'foundation' weave throughout, any additional sets (whether warp or weft) are clearly supplementary. Other compound structures, however, have at least two sets of one type of element (either warp or weft) that are complementary to each other and co equal in the fabric structure (Emery, 1980, p. 140). Table 7. Description of Fabric Structure. Fabric Pattern Structure Designs Description A 1. 2 Compound weave, warp-faced satin background with supplementary warp y a m s for a warp cut pile (cut velvet). B 3, 5, 12, 21, Compound weave, warp-faced 27 satin weave background with supplementary pattem weft yarns which float from selvage to selvage across back when not in use to create pattern. C 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, Simple weave, plain weave 11, 15, 16, 19 background with alternating float weave. D 10, 17 Compound weave, single-faced, (plain weave background with complementary sets of warp y a m s one used for pattem one used for binding). E 18 Simple weave, plain weave background with weft float face. F 22 Compound weave, warp-faced satin weave background with plain weave pattern, and supplementary pattern weft yarns. Plate VIII and IX are examples of fabric structure "A" as identified in Table 7. Plate X and XI are examples of 103 Plate IV. Pattern Design 6 #06.67.24.139 Lifesize photograph magnified 1.59 times for presentation Fabric Structure C 104 Plate V. Pattern Design 6 #06.67.24.139 IX photograph magnified 7.47 times for presentation Fabric Structure C 105 Plate VI. Pattern Design 18 #06.67.24.146 Lifesize Photograph Magnified 1.49 Times for Presentation Fabric Structure E 106 Plate VII. Pattern Design 18 #06,67.24.146 IX Photograph Magnified 7.47 Times for Presentation Fabric Structure E 107 Plate VIII. Pattern Design 2 #06.65.15.5 Lifesize photograph magnified 1.59 times for presentation Fabric Structure A # a m «4 r xU.»'4« 108 Plate IX. Pattern Design 2 #06.65.15.5 IX photograph magnified 7.47 times for presentation Fabric Structure A 109 Plate X. Pattern Design 12 #OE80.17.129 Lifesize Photograph Magnified 1.59 Times for Presentation Fabric Structure B 110 Plate XI. Pattern Design 12 #OE80.17.129 IX Photograph Magnified 7.47 Times for Presentation Fabric Structure B Ill fabric structure "B". Plates XII and XIII are an example of fabric structure "D". Plates XIV and XV are an example of fabric structure "F". In the four compound fabric structures, two structures have supplementary weft yarns and one structure has supplementary warp yarns. The fourth compound structure has complementary warp yarns. Of the six fabric structures, the structure that includes the most (45%) pattern designs is (C), a simple weave structure of plain weave background with alternating float weave. Yarns in the both fabric structure types are yarn dyed as indicated by different color yarns in the warp and weft directions or by the different colored selvages. Fabric structures A, B, and F (compound weaves) are multicolored fabrics in which the base fabric has different colored yarns in the warp and weft directions and additional colored yarns as supplementary yarns. Compound weave structure D fragments are solid colored fabrics, with differently colored y a m s in the warp and weft directions. All the simple weave structures C, and E are solid color fabrics. Pattern designs eight, nine, eleven, sixteen, and eighteen have differently colored yarns in the warp and weft direction. Pattern designs four, six, seven, and nineteen have the same color y a m s in both the warp and weft direction. In these cases, yarn dyed yarns are indicated by the different colored yarns of the selvages. Pattern 112 Plate XII. Pattern Design 17 #06.67.24.127 Lifesize Photograph Magnified 1.59 Times for Presentation Fabric Structure D 113 ¥ ■ y , 114 Plate XIV, Pattern Design 22 #06.67.24.209 Lifesize Photograph Magnified 1.49 Times for Presentation Fabric Structure F 115 Plate XV. Pattern Design 22 #06.67.24.209 IX Photograph Magnified 7.47 Times for Presentation Fabric Structure F 116 design fifteen has yarns which seem to blend from reddish purple to blue in both directions but the yarn colors are different in the warp and weft direction. Micrographs of each of the fragments taken at IX magnification were projected onto a wall in order to measure the degree to which the weft yarns deviated from a ninety degree angle to the warp yarns (fabric grain). Average fabric grain measurements range from .05 degrees to 5.33 degrees with the mode average of 3.00 degrees and 4.50 degrees. For this examination only two measurements per fragment could be made. In one instance only one measurement was able to be done and in two cases, no measurements were able to be done (see Table 8). 117 Table 8. Summary of Fabric Grain. Pattern Total * of Design Observations Mean, degrees Sd" 1 6 2.16 1.94 2 5 1.60 2.30 3 6 2.17 1.83 4 2 3.00 .00 5 16 2.56 1.03 6 12 1.42 1.51 7 12 5.33 2.81 8 8 0.50 .93 9 2 4.50 .71 10 8 1.63 1.41 11 2 4.50 3.54 12 2 3.50 2.12 15 8 2.75 2.55 16 6 2.33 .52 17 1 1.00 .89 18 38 3.61 2.16 19 12 2.58 1.62 21 0 ** 22 6 3.00 2.53 27 0 * * Total 152 Note. An indicates missing values. *Sd = standard deviation. Fabric thickness was measured in inches and then converted to centimeters in order to be consistent with other measurements in this study. These average fabric thicknesses range from .0203 cm. to .1524 cm. (see Table 9). 118 Table 9. Summary of Fabric Thickness, Pattern Total # of Design Observations Mean, cm. Sd* 1 15 .1524 .004 2 20 .1379 .005 3 15 .0429 .001 4 5 .0203 .001 5 40 .0490 .002 6 30 .0300 .001 7 30 .0221 .002 8 20 .0366 .001 9 5 .0378 .001 10 20 .0257 .002 11 5 .0279 .002 12 20 .0404 .001 15 20 .0259 .001 16 15 .0279 .001 17 15 .0241 .001 18 95 .0354 .001 19 30 .0215 .001 21 5 .0331 .001 22 15 .0352 .001 27 5 .0296 .001 Total 425 *Sd = standard deviation. The average number of warp y a m s (fabric count) per 2.54 centimeters range from 153.30 to 425.70 with the mode average of 155.60. The average number of weft yarns (fabric count) per 2.54 centimeters range from 52.93 to 121.20 (see Table 10). 119 Table 10. Summary of Fabric Count in 2.54 Centimeters. Pattern Total # of Warp Weft Design Observations Mean Sd* Mean Sd* 1 15 383.47 4.44 77.47 1.06 2 20 380.80 8.37 80.30 5.01 3 15 206.00 1.59 52.93 1.83 4 5 155.60 3.91 93.60 4.28 5 40 361.03 4.68 72.65 5.42 6 30 155.90 5.04 87.23 3.76 7 30 153.80 2.76 109.06 5.41 8 20 178.00 6.31 86.60 4.37 9 5 155.60 7.54 67.40 3.58 10 20 181.10 4.47 97.95 13.43 11 5 180.80 3.11 116.20 2.59 12 20 425.70 4.51 86.65 3.47 15 20 190.60 6.30 98.95 2.72 16 15 182.07 2.60 100.93 2.15 17 15 186.00 4.41 100.33 13.97 18 95 182.85 2.76 121.20 9.24 19 30 153.30 3.21 111.43 5.33 21 5 417.60 8.76 81.40 0.89 22 15 370.87 6.50 101.47 2.75 27 5 368.40 7.27 94.80 4.38 Total 425 *Sd = standard deviation Not all the fabrics could be measured because they lacked a second selvage. Three pattern designs were included in this study which do not have two selvages. In ten pattern designs only a portion of the fragments within patterns could be evaluated. The average fabric width range from 45.82 cm. to 51.72 cm. (see Table 11). 120 Table 11. Suitimarv of Fabric Width. Pattern Total # of Design Observations Mean, cm. Sd* 1 0 * * 2 10 47.12 .24 3 15 48.83 .12 4 0 * * 5 20 46.02 .22 6 25 50.62 .17 7 30 50.21 .11 8 5 51.72 .08 9 5 50.58 .08 10 20 50.37 .34 11 5 51.00 .07 12 10 45.82 .06 15 5 50.32 .11 16 10 51.42 .10 17 10 50.90 .73 18 10 50.69 .26 19 10 50.38 .30 21 5 46.82 .08 22 0 ** 27 5 46.86 .05 Total 200 Note. An indicates missing values. *Sd = standard deviation. Examination of the selvages shows that two fabric structures were used for selvages; satin weave and a weft rib weave. The rib weave (grosgrain) uses two weft yarns from the body of the fabric as one weft yarn in the selvage. The satin weave selvage is found only on compound weave fabric structures, but the weft rib weave is found on both simple and compound structures. The average of selvage widths range from 4.80 cm. to 1.013 cm. with the mode average of 660 cm. (see Table 12). 121 Table 12. Summary of Evaluation of Selvage and Width. Pattern Total # of Design Observations Structure Mean, cm. Sd“ 1 15 Satin Weave .523 .00 2 20 Satin Weave .612 .10 3 15 Satin Weave .840 .05 4 5 2 Weft Rib Weave .480 .05 5 40 Satin Weave . 606 .06 6 30 2 Weft Rib Weave .427 .05 7 30 2 Weft Rib Weave 1.013 .04 8 20 2 Weft Rib Weave .660 .06 9 5 2 Weft Rib Weave . 660 .06 10 20 2 Weft Rib Weave .525 .04 11 5 2 Weft Rib Weave .500 .00 12 20 Satin Weave .530 .05 15 20 2 Weft Rib Weave .548 .05 16 15 2 Weft Rib Weave .549 .03 17 15 2 Weft Rib Weave .507 .04 18 95 2 Weft Rib Weave .582 .03 19 30 2 Weft Rib Weave .573 .08 21 5 Satin Weave .700 .00 22 15 2 Weft Rib Weave .693 .03 27 5 2 Weft Rib Weave .540 .06 Total 425 “Sd = standard deviation. Fabric Design Of the twenty pattern designs in this study, eight (40%) are conventional plant designs, and twelve (60%) are abstract geometric designs as shown in Table 13. Using Burnham's classification of pattern repeats the investigator identified seventeen (85%) pattern designs as having drop repeats with seven (41%) being drop straight and ten (59%) being drop reverse repeats. Plates XVI and XVII are an example of a drop straight repeat. Plates XVIII and XIX are 122 an example of a drop reverse repeat. Two (10%) pattern designs are straight repeats and one (5%) pattern design being reverse inverted repeat. 123 Plate XVI. Pattern Design 4 #06.65.15.8 Lifesize photograph magnified 1.43 times for presentation Drop Straight Pattern Repeat 124 Plate XVII. Pattern Design 4 #06.65.15.8 IX photograph magnified 7.47 times for presentation Drop Straight Pattern Repeat 125 Plate XVIII. Pattern Design 27 #06.67.24.218 Lifesize Photograph Magnified 1.59 Times for Presentation Drop Reverse Pattern Repeat 126 Plate XIX. Pattern Design 27 #06.67.24.218 IX Photograph Magnified 7.47 Times for Presentation Drop Reverse Pattern Repeat 127 Plates XX and XXI are an example of a straight repeat. Plates XXII and XXIII are an example of a reverse inverted repeat. Table 13. Summary of Pattern Designs. Pattern Motif Motif Pattern Design Identi. Element Repeat 1 Geometric Abstract Reverse Inverted 2 Plant Conventional Drop Reverse 3 Geometric Abstract Drop Straight 4 Plant Conventional Drop Straight 5 Geometric Abstract Drop Straight 6 Geometric Abstract Drop Reverse 7 Plant Conventional Straight 8 Plant Conventional Drop Reverse 9 Geometric Abstract Drop Straight 10 Geometric Abstract Drop Reverse 11 Geometric Abstract Drop Straight 12 Plant Conventional Drop Reverse 15 Geometric Abstract Drop Straight 16 Geometric Abstract Drop Reverse 17 Geometric Abstract Drop Reverse 18 Geometric Abstract Straight 19 Geometric Abstract Drop Reverse 21 Plant Conventional Drop Straight 22 Plant Conventional Drop Reverse 27 Plant Conventional Drop Reverse In the measurement of the space between motifs and the space between repeats, only the pattern designs which have isolated designs could be measured. Pattern designs six, ten, eleven, fifteen, seventeen, and eighteen are continuous designs with no space between motifs or repeats. Because the space between motifs and space between repeats could not then be measured for the design the notation of missing 128 Plate XX. Pattern Design 7 #06.67.24.58 Lifesize Photograph Magnified 1.59 Times for Presentation Straight Pattern Repeat 129 Plate XXI. Pattern Design 7 #06.67.24.58 IX Photograph Magnified 7.47 Times for Presentation Straight Pattern Repeat 130 Plate XXII. Pattern Design 1 #06.68.8.251 Lifesize photograph magnified 1.63 times for presentation Reverse Inverted Pattern Repeat 131 Plate XXIII. Pattern Design 1 #06.68.8.251 IX photograph magnified 7.94 times for presentation Reverse Inverted Pattern Repeat 132 values is made. Space between motifs range from .235 cm. to 4.57 cm. Space between repeats range from .200 cm. to 4.38 cm. with the mode average of .227 cm. (see Table 14). Table 14. Summary of Space Between Motifs and Repeats, Pattern Total # of Motifs Repeats Design Observations Mean, cm. Sd* Mean, cm. Sd* 1 15 .263 .05 .200 .00 2 20 1.560 .08 .640 .09 3 15 .387 .04 .227 .05 4 5 2.480 .04 .400 .00 5 40 .235 .04 .165 .04 6 30 * *** 7 30 4.573 .15 4.38 .18 8 20 3.633 .10 * * 9 5 .300 .00 * * 10 20 * *** 11 5 ** * * 12 20 1.625 .08 .535 .07 15 20 * * ** 16 15 .973 .04 .227 .05 17 15 ** * * 18 95 *** * 19 30 2.352 .05 . 868 .06 21 5 1.900 .00 .800 .00 22 15 5.000 .09 .493 .05 27 5 2.800 .00 1.900 .00 Total 425 Note. An indicates a continuous or overlapping pattern, no measurement could be taken. *Sd = standard deviation. The Pantone Professional Color System was used for the initial categorization of color. Examination shows that nine (45%) pattern designs have background colors of shades of blue, five (25%) have shades of black, four (20%) have a rose or pink color, and one (5%) has brown. Pattern designs 133 have been divided into sub-groups (a), (b), and (c) based on the different colors identified as background color or pattern color (see Table 15). 134 Table 15. Summary of Pantone Assignment of Color for Background and Pattern. Background Pattern Pattern Pantone Pantone Pantone Pantone Design N Color * Color Color # Color 1 3 18-2525 Magenta 19-0000 Raven Haze 19-2047 Sangria 18-4334 Mediterranean Blue 18-0422 Loden Green 12-0605 Angora 14-1118 Beige 2 4 18-2525 Magenta 19-0000 Raven Haze 19-4044 Limoges 12-0605 Angora 3 3 19-4035 Dark Blue 13-0932 Cornsilk 4 1 19-4039 Delft 19-4039 Delft 5(a) 4 19-4035 Dark Blue 16-1257 Sun Orange 17-2031 Fuchsia Rose 5(b) 2 19-4035 Dark Blue 15-1257 Sun Orange 12-0605 Angora 5(c) 2 19-4035 Dark Blue 12-0605 Angora 17-2031 Fuchsia Rose 6(a) 3 19-3935 Deep 19-3935 Deep Cobalt Cobalt 6(b) 2 19-3925 Patriot 19-3925 Patriot Blue Blue 6(c) 1 19-4127 Midnight 19-4127 Midnight 7 6 16-3110 Smoky 16-3110 Smoky Grape Grape 8 4 15-2210 Orchid 15-2210 Orchid Smoke Smoke 9 1 19-0405 Green 19-0405 Green Black Black 10(a) 2 19-4035 Dark Blue 19-4035 Dark Blue 10(b) 1 19-3935 Deep 19-3935 Deep Cobalt Cobalt 10(c) 1 19-4039 Delft 19-4039 Delft 11 1 19-4039 Delft 19-4039 Delft 12(a) 3 19-0405 Green 19-1314 Seal Brown Black 12(b) 1 19-4234 Ink Blue 12-5202 Turtledove 17-1553 Paprika 17-2036 Magenta 19-0608 Black Olive 15 4 19-3714 Navy 19-3714 Navy 16 3 19-4035 Dark Blue 19-4035 Dark Blue 135 Table 15 continued Background Pattern Pattern Pantone Pantone Pantone Pantone Design N Color # Color Color # Color 17 3 19-3935 Deep 19-3935 Deep Cobalt Cobalt 18(a) 14 19-4127 Midnight 19-4127 Midnight 18(b) 2 19-3935 Deep 19-4035 Deep Cobalt Cobalt 18(c) 3 19-3935 Deep 19-3714 Navy Cobalt 19(a) 1 19-0000 Raven 19-4329 Corsair 19(b) 5 19-0000 Raven 19-0000 Raven 21 1 19-0303 Jet Black 12-0605 Angora 18-2043 Raspberry Sorbet 14-1014 Gravel 22 3 19-1321 Deep Red 19-4104 Ebony Brown 13-0939 Golden Cream 17-0336 Peridot 17-1740 Claret Red 27 1 19-0608 Black 17-0330 Turtle Green Olive 19-2024 Rhododendron 12-0910 Lamb's Wool 136 Hunter lab L, a, b and CIELAB L*, a*^, b* values of the background color were obtained. Tables 16 and 17 provide a comparison between the HunterLab L, a, b and CIELAB L*, a*, b* values and the Pantone background color notations. Because different colors may have been identified as the background or as the pattern, the tables reflect the pattern number plus an (a), (b), or (c) with the corresponding colors. The Hunterlab L, a, b and CIELAB L*, a*, b* values are comparable colorimetric scales with CIELAB values slightly higher. Average "L" readings range from 15.03 to 46.28, indicating that the background colors are predominately dark. Nine subsets of the pattern designs have "a" values ranging from -.10 to -2.48 which indicated a slightly more green coloration than red coloration. Twenty-nine subsets of the pattern designs have "a" values ranging from .03 to .14.02 indicating a slightly more red than green coloration. Average "b" values range from 1.75 to -16.90 with the majority being negative numbers, indicating the tendency to more blue than yellow coloration. 137 Table 16. WLUlUUCLi. V Ui. OCIwA.AJL WUliU wWJLw.LS« XJ • Cl* >J OUXVJX. XlUC UX VC1XVIC70* Pattern Mean Mean Mean Design n- 'L' Sd^ 'a' Sd'= 'b' Sd'= 1 warp 15 15.03 1.45 8.03 1.01 -1.00 .00 weft 14.63 1.19 7.73 1.10 -1.00 .20 2 warp 20 26.87 9.81 14.02 9.54 -1.63 5.92 weft 26.10 9.83 13.70 9.26 1.75 6.01 3 warp 15 20.46 .64 0.03 .38 -6.37 1.93 weft 20.27 .64 0.03 .29 -6.00 1.82 4 warp 5 19.58 .23 0.54 .05 -8.82 .13 weft 19.84 .28 0.50 .07 -8.90 .12 5(a) warp 30 21.40 1.63 0.35 1.09 -14.93 1.34 (a) weft 20.80 1.58 0.52 1.16 -13.93 1.09 5(b) warp 10 18.35 .07 2.90 .00 -14.35 .07 (b) weft 17.75 .07 3.00 .00 -13.70 .14 6(a) warp 15 19.23 .81 0.90 1.25 -9.27 1.47 (a) weft 19.43 .74 0.90 1.25 -9.30 1.49 6(b) warp 10 19.60 .28 0.70 .14 -9.95 .50 (b) weft 19.50 .00 0.75 .07 -9.95 .50 6(c) warp 5 19.88 .28 -0.12 .18 -10.44 .27 (c) weft 20.22 .19 -0.10 .10 -10.64 .18 7 warp 30 34.91 .64 11.40 .23 -6.52 .33 weft 35.25 .60 11.48 .19 -6.63 .50 8 warp 20 46.03 .68 10.20 .61 -2.43 .37 weft 46.28 .56 10.23 .67 -1.32 2.51 9 warp 5 16.32 .24 -0.88 .08 -0.92 .04 weft 16.44 .05 -0.86 .11 -0.82 .04 10(a) warp 10 21.10 1.56 0.60 .85 -16.90 1.41 (a) weft 20.90 1.41 0.60 .85 -16.75 1.34 10(b) warp 5 20.18 .19 -0.16 .28 -11.98 .34 (b) weft 20.04 .09 -0.12 .35 -12.10 .90 10(c) warp 5 21.98 .08 1.06 .13 -15.52 .22 (c) weft 22.02 .08 1.00 .14 -15.74 .31 11 warp 5 20.66 .33 -0.26 .05 -14.20 .50 weft 20.82 .28 -0.16 .09 -14.04 .34 12(a) warp 15 15.27 .06 -0.73 .05 -0.83 .11 (a) weft 14.83 .15 -0.70 .10 -0.83 .11 12(b) warp 5 24.86 .96 -2.88 .55 -14.26 1.23 (b) weft 24.36 1.04 -2.48 .25 -13.46 .61 15 warp 20 16.46 .17 4.15 .13 -7.20 .36 weft 16.75 .19 4.18 .15 -7.28 .26 16 warp 15 22.33 .20 -0.83 .15 -15.87 .06 weft 20.63 .15 -0.83 .06 -15.90 .17 17 warp 15 23.46 .84 0.67 .21 -11.13 .65 weft 23.27 .75 0.77 .15 -11.23 .30 18(a) warp 70 19.78 .62 -1.04 .25 -8.29 .43 (a) weft 17.21 10.93 -1.04 .28 -8.31 .44 138 Table 16 continued Pattern Mean Mean Mean Design n* •L' Sd*" 'a' Sd*" 'b' Sd*" 18(b) warp 10 16.90 .14 0.55 .07 -9.00 .14 (b) weft 17.30 .14 0.60 .00 -9.24 .07 18(c) warp 15 18.70 .35 2.27 .12 -9.17 .38 (c) weft 18.93 .45 2.27 .25 -9.20 .50 19(a) warp 5 23.90 .30 -0.88 .08 0.10 .45 (a) weft 24.06 .38 -0.92 .08 0.08 .34 19(b) warp 25 21.12 .76 0.00 .17 1.08 .87 (b) weft 21.30 .74 0.06 .15 1.06 .89 21 warp 5 16.76 .09 -0.64 .22 -2.60 .07 weft 16.34 .11 -0.40 .07 -2.50 .10 22 warp 15 22.23 .23 6.37 .12 0.67 .05 weft 21.53 .15 6.00 .17 0.63 .06 27 warp 5 17.54 .38 0.20 .07 1.40 .17 weft 16.90 .23 0.14 .05 1.22 .10 Total 425 *n = total number of observations. ‘’Sd = standard deviation. 139 Table 17. Summary of Background Colors. L. b- Values. Pattern Mean Mean Mean Design n* • L*t Sd* ’a*’ Sd* 'b~' Sd* 1 warp 15 16.55 3.22 13.14 1.98 -1.86 .68 weft 16.13 2.01 12.91 1.52 -1.84 .59 2 warp 20 31.65 10.80 18.13 10.76 2.72 8.48 weft 30.74 10.93 17.82 10.57 3.01 8.71 3 warp 15 24.27 .81 0.07 .53 -9.41 2.13 weft 24.00 .92 0.06 .42 -8.89 2.21 4 warp 5 23.10 .29 0.94 .05 -12.64 .17 weft 23.48 .41 0.86 .11 -12.70 .14 5(a) warp 30 25.48 2.10 0.57 1.84 -19.28 1.23 (a) weft 24.72 2.12 0.87 1.89 -18.30 1.04 5(b) warp 10 21.40 .14 4.80 .00 -19.05 .07 (b) weft 20.65 .07 4.95 .07 -18.50 .14 6(a) warp 15 22.63 1.08 1.50 2.11 -13.20 1.78 (a) weft 22.93 1.00 1.50 2.11 -13.30 1.76 6(b) warp 10 23.10 .42 1.15 .21 -14.05 .50 (b) weft 23.05 .07 1.25 .21 -14.00 .56 6(c) warp 5 23.50 .32 -0.18 .26 -14.54 .33 (c) weft 23.96 .24 -0.10 .16 -14.76 .22 7 warp 30 41.50 .76 14.77 .44 -8.24 1.72 weft 41.88 .83 14.86 .34 -8.59 .69 8 warp 20 53.16 .75 12.24 .74 -3.06 .76 weft 53.41 .63 12.28 .82 -3.16 .77 9 warp 5 18.64 .34 -1.58 .08 -1.60 .10 weft 18.84 .05 -1.54 .19 -1.40 .07 10(a) warp 10 25.10 1.98 0.95 1.34 -21.30 1.56 (a) weft 24.85 1.91 0.95 1.34 -21.20 1.56 10(b) warp 5 23.94 .28 -0.26 .51 -16.52 .69 (b) weft 23.74 .08 -0.24 .58 -16.42 .98 10(c) warp 5 26.24 .13 1.68 .13 -19.82 .21 (c) weft 26.38 .18 1.56 .18 -20.04 .31 11 warp 5 24.54 .47 -0.38 .08 -18.60 .50 weft 28.74 .38 -0.36 .15 -18.50 .37 12(a) warp 15 17.16 .06 -1.36 .12 -1.53 .21 (a) weft 16.53 .20 -1.30 .10 -1.53 .21 12(b) warp 5 29.88 1.21 -4.56 .88 -18.20 1.23 (b) weft 29.26 1.29 -3.94 .43 -17.16 .68 15 warp 20 18.90 .27 7.00 .28 -10.95 .69 weft 19.25 .29 7.02 .31 -11.04 .59 16 warp 15 24.14 .36 -1.37 .25 -20.35 .38 weft 24.51 .34 -1.41 .25 -20.40 .43 17 warp 15 28.15 .99 1.04 .48 -14.94 .74 weft 27.89 .84 1.18 .40 -15.03 .41 18(a) warp 70 23.39 .83 -1.77 .42 -11.97 .54 (a) weft 23.91 .85 -1.76 .43 -11.96 .55 140 Table 17 continued Pattern Mean Mean Mean Design n* •L*' Sd‘= 'a*' Sd*" «b*» Sd*" 18(b) warp 10 19.50 .14 1.00 .14 -13.20 .14 (b) weft 20.00 .14 1.10 .00 -13.45 .07 18(c) warp 15 21.90 .44 3.73 .15 -13.23 .42 (c) weft 22.30 .60 3.67 .35 -13.20 .60 19(a) warp 5 28.66 .39 -1.11 .54 0.16 .74 (a) weft 28.88 .45 -1.17 .59 0.12 .56 19(b) warp 25 25.12 .94 -0.02 .26 1.86 1.56 (b) weft 25.34 .96 -0.00 .29 1.80 1.60 21 warp 5 19.30 .12 -1.12 .36 -4.40 .12 warp 18.64 .18 -0.74 .11 -4.26 .11 22 warp 15 26.60 .45 9.62 .28 1.14 .11 weft 25.68 .36 9.17 .26 1.07 .12 27 warp 5 20.34 .49 0.30 .12 2.58 .39 weft 19.42 .30 0.26 .13 2.32 . 44 Total 425 *n = total number of observations. ^Sd = standard deviation. Discussion. From the examination of the fabric structure and fabric design it can be inferred that the Harmonists manufactured both simple woven patterned silk fabrics and compound woven patterned silk fabrics equally well since the pattern designs seem to be divided equally between the two types of structures. The Harmonist also used two different structures for their selvages. The grosgrain (rib weave) type appeared more common because it was found on both fabric structures. The satin weave selvage construction was found only on compound structures. 141 Pattern designs fit into two categories; conventional plant and abstract geometric. Even with the predominance of geometric designs in this sample the Harmonist showed a great interest in floral designs. This could be related to the emphasis the Harmonists gave to flowers. The fact that the center of town forms the Great House Garden also supports the concept of the Harmonist interest in flowers. Floral patterns were popular in the mid-nineteenth century for men's waistcoats (vests) and for women's dresses (Boucher, 1987; Payne, 1965) There does not seem to be a relationship between fabric structure and the pattern design categories. Plant and geometric designs can be found in both the simple weave structures and the compound weave structures. There also does not seem to be a relationship among the type of pattern repeat, pattern design or fabric structure. The types of repeats can be found in both structures. There is, however, a relationship between continuous/isolated designs with compound weave structures. All compound weave structures with supplementary warp or weft y a m s are isolated designs. This does not hold for compound weave structures that have complementary yams. In this case the designs are continuous. There does not appear to be a relationship as to continuous or isolated designs in simple weave stmctures, both can be found. 142 In an examination of all three attributes, the silk staple and cotton weft yarns are found in the compound structures where the base fabric is satin. The reason for the staple y ams could be that the Harmonists needed thicker (bulky) yarns for the weft in order to have a longer float for the warp y a m s and this could be achieved more easily and with less fiber by the use of cotton or silk staple. The unknown c m s t found on some weft yarns could have also increased the thickness of the yarns needed to stabilize a structure with long floats in the warp direction. From the six fabric structures using the stylistic and structural characteristics of fiber appearance, yarn stmcture (warp and weft), motif, pattem repeats, isolated/continuous designs, and selvage stmcture, eighteen different fabric design constmctions were found. Table 18 summaries these findings. The differences between the eighteen fabric design constmctions may be found in as little as one characteristic such as one design having S twist in the ply yarn and another having Z twist. Other differences may be found in the type of motif, type of pattern repeat, how many ply y a m s were used in one set of yams, and whether there is cmsting on the weft yarns. There is only one fabric stmcture "D" (compound weave with complementary warp), in which all of the characteristics are the same for each pattern design. Fabric stmctures "E" and "F" each have only one pattem design in the fabric 143 structure. There is only a slightly higher number of simple weave fabric design constructions than compound fabric design constructions indicating they could manufacture both fabric structures. All of these differences show thought and planning on the part of the Harmonists in creating the textile. Ikk Table 18. Stylistic and Structural Characteristics bv Fabric Structure. Compound Weave Structures Fabric Structure A (Supplementary Warp) Pattern Design 1 Warp: filament, single, S twist, smooth fiber appearance Weft: filament, single/2 ply, Z ply twist, smooth fiber appearance Motif : Geometric Abstract Pattern Repeat: Reverse Inverted Isolated/Continuous: Isolated Selvage Structure: Satin Weave Pattern Design 2 Warp: filament, single, S twist, smooth fiber appearance Weft: filament, single/2 ply, Z ply twist, smooth fiber appearance Motif : Plant Conventional Pattem Repeat : Drop Reverse Isolated/Continuous: Isolated Selvage Structure : Satin Weave Fabric Structure B (Supplementary Weft) Pattern Designs 3 and 5 Warp: filament, 2 ply, S ply twist, smooth fiber appearance Weft: filament/staple*, single, Z twist, crusted fiber appearance Motif : Geometric Abstract Pattem Repeat: Drop Straight Isolated/ Continuous: Isolated Selvage Stmcture : Satin Weave Pattem Design 12 Warp: filament, 2 ply, S ply twist, smooth fiber appearance Weft: filament, single, Z twist, cmsted fiber appearance Motif : Plant Conventional Pattem Repeat: Drop Reverse Isolated/Continuous: Isolated Selvage Stmcture: Satin Weave 145 Table 18 continued Pattern Design 21 Warp: filament, 2 ply, S ply twist, smooth fiber appearance Weft: filament, single, Z twist, crusted fiber appearance Motif : Plant Conventional Pattern Repeat: Drop Straight Isolated/Continuous: Isolated Selvage Structure : Satin Weave Pattern Design 27 Warp: filament, 2 ply, Z ply twist, smooth fiber appearance Weft: filament, single, smooth fiber appearance Motif: Plant Conventional Pattem Repeat: Drop Reverse Isolated/Continuous: Isolated Selvage Structure: Weft Rib Weave Fabric Structure D (Complementary Warp) Pattern Designs 10 and 17 Warp: filament, (3) 2 ply, S ply twist, smooth fiber appearance Weft: filament, single, Z twist, smooth fiber appearance Motif : Geometric Abstract Pattem Repeat: Drop Reverse Isolated/Continuous: Continuous Selvage Structure : Weft Rib Weave Fabric Stmcture F (Supplementary Weft) Pattem Design 22 Warp: filament, (3) 2 ply, S ply, smooth fiber appearance Weft: filament, single, Z twist, smooth fiber appearance Motif : Plaint Conventional Pattern Repeat: Drop Reverse Isolated/Continuous: Isolated Selvage Stmcture : Weft Rib Weave 146 Table 18 continued Simple Weave Structures Fabric Structure C Pattern Design 4 Warp: filament, 2 ply, S ply twist, smooth fib.gr appearance Weft: filament, single Z twist, smooth fiber appearance Motif : Plant Conventional Pattern Repeat: Drop Straight Isolated/Continuous: Isolated Selvage Structure: Weft Rib Weave Pattern Design 16 Warp: filament, 2 ply, S ply twist, smooth fiber appearance Weft: filament, single Z twist, smooth fiber appearance Motif : Geometric Abstract Pattem Repeat : Drop Reverse Isolated/Continuous: Isolated Selvage Structure: Weft Rib Weave Pattem Design 7 Warp: filament, single, S twist, smooth fiber appearance Weft: filament, single, Z twist, smooth fiber appearance Motif : Plant Natural Pattern Repeat: Straight Isolated/Continuous: Isolated Selvage Stmcture : Weft Rib Weave Pattern Design 19 Warp: filament, single, S twist, smooth fiber appearance Weft: filament, single, Z twist, smooth fiber appearance Motif : Geometric Abstract Pattern Repeat: Drop Reverse Isolated/Continuous: Isolated Selvage Stmcture : Weft Rib Weave Pattem Design 6 Warp: filament, (2) 2 ply, S ply, smooth fiber appearance Weft: filament, single, Z twist, smooth fiber appearance Motif : Geometric Abstract Pattem Repeat: Drop Reverse Isolated/Continuous: Continuous Selvage Stmcture; Weft Rib Weave 147 Table 18 continued Pattern Design 9 Warp: filament, (2) 2 ply, S ply, smooth fiber appearance Weft: filament, single, Z twist, crusted fiber appearance Motif : Geometric Abstract Pattern Repeat: Drop Straight Isolated/Continuous: Isolated Selvage Structure : Weft Rib Weave Pattern Design 8 Warp: filament, 2 ply, Z ply twist, smooth fiber appearance Weft: filament, single, S twist, smooth fiber appearance Motif : Plant Conventional Pattern Repeat: Drop Reverse Isolated/Continuous: Isolated Selvage Structure : Weft Rib Weave Pattem Design 11 Warp: filament, 2 ply/single, S ply twist, smooth fiber appearance Weft: filament, single, Z twist, smooth fiber appearance Motif : Geometric Abstract Pattem Repeat: Drop Straight Isolated/Continuous : Continuous Selvage Stmcture : Weft Rib Weave Pattem Design 15 Warp: filament, 2 ply, S ply, smooth fiber appearance Weft: filament, single, S/Z twist smooth fiber appearance Motif : Geometric Abstract Pattern Repeat: Drop Straight Isolated/Continuous : Continuous Selvage Stmcture : Weft Rib Weave 148 Table 18 continued Fabric Structure E Pattem Design 18 Warp: filament, 2 ply, S ply twist, smooth fiber appearance Weft: filament, single, Z twist, crusted fiber appearance Motif : Geometric Abstract Pattem Repeat : Straight Isolated/Continuous: Continuous Selvage Structure: Weft Rib Weave Note. indicated cotton and/or silk staple Testing Sub-hvpothesis 1 The purpose of research sub-hypothesis 1 was to evaluate the technical skill of the Harmonists in silk cultivation and manufacture. Research sub-hypothesis 1 addresses consistency in level of precision in the production of fiber, yarn, and fabric stmcture. The consistent level of precision in physical attributes of fiber, yarn, and fabric was tested in several ways. In order to compare variability among pattem designs the measurements of the physical attributes were standardized as defined in the method section of this dissertation. Variances of the standardized data were plotted by attribute and by pattern. These plots are presented in Appendix H. The results will be discussed with the table of the pooled estimates of the pattern variances. In another analysis, a Bartlett’s test of equality of variances was performed using the standardized fragment variances to test the statistical hypothesis at alpha = 149 .001. The null hypothesis stated that the fragment variances within a pattem design were equal. The alternative hypothesis stated that the fragment variances within a pattern design were not equal. For the attributes of warp fiber width, weft yarn twist, weft fabric count, fabric width, warp ”L*" values, and weft "a*" values, the researcher failed to reject the null hypothesis for all patterns. There were no differences in the variances within a pattem design across all patterns. For the attributes of weft fiber width, warp yarn twist, grain, fabric thickness, warp fabric count, selvage width, space between motifs, space between pattern repeats, warp "a*" values, warp "b*" values, weft "L*" values, and weft "b*” values, the null hypothesis was rejected in some of the pattern designs. There was a statistically significant difference in the variances within a pattern design with respect to these attributes. Table 19 indicates the attributes and pattem design in which the variances within a pattem are not equal. The largest number of pattem designs (nine) in which the fragment variances were not equal within a pattern is for the attribute warp yarn twist. Two attributes of selvage width and warp "b*" values each have five pattem designs in which their fragment variances within a pattem were not equal. Five attributes of weft fiber width, fabric thickness, warp fiber count, and Table 19. Bartlett's Test for Equality of Variance. Pattern Fiber Width Y a m Twist Fabric Count Fabric Warp Waft Design Warp Weft Warp Weft Grain Thick. Warp Weft Width Selv. Motifs Repeats L* a* b* L"* a* b" 1 X X 2 X X 3 ft 5 X X X 6 X X 7 X X X 8 9 10 X 11 12 X X X X X X 15 X 16 X 17 X 18 X X X 19 X X 21 22 X 27 Mote. X is significant where p < .001 M ui O 151 weft "L*" values each had one pattern design in which the fragment variances within a pattern were not equal. For the further analyses, the fragment variances within a pattern design had to be equal for a particular attribute. The pattern design and corresponding attribute in which the variances within a pattern were not equal were dropped from subsequent tests. If fragments within a pattern design have the same variance, then this variance is referred as (common) pattern variance. For the third analysis, a pooled estimate of the common pattern variance was obtained for each pattern within which the fragment variances were equal as described in the method. The pooled estimates of the common pattern variances plus the plots of the fragment variances were used to describe the differences between attributes within a pattern design. Statistical comparisons between attributes were not feasible because the attributes were not measured with the same reliability or accuracy and because different units of measure were used. The attributes were also not stochastically independent. The largest variances were observed for the attributes of warp and weft fiber width across all pattern designs. Attributes of warp and weft y a m twist, and grain were also relatively large across pattem designs. The smallest variances were found for the attributes of warp fabric count, space between motifs, space between pattern repeats. 152 warp "L*", "a*", "b"" values, and weft "L*", "a~", "b~" values across pattem designs. Variances of the attributes of fabric thickness and fabric width were also relatively small (see Table 20 & Appendix H). Table 20. Pooled Estimates of Common Pattern Variances. Pattern Fiber Width Yarn^Twist Fabric^ Count Fabric Ware Weft Design Warp Weft Warp WeftGrain Thick. Warp Weft Width Selv. Motifs Repeats L- a" b* L* a” b" 1 1.6235 .8160 X .1792 1.0301 .0570 X .0033 * X .0007 * .1180 .0773 .0093 .0317 .0230 .0056 2 .6099 .9792 X .0680 .2133 .1596 .0085 .0196 .0161 .0659 X .0010 .0365 .0100 X .0163 .0066 X 3 .6681 .7726 .3177 .1026 .0355 .0063 .0003 .0079 .0019 .0958 .0006 .0005 .0022 .0006 .0068 .0056 .0007 .0168 & .6861 .6528 .5338 .1920 * .0017 .0016 .0671 $ .0958 .0007 * .0011 .0001 .0005 .0023 .0003 .0006 5 .8865 X X .1296 .1667 .0072 .0013 .0088 .0025 .1562 .0001 X .0011 .0007 .0062 .0016 .0009 .0066 6 .7189 .9665 X .0586 X .0033 .0028 .0266 .0060 X ** .0010 .0009 .0016 .0017 .0011 .0011 7 .8070 .7670 X * 1.9556 X .0009 .0230 .0019 .0539 X .0017 .0027 X X .0053 .0016 .0027 8 .8102 .6856 .2288 .1932 .2133 .0097 .0033 .0665 .0018 .1796 .0021 * .0032 .0066 .0086 .0020 .0069 .0089 9 .6957 1.0771 .9913 .0680 .1067 .0066 .0062 .0329 .0018 .1637 ** .0015 .0002 .0002 .0000 .0009 .0001 10 .5052 .6038 .3631 .1330 .2933 .0051 .0021 .0812 .0115 X »« .0012 .0021 .0060 .0005 .0026 .0058 11 1.5251 .2611 .6196 .0576 2.6666 .0365 .0011 .0172 .0013 *»* .0030 .0002 .0066 .0019 .0005 .0026 12 .6957 .7017 .2678 .0528 .9599 .0125 .0025 .0266 .0007 .0260 X X .0081 X X X .0015 X 15 .3336 .3672 .2859 .7775 .0533 .0016 .0028 .0082 .0031 X ** .0006 .0011 .0068 .0002 .0012 .0061 16 .5719 .6678 .2033 .0616 * .0011 .0007 .0101 .0010 .0319 .0005 X .0016 .0008 .0028 .0013 .0016 .0033 17 .6321 1.3273 X .0320 .0711 .0036 .0017 .0163 .0137 .0076 ** .0030 .0036 .0053 .0016 .0036 .0025 18 .8608 .6631 X .3769 X .0031 .0008 .0226 .0019 .0216 ** .0029 .0016 X .0032 .0016 .0018 19 1.3917 .5875 X .1232 .5866 .0016 .0095 .0258 .0165 X .0003 .0011 .0020 .0003 X .0018 .0003 .0023 21 .1166 2.5658 .2288 .1363 » .0007 .0085 .0021 .0018 ** * .0002 .0029 .0026 .0006 .0003 .0002 22 .8770 .3373 X .0320 .0711 .0022 .0036 .0127 * .0399 .0027 .0010 .0023 .0018 .0002 .0015 .0008 .0003 27 .3813 1.6035 .1535 * * .0013 .0058 .0696 .0007 .1637 «* .0032 .0003 .0027 .0012 .0006 .0036 Note. missing values Note. "X" no equality of fragment variance within pattern H* cn W 154 For the fourth analysis, a comparison was made between the pattern variances for a single physical attribute. Each null hypothesis states that the pattern variance does not differ from the minimum pattern variance for a single physical attribute. The corresponding alternative hypothesis states that the pattern variance was greater than the minimum pattern variance for a single physical attribute. An F-test was calculated to test the null hypothesis at alpha = .05. Since multiple hypotheses were used, Kimball's Inequality was used to estimate the experiment-wise error rate, and an adjusted p-value, 1-(1- p)” , was calculated as stated in the method. The complete F-test tables are in Appendix I. Table 21 lists the adjusted p-values for the F-test in which the pattern variance is equal to the minimum pattern variance for an attribute. The researcher failed to reject the null hypothesis for all (100%) pattern designs for the physical attributes of warp and weft fiber width, warp yarn twist, grain and space between pattern repeats. In each of these cases the conclusion was that all pattern variances were equal to the minimum pattern variance. For the following attributes the researcher failed to reject the null hypothesis for some of the pattern designs. Weft Yarn Twist, Ho failed to reject, 15 (83%) pattern designs Fabric Thickness, Ho failed to reject, 16 (84%) pattern designs Warp Fabric Count, Ho failed to reject, 11 (42%) pattern designs Table 21. Adjusted P-Valueg from F-test of Pattern Variance Æ__Minimum Pattern Variance. Pattern Fiber Width Yarn Twist Fabric Count Zabris Warn Weft Design Warp Weft Warp Weft Grain Thick. Warp Weft Width Selv. Motifs Repeats L” a" b" L" b* 1 .232 .944 * .055 .169 .007 « .100 * * .003 * .000 .000 .012 .000 .008 .011 2 .909 .878 * .996 .815 .001 .000 .344 .001 .008 * .873 .002 .002 * .000 .000 * 3 .669 .957 .958 .425 1.000 .596 1.000 .885 .731 .000 .204 1.000 .269 .547 .043 .002 .992 .001 4 .714 .985 .773 .129 * .988 .131 .098 « .039 .035 * .714 1.000 .940 .016 1.000 .861 5 .448 * « .124 .927 .285 .063 .822 .465 .000 .100 * .693 .265 .050 .031 .962 .016 6 .586 .889 * .950 * .756 .002 .238 .114 * «* .734 .176 .346 .021 .880 .197 7 .510 .956 * * .065 * .369 .262 .769 .019 * .251 .199 * * .002 .786 .041 e .516 .978 .994 .031 .803 .182 .001 .079 .880 .000 .000 * .149 .009 .014 .016 .075 .004 9 .856 .863 .422 .997 .973 .610 .000 .182 .880 .002 ** .539 .987 1.000 1.000 .970 1.000 10 .812 .990 .940 .153 .653 .484 .011 .027 .003 «»* .613 .040 .058 .186 .384 .010 11 .245 1.000 .990 .987 .057 .023 .481 .475 .984 *** .205 .987 .063 .023 .999 .065 12 .823 .974 .990 .986 .221 .117 .005 .215 1.000 .999 *« .027 * * * .746 * 15 .966 1.000 .976 .000 1.000 .993 .003 .866 .440 *** .999 .131 .021 .672 .847 .009 16 .747 .999 .998 1.000 * 1.000 .782 .757 .998 .907 .022 * .530 .228 .112 .039 .803 .028 17 .891 .719 * i.noo .998 .720 .045 .452 .003 .005 * * .169 .016 .036 .035 .244 .048 18 .472 .981 $ .000 * .781 .365 .265 .769 1.000 ** .171 .061 $ .006 .685 .079 19 .229 .992 * .170 .321 .991 .284 .218 .001 * .442 .766 .310 .799 * .020 1.000 .054 21 1.000 .374 .992 .379 » 1.000 .000 1.000 .880 **» 1.000 .026 .999 .314 1.000 .977 22 .475 1.000 « 1.000 .998 .940 .001 .614 * .557 .000 .891 .271 .052 1.000 .030 .981 .961 27 .945 .727 1.000 * * .998 .001 .089 1.000 .002 * $ .184 .750 .152 .054 1.000 .034 Note. missing values yi U 1 156 Weft Fabric Count, He. failed to reject, 19 (95%) pattern designs Fabric Width, Ho failed to reject, 13 (76%) pattern designs Selvage Width, Ho failed to reject, 4 (37%) pattern designs Space Between Motifs, Ho failed to reject, 3 (38%) pattern designs Warp "L*" Values, Ho failed to reject. 17 (85%) pattern designs Warp "a*" Values, Ho failed to reject. 12 (67%) pattern designs Warp '»b*” Values, Ho failed to reject. 9 (60%) pattern designs Weft Values, Ho failed to reject, 5 (26%) pattern designs Weft "a*" Values, Ho failed to reject. 18 (90%) pattern designs Weft "b*" Values, Ho failed to reject. 8 (44%) pattern designs In each of these cases the conclusion was that pattern variances were equal to the minimum pattern variance in some of the pattern designs. Table 22 further summarizes the findings from the adjusted p-values by listing the pattern designs in which the pattern variances are equal to the minimum pattern variance for each attribute and those pattern designs in which the pattern variances are greater than the minimum pattern variance at a significance level of p < .05. Discussion Research sub-hypothesis 1 was accepted, indicating that there is a consistent level of precision in the production of fiber, yam, and fabric in the Harmonist patterned silk textiles. Table 22. ■Comparison of Pattern Variances of Attribute to Minimum Variance of Attribute. Fiber Width Yarn Twist Fabric Count Fabric Warp Weft Warp Weft Warp Weft Grain Thick. Warp Weft Width Selv. Motifs Repeats L* a” b* L" a* b” 1 11 1 12 3 27 1 16 1 15 3 17 3 1 12 3 18 12 3 2 3 16 3 22 b 9 3 15 b Pattern 2 12 2 15 b 2 17 2 17 b 18 b 2 15 5 21 16 5 3 b 17 b 27 6 10 b 16 6 Design 1 3 15 3 16 8 3 19 3 19 5 19 5 3 16 6 27 18 19 7 5 18 5 9 15 5 17 9 with li 16 6 17 9 b 21 5 22 6 21 7 b 17 7 22 19 6 19 6 10 21 6 18 11 Variance S 17 6 IS 10 5 22 7 8 22 11 5 18 8 22 7 21 9 11 27 7 19 18 Equal to 6 IB 7 19 11 6 8 9 27 16 6 19 9 8 22 11 16 8 21 19 Minimum 7 19 8 21 12 9 9 10 18 7 21 11 9 27 15 21 9 22 21 Variance 8 21 9 22 15 10 10 12 19 8 22 12 10 16 22 10 27 22 9 22 10 27 16 11 11 15 9 27 15 11 18 27 11 10 27 11 21 12 12 16 11 16 15 19 12 8 1 2 10 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 17 1 1 Pattern 15 2 6 10 3 b 2 2 3 2 18 2 3 Design t 18 11 8 17 b 8 12 8 5 3 19 5 with 9 19 5 16 10 8 b 22 7 Variance 10 7 22 17 15 5 8 Greater 12 8 21 17 6 10 than 15 9 7 15 Minimum 17 17 8 16 Variance 21 27 11 17 22 16 27 27 5 1 7 b 7 1 1 1 2 21 1 16 7 2 12 2 2 27 6 b 6 6 27 b 17 12 7 12 Missing 5 16 22 10 7 5 18 12 Values 6 18 11 9 6 21 18 7 21 15 10 8 27 19 17 27 19 11 9 18 21 12 10 19 15 11 22 17 12 18 15 • Hate, significance level < .OS cn 158 From the examination of the pooled estimate of the variance and the plots, the investigator found that the largest variances were observed for the attributes of warp and weft fiber width across all pattern designs. The large variances in warp and weft fiber width can be accounted for in the natural variation in silk diameter. Attributes of warp and weft yarn twist, and grain were also relatively large across pattern designs. The large variances in twist may be due to the fact that little twist can be found in silk yarns normally and with the measurements taken from a removed yarn the twist may have been disturbed. Grain measurements cannot be adequately judged in that only two measurements per fragment were able to be taken. This may account for the large variances. The smallest variances were found for the attributes of warp fabric count, space between motifs, space between pattern repeats, warp ”L*", "a*", ”b*" values, and weft ”L*", "a*", "b*" values across pattern designs. Variances of the attributes of fabric thickness and fabric width were also relatively small. The small variances found for the above attributes show a consistency in the weaving and dyeing processes. Despite the variation present in fiber and yarn twist, the consistency identified at the fabric level in yarn count and color reflects control of the processing. Further support for the consistency is found in the comparison of 159 the pattern variances to the minimum pattern variance for each attribute. Table 22 shows that all pattern designs exhibit an equal degree of precision in textile production for the attributes warp and weft fiber width, warp yarn twist, grain and space between pattern repeats. For the remaining attributes the pattern designs which showed a greater degree of precision (than other pattern designs of the same attribute) achieved in textile production are listed under the pattern variance equal to the minimum pattern variance. For example; for the attribute weft yarn twist, a greater degree of precision was attained in textile production for the pattern designs one through six, nine through twelve, sixteen, seventeen, nineteen through twenty- two than in the remaining pattern designs. Table 23 shows the relationship of fabric structure to the attributes with which the pattern variances are equal to the minimum pattern variance. In this table there does not appear to be a difference between compound weave structures and simple weave structures on most attributes. There appears to be a difference between warp fabric count, warp "a**" values, and weft "b*" values. The difference between fabric structures in warp fabric count may be attributed to the fact that the base fabric in compound weaves is a satin weave and the base fabric for a simple weave is a plain weave. Table 23. Pattern Designs Where Pattern Variances are Less than or Eaual to the Minimum Pattern Variance of an Attribute Fabric Structure. Pattern Fiber Width Yarn Twist Fabric Count Fabric Waro Weft Design . Warp Weft Warp Weft Grain Thick. Warp Weft Width Selv. Motifs . Repeats L* a* b" L* a* b* A 1 XX XX X 2 X X X XX X cn B 3 XX X XXX XX X X X X X X 5 X XXX XX XX X X X 12 X X X X X X XXX X 21 X X X XX X X X X X X X 27 X X X X X X X X XX X D 10 X X X XXX X XX X 8 17 X X XXX X X X F 22 XX XXX X X X XX X X X C 4 X X X X X XX XXX XX 6 X X XX X X X XX X X 7 A X X XX X XX X 8 XX X XX X X X X 9 X X X XXX X X X XX X X X 11 X X X XX XX X X XX X X 15 XX X XX X X X X X X 16 X X X XX XX XX X XX X 19 X X XXX XX X X X X X X in E 18 XX X X X X X X X X X Note. X = significant where p < .05 o CHAPTER V PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION FOR PART II The purpose of the second part of this study was to assess the technical knowledge which the Harmonists possessed concerning raw materials, fabric production processes, and tools for successful silk sericulture and silk textile production. This assessment relied upon a primary source, the Silk Letter Book. 1842-1852 and two secondary sources edited by Karl J. R. Arndt, Economy on the Ohio 1826-1847. and George Rapp’s Years of Glorv; Economy on the Ohio 183t-1847. These two sources, edited by Arndt, which incorporate primary materials are a compilation of letters and records of The Harmony Society during their period of residence at Economy, Pennsylyania. The chapter includes the description of the correspondence and a discussion of the findings from the correspondence related to cultiyation, manufacturing, legislation, and exhibition. 161 162 Part II: Documentary Correspondence Sample A total of 121 letters from the above mentioned three volumes comprised the sample. In order to assure credibility and avoid bias in interpretations of the secondary sources, only complete letters which were written in English were used. All of the handwritten letters in English from the Silk Letter Book. 1842-1852 (seventy-seven) were used in this study. The remaining forty-four letters came from the two volumes of Karl J. R. Arndt none of which duplicated letters from the Sllk_Let_ter Book. 1842-1852. They were chosen because they were ones which dealt with silk cultivation (including distribution of silkworm eggs), manufacture (including distribution of finished textiles), legislation, and exhibition from 1826 to 1852. The Harmonists corresponded with interested individuals on silk cultivation and manufacturing within the United States. Although the majority of the correspondence was with individuals in Pennsylvania, they conducted discussions with people from the east, mid-west, and south. Table 24 shows the locations of the correspondence. 163 Table 24. Summary bv State of Correspondence. State Number Percent Pennsylvania 38 31 New York 16 13 Maryland 14 12 Kentucky 13 11 Massachusetts 12 10 Washington DC 6 5 Virginia 5 4 Georgia 4 3 Ohio 3 2 New Jersey 3 2 Michigan 2 2 Mississippi 1 1 West Virginia 1 1 Other 3 3 Total 121 100 Table 25 is a list of the correspondence used in this study. The table is organized by the location of the author or recipient. Ninety-seven letters were sent from Economy, written by various individuals of the Society. The majority of the letters (thirty-eight) were written by Romelius L. Baker, a trustee of the Society. Gertrude Rapp, directress of the silk business, wrote nineteen and George Rapp, father of the Society, fourteen. Other writers included Frederick Rapp, the adopted son of George Rapp and head of the business operations for the Society; Jacob Henrici, a trustee of the Society; and L. Wolf, a member of the Society. In twenty-two letters the authors were unknown. These unsigned letters could have been either copies or drafts of original letters. Twenty-two letters were sent to 164 the Society. Some of the prominent authors of these letters include; Joseph Ritner (Governor of Pennsylvania in 1838), T. B. Wakeman (Corresponding Secretary of the American Institute, New York), Gideon B. Smith (editor of the Journal of the American Silk Society and Rural Economist), and Thomas Henry and John A. Ewing (United States congressmen). Two letters between J. Solms and President Tyler (President of the United States) were not directed to the Society but written about the Harmonists and their silk business. They are included. 165 Table 25. Harmonist' Author/ Number Correspondent Location Recipient of Letters John Fox Alleghany PA Author 2 John Fox Alleghany PA Recipient 1 Paul Thurlo Philadelphia PA Recipient 1 J . Solms Philadelphia PA Other 1 Charles DuBouchet Philadelphia PA Recipient 1 John Clarke Harrisburg PA Recipient 2 Gov. Jos. Ritner Harrisburg PA Author 1 Gov. Jos. Ritner Harrisburg PA Recipient 2 David Maclean Springdale PA Author 1 David Maclean Springdale PA Recipient 1 Jonathan Dowthett Sharpsburg PA Recipient 2 James O'Hara Sharpsburg PA Recipient 4 Jonathan Dowthet Jamestown PA Recipient 1 William Hickman West Chester PA Recipient 1 John A. Ewing Washington PA Recipient 2 A. Fombelle Zelienople PA Recipient 6 James Gosling Pittsburgh PA Recipient 1 Seth Collom Jersey Shore PA Recipient 1 William Geddes Hartleton PA Recipient 1 Joseph H. Miller Brownsville PA Recipient 1 Jacob Armel Mount Pleasant PA Recipient 4 Leonard Kunkle Greensburg PA Recipient 1 T. B. Wakeman New York NY Author 1 T. B. Wakeman New York NY Recipient 4 Charles Payen New York NY Recipient 1 A. C. Van Epps Auburn NY Recipient 3 Lem Levan New York NY Author 2 M. Kepler New York NY Recipient 1 Samuel A. Kennedy Delaware Co NY Recipient 1 Clinton L. Fay Chautauque NY Recipient 3 President Tyler Washington DC Other 1 Thomas Henry Washington DC Author 1 Thomas Henry Washington DC Recipient 2 John Gilmore Washington DC Recipient 1 John Dickey Washington DC Recipient 1 James Cook Lowell MA Recipient 1 Charles A. Wells Boston MA Author 1 Charles A. Wells Boston MA Recipient 4 J. R. Barbour Oxford MA Recipient 6 166 Table 25 continued Author/ Number Corre spondent Location Recipient of Letters Guilford Coleman Mason City KY Recipient 1 H . P. Byram Brandenberg Ky Recipient 10 Ephrain B e a m Louisville KY Recipient 1 Hamilton Smith Louisville KY Recipient 1 H. A. Redfield Bolivar, OH Author 1 Daniel Roe Dayton OH Author 1 Mrs S. Tate Poland OH Recipient 1 Samuel Hall Princeton NJ Recipient 1 N. E. Chaffee Princeton NJ Recipient 1 George Green Belvidere NJ Recipient 1 Gideon B . Smith Baltimore MD Author 8 Gideon B . Smith Baltimore MD Recipient 6 Ross Wilkins Detroit MI Author 1 H. R. Schetterly Kalamazoo MI Recipient 1 Edwin P . Lord St. Mary's GA Author 1 Edwin P . Lord St. Mary's GA Recipient 3 L. Y. Atkins Fredericksburgh VA Recipient 5 Spencer Wall Woodville MS Recipient 1 F. H. Greer Wheeling WV Recipient 1 Levi Price Evansville Author 1 Leicester King Unknown Recipient 1 William Morton Unknown Recipient 1 Total 121 The letters which were examined could be divided into major categories of cultivation, manufacturing, legislation, and exhibition. The majority of the letters were on silk cultivation, which included the planting and growing of the 167 mulberry trees, and the buying and selling of silkworm eggs. Some of the letters which contained information concerning two or more of the topics are discussed with the pertaining areas. They comprise the "combined" group. The "information acquisition" category contains letters which do not fit into the other five categories. The correspondence contained in each of the areas will be discussed separately. Table 26 lists the nature of the correspondence. Table 26. Nature of Correspondence. Nature Number Percent Silk Cultivation 65 54 Silk Manufacturing 12 10 Silk Legislation 7 6 Silk Exhibition 20 16 Combined 4 3 Information Acquisition 13 11 Total 121 100 The purpose of research sub-hypothesis 2 was to evaluate the technical knowledge which the Harmonists held concerning raw materials, fabric production processes, and tools for successful sericulture and silk textile production. Technical knowledge was ascertained by an internal appraisal of the primary and secondary documentary evidence concerning cultivation, manufacturing, legislation, and exhibition. 168 Cultivation Much of the correspondence concerning cultivation dealt with either the selling of silkworm eggs or the purchasing of silkworm eggs by the Harmonists. In the letters, different kinds of silkworm eggs are mentioned including white, yellow, or nankeen peanut eggs, Virginia peanut eggs, mammoth sulphur, Chinese imperial, Tina and [I] Jaune Mirabelle, and mammoth white. The types of eggs that the Harmonists generally raised were Tina and [I] Jaune Mirabelle, mammoth white, and white and yellow peanut. They sold their eggs for four dollars an ounce in 1842 and three dollars an ounce in 1846. When the Harmonists requested eggs, it was stated clearing that they wanted the 'best quality' (Silk letter, n. d.). The correspondence which dealt with cultivation also listed different kinds of mulberry trees. In a letter to Hamilton Smith dated Dec 20, 1844, Mr. Baker addresses the type of mulberry trees the Harmonists grew. "The variety of mulberry we use here are as follows - 1 morus Brusa [Brura?]. 2 morus alba or White Italian. 3 morus multicaul is common. 4 morus multicaul is canton" (Silk letter, n. d., p. 11). They describe the Brus a [Brura? ] as not being a good mulberry leaf for feeding the silkworms and the multicaul is canton as a very good foliage and better than the multicaulis common because it would withstand the northern climate (Silk letter, n. d.). 169 A request made on October 12, 1844 to Alexander Fombelle shows the Harmonists interest in obtaining the best, even if they had to go overseas to purchase it. In this request George Rapp wanted to obtain from France "6 ounces of Silk Worm Eggs of the best quality & 3 of the best hygrometers (instzruments to measure the dampness of the air) [?] as they use in the cocooneries in France" (Silk letter. n. d., p.13-14). The following letter written to Mr. William C Hickman dated February 14, 1842 shows the Harmonists detailed operation in cultivation. Your favor of the 11th of january last came to hand. I have now at last found time to attend to a number of letters about the silk business which have been accumulating on my table. In reply to your inquiries, I will state that our principal cocoonery, two-story, is 25 feet wide and 57 feet long, with common board shelves. Our first crop in the spring was 5 ounces, producing 781 pounds of cocoons. After this crop, we vairied in the quantity of eggs. We raised about fifteen crops after the first, yielding from 100 to 400 pounds of cocoons; out whole crop was 4,435 pounds. The spring crops are always better than the later, or those in the fall. Our crops are mostly a week apart. We keep no account of hands employed. Our worms spun mostly at the age of 23 to 28 days. When small, we feed eight to ten times, during the day, and some were fed once in the night in order to hasten their growth. We clean them once in the first age, twice in the second, three times in the third, and once a day in the fourth. For the two first ages of the worm, we consider 80° Fahr. well adapted; afterwards from 75° to 77°. In our ice house we keep the eggs at a temperature of 40° to 50°. When taken out, we expose them to 55°, then to 60°, 65°, 70°, 75°, to 80°; in the last they hatch. They are left from two to three days in one temperature, and will by this mode require ten to twelve days after they are moved from the ice house until they hatch. We feed leaves 170 altogether. During spinning time, we give a temperature of 75" to 80". We always try to avoid a sudden change of air by using furnaces, which are very useful, especially in damp weather. Frequent feeding is advantageous in all stages, day or night. Sudden changes in temperature are very injurious to both eggs and worm, and if they are not kept warm during the spin, the cocoons will not reel well. With the exception of a few attacks of diseases among the worms, we have done very well last season; but one of them was attended with serious consequences. It is supposed the cause was in not taking sufficient care in ventilating. Yours truly, Gertrude Rapp (Silk letter, n. d., pp.1-2; Bole, 1904, p. 484). In a letter addressed to Gideon B Smith dated June 30, 1830, Frederick Rapp describes the children who do the work. He states "Females from 12 to 15 years of age, are amply sufficient to attend to the worms within doors; the leaves are gathered, and brought in by the school children after school hours" (Arndt, 1984, p. 552). A letter written to Mr. H. R. Schetterly dated Sept 26, 1845 by Gertrude Rapp addresses the issue of their unpaid labor, in this labor intensive operation as well as giving a reason for the Harmonists entering the silk business. . . .You are aware that we pay no wages to ourselves, I mean to our people, therefore we do not keep [?] of dollars fit cents, nor did we commence the Silk Business as much from a motive of mere gain as from a desire to Experiment, and to supply ourselves with our own make of Silks instead of sending to foreign Countries for it. Yet if well attended to I am satisfied it is as good a Business as most any other Branch at this time, however if you are all strangers to it you cannot expect to make much the first year or two, and a beginning on a small scale is much the safest. (Silk letter, n. d., p. 20). 171 Manufacturing Many of letters dealing with manufacturing center around reeling and twisting of the yams. The Harmonists used a Piedmont Reel with some modifications made by their mechanics. ". . .instead of the Cog wheels we use pullys and bands, and instead of wire twisters we use them of glass which are not subject to cutting, as the wire is" (Arndt, 1987, p. 500). Six reels were used in 1840 and were driven by a small steam engine (Arndt, 1987). A letter written by George Rapp to John Clarke dated January 16, 1836 details their reeling operation. . . .The Reels in use here are very simple, taken from different patterns, and simplifyed by our own mechanics, the cost for one is six Dollars. Our Reeling is all performed by Steam power. In our cotton factory we have one machine for the purpose of winding the Silk from the skeins on Bobbins, called a winding reel & the other is a throstle for twisting the Silk. It may be said that a pound of raw silk is worth from four to seven Dollars, according to quality. We have never established a price yet for cocoons, the value depends greatly on the quality & whether sold in a cured or uncured state. The reeling which requires dexterity & practice we learned without being tought; it is all important, that it should be well done, as the whole future success of manufacturing depends on it. The thread ought strictly to be kept up by an equal number of cocoons; if this is not done it will make bad silk. - A person may l e a m to reel in one, two or three days, but to become perfect & experienced it requires practice. Last year we manufactured about one thousand Dollars worth of silk goods. . .(Arndt, 1987, p. 177). Another part of Harmonist yarn production is the making of silk floss. A letter to Layton Y. Atkins dated October 21, 1845 written by R. L. Baker talks about floss. "Our 172 floss silk, pierced and double cocoons we boil, cut up with shears card, spin, and weave into goods suitable for drawers undershirts" (Silk letter, n. d., p. 23). Further discussion of pierced and double cocoons is in a letter to Clinton L. Fay dated March 8, 1843, . .all our imperfect and double cocoons and other silk tow we run through a Wool card, the Bat is afterwards cut with shears to make it the length of Short Wool, then it is carded again and spun like fine Wool, and made into coarse Shawls or stuff for underdresses" (Silk letter, n. d., p. 5). The Harmonists hired outside individuals to instruct and assist their mechanics in erecting the looms and their weavers in the weaving on the looms. In 1841, they hired a family from London for this purpose. The Harmonists only manufactured fabric from the silk they themselves raised. By 1838, the Harmonists had purchased a Jacquard loom from England (Arndt, 1987; Arndt, 1984; Silk letter, n. d.). In a letter to Governor Joseph Ritner dated August 18, 1838, George Rapp addresses his silk weaving operation and his thanks to the Governor for his part in the Pennsylvania legislature's action of a premium on silk. . . .By this opportunity I send you one silk vest pattern of a new style made here on our improved Silk Loom, which I had imported from England since I had the pleasure of seeing you at Economy; it is one of the latest Improvements in weaving silk in that country. I have been negociating for it, about three years, many difficulties were thrown in the way to prevent the exportation, as the English Custom laws, do not allow machinery to be carried to foreign Countries. The cost of said Loom and appendages exceeds five hundred Dollars, and I believe a similar one is not yet to be found 173 in any part of the U.S. and therefore I take pleasure to presenting one of the two first Vests made on it, to the Chief magistrate of the state of Penns., (wearing one of them myself) wishing sincerely that you may wear it in good health and prosperity a long time. The premium on silk raised within the state, as granted by a late act of our Legislature, tends greatly to encourage the production of that valuable commodity. I consider it a liberal one indeed, and all those engaged, or commencing to engage in the Bussiness, are greatly indebted to you for your action in recommending it. . . .Stimulated by those favs. we are now constructing a french Ribbon Loom, which will also be a new and valuable acquisition to the silk cause in this country, and altho the weaving of silk goods & ribbons will not be profitable to the manufacturer, in as much as they have to compete with all the numerous advantages of Europe & India under the present System of none protection of our G. Government, yet it is another step towards actual Independence of this nation to which every good citizen ought to contribute, until under a better genl. administration Congress may take the cause to heart and do something towards the encouragement by protection in a general way. . . (Arndt, 1987, p. 358). Legislation George Rapp solicited aid from congressmen and individuals of influence for the protection of this silk domestic industry. In a letter to W. Morton dated February 28, 1839 George Rapp shows his interest in a domestic industry in silk. . . .It is now thirteen years since I with my Grand daughter Gertrude made the beginning in the raising of the mulberry and the production & manufacture of Silk on a small scale. Having commenced without the least knowledge either in raising or manufacturing silk, we met in the course of our operations with many difficulties & in a great deal of expences. But having been 174 fully convinced, that a nation cannot be truly independent as long as it cannot produce its necessaries of life; that it cannot prosper if production does not keep pace with consumption; and that the most esential & at the same time the cheapest & most productive part of internal improvements is the improvement of internal production (or domestic industry) and believing that any new & therefore doubtfull branch of domestic industry is individually best recommended & most effectually encourages by showing in deed that the thing is possible & what & how it can be done, -being convinced of all this, neither difficulties nor expences could discourage us, nor weaken our determination to continue in so necessary & usefull a branch of business (Arndt, 1987, p. 385). Silk (enough to make a suit) from Economy was presented to President John Tyler in the hopes of soliciting his aid for protection of the domestic silk industry. The following is a thank you letter from the President dated July 16, 1841. I have to return to the Revd. Mr. Rapp through you, my sincere thanks for the beautiful and substantial fabrick of silk stuff which he has so kindly presented me -Nothing could better bespeak the industry and skill of the Society over which Mr Rapp presides, or prove more incontestably, if such proof had been wanting, the capacity of our Country for the production of Silk -we may safely indulge in the pleasing augury that the day is not distant when America will have entered successfully into competition with the older nations of the world in the production of an article which has enriched so greatly the countries when its culture has been adopted- Wishing most sincerely entire success to the laudable efforts of the Society settled at Economy. I beg leave to tender to yourself assurances of great respect. John Tyler (Arndt, 1987, pp. 555-556). A letter to Congressman Thomas Henry dated January 24, 1842 addresses the issue of a protective tariff. 175 . . .Silk Culture and manufacture is gradually gaining ground in this Country. The State of Pennsylvania acted nobly, and has given good encouragement in a Premium on Cocoons and reeled Silk, which act however will cease to be in force after the present year, it would be very desirable if Congress would do something to encourage the growing and manufacturing of Silk, in the shape of a Premium on the Silk per pound, and on the Square yard of Goods manufactured in the Country, the home Silk Grower may sooner compete with the Silk Grower of foreign Countries than the manufacturer who has to overcome all the wants of Experience, the want of Mechanics and the want of machinery. Manufactured Silk Goods have been admitted free of duty for many years past. Raw Silk imported pays 12 1/2% duty, and all silk machinery for Spinning, Twisting, Weaving etc, imported with great expenses & risk on account of prohebition in England is subject to 30 to 33% duty which we paid ourselves. This I think ought very nesseserally be reversed. Raw Silk only in case a Premium is paid, and Silk machinery might be admitted free of duty, while the manufactured Goods & Sewing Silk ought to pay 25 to 33%. By Raw Silk only such is understood which is yet in the Gum as it comes from the Reel, without being spun, twisted or coloured. . .(Arndt, 1987, pp. 577-578). Exhibition Gertrude Rapp was rewarded three times for her quality silk. Her first gold medal for silk velvet and fancy ribbon was awarded in 1839 at a silk exhibit in New York (Arndt, 1987, pp.411-412). In 1844, Gertrude won a gold medal for her silks at the Exhibition of the Charitable Mechanic Association in Boston ("The Fourth," 1844). In a letter to Mr Charles A. Wells dated August 30, 1844, Gertrude Rapp sends an invoice of the silk pieces that would be put on display at the Boston Fair. 176 Invoice of Economy Silk Goods sent to Mr. C. A. Wells Actuary No 6. Water Street Boston to wit No 1. 10 1/2 yds Ladies figured Dress Silk 1.25 per yd No 2. 1 1/4 yds figured Velvet Vesting 6.00 per yd No 3. 4 yds bird Eye Vesting 2.00 per yd No 4. 4 yds figured Satin Vesting 3.00 per yd No 5. 4 yds figured Satin Vesting 3.00 per yd No 6. 4 yds figured Satin Vesting 3.00 per yd 6 figured bordered Shawls blue. 1.50 per ps 12 White Pocket Handkerchiefs 1.12 1/2 per ps 1 floss Silk Handkerchief for Mr. Barbour (Silk letter, n. d., p. 8; Bole, 1904, p. 485). Gertrude also submitted silk goods for the October, 1844 exhibit at the American Institute in New York. In a letter to T. A. Wakeman, Corresponding Secretary of the American Institute dated September 25, 1844 an invoice was attached listing the silk pieces for exhibition. Invoice of Economy Silk Goods sent to T. A. Wakeman Corresponding Secretary of the American Institute, New York September 25, 1844. No 1. 10 yds Ladies figured Dress Silk 1.25 per yd No 2. 4 yds figured Velvet Vesting 6.00 per yd No 3. 4 yds figured Satin Vesting 3.00 per yd No 4. 4 yds figured Satin Vesting 3.00 per yd No 5. 4 yds figured Satin Vesting 3.00 per yd No 6. 4 3/4 yds Bird Eye Vesting 2.00 per yd 6 blue red border Shawls 1.50 per ps 6 white border Shawls 1.50 per ps 12 white Pocket Handkerchiefs 1,12 1/2 per ps 4 ps flowered Ribbon, 14 0/4 yds market value/yd 8 ps plain Ribbon, 127 yds market value/yd (Silk letter, n. d., p. 9; Bole, 1904, p. 485). Gertrude won a gold medal at the American Institute in 1844. In a letter dated October 13, 1845, Gertrude wrote to Mr. Wakeman about the 1845 fair. I regret that I have not been able to get up anything new this Season to send to your Fair, and to forward such specimens as were exhibited before I did not think it sufficiently interesting. It is now to late to send any thing this year. I would be pleased to get the Silk Report of last year. . . (Silk Letter, n. d., p. 22). 177 Information Acquisition The Harmonists* interest in obtaining knowledge on silk cultivation and manufacturing was enhanced by the number of reports and journals they obtained on the subject. Several letters were requests for journals including, American Silk Grower. edited by the Cheney Brothers; a silk report written by Mr. Barbour of Oxford, Massachusetts ; the proceedings of the National Convention of Silk Growers and Silk Manufacturers held in 1844 in New York; a paper called the Farmer & Mechanic published in New York; and the Le Propagateur de L*Industrie de la Soie en France (Silk letter. n. d.). Two other Journals were read by the Harmonists, Journal of the American Silk Societv and Rural Economist. edited by Gideon Smith, Baltimore Maryland; and the Burlington Silk Record, edited by Edmund Morris, Burlington, New Jersey. The Harmonists were happy to share the information they had on silk cultivation and mainufacturing. They did so in the hope of aiding the cause of a domestic silk industry. In a letter to A. C. Van Epps dated Sept 25, 1847, Gertrude explains why they stopped the practice. I am sorry to have to state: That we have for many years devoted a great deal of time to give answers to a large number of Letters on the subject of silk, but have effected very little. We have therefor come to the conclusion to discontinue any correspondence on that point. We have allways been, and still are, willing to give verbal Instruction to practical silk growers or manufacturers. . . (Silk letter, n. d., p. 31) 178 Discussion The sub-hypothesis 2 was accepted. Through the letters the necessary technical knowledge of raw materials, fabric production processes, and tools for successful sericulture and silk textile production by the Harmonists is demonstrated. The Harmonists sought out current information on the subject. This is seen in the kinds of publications they were purchasing and reading. They were aware of the political and economic problems facing the industry and made a concerted effort to aid in getting government protection for the industry with letters requesting aid from influential individuals in government. The number of letters they received requesting information and the responses they gave about their silk cultivation and manufacturing operations show the technical knowledge they possessed about this industry. Also, their willingness to share the information demonstrates the dedication and commitment they made to silk cultivation and manufacturing. They invested time and money in order to master the techniques necessary for successful sericulture and silk manufacturing. The quality of their finished product is evident by the awards which Gertrude won and in the quality of the raw materials and machinery they purchased. CHAPTER VI INTERPRETATION OF FINDINGS The objectives of this study were to identify the stylistic and structural characteristics of a collection of Harmonist patterned silk textiles and to assess the technical knowledge and skill of the Harmonists in sericulture and silk textile production. These objectives were achieved through the examination of a collection of textile fragments from Old Economy Village and the examination of the personal and business correspondence of the Harmonists pertaining to silk. In this chapter, the findings from both phases of the study will be considered in light of the research question. A material cultural approach, where artifacts are used as primary sources of information in order to make reference about a culture, was employed for this study. Fleming’s (1974) proposed model, for material culture studies, "Artifact Study," was the framework for this research project. The model's artifactural properties of history, material, construction, and design defined the organization of data and their study. Using the documentary information in the form of business and personal correspondence, the 179 180 investigator compiled a history of the Harmonists and their industry. The raw material or fiber (material properties, Fleming's model) was identified through microscopy. The y a m and fabric structures (construction properties), design, and color (design properties) were identified through macroscopic, photographic, and colorimetric techniques. The operations, from Fleming's model, used to study the artifacts' properties in this research include identification, evaluation, and cultural analysis. The patterned silk textiles were identified as to design, color, fiber content, and yarn and fabric structure. The technical skill and knowledge of the Harmonists in cultivating and manufacturing silk were evaluated using the physical attributes of fiber, yarn, fabric, and color and the compilation of information about their raw materials, tools, and skilled labor pool. From the above information cultural inferences were made as to their success in cultivating and manufacturing silk in the nineteenth century. Most obviously the Harmonists cultivated and manufactured quality silk textile products. This statement is supported by two nineteenth century reports about the Harmonist textiles and is further indication of the cultural value placed upon perfection. The first report from The Silk Culturist states, "The specimens of satins and cravats they gave us, are decidedly the best we have seen of 181 American manufacture, and are pronounced by competent judges to be equal to foreign" (Comstock, 1836, p. 147). Another report found in the Journal of the American Silk Society and Rural Economist comments, "Each of these samples is pronounced by good judges first rate goods of their kinds, and far superior in web and texture to goods usually imported" (Smith, 1839, p. 101). The quality of the Harmonist textiles can also be seen in the three awards won by Gertrude Rapp for her silk specimens, one in 1839, and two in 1844. From the program of The Fourth Exhibition of ■the_Massachusetts Charitable Mechanic Association in Boston, Gertrude Rapp's silk pieces were praised. 17. Miss Gertrude Rapp, Economy, Penn. Invoice of Silk. The Ladies' Figured Dress Silk was of good quality and well manufactured. The Figured Velvet Vesting was an elegant specimen of the success in manufacturing Silks in the United States, the Birds'-eye and Satin Vestings, were also worthy of commendation. The White Silk Handkerchiefs, for gentlemen, were of superior manufacture. Every article exhibited in this lot did much credit to the manufacture ("The Fourth," 1844, p. 58). Analysis of the physical attributes supports the assessment reported in the primary documents. The Harmonists produced finely woven fabrics. Further the results of the examination of the physical attributes demonstrate that the Harmonists had the necessary skill for successful sericulture and silk textile production. The combined evidence derived from the examination of textile fragments and the analysis of the correspondence shows that the Harmonists were able to reel raw silk 182 filaments (through steam power), spin (waste silk), and make floss silk. It also revealed that the Harmonists could combine spun cotton yarns, spun silk yarns, and tow silk to create one weft unit in a fabric structure. Through physical examination of the textiles and the documentary evidence, the investigator found no indication that a weighting agent was used. Weighting agents were added to raw silk at that time in order to increase the weight of the raw silk for sale and to add crispness to the fabric. Since the Harmonist main purpose was to produce silk for their own use, there would have been no need to add a weighting agent. Also, the Harmonists valued quality, and the addition of such an agent would have cheapened the value of the silk. This could be a reason why the Harmonist silks are so well preserved since weighting agents are known to accelerate silk degradation. From the examination of y a m s one finds that the Harmonists had mastered the techniques necessary for reeling, twisting, and dyeing as shown by the use of different types of yams, multiple yarns, and different colored y a m s in one fabric stmcture. They were able to twist the yarns in both the Z and S directions. The yarns were y a m dyed and different colored yarns were used in the warp and weft directions of the fabrics creating a certain shade or color. Supporting the physical evidence is the evidence from the letters in which the Harmonists discuss 183 tools necessary for producing yarns. These processes demonstrate planning and control of production on the part of the Harmonists to create a certain finished product. The Harmonists manufactured both compound and simple weave structures with equal skill. From the textiles examined six fabric structures were identified. Four were compound weave structures with two having supplementary weft yams, one having supplementary warp y a m s and one having complementary warp yams. The other two fabric structures were simple weave structures with warp and weft floats for the patterns. From these six fabric structures (using the stylistic and structural characteristics of fiber appearance, y a m structure (warp and weft), motif, pattern repeats, isolated/continuous designs, and selvage structure ), eighteen different fabric design constmctions were identified (see Table 18). The differences among these eighteen fabric design constmctions may be found in as little as one characteristic such as one design having S twist in the ply y a m and another having Z twist. Other differences may be found in the type of motif, type of pattem repeat, how many ply y a m s were used in one set of yarns, and whether there is cmsting on the weft yarns. The number of fabric design constmctions of simple weave stmctures is only slightly higher than those fabric design constmctions relying upon compound weave stmctures, a more complicated binding 18t system. All of these differences demonstrate that the Harmonists planned and had the technical knowledge and skill of the reeling, twisting, and weaving processes necessary to produce the various fabric design constructions. The ability of the Harmonists to change the stylistic and structural characteristics to make these highly complex fabric design constructions also indicates their knowledge and skill of silk textile production. For example; in fabric structure ”B", a compound weave structure, the Harmonists were able to alter the loom in order to produce a drop straight pattern repeat of the design and a drop reverse pattern repeat of the design. In this fabric structure, the Harmonists were also able to weave fabrics with satin weave selvages and weft rib weave selvages. The skill the Harmonists had in sericulture and silk textile production can be inferred from the pooled estimates of the variances (see Table 20). Although large variances were found among certain fiber characteristics, namely fiber width, y a m twist and grain, the large variability can be logically attributed to factors other than lack of skill in fiber/fabric production. The correspondence shows great attention to detail in silk cultivation. The large variances in warp and weft fiber width can be accounted for in the natural variation in the silk diameter. The Harmonists controlled conditions as much as possible by purchasing and cultivating the best quality eggs, feeding 185 them regularly with the best foliage, and controlling the temperature and humidity of the eggs in the ice house and during incubation of the silkworms. In spite of their efforts there is still some variation in the silk filament diameter. Large variances can also be found in warp and weft yarn twist and grain. As described in earlier sections of this paper, the large variances in these results may have been due to experimenter error. Most fabric/fiber characteristics displayed small variance, indicating some precision in their formation or execution. In attributes dealing with fabric construction and color the variances are small and provide evidence of the skill the Harmonists had in fabric formation and dyeing. The smallest variances were found in the attributes of fabric count, space between motifs, space between repeats, warp "L*”, “a*", "b*" values, and weft "L*«, "a*", "b~" values. The attributes of fabric thickness and fabric width were also small. Because these variances of the attributes of fabric count, space between motif, space between repeats, fabric thickness, and fabric width were small, there is evidence for a consistency in the weaving process. The Harmonists knew how to weave quality fabrics in a variety of fabric design constructions. The small variance in the color values indicates a consistency in dyeing procedures. Although the correspondence did not contain information 186 concerning the Harmonist use of dyes and mordants, nor of their knowledge of dyeing procedures, the consistency of the ”L*", "a*", "b*" values for each color is an indication of a consistent, reproducible controlled dyeing procedure. As indicated by the correspondence, the Harmonists were leaders in the domestic American silk industry. The relationship of the Harmonist silk industry to the United States silk industry in the nineteenth century is shown in Table 27. Although not the first to produce silk, the Harmonists committed resources and gained necessary knowledge, equipment, and raw materials to compete successfully. 187 Table 27. Comparison of the Harmonist Silk Industry to _ the United States Silk Industry in the Nineteenth Centnrv United States Harmonist Silk Cultivation and Cultivation and Manufacturing Manufacturing Early 1800's silk was cultivated in Connecticut, Delaware, Maryland, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania (Hausser, 1927). 1810 first silk mill Rodney and Horatio Hanks Mansfield, Connecticut. Manufactured sewing silk and twist. Closed in 1828 ("Americana," 1938; Brockett, 1876). 1815 William H. Horstmann, Philadelphia first to weave silk ribbons, trimmings. He was the first to bring the first Jacquard loom to the U.S. in 1824 ("Americana, 1938; Brockett, 1876; Darby, 1924). 1826 silk culture begun in 1826 Silkworms were given Ohio, Kentucky, Tennessee to George Rapp. Start of and Illinois (Heusser, their silk cultivation 1927). (Reibel, 1984). 1826 was the first planting of Morus multicaulis in the U.S. (Heusser, 1927). 1827 Mansfield Silk Company was started and was considered the first to manufacture silk successfully. Company was dissolved in 1839 (Brockett, 1876). 1829-1839 42 firms were 1829 Spun silk from tow identified by the Silk 1830's reel raw silk Association of America in (Reibel, 1984). 188 Table 27 continued Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New Hampshire, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Virginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee. 1830's brought big investment in the Morus multicaulis trees (Heusser, 1927). 1833 Northampton Silk Company became Nonotuck Silk Company in 1844 and merged By 1836 they had 10,000 with Brainerd & Armstrong mulberry trees, and 500,000 Company to become silkworms. They also had Corticelli Silk Company in one Jacquard loom 1866 (Comstock, 1836). 1838 American Silk Society 1838 they had 15,000 was founded. First mulberry trees and 432,000 published the Journal of worms (Smith, 1839). the American Silk Societv and Rural Economist in 1839 1838 premium on silk passed (Smith, 1839). by the State of Pennsylvania legislature 1838-1869, numerous (Arndt, 1987). manufacturing firms were developed. 1838, Cheney Brothers, established Mount Nebo Silk Mills, at South Manchester, 1839-1844 purchased Connecticut. In 1854 the periodicals and reports on company changed to Cheney silk cultivation and Brothers Silk Manufacturing manufacture such as Journal Company ("Americana," of the American Silk 1938). Societv and Rural Economist. Burlington Silk 1839, the Morus multicaulis Record, and American Silk tree was not hardy enough Grower (Silk letter, n. to survive in the Northern d.). climate (Heusser, 1927). 1839 a single loom to weave seven ribbons at one time (Buckingham, 1842). 189 Table 27 continued 1839 was the start of the 1839 won gold metal at silk silk manufacturing in exhibit in New York for Paterson, NJ ("Americana," silk velvet and ribbons 1938). (Smith, 1839) 1840 six reels in operation powered by steam (Arndt, 1987). 1841-1842 writing letters to congressmen for support of the silk industry in the form of tariffs (Arndt, 1987). 1842 they had six looms in which silk was woven (Friesen, 1978). 1844 a blight killed the 1844 purchase hygrometer mulberry trees and for ice house for silkworm silkworms. This was the end eggs. Interested in of most cultivation in the purchasing silkworm eggs U.S. (Manchester, 1916). from France (Silk letter, n. d.). 1844 won gold metal for silk exhibit in Boston ("The Fourth," 1844) 1844 metal at New York 1848 William Skinner exhibit for silk goods started silk manufacturing (Silk letter, n. d.). in Holyoke, Massachusetts ("Americana," 1938). 1852 because of imports and 1861 Protective tariff on aging workers the silk imports (Brockett, 1876). industry closed (Bole, 1904). 1872, forty-four firms were recognized at the first meeting of the Silk Association of America (Brockett, 1876). 1891 The Department of Agriculture in Washington discontinued its Department of Sericulture ("Americana," 1938). 190 The Harmonists had the ingredients for a successful silk industry. They had the time, labor, eind capital to invest in this experiment and purchased the necessary raw materials, and best equipment for this operation. Like the American silk industry, the Harmonist industry benefited from the advancements which were made in the domestic textile industry with the Industrial Revolution. The Harmonists manufactured cotton and wool long before they began to experiment with silk. For example, they used the wool cards to align the waste silk in order that, through a cotton spinning process the staple silk fibers could be spun. George Rapp, himself, was a weaver prior to his immigration to the United States. The knowledge the Harmonists had of spinning, weaving, and dyeing of cotton and wool textiles was beneficial to the manufacturing of silk. The Harmonists purchased the latest equipment and hired skilled European weavers in order to produce a quality product. They spared no expense and overcame the difficulties presented by the English Custom laws in order to purchase the best equipment. It was only approximately ten years after the first Jacquard loom was brought to the United States that the Harmonists had purchased one in order to weave patterned silk textiles. Master weavers from France, England and Switzerland were hired to instruct and assist the Harmonists in erecting looms and weaving the 191 textiles. The Harmonist mechanics, under the direction of an English weaver, invented a loom on which they could weave seven ribbons at one time. The Harmonist reeling operation was powered by a steam engine. They were interested in purchasing a hygrometer from France for their ice house in order to monitor the moisture in the air for the silkworms. Also, a furnace was used to maintain consistent temperature in the cocoonery. These major advancements all contributed to the successful production by the Harmonists of a quality textile product. Although many silk cultivators put their hopes and money on the Morus multicaulis mulberry tree exclusively for feeding the silkworms, the Harmonists did not. They planted several different kinds of mulberry trees from which they harvested the leaves to feed the silkworms. Since they did not invest totally in the Morus multicaulis, they were not hurt by the "Morus Multicaulis Mania." Current information on the subject of silk cultivation and manufacture was sought by the Harmonists. They corresponded with the editor of the Journal of the American Silk Societv and Rural Economist and purchased several periodicals and reports on the subject. The Harmonists also took an active part in supporting a domestic silk industry. They answered inquiries about their operations. They wrote letters and sent silk samples to public officials requesting support for legislation to 192 protect the industry. In two separate letters, using the issue of silk, the philosophy of the Harmonists concerning National independence is shown. In a 1839 letter to W. Morton, George Rapp stated that a country would not be totally independent without being able to produce for itself the necessities of life. In the second letter dated Febniary, 1840 Gertrude Rapp wrote about patriotism. In this letter, she writes that pride should be felt in articles of luxury (silk garments) which were produced in the United States and shame felt for articles which were imported especially when they added to the Country's debt. These two views fit in with the communal philosophy working for the common good and everything done within the group. A major advantage for the success of their operation was their communal society status. With this labor intensive operation they did not have the expenses associated with paying their labor. The Harmonist school children collected the mulberry leaves, and young girls fed the silkworms even at night. Unfortunately, with passing years the number of children available for this work dwindled because of the Harmonist practice of celibacy. They hired master craftsman to teach the Harmonist craftsmen the necessary knowledge for development and operation of equipment. The Harmonist strived for perfection in everything they attempted. The examination of the patterned silk textiles 193 is physical evidence of their success in achieving this perfection in the production and manufacturing of silk textiles. The correspondence showed that the Harmonists strived for perfection in silk textile production and manufacturing and were proud of their accomplishments. Their success with silk textile production and manufacturing corresponds with their religious beliefs. These beliefs are reflected in the name they chose for their home "Ekonomie". The interpretation of the name is "a divine economy, a city in which God would dwell among men, a city in which perfection in all things was to be attained" (Arndt, 1972, p. 308). The research hypothesis was accepted. This research shows that the Harmonists had the necessary technical knowledge and skill for successful sericulture and silk textile production. The Harmonists also produced quality textile products which could compete with foreign imports of the time as noted in the correspondence. They acquired the technical knowledge through the correspondence with individuals in the field, reading of pertinent reports and journals on the subject, and from the hired craftsmen who came to Economy to instruct. This knowledge led to the purchase of the best materials and equipment to produce silk fabrics. Their skill is seen in the quality of the product which has been preserved and the awards received for their textile products. 194 Despite the success of the Harmonist silk industry* the silk business was closed in 1852. In this instance the use of the word "closed" seems a better description of the ending of their industry than "failed". In a 1847 letter Gertrude explains, that even with the Harmonists' efforts, little advancement was made in the development of a domestic industry in sericulture. The overall national attitude expressing disinterest may be a reason for their decline. Another major contributor to the closing of the silk business may have been that the national tariff they requested in the 1840's was not enacted until the 1860's. Obviously the advancing age of the members of the Society and the directress Gertrude Rapp herself are contributing factors to the industry closing. These all must have been discouraging factors which made them decide to stop the operation. CHAPTER VII SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS This study was designed to examine the patterned silk textiles of the Harmonists and to assess the technical knowledge and skill employed in their production. The chapter summarizes the study and recommendations are made for further study. Summary Several attempts were made during the seventeenth and eighteenth century in the United States to cultivate silk. Yet the most promising time for silk cultivation and manufacture was during the nineteenth century when several advancements were made in textile production which benefited silk production. The rise of the domestic textile industry, the founding of the American Silk Society, and even development of communal societies in the United States aided the silk cause. Government support in the form of state subsidy was a help in the development of a domestic silk industry. The focus of this study is on The Harmony Society and its successful attempt to cultivate and manufacture silk during the nineteenth century. 195 196 The Harmony Society was a nineteenth century religious communal society founded by George Rapp. The Harmonists, as they were known, lived communally, practiced celibacy, and worked for the welfare of the Society. They first settled in Harmony, Pennsylvania where they lived from 1804 to 1814. Their occupation at that time was farming. While at Harmony, their first textile operation in wool manufacturing was started in 1808. In 1814, they moved their Society to a site along the Wabash River in Indiana. In Harmony Indiana, they expanded their textile operation to include cotton. As their manufacturing operations, including textiles, grew the location along the Wabash became less suitable. They then moved in 1824 to Economy along the Ohio River, northwest of Pittsburgh. At Economy, the Harmonists placed more emphasis on manufacturing and less on agriculture. Economy was their home until the Society was officially dissolved in 1905 (Arndt, 1987; Arndt, 1972; Baumann, 1983; Reibel, 1972). The Harmonist silk industry started on a small scale between 1826 and 1838 and was a new endeavor for the Harmonists at Economy. It was begun when George Rapp received a few silkworms from a friend. At first the Harmonists produced silk for their own purposes. Later the industry was expanded and drew wide attention in the United States after 1838. The Harmonists are an example of a successful attempt at sericulture for twenty-six years during the nineteenth 197 century. Information about their efforts is recorded in travel accounts, journal reports of the time, and from the Harmonist’s business and personal correspondence such as the Silk Letter Book. 1842-1852. kept by Gertrude Rapp (directress of the silk business). These accounts record the Harmonist experimentation in silk cultivation, the setup of their facilities, the profitability of their industry, and the government involvement in the silk industry. From these accounts it is known that the Harmonists planted several types of mulberry trees, cultivated different types of silkworms, had hand looms, a Jacquard loom, and a loom which produced seven ribbons at one time. It is also known that several different types of silk fabrics, plain and figured, were manuf actured including satins, velvets and taffetas. The Harmonist silk industry was closed in 1852. The focus of this study was an investigation of the patterned silk textiles of the Harmonists. A material cultural approach, where artifacts are used as primary sources of information in order to make reference about a culture, was employed for this study. Fleming's (1974) proposed model, for material culture studies, "Artifact Study," was the framework for this research project. 198 The objectives of this study were; 1. To determine the stylistic and structural characteristics of Harmonist patterned silk textiles by employing nondestructive methods of evaluation of selected textile fragments found at Old Economy Village. 2. To assess the technical knowledge and skill in silk textile production demonstrated by the Harmonists through examination and evaluation of the physical attributes of the textile fragments and an appraisal of the Harmonists' silk industry using their business and personal correspondence related to their silk business. The research hypothesis for this study was: The Harmonists demonstrated the necessary technical knowledge and skill for successful sericulture and silk textile production. This research was conducted in two parts. First, the stylistic and structural characteristics of selected flat patterned silk textile fragments were examined using microscopic, macroscopic, and colorimetric analytical techniques. A worksheet was developed to record the data from the observations in three categories: fiber, yarn, and fabric. Within these categories the physical attributes of fiber morphology, fiber width, yarn structure and twist, fabric structure, grain, fabric thickness, fabric count. 199 fabric width, selvage, space between motifs, space between repeats, and coloration were evaluated. The evaluation of the physical attributes of fiber, yam, and fabric was used to discern the skill of the Harmonists in sericulture and manufacturing of silk. The sample was derived from the 377 flat silk textile pieces which were part of the textile collection at Old Economy Village. From the total number of pieces 219 fragments and 29 different pattern designs were identified from their catalog description and from visual inspection Not all fragments met the necessary criteria for inclusion in the sample. These criteria were a fragment had to have at least one selvage, one repeat of the design and be at least 15.24 centimeters square. From the 219 pieces, eighty-five met the criteria for selection. Of the twenty- nine pattem designs, twenty had fragments which could be used in the evaluation. Examination of fragments reveals that the Harmonists used reeled silk filaments, silk tow, spun silk, and spun cotton in their silk fabrics. Both single and ply y a m s were found in the fragments along with both Z and S twist. Six fabric structures were identified. Four were compound weave stmctures with two having supplementary weft yarns to create the pattem, one having supplementary warp y a m s for a pile pattem design, and one having complementary warp yarns used as a binder. Two fabric stmctures were simple 200 weave structures with warp and weft floats used to create the pattem. Two fabric structures were used for selvages: satin weave and a weft rib weave. The weft rib weave was used in more pattern designs. The Harmonists used both geometric abstract and plant conventional motifs. During the examination, four different pattern repeats were found, drop repeats, straight and reverse, straight, and reverse inverted with the majority being drop. Background colors were found to be in shades of blue, shades of black, a rose or pink color, and brown. Shades of blue were found most often. Several colors, shades of red, yellow, green, blue, black, white and cream were found for the patterns. Several analytical techniques were employed to test sub-hypothesis 1 which was designed to determine if there was a consistent level of precision in the production of fiber, yam, and fabric stmcture. In order to compare variability among pattern designs the measurements of the physical attributes were standardized, and the standardized variances were plotted by attribute and pattem design. In another analysis, a Bartlett's test of equality of variances was performed using the standardized fragment variances to test that fragment variances within a pattern design were equal. For the attributes of warp fiber width, weft y a m twist, weft fabric count, fabric width, warp "L*" values, and weft "a*" values, the researcher failed to 201 reject the null hypothesis for all patterns. There were no differences in the variances within a pattern design across all patterns. For the attributes of weft fiber width, warp yarn twist, grain, fabric thickness, warp fabric count, selvage width, space between motifs, space between pattern repeats, warp "a*" values, warp "b*" values, weft "L*" values, and weft "b*" values, the null hypothesis was rejected in some of the pattern designs. There was a statistically significant difference in the variances within a pattern design with respect to these attributes. For the third analysis, a pooled estimate of the common pattern variance was obtained for each pattem within which the fragment variances were equal. The pooled estimates of the common pattem variances plus the plots of the fragment variances were used to describe the differences between attributes within a pattem design. Statistical comparisons between attributes were not feasible because the attributes were not measured with the same reliability or accuracy and because different units of measure were used. The largest variances were observed for the attributes of warp and weft fiber width across all pattern designs. Attributes of warp and weft yarn twist, and grain were also relatively large across pattem designs. The smallest variances were found for the attributes of warp fabric count, space between motifs, space between pattern repeats. 202 warp "L*", "a*", "b*" values, and weft "L*", "a*", "b*" values across pattern designs. Variances of the attributes of fabric thickness and fabric width were also relatively small. This supports the research sub-hypothesis 1. Small variances were found in the attributes over which the Harmonists had control in the textile process. The small variances in fabric count, space between motifs, space between repeats, fabric thickness, and fabric width show a consistency in the weaving processes. The small variances in the color values show a reproducibility of color across fragments and supports the conclusion that the Harmonists had expertise in the dyeing processes. For the fourth analysis, a comparison was made between the pattem variances for a single physical attribute. Each null hypothesis stated that the pattem variance did not differ from the minimum pattem variance for a single physical attribute. An F-test was calculated to test the null hypothesis at alpha = .05. Since multiple hypotheses were used, Kimball’s Inequality was used to estimate the experiment-wise error rate, and an adjusted p-value, 1-(1- p)", was calculated. The researcher failed to reject the null hypothesis for all pattern designs for the physical attributes of warp and weft fiber width, warp y a m twist, grain, and space between pattern repeats. In each of these cases the conclusion was that all pattem variances were equal to the minimum pattem variance. 203 For the following attributes the researcher failed to reject the null hypothesis for some of the pattern designs: weft yarn twist, fabric thickness, warp fabric count, weft fabric count, fabric width, selvage width, space between motifs, warp "L*” values, warp "a*" values, warp "b*" values, weft "L*" values, weft "a*" values, and weft "b*" values. In each of these cases the conclusion was that patternvariances were equal to the minimum pattern vaoriance in some of the pattern designs. Based upon the above results, research sub-hypothesis 1 was accepted, indicating that there is a consistent level of precision in the production of fiber, yam, and fabric structures in Harmonist patterned silk textiles. The purpose of the second part of this study was to assess the technical knowledge of raw materials, fabric production processes, and tools for successful silk sericulture and silk textile production. This assessment was done using a primary source, the Silk Letter Book. 1842- 1852 and two secondary sources by Karl J. R. Arndt, Economy on the Ohio 1826-1847. and George Rapp’s Years of Glory: Economy on the Ohio 1834-1847. A worksheet was developed to record data from the letters. The 121 letters chosen were ones which dealt with silk cultivation, manufacture, legislation, and exhibition. In order to assure credibility and avoid bias in interpretations of the secondary sources, the researcher used only complete letters which were written 204 originally in English. Of the 121 letters, ninety-seven were letters written by the Society, twenty-two were sent to the Society, and two were written about the Society. The letters were categorized into groups: cultivation, manufacture, legislation, and exhibition. Two other groups were added: combined and information acquisition. The majority of the correspondence dealt with cultivation including the buying and selling of silkworms and the planting and growing of mulberry trees. Sub-hypothesis 2 stated that the Harmonists demonstrated the necessary technical knowledge of raw materials, fabric production processes, and tools for successful sericulture and silk textile production. The technical knowledge was ascertained by an internal appraisal of the primary and secondary documentary evidence concerning cultivation, manufacturing, legislation, and exhibition. The sub-hypothesis 2 was accepted. The number of letters the Harmonists received requesting information and the responses they gave about their silk cultivation and manufacturing operations demonstrated the technical knowledge they possessed about this industry. Also, their willingness to share the information shows the dedication and commitment they made to silk cultivation and manufacturing and to developing a domestic silk industry in the United States. 205 The quality of their finished product is evident by the awards which Gertrude Rapp won, and in the quality of the raw materials, and machinery they purchased. They invested considerable time and money in developing this industry. The research hypothesis was accepted. The Harmonists demonstrated the necessary technical knowledge and skill for successful sericulture and silk textile production. Re commendations This research is only the beginning of the study of Harmonist silk textiles. Further textile examination needs to be done investigating the dyeing processes; these include the identification of dyes, mordants and weighting agents. The cause of the crusting surface on the weft yarns also needs to be identified. Another area of study is the determination of any chemical and physical attributes which would identify a historic silk textile as Harmonist. With these attributes other textiles or garments could be identified as being Harmonist silk textiles. In this study the measurement techniques for warp and weft y a m twist (twist per centimeter) and grain were inadequate. They were not reliable measures. Other ways to evaluate these attributes needs to be explored. The results may give more support to the precision of silk textile production of the Harmonists. 206 Within the Harmonist collection of garments and textiles, dark blue seems to be the predominant color in women's dresses eind men's suit jackets. However, the dark blue hue varies from a blue purple to a blue green. Some color change can be due to fading and aging, but the change in hue also may be due to combinations of dyes, the presence or absence of mordants or a weighting agent. Using the CIELAB L*, a*, b* values, a standard blue value could be used as a calibration standard; and then fragments could be measured against that standard in order to evaluate which blues are the same color and the result of the same dye process. Other instrumental analyses may be employed for the evaluation of the blue colored textiles. From the documentary evidence examined, it is evident that further exploration of the Harmonist records is needed. Other documentary sources need to be reviewed such as invoices, receipts, ledgers, legal files, and other correspondence in order to expand the knowledge about the Harmonist silk textile operation. Some of the questions are: How long did it take for the Harmonists to develop precision in silk textile production? How many weavers were employed and how long was their stay with the Harmonists? Was the hiring of weavers from Europe a normal practice in the United States during the nineteenth century? 207 How much yardage was used by the Society? How much yardage was sold by the Society? How profitable was their silk business? Who purchased Harmonist silk textiles? What happened to their labor pool? In order to evaluate the quality of historic textiles, researchers need a standard to which historic textiles can be compared. In order to be able to compare across attributes to see which attributes were good or bad statistically, a standard needs to be developed. Without a standard by which the textiles can be evaluated, researchers are left with only documentary evidence and descriptive statistics to support a declaration of quality. A related question is the need to identify those physical attributes which are key to the evaluation of quality in historic textiles. For this study many measurements and many attributes were examined since key attributes have not been identified. The process of collecting data was tedious and long, and the quantity of numerical data was extensive. By identifying viable attributes, the process of evaluating the quality of historic textiles will be more manageable. APPENDIX A DEFINITIONS 208 209 Definitions Bird*s-eve twill is "a small weave unit of a lozenge twill, which has an interlacing forming a spot in the center of each lozenge" (Burnham, 1980, p. 7). Bombazine is "A black fabric composed of worsted weft and silk warp, woven in a fine open twill. Used largely for mourning" (A dictionary. 1915, p. 15). Brocade is a "rich Jacquard-woven fabric with all-over interwoven design of raised figures or flowers. . . Often gives an embossed appearance by contrasting surfaces, colors, and gold or silver threads on satin or twill grounds" (A dictionary. 1980, p. 15). Brocatelle is "a heavy crossed ribbed upholstery and drapery fabric with Jacquard figures in high relief" (& dictionary. 1980, p. 15). Compound Weaves are fabric structures which have more than two basic sets of warp and weft elements. "In those compound structures in which a simple weave, complete in itself, serves as a 'ground' or 'foundation' weave throughout, any additional sets (whether warp or weft) are clearly supplementary. Other compound structures, however, have at least two sets of one type of element (either warp or weft) that are complementary to each other and co-equal in the fabric structure" (Emery, 1980, p. 140). Cut velvet is a "velvet in which the loops formed by the pile warp are cut to form tufts" (Burnham, 1980, p. 32). 210 Damask is "a self-patterned weave with one warp and one weft in which the pattern is formed by a contrast of binding systems. In its classic form it is reversible, and the contrast is produced by the use of the warp and weft faces of the same weave, usually satin. By extension this term is also used for weaves in which two distinct binding systems are employed" (Burnham, 1980, p. 32). Drop repeat is "the transverse repetition of a pattern unit by the dropping of every alternate unit, commonly by a half-length of the unit (half-drop repeat), but also by other fractions. The dropped unit may also be reversed or inverted" (Burnham, 1980, p. 109). End is "an individual warp thread" (Burnham, 1980, p. 52). Fabric width is "the distance from the outer edge of one selvage to the outer edge of the other selvage, measured perpendicular to the selvages while the fabric is held under zero tension and is free of folds and wrinkles" (ASTM, 1989, p. 573). Fabric count is "the number of warp y ams (ends) and filling yarns (picks) per unit distance as counted while the fabric is held under zero tension, and is free of folds and wrinkles" (ASTM, 1989, p. 576). Filature is "the factory in which raw silk is reeled into skeins from cocoons; also the machine used for reeling from the cocoons" (A dictionary. 1915, p. 40). 211 Foulard is "a French word meaning silk handkerchief, the silk was originally used for handkerchiefs only. It is a soft, thin dress fabric. It is usually a two-and-two twill weave, although it is sometimes plain. It is piece- dyed and usually printed. The designs are large or small according to the prevailing style" (Thompson, 1922, p. 133). Gauze is a weave in which the binding is achieved by the displacement of warp ends (Burnham, 1980). Gloria is a "plain weave of silk and wool, and silk and cotton, made for umbrella covering" (A dictionary. 1915, p. 44). Henrietta cloth is "A twilled cashmere of light weight and high finish, originally made of silk warp and wool filling" (A dictionary. 1915, p. 48). Inverted repeat is "the repetition of a pattern unit by the alternating of a straight unit with a reverse of the unit on a axis parallel to the weft" (Burnham, 1980, p. 108). Lansdowne is "A mixed fabric in fine twill, with a silk face and worsted back" (A dictionary. 1915, p. 54). Pick is the weft thread (Burnham, 1980). Raw silk is "silk from the cultivated silkworm. Bombyx Mori, before the gum or sericin has been removed from the silk" ("Dictionary," 1951, p. 123). Reeling is "the process of unwinding the silk from the cocoon" (Darby, 1924, p. 26). 212 Reverse inverted repeat, is "the repetition of a pattern unit by the alternating of a straight unit with a reverse of the unit on both warp and weft axes" (Burnham, 1980, p. 109). Reverse repeat is "the repetition of a pattern unit by the alternating of a straight unit with a reverse of the unit on an axis parallel to the warp" (Burnham, 1980, p. 108). Rib weave is "a woven construction in which two or more warp yarns are interlaced with a single fill yarn or two or more fill yarns are interlaced with a single warp yarn" (Smith & Block, 1982, p. 421). Satin is the "Basic binding system or weave based on a unit of five or more ends, and a number of picksequal to, or a multiple of, the number of ends. Each end either passes over four or more adjacent picks and under the next one, or passes under four or more adjacent picks and over the next one. The binding points are set over two or more ends on successive picks and are distributed in an unobtrusive manner to give a smooth appearance" ( Burnham, 1980, p. 113). Sericin is the "soluble gum of the silk fiber which cements the two silk filaments together" ("Dictionary," 1951, p. 123). Sewing silk is "thread silk made for hand or machine sewing purposes, particularly the finer types. Made by 213 twisting or plying several single threads together and doubling two, three or more of these in the opposite direction" ("Dictionary," 1951, p. 124). Shantung is "a rough plain-weave fabric made from tussah, or wild silk" (Thompson, 1922, p. 142). Simple Weaves are warp-weft structures that have "only one set of longitudinal, or warp, elements and only one set of transverse, or weft elements. Variation of structure is effected by varying either the numerical order in which the elements or units of one set interlace with those of the other, the alignment of the interlacings, or both. . . It is characteristic of simple interlacings that the structure of one face of the fabric is reflected on the opposite face. No element appears on only one face; and if there are weft floats on one face, there are correlated warp floats on the other" (Emery, 1980, p. 75). Spun silk is the "ya m from true silk waste and fibers from pierced cocoons. The fibers are short and they are spun according to the cotton principle, being degummed before spun" ("Silk Terms," 1953, p. 53). Straight repeat is "the repetition of pattern units side by side without variation" (Bumham, 1980, p. 108). Tabbv/Plain is a "Binding system or weave based on a unit of two ends and two picks, in which each end passes over one and under one pick, the binding points being set over one end on successive picks" (Bumham, 1980, p. 193). 214 Taffeta is "a fine plain-weave fabric smooth on both sides, usually with a sheen on its surface" (A dictionary, 1980, p. 104). Throwing is the process of twisting and doubling with other threads for strength before weaving (Darby, 124, p. 35). Tow is a group of continuous filaments without any definite twist. Cut tow filaments into lengths are known as staple fibers (A dictionary. 1980). Tram "(the word means woof) is the silk which has been doubled before twisting, and is used for the woof of silk goods" (Brockett, 1876, p. 68). Woof is the weft or filling direction of a woven fabric. Twill is a "Basic binding system or weave based on a unit of three or more ends and three or more picks, in which each end passes over two or more adjacent picks and under the next one or more, or under two or more adjacent picks and over the next one or more. The binding points are set over by one end on successive picks and form diagonal lines" (Burnham, 1980, p. 154). Velvet is "A warp-pile weave in which the pile is produced by a pile warp that is raised in loops above a ground weave through the introduction of rods during the weaving" (Burnham, 1980, p. 163). Velvet is a compound weave, extra-warp woven pile structure (Emery, 1980, p. 175). 215 Voile is "a sheer, semitransparent, plain-weave fabric of silk, wool, or cotton, sometimes ornamented with stripes or figures” (Thompson, 1922, p. 144). Waste silk is "the short, unreeled filaments that are left before and after the long cocoon filaments have been removed. These short noils are carded, sometimes combed, and spun" ("Dictionary," 1951, p. 125). Wild silk is "silk furnished by the larvae of wild silkworms; another name for Tussah silk" ("A Lexicon," 1957, p. 73). APPENDIX B ARTICLES OF ASSOCIATION 216 217 Articles of Association Be it hereby known to all who need to know it, that the following agreement has this day been made and concluded between us, the subscribers of the one part, and George Rapp and his associates on the other part: Article 1. We, the subscribers, on our part and on the part of our heirs and descendants, deliver up, renounce and remit all our estate and property consisting of cash, land and chattels, or whatever it may be, to George Rapp and his associates, in Harmony, Butler County, Pennsylvania, as a free gift or donation, for the benefit and use of the community there, and bind ourselves on our part, as well as on the part of our heirs and descendants, to make free renunciation thereof, and to leave the same at the disposal of the superintendents of the community, as if we never has nor possessed it. Article 2. We do pledge ourselves jointly and severally to submit to the laws and regulations of the community, and to show due and ready obedience toward those who are appointed and chosen by the community as superintendents in such a manner that not only we ourselves endeavor, by the labor of our hands, to promote the good and interest of the community, but also to hold our children and families to do the same. Article 3. If, contrary to our expectation, the case should happen, and we jointly or severally could not stand to it in the community, and we would within a few years or more break our promises and withdraw from the community, for whatever cause it may be, never to demand any reward, either for ourselves or children or those belonging to us, for any of our labors or services rendered, but whatever we jointly and severally shall or may do, we will have done as a voluntary service for our brethren. In consideration whereof George Rapp and his associates adopt the subscribers jointly and severally as members of the community, whereby each of them obtains the privilege to be present at each religious meeting; not only they themselves, but also their children and families, shall and will receive the same necessary instructions in church and school which are 218 needful and requisite for their temporal good and welfare as well as eternal felicity. Article 4. George Rapp and his associates promise to supply the subscribers jointly and severally with all the necessaries of life, as lodging, meat, drink and clothing, etc., and not only during their healthful days, but also when one or more of them become sick or otherwise unfit for labor, they shall have and enjoy the same support and maintenance as before; and if, after a short or long period, the father or mother of a family should die, or be otherwise departed from the community and leave a family behind, they shall not be left widows or orphans, but partake of the same rights and maintenance as long as they live or remain in the community, as well in sick as healthful days, the same as before, or as circumstances or necessity may require. Article 5. And if the case should happen as stated above, that one or more of the subscribers after a short or long period, should break their promise and could or would not submit to the laws and regulations of the church or community, and for that or any other cause would leave Harmony, George Rapp and his associates promise to refund him or them, the value of his or their property brought in without interest, in one two or three annual installments, as the sum may be, large or small; eutid if one or more of them were poor and brought nothing in the community, they shall, provided they depart openly and orderly, receive a donation in money, according to his or their conduct while a member, or as he or their circumstances and necessities may require, which George Rapp and his associates shall determine as his or their departure. In confirmation whereof, both parties have signed their names. Done in Harmony, February 15, 1805 (Bole, 1904, pp. 279-281). APPENDIX C AMERICAN SILK MANUFACTURERS, 1829-1839 219 220 American Silk Manufacturers, 1829-1839 Wm. C. Wyckoff (in 1887 the Secretary of the Silk Association of America) gives the following list of silk manufacturing concerns in existence between the years 1829- 1839, with capitalization varying from $30,000 to $250,000. He explains that "a brace indicates that within this period a new company took the place of one previously dissolved."; MASSACHUSETTS Northampton....Northampton Silk Manufacturing Co. New York and Northampton Silk Co. Dedham...... New England Silk Company Nantucket...... Atlantic Silk Company Mitchell Silk Factory Newburyport....Newburyport Silk Company Roxbury...... Roxbury Silk Company Boston and Farmington...Massachusetts Silk Company RHODE ISLAND Providence.....Rhode Island Silk Company Valentine Silk Company CONNECTICUT Mansfield...... Mansfield Silk Company Hartford...... Connecticut Silk Manufacturing Co. South Manchester (Cheney Bros.)..Mt.Nebo Manufacturing Co. Norwich...... Norwich Silk Company Lisbon...... (William Carpenter's) Silk Company Windsor...... Name uncertain Poquonnock.... Name uncertain NEW HAMPSHIRE Concord...... New Hampshire Silk Company NEW YORK Albany...... Albany Silk Company Troy...... Troy Silk Company Poughkeepsie....Poughkeepsie Silk Co. (Gamaliel Gay's) New York...... New York Silk Company NEW JERSEY Burlington.... Burlington Silk Growing and Mfg. Co. 221 Freehold...... Monmouth County Silk Manufacturing Co. Warren...... Warren Silk Company PENNSYLVANIA Philadelphia. ..Morodendron Silk Company Philadelphia. ..Mr. Strong's Silk Company Columbia...... Columbia Silk Compsiny Lancaster...... Lancaster Silk Company Economy...... Harmony Society (Mr. Rapp's) Beaver Meadow ..Beaver Silk Culture and Mfg. Co, Bethlehem...... Moravian Silk Company Germantown... ..Highfield Cocoonery West Chester. ..Chester Silk Company OHIO New Lisbon.....New Lisbon Silk Company Mount Pleasant..Ohio Silk Company Cincinnati.....Mulberry Grove Silk Company Zanesville.....Name uncertain VIRGINIA Alexandria.....Potomac Silk Company KENTUCKY Pleasant Hill...Shaker Society Newport...... Campbell County Silk Company TENNESSEE Nashville..... Nashville Silk Manufacturing Co. (Heusser, 1927, p. 113) APPENDIX D CATALOG OF HARMONIST PATTERNED SILKS 222 223 Catalog of Harmonist Patterned Silk Textiles (* indicates a single selvage) (** indicates two selvages) (+indicates samples used in study) NOTE; Descriptions of fragments are as cataloged at Old Economy Village. Pattern Design 1 Description: Cut velvet, orchid satin background, flower & leaf pattern in black velvet satin dots, deep rose, blue, green, orchid, yellow white ; selvage is rose and yellow. Cut velvet zoomorphic design with red, green pink, blue, tan, white tiny satin weave dots, fuchsia satin background. #06.65.15.3* + #06.68.8.251* + #06.68.8.252* + #06.8.8.253* #OE78.3.409 #OE78.3.410 #OE78.3.411 #OE78.3.418 Pattern Design 2 Description: Cut velvet, orchid satin background; flower and leaf pattern in black velvet; flower center in blue and white silk threads. #06.65.15.5* + #06.67.24.243** + #06.67.24.244* + #06.67.24.245 #06.67.24.246 #06.67.24.247 #06.67.24.248 #06.68.8.249** + #06.68.8.250** Pattern Design 3 Description: Silk-satin; blue with six white dots; dots spaced to create blocks 1/8" in length by 1/16" width; interwoven with blue, dark blue and white threads. #06.65.15.7 #06.67.24.40** + #06.67.24.41** + #06.67.24.42** + #06.67.24.43** Pattern Design 4 Description; Navy blue fine textured silk pebbled background small flower leaf and stem design in satin thread. #06.65.15.8* + 224 Pattern Design 5 Description: Blue silk satin with pink and white thread dots. #06.65.18.2** + #06.67.24.36 #06.67.24.38** + #06.67.24.39** + #06.67.24.206* + #06.67.24.207* + #OE78.3.361* + #OE80.17.130* #OE80.17.131* + #OE80.17.132 + Pattern Design 6 Description: Blue overall-satin weave design of flowers with connecting lines creating circle, small bars. #06.65.24.14** #06.65.24.16 #06.65.24.17 #06.65.24.18 #06.67.24.137** + #06.67.24.138* + #06.67.24.139** + #06.67.24.140** + #06.67.24.141** #06.67.24.142** + #06.67.24.143** #06.67.24.144** + #06.67.24.191* #06.67.24.194 #06.67.24.195 #06.67.24.196 #06.67.24.197 #06.67.24.198 #06.68.8.177 #06.68.8.178 #06.68.8.179 #06.68.8.180 #06.68.8.181 #06.68.8.182 #06.68.8.183 #OE78.3.233* #OE78.3.363 #OE80.17.134 #OE80.17.135 Pattern Design 7 Description: Lavender; satin weave design of five various flowers; background plain with small dots. #06.67.24.27* + #06.67.24.57** + 225 #06.67.24.58* + #06.67.24.59* + #06.67.24.60* + #06.67.24.61 #06.67.24.62 #06.67.24.63 #06.67.24.64* #06.67.24.65 #06.67.24.66* #06.67.24.67* + Pattern Design 8 Description: Lavender; satin weave design of blocks, leaves and flowers. #06.67.24.29** + #06.67.24.30* + #06.67.24.31* + #06.67.24.32* + Pattern Design 9 Description: Black; satin weave design of diamonds; diamond has a tiny dot in center. #06.67.24.33** + #06.67.24.34* #06.67.24.35* #06.67.24.185 Pattern Design 10 Description: Blue-pink; over-all satin weave design of diagonal stripes; multiple stripes between. Pattern is reversed to create zig-zag design. #06.67.24.69** + #06.67.24.70** + #06.67.24.71** + #06.67.24.72 #06.67.24.109* #06.67.24.193** + p.^ b t g r u .. D.gg .ifih-1.3, Description; Dark blue satin weave lacy design forming stripes ; satin weave diagonal dots between stripes. #06.67.24.76** + Pattern Design 12 Description: Black satin background with satin weave design of brown flowers; brown satin weave bird’s-eye pattern between flowers ; flower consists of five petals, stem and flour leaves. One sample is a blue satin background with orange and red petals and white foliage. #06.67.24.82* + #06.67.24.83 #06.67.24.84 226 #06.67.24.85* + #06.67.24.86 #06.67.24.182 #06.67.24.183* + #06.67.24.184 #OE80.17.129** + Pattern Design 13 Description: Satin weave design of diamonds with threads in centers. One sample is purple with yellow threads; other sample is brown with yellow threads. #06.67.24.96 #06.67.24.204* Pattern Design 14 Description: Brown satin weave design of leaves and various sized circles woven zig-zag across fabric. #06.67.24.97* Pattern Design 15 Description; Bluish-purple ; bird's-eye pattern; dull iridescent finish. #06.67.24.118* + #06.67.24.119** + #06.67.24.120* #06.67.24.121 #06.67.24.190* #06.67.24.192** #06.68.8.130 #06.67.8.131 #06.68.8.132 #06.68.8.133 #06.68.8.134* #06.68.8.135* #06.68.8.136* #06.68.8.137* #06.68.8.138* #06.68.8.139 #06.68.8.140 #06.68.8.141* + #06.68.8.142* + #06.68.8.143 #06.68.8.144 #06.68.8.145* #06.68.8.146* #06.68.8.147 #06.68.8.148* #06.68.8.149* #06.68.8.150 #06.68.8.151* #06.68.8.152 #06.68.8.153 227 #06.67.8.154* #06.68.8.155 #06.68.8.156 #06.68.8.157 #06.67.8.158* #06.68.8.159 #06.68.8.160* #06.68.8.161* #06.68.8.162 #06.68.8.163* #06.68.8.164 #06.68.8.189 #06.68.8.190 #OE78.3.256* #OE78.3.262 #OE78.3.265* Pattern Design 16 Description: Blue; satin weave of figure on plain background with small bird's-eye pattern; design resembles cameo. #06.67.24.122** + #06.67.24.123 #06.67.24.124** #06.67.24.125 #06.67.24.126** + #06.67.24.180* + #06.67.24.181* Pattern Design 17 Description: Blue; all-over satin weave design of bars ; small irregular figures between bars ; background plain; pattern reverses to for zigzag design. #06.67.24.127** + #06.67.24.128** + #06.67.24.129** #06.67.24.130* + #06.67.24.131* #06.67.24.132* #06.67.24.133* #06.67.24.134* #06.67.24.135* #06.67.24.136* Pattern Design 18 Description: Blue; all-over satin weave design or irregular lines resembling scroll. #06.67.24.145* + #06.67.24.146* + #06.67.24.147 #06.67.24.148 #06.67.24.149* + 228 #06.67.24.150* + #06.67.24.151* #06.67.24.152* + #06.67.24.153* + #06.67.24.154* + #06.67.24.155* + #06.67.24.156* #06.67.24.157* #06.67.24.158* + #06.67.24.159* + #06.67.24.160* + #06.67.24.161** + #06.67.24.162* + #06.67.24.163* #06.67.24.164 #06.67.24.165* + #06.67.24.166** + #06.67.24.167 #06.67.24.168 #06.67.24.169 #06.67.24.170 #06.67.24,171 #06.67.24.172 #06.67.24.173 #06.67.24.174* + #06.67.24.175* + #06.67.24.176* + #06.67.24.177 #06.67.24.178** + #06.67.24.179 Pattern Design 19 Description: Blue brown; over-all satin weave design of two diamonds or tear drops ; small design inside diamonds; bird's-eye pattern between design. #06.67.24.186** + #06.67.24.187 #06.67.24.188** + #06.67.24.189* + #06,67.24.199 #06.67.24.200 #06.67.24.201 #06.67.24.202 #06.67.24.203 #06.68.8.165* + #06.68.8.166* + #06.68.8.167 #06.68.8.168 #06.68.8.169 #06.68.8.170 #06.68.8.171 #06.68.8.172 229 #06.68.8.173 0E78.3.268* + Pattern Design 20 Description: Beige on beige floral design brocade leaves with serpentine stem. #06.69.3.96* Pattern Design 21 Description: Small colored floral pattern on a black satin background consists of five petal pink flowers with a white center, brown bird's-eye pattern between flowers. #06.67.24.207** #06.67.24.208** + Pattern Design 22 Description: Floral pattern on reddish brown satin background; black flower pattern is on a ribbed outline; ribbed design of stems and buds between flowers. #06.67.24.209* + #06.67.24.210* + #06.67.24.211* + Pattern Design 23 Description: Reddish brown satin with colored floral pattern made of three small diamonds as petals. #06.67.24.212 Pattern Design 24 Description: Small satin weave colored rose pattern on black satin background; rose pattern has green stem and leaves, fuschia rose with blue center. #06.67.24.213 Pattern Design 25 Description: Satin weave floral pattern on black satin background; flower is red white and blue, blue feathery leaves and stem yellow birds on top, blue bird's-eye pattern between floral. #06.67.24.215** #06.67.24.216 Pattern Design .2.6 Description: Satin weave floral pattern on brown satin background; flowers are brown and beige. #06.67.24.217* Pattern Design 27 Description: Satin weave floral pattern on black satin background, pattern consists of white, red, and fuchsia flowers with green leaves and stems. #06.67.24.218** + 230 Pattern Design 28 Description: Black cut velvet over-all geometric design diamond within a diamond outline, periwinkle, (blue purple satin background. #06.68.8.254 Pattern Design 29 Description: Cream colored satin with floral design background. #OE78.3.267* APPENDIX E WORKSHEET: TEXTILE EXAMINATION RECORD 231 232 Textile Examination Record Curator’s Information Catalog #:______Size/shape:. Selvage (0, 1, or 2):______Catalog Description;______ Physical Examination Fiber Visual Microscopy of Fiber Morphology Fiber Content: Warp:______Weft:______ Size in Millimeters: Warp: 1.______2.______3. Fiber appearance : Warp:______Weft:______ Yarn Type: Warp; Filament______Staple/Spun_____ Simple______Complex______Spun: Single Ply_____ Twist: (S)_____ (Z)_____ Twist Per Centimeter: 1.______2.. 3. 4.. 5.______Weft: Filament______Staple/Spun______Simple______Complex______Spun: Single Ply_____ Twist: (S)_____ (Z)_____ Twist Per Centimeter: 1.______2.. 3. 4.. 5.______233 Fabric Structure Simple Weave Structure :______Compound Weave Structure:. Pattern:______Supplementary Warp:______ Weft:_ Complementary Warp:. Weft:. Grain: 1._____ 2.______3.______4.______5.____ Fabric Thickness: 1. ______2.______3.__ 4. ______5.______ Y a m Count per 2.45 Centimeters : Warp: 1._____ 2._____ 3.____ 4._____ 5. Weft: 1._____ 2._____ 3._____ 4._____ 5. Fabric Width From Outer Edge of One Selvage to Outer Edge of Other Selvage in Centimeters: 1.______2.______3.______4.______5.______Selvage: Width in Centimeters: 1.______2.______3.______4.______5.______Visual appearance of selvage:______ Appearance of Reverse Side of Fabric: Design Identification of Motif: Plant_____ Animal____ Geometric. Motif Elements : Natural Conventional Abstract__ Motif : Continuous______Isolated_____ Size of Motif:______Space Between Motif: 1.______2.______3. 4. 5.______Description of Motif :______ Background Design:______Pattern Repeat: Straight Reverse Inverted. Reverse Inverted Drop____ Space Between Repeats : 1.______2.______3.____ 4. 5.______ Description of Color: Background______Motif. Selvage: Solid Color______Striped______234 Spectrocolorimetry HunterLab; 1. Warp: L. a. b. Weft: L. a. b. 2. Warp: L. a. b. Weft: L. a. b. 3. Warp: L . a. b. Weft: L. a. b. 4. Warp: L. a. b. Weft: L. a. b. 5. Warp: L. a. b. Weft: L. a. b. CIELAB: 1. Warp: L*. a*. b*. Weft: L*. a*. b*. 2. Warp: L*. a*. b*. Weft: L*. a*. b*. 3. Warp: L*. a*. b*. Weft: L*. a*. b*. 4. Warp: L*. a*. b*. Weft: L~. a*. b*. 5. Warp: L*. a*. b*. Weft: L". a*. b*. APPENDIX F WORKSHEET: HARMONIST CORRESPONDENCE 235 236 Harmonist Correspondence Outgoing :_____ Incoming_:_____ Correspondent:______Address :______Date;______Sender:______Nature: Cultivation Manufacture______Legislation______Exhibition Other_____ Cultivation: Type of Trees:______Type of Silkworm eggs:_ Number of Silkworms:__ Price of Silkworm eggs: Raw Silk or Tow:______Yield of Raw Silk:____ Yield of Tow:______Price of Raw Silk:. Price of Tow:_____ Labor Men, Women or Children: Numbers : Process of cultivation:______ Other/Misc. :. Manufacture: Types of Fabrics:______Quantity of Fabric Manufactured:. Price of Fabric by Yard:______Machinery: Labor Men, Women, or Children:______Numbersi Dyes, Mordants, Weighting:______ Process of Fabrication and Dyeing : Other/Misc. :. 237 Legislation: State or Federal Correspondence:______Protective Tariffs:______Government Subsidies:______ Other/Misc.:______ Exhibition: Where:______When; Event;______What was exhibited:______Price or value of objects:. Membership or organizations:. Other/Misc.:______ Other: Other related information: APPENDIX G PATTERN DESIGN PLATES 238 239 Plate XXIV. Pattern Design 3 #06.67.24.41 Lifesize photograph magnified 1.43 times for presentation 240 Plate XXV. Pattern Design 3 #06.67.24.41 IX photograph magnified 7.47 times for presentation ? ’ .r'l / f '*"■*!• y r , y ' ' ' , , , ' * ' !{ t ^ ' ! ' ■■ j • • ' \ / , ' '.'ri . -i , ; . ' , 241 Plate XXVI. Pattern Design 5 #OE80.17.132 Lifesize photograph magnified 1.43 times for presentation i I 242 Plate XXVII. Pattern Design 5 #OE80.17.132 IX photograph magnified 7.47 times for presentation 243 Plate XXVIII. Pattern Design 8 #06.67.24.32 Lifesize Photograph Magnified 1.74 Times for Presentation 244 245 Plate XXX. Pattern Design 9 #06.67.24.33 Lifesize Photograph Magnified 1.44 Times for Presentation 246 Plate XXXI. Pattern Design 9 #06.67.24.33 IX Photograph Magnified 7.47 Times for Presentation 247 Plate XXXII. Pattern Design 10 #06.67.24.70 Lifesize Photograph Magnified 1.53 Times for Presentation 248 Plate XXXIII. Pattern Design 10 #06.67.24.70 IX Photograph Magnified 7.06 Times for Presentation 249 Plate XXXIV. Pattern Design 11 #06.67.24.76 Lifesize Photograph Magnified 1.49 Times for Presentation 250 2 5 1 £ o t 252 Plate XXXVII. Pattern Design 15 #06.67.24.119 IX Photograph Magnified 7.47 Times for Presentation 253 Plate XXXVIII. Pattern Design 16 #06.67.24.180 Lifesize Photograph Magnified 1.49 Times for Presentation 254 Plate XXXIX. Pattern Design 16 #06.67.24.180 IX Photograph Magnified 7.47 Times for Presentation 255 Plate XL. Pattern Design 19 #06.67.24.186 Lifesize Photograph Magnified 1.59 Times for Presentation 256 Plate XLI. Pattern Design 19 #06.67.24.186 IX Photograph Magnified 7.47 Times for Presentation i . . ^ •'"-V- - -.A -U W a» ^ t* r •• -.r » ur> JT» # " ^ ^ "f» "4 «» .# # m * •" r •* ##-'W m s % a 257 Plate XLII. Pattern Design 21 #06.67.24.208 Lifesize Photograph Magnified 1.49 Times for Presentation 258 APPENDIX H PLOTS OF VARIANCES 259 SA3 PLOT OF VUARPFU*PATTERN LEGEND: A = 1 0B9, B = 2 OBS« ETC. VWARPFW 3.3 3.0 2.7 2.4 A A A 2.1 1.8 1.5 1.2 A A A 0.9 A A A A B B A C 0.6 A A A A 0.3 A A ABA A A 0.0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 IS 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 Figure 4. Plot of Variances of Standardized Warp Fiber Width by Pattern to o SAS PLOT o r VWEFTFW*PATIERN LEGENDi A = 1 CBS, B = 2 0B3, ETC. VWEFTFV 3.3 * 3.0 * 2.7 ♦ 2.4 4 2.1 I.e 4 1.5 4 1.2 4 *B* *** ** * Â A A A B A A B A s . * ■ : s ‘ . . s i 0.6 A A A A C C 0.3 4 A A A A A ABA^A A I AAAAAB^A * . . .__ X_ X_ +_ +_ +_ +- ♦- +- +---+- ♦- ♦- +- +- ♦- +- +- +- + — - +- +- ♦- +-♦------+— +— ^ ^ 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 PATTERN Figure 5. Plot of Variances of Standardized Weft Fiber Width by Pattern mt o aha PLOT OF VWARFTH*PATTERN LEGBNDs A » 1 OBS, B = 2 0B3, ETC. VWARPTW 1.5 1.4 1.3 1.2 1.1 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 AAA 0.5 A 0.4 A A A A 0.3 B A B A F A 0.2 A A A A H B 0.1 0.0 B B A B B A C A A 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 a 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 L 22 23 "24 25 26 27 PATTERN Figure 6. Plot of Variances of Standardized Warp Yarn Twist by Pattern t o (T> to 9*3 PLOT OF WEFTTW*PATIERII LEGENDl * = 1 0B3, B = 2 OB3, ETC. V W E F T W I A A 0.6 * A 0.7I ♦ A 0 .6 + B B 0.5 * A A 0.3 *I A 0.2 + A A A AA D A B A A A B *oîSB A B A* A A A A B A B B A A 0.0 + . . . . A AAA DB Î- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 a 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 PATTERN Figure 7. Plot of Variances of Standardized Weft Yarn Twist by Pattern m SAS PLOT OF VCSRAIN^PATTEHN LEGENDl A = 1 OBS, B = 2 0B3, ETC. VGRAIN I 9 + A A A A B c A B CB A C AAA BB B E B A A B A C BAB ABCA EB A 1 2 3 4 s 6 7 e 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 PATTERN NOTE I 7 CBS HAD HISSING VALUES Figure 8. Plot of Variances of Standardized Fabric Grain by Pattern N) cn 9AS PLOT OF VTHICR*PATIERN LEQENDi A = 1 OBS, B = 2 OBS, ETC. VTHICK 0.275 + 0.250 + 0.225 * 0.200 1 0.175 + 0.150 + 0.125 I A 0.100 + A 0.075 * 0.050 * * AA 0.025 *I A A A A A AA D CC AAA AB H A A 0.000 * BA B c E BA CCAKBAB 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 a 9 10 11 12 13 14 IS 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 PATTERN Figure 9. Plot of Variances of Standardized Fabric Thickness by Pattern ^ cn SAS PLOT OF VWARPCO*PATTERH LEGEND» A « 1 OBS, B = 2 OBS, ETC. VWARPCO 0.015 0.014 0.013 0.012 0.011 0.010 0.009 0.008 0.007 0.006 A 6 0.005 A 0.004 A AA 0.003 AA A A 0.002 A B A C AA AB A A A A A AB 0.001 A ADA A D A AH A AAA 0.000 * 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 PATTERN Figure 10. Plot of Variances of Standardized Warp Fabric Count by Pattern to 9AS PLOT OF VWEFTCO*PATTERN LEGENDl A = 1 OBS, B = 2 OBS, ETC. o.ie + 0.16 + 0.14 0.13 + 0.10 + 0.06 * 0.06 * A A AA A A AAA B 0.04 * A A AAA A A A A A B 0.02 + A A AAAA A B A AAB B A AA A A AB A D BA AC A BCB C B 0.00 * A 2 3 4 5 6 7 6 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 PATTERN Figure 11. Plot of Variances of Standardized Weft Fabric Count by Pattern t o -o SAS PLOT OF VFABW1D*FATTERN LEGENDl A = 1 OBS, B = 2 OBS, ETC. VFJU3WI0 0.0275 + 0.0250 + 0.0225 * 0.0200 + 0.0175 ♦ 0.0150 * 0.0125 * 0.0100 * 0.0075 t 0.0050 + 0.0025 * A A B 0.0000 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 a 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 PATTERN NOTE! 49 OBS HAD HISSING VALUES Figure 12. Plot of Variances of Standardized Fabric Width by Pattern tcr> o 00 9AS PLOT OF V3ELV*PATTERN LEGENDl A = 1 OBS, B = 2 OBS, ETC. VSELV I 0.9 + 0.8 0.7 + 0 . 6 * 0.5 + 0.4 0.3 * 0.2 * AB BAA BA 0.1 * A ABAABAABAA A AAADA ABAABA A 0.0 + BA A BCCBACB B KDAA 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 PATTERN t o Figure 13. Plot of Variances of Standardized Selvage Width by Pattern (T> VC SAS PLOT OF VN0T1FS*PATTERN LEGEND* A = 1 CBS, B = 2 OBS, BTC. V m t J F B I 0.0045 * 0.0040 + 0.0035 + 0.0030 * 0.0035 * 0.0020 * 0.00X5 * A C A 0.0010 * A A B 0.0005 ♦ A 0.0000 + A A B C 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 PATTERN NOTE* 37 OBS HAD MISSING VALUES Figure 14. Plot of Variances of Standardized Space Between Motifs by Pattern to o SAS PLOT OP VREPBAT3*PATTERK LEGENDl A = 1 OBS, B = 2 OBS, ETC. VREPEATS I 0.009 + 0 .0 0 0 0.007 * 0.006 * 0.005 + 0.004 * 0.003 + 0 .0 0 2 * 0.001 * A A A B 0.000 * C D A G B 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 PATTERN NOTBi 42 OBS HAD HISSING VALUES Figure 15. Plot of Variances of Standardized Space Between Repeats by Pattern •ot o SAS PLOT OF VWARPL*PATTEtlH LEQENDi A « 1 OBS, B = 2 OBS, ETC. W M P L I 0.18 * 0.16 + 0.14 0.12 0.10 * 0.08 * 0.06 + 0.04 + 0.03 • A A A A 0 A B A D B AAA A CA B 0.00 • A AGF BBA C B D B BLD AA 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 B 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 PATTERN Figure 16. Plot of Variances of Standardized Warp "L*" Values by Pattern CO t o 9A9 PLOT OF VWASPA*FATTERN LEGENOi A = 1 OBS, B = 2 OBS, ETC. VHARPA 1 0.15 + A 0.14 * 0.13 * 0.12 * 1 0.11 * 0.10 * 0.09 + 0.08 * 0.07 f 0.06 * 0.05 * A 0.04 t 1 A 0.03 * 0.02 + A 0.01 * A A 1 0.00 * A C A C F 1 2 "3 4 5”'6’ 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 PATTERN Figure 17. Plot of Variances of Standardized Warp "a*" Values by Pattern t o W SAS PLOT OF VWARPB*PATTERN LEGENDS A = 1 OBS, B = 2 OBS, ETC. VWARPB 0.275 + 0.250 + 0.225 + 0 .2 0 0 ♦ 0.175 * 0.150 4 0.125 4 0.100 4 0.075 4 0.050 4 0.025 4 B BAAA 1 B B A A B ABA B A 0.000 4 BBA A D FD A ABC AB BN DAC A 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 PATTERN Figure 18. Plot of Variances of Standardized Warp "b*" Values by Pattern 9AS PLOT OF VWEFTL*FATTERN LEGEND: A » 1 OBS, B = 2 OBS, ETC. VWBPTL I 0.045 + 0.040 * 0.035 * 0.030 + A A A 0.025 * 0 .0 2 0 + 0.015 + A A A A A AA 0.005 + C A AACA B ABAAA A A AABAAA C A BAABB GB A 0.000 + CBA BB DB B AA 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 PATTERN to Figure 19. Plot of Variances of Standardized Weft "L^" Values by Pattern "O tn SA3 PLOT OF VWBFTA*PATTBRN LEGENDl A = 1 0B3, B = 2 OBS, BTC. WBFTA 0.033 * 0.030 ♦ 0.027 * 0.024 * 0.021 * 0.018 * 0.015 + 0.012 ♦ A 0.009 *■ A 0.006 * A B A 0.003 * A A C A A A A A BBC A BDDDAAAB BA E B A A 0.000 * A B A A A A BDAA — ------— .4- 4- 4—-4— 4— -4- 4— 4- 4—-4- —4_ 4_ 4-_ 4_ .4...4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 PATTERN Figure 20. Plot of Variances of Standardized Weft "a*" Values by Pattern ^ cn SAS PLOT OF VWEFTB*FATIERN LEGENDl A = 1 OBS, B = 2 OBS, ETC. VWBFTB 0.11 0.10 0.09 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02 A 1 A 0.01 + A CA 1 AAB A BA AAD B 1 BD BBCAAB BE A 0.00 * B A B DBAC J CA C 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 PATTERN Figure 21. Plot of Variances of Standardized Weft Values by Pattern t o SAS PATTERS»! PLOT OF VARIANCE'VNAME LEGEND: A » 1 OBS, B = 2 OBS, ETC. VARIANCE 3.0 ♦ 3.5 * 3.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 A A A A A A B B A 0.0 B A A C C CC A C CCC w W w W G f W w F SHR W W w W w W A t A t R H A BA E 0 E A A A EEE R p R F A I RF D LTPRR RF FF p t P T X C P T WVIEP PP TTT p p T T N K CC I FALAB LA fi V w W W 0 0 D ST T S H VNAME NOTE: 6 OBS HAD HISSING VALUES OR WERE OUT OF RANGE Figure 22. Plot of Variances of Standardized Physical Attributes for Pattern 1 -oCO CO 8A3 PATTERN=2 PLOT OF VARIANCE*VNAME LEGEND: A = 1 OBS, B = 2 OBS, ETC. 1.6 *■ 1.4 * 1.2 1.0 f VARIANCE 0.0 0.6 A 0.4 * A A A 0.2 A A A A A A A A A A A D B A A A A A 0.0 B A D B A D B C B C 0 B II w w G T W WF S HR W w W w W W E AE R H A EA B 0 E A A AEEE p R P A I R FB L TP R RR F F F T p T I CP TW V 1 E P PP T T T p T T N KC CI F A L A BLAB W W W o 0 D S T w T S H VNAME NOTE: 10 OBS HAD HISSING VALUES OR WERE OUT OF RANGE Figure 23. Plot of Variances of Standardized Physical attributes for Pattern 2 t o VO 3A3 PATTERN:] PLOT OF VARIANCB*VNANE LEGEND: A = 1 OBS, B = 3 OBS, ETC. 1.6 1.4 1.3 1.0 VARIANCE O.B 0.6 0.4 0.3 A B A A A A A 0.0 BC C c A C c C C C C B W w W WG T w w P S H R w W W W WW A EA E R H A E A E 0 E AA A EE E RP R PAI RPBL V PRRRF P P P TP TIC P T W V 1 E P P P T T T PPTTNKC CI FAL A B L AB W WW W 0 0 D ST T S H VNAME NOTE: 6 OBS HAD HISSING VALUES OR WERE OUT OF RANGE Figure 24. Plot of Variances of Standardized Physical Attributes for Pattern 3 00t o o 9AS PATTERN=4 PLOT OF VARIANCB*VNAHB LEGEND# A « 1 OBS, B » 2 OBS, ETC. 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 VARIANCE 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 A A A A A A AA — f- w w W w G W w F RW W W W WW AE A ER A E A E A A AE EE R FR FA R F B P RR R F FF PT P TI P T W B P P PT T T FF T TN C C I A L AB L AB W WW W O o D T H VNAME NOTE: 2 OBS HAD HISSING VALUES OR WERE OUT OF RANGE t o Figure 25. Plot of Variances of Standardized Physical Attributes for Pattern 4 CO SAS PATTERN-5 PLOT OF VARIAMCS^VNAMB LEGEND* A = 1 OBS, B » 2 OBS, ETC. 1.6 + 1.4 * 1.2 ♦ C 1.0 + A VARIANCE A o .a + A iA 0.6 * A 0.4 * 0.2 + A 0.0 * HHHHHH W F WW W WW W A A AA A EEE R B RRR FFF P W PPP TTT F I LAB L A B D W T H VNAME NOTE: 16 0B3 HAD HISSING VALUES OR WERE OUT OF RANGE t o Figure 26. Plot of Variances of Standardized Physical Attributes for Pattern 5 GO to 9AS PATTERN=6 PLOT OF VARXANCB*VNAMB LEGEND» A = 1 OBS, B = 2 OBS, BTC. VARIANCE I 1.3 + 1.2 1.1 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 * A I A 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 F FP P F F W W W W W F W WW W W W A E A E E A AA A B E R R F R F F B R RR F F F P T P T T W P P P T T T WF WF WT WT OC 0I L A B L A B HT VNAME NOTES 18 OBS HAD HISSING VALUES OR WERE OUT OF RANGE Figure 27. Plot of Variances of Standardized Physical Attributes for Pattern 6 00t o w 9*3 PATTERN:? PLOT OF VARIANCE*VN*ME LEGBNDt A : 1 093, 3 = 2 OBS, ETC. 5 + VARIANCE A A A A B A A A A A A A B A A A A f A B F A g FF E FF F E F FF II II W WG T WW F S HR WW WW WW g A B RH AB A E 0 E A A AE BE p F R P A I R F BL T PRR RF FF p T p T t C P T WV I B P P PT TT FF T TN K CC I FAL A BL AB W W W W O 0 0 ST T S H VNAME NOTE I 12 OBS HAD HISSING VALUES OR WERE OUT OF RANGE N) Figure 28. Plot of Variances of Standardized Physical Attributes for Pattern 7 00 SAS PATTERN=B PLOT OF VARIANCB*VNAHB LEGEND: A = 1 OBS, B = 2 OBS, ETC. 1.6 + 1.4 + 1.2 1.0 + VARIANCE I 0.8 * A 0.6 +: A A 0.4 + 0.2 * A A C 0.0 BB D D DD D D D D D w w WG T W w F SM RW W W W WW E AE RH AE AE 0 E A AAEEE p R FA I R F BL T PR RRFFF p T IC P T WVI EP PPTTT F F T T N K C C I F A LA BL AB W W W 0 0 D S T W T S H VNAME NOTE: 8 OBS HAD HISSING VALUES OR WERE OUT OF RANGE t o Figure 29. Plot of Variances of Standardized Physical Attributes for Pattern 8 00 cn 9A9 PATTERH=9 PLOT OF VARIANCB*VHAME LEGEND: A = 1 0B9, B = 2 CBS, BTC. VARIANCE t 1.3 + 1.2 1.1 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 A AA AA AA -+--- -+- W w W w F S WW W W WW A E A B A E AA AE E E R F R F B L RR RF FF P T P T W V PP PT TT T T C C I LA B L AB W W o O D T H VNAME NOTES 2 0B9 HAD HISSING VALUES OR WERE OUT OF RANGE w Figure 30. Plot of Variances of Standardized Physical Attributes for Pattern 9 00 9AS PATTERN=10 PLOT OF VAR1ANCE*VNANE LEGEND* A s 1 OBS, B = 2 OBS, BTC. VARIANCE1.3 t 1.2 1.1 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 A A 0,0 A 0 D A B D D D 0 C W W G T W F M R W W W A B R H E A 0 B A A E R F A I F B T P R R F P T I C T W 1 E P P T T T N K C I F A L B L W W 0 D S T T S H VNAME NOTE I 12 OBS HAD HISSING VALUES OR WERE OUT OF RANGE Figure 31. Plot of Variances of Standardized Physical Attributes for Pattern 10 00t o SAS PATTERN=11 PLOT OF VARIANCE»VNAME LEGEND: A = 1 0B3, B = 2 OBS, ETC. 3.0 2.7 2.4 2.1 1.8 VARIANCE 1.5 1.3 0.9 0.6 0.3 0.0 AA A AA A W W w G W W WW W W A AA A BE E A E A E R FFF R F R F A R R RR P PPP T TT P T P T I LA B F F T T N C LAB W W W W O NOTE: 3 OBS HAD HISSING VALUES OR WERE OUT OF RANGE Figure 32. Plot of Variances of Standardized Physical Attributes for Pattern 11 00 00 SAS FATTEAN-13 PLOT CP VARIANCE*VNAME LEGEND* A » 1 OBS, B = 2 OBS, ETC. 1.6 f 1.4 1.3 1.0 VARIANCE 0.8 0.6 + 0.2 A A AA A B A B A A 0.0 A CD B C 0 DD C C D D W W w W G TWW F s MR WW W W w W A EA E R H A E A E OE AA A E E E RF R FAIRFB L TP R R R F F F PTP T I CPT W V IE P P P T T T F F T TN K C C IFA L AB L AB W W W W 0 0 0 ST T S H VNAME NOTE* 11 OBS HAD MISSING VALUES OR WERE OUT OF RANGE to Figure 33. Plot of Variances of Standardized Physical Attributes for Pattern 12 CO VD SAS PATTERN=15 PLOT OF VARIANCB*VNAHB LEGEND* A 8 1 OBS, B = 2 OBS, ETC. VARIANCE I 1.3 + 1.2 A 1.1 A 1.0 0.9 O.B 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 *■ A I A 0.2 A A 0.1 A B A A B 0.0 A B D D C BD D D D D D W W W W GTW w F S HR W WW WW W AEA E R H A EA E 0 E A A A E E E R FRFA I R FB L TPR RR F F F P TP TICP TW VI EP PP T T T FFTTN KCCI FAL A B L A B W W W W 0 0 D ST T S H VNAME NOTE# 12 OBS HAD HISSING VALUES OR WERE OUT OF RANGE Figure 34. Plot of Variances of Standardized Physical Attributes for Pattern 15 0.9 0.8 0.7 0 .6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 A c C C BB CC CC CC C V w w W G T WWFSH R w w w W W w A E A E R H AE A B 0 EA AAE EE R FR F AI RFBLTP RRR FFF P T P T I C PT W VI EPPP T TT F F T T NK C CIF AL ABL AB W W W 0 0 D S T W T S VNAME NOTE: 6 OBS HAD MISSING VALUES OR WERE OUT OF RANGE Figure 35. Plot of Variances of Standardized Physical Attributes for Pattern 16 to VO SAS PAttERH=17 PLOT OF VARIANCE'VNAHE LEGENDI A = 1 OBS, B = 2 OBS, ETC. VARIANCE 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 A A A A B B A C C 0.0 A B A C C c A CC CC w W w W M %# w G T w w F a HR W w W A E A E R H A Ë AE 0 E AA AE EE R p R F A I RF B L TPRR R F FF P T p T IC PT W VIE PP PT TT AB F F T T NK C C I F A L A BL W V W W 0 0 D S T T S H VNAME HOTEl 9 OBS HAD MISSING VALUES OR WERE OUT OF RANGE to Figure 36. Plot of Variances of Standardized Physical Attributes for Pattern 17 VO to SAS FATTERN=18 PLOT OF VARIANCE*VNANB LEGEND: A = 1 OBS, B = 2 OBS, ETC. VARIANCE 4 s s s SS S F w W w w w W A A AA EE E B R RR FF F W PPPT T T I LABLAB D T H VNAME NOTE: 57 OBS HAD MISSING VALUES OR WERE OUT OF RANGE Figure 37. Plot of Variances of Standardized Physical Attributes for Pattern 18 t o 03 SAS PATTERN=19 PLOT OF VARIANCE*VNAMB LEGEND: A = 1 OBS, B = 2 OBS, ETC. 2.50 2.25 2.00 1.75 1.50 VARIANCE 1.25 1.00 0.75 O.SÛ 0.25 0.00 FFF P FF W W W W W F WWW W W W A E A B E A A AA E B E R F R P P B RR RP P P P T P T T W PP PT T T F F T T C 2 L AB L AB W W W W O D T H NOTE: 12 OBS HAD HISSING VALUES OR WERE CUT OF RANGE Figure 38. Plot of Variances of Standardized Physical Attributes for Pattern 19 9AS PATTERN=21 PLOT OF VARIANCB^VNAME LEGBNDt A = 1 OBS, B « 2 OBS, ETC, 3.0 2.7 2.4 * 2.1 1.8 VARIANCE 1.5 + t.2 0.9 0.6 0.3 r A 0.0 •f A A A A AA w w W W G W F W WW W W W AEAE R E A A AA E E E RPR F A F B R RR F FP PTP TI T W P P P T TT F F TT N C % L A B L AB W W W W . 0 D T H VNAME NOTEi 3 OBS HAD HISSING VALUES OR WERE OUT OF RANGE to Figure 39. Plot of Variances of Standardized Physical Attributes for Pattern 21 VO oi SAS FATTERM=22 PLOT OF VARIANCB^VNAMB LEGEND: A = 1 OBS, B = 2 OBS, BTC. 2.00 1.75 1.50 1.25 + VARIANCE 1.00 0.75 + 0.50 + 0.25 + B A 0.00 » A B c CC C CC C - + - W W F M RWW W W w w E E A 0 EAA A EE E F F B T P R R RF FF T T W 1 EP P PT TT T C I F ALA B L AB W O D S HT VNAME NOTE: 6 OBS HAD HISSING VALUES OR WERE OUT OF RANGE Figure 40. Plot of Variances of Standardized Physical Attributes for Pattern 22 to o\VO SAS PATTERN=27 PLOT OP VARtM9CB*VHAMB LEGEND» A 1 OBS, B = 2 OBS, BTC. 1.6 1.1 1.2 1 . 0 + VARIANCE 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 A 0.0 A A A A A A A A A A w w W W G T W W FSN RWWW W W W AEAE RH A EAEO EA AA E EE RPRF AI RF BLT PR R R F F F P T PT IC PTW VI EP P P T T T F F TT NK CC IF AL AB LA B W W W W 0 0 D S T T S H VNAME NOTE: 3 OBS HAD MISSING VALUES OR WERE OUT OF RANGE Figure 41. Plot of Variances of Standardized Physical Attributes for Pattern 27 CO VO APPENDIX I RESULTS OF F-TESTS 298 299 Table 28. Comparison of Pattern Variances for Warp Fiber Width. F-test. Adjusted Pattern df df p-value Design F-test mam. * den.* p-value l-(l-p)" 1 12.444 12 4 .013 .232 2 3.583 16 4 .113 .909 3 5.667 12 4 .058 .669 4 5.667 4 4 .061 .714 5 7.750 32 4 .029 .448 6 6.285 24 4 .043 .586 7 7.056 24 4 .035 .510 8 7.083 16 4 .036 .516 9 4.333 4 4 .092 . 856 10 4.417 16 4 .080 .813 11 13.333 4 4 .014 .245 12 4.333 16 4 .083 .823 15 2.917 16 4 .155 .966 16 5.000 12 4 .066 .747 17 3.778 12 4 .105 .891 18 7.351 76 4 .031 .472 19 12.167 24 4 .013 .229 21 1.000 4 4 .500 1.000 22 7.667 12 4 .032 .475 27 3.333 4 4 .135 .945 “degrees of freedom for the numerator ^degrees of freedom for the denominator 300 Table 29. Comparison of Pattern Variances for Weft Fiber Width. F-test. Adjusted Pattern df df p-value Design F-test num.* den.““ p-value l-(l-p)" 1 3.125 12 4 .141 .944 2 3.750 16 4 .105 .878 3 2.958 12 4 .153 .957 4 2.500 4 4 .198 .985 5 * ** * * 6 3.625 24 4 .109 .889 7 2.938 24 4 .152 .956 8 2.625 16 4 .181 .977 9 4.125 4 4 .099 .863 10 2.313 16 4 .217 .990 11 1.000 4 4 .500 1.000 12 2.688 16 4 .175 .974 15 1.406 16 4 .404 1.000 16 1.792 12 4 .303 .999 17 5.083 12 4 .065 .719 18 2.539 76 4 .188 .981 19 2.250 24 4 .225 .992 21 9.750 4 4 .024 .374 22 1.292 12 4 .437 1.000 27 5.375 4 4 .066 .727 “degrees of freedom for the numerator ““degrees of freedom for the denominator 301 Table 30. Comparison of Pattern Variances for Warp Yarn Twist. F-test. Adjusted Pattern df df p-value Design F-test num.“ den.* p-value l-(l-p)" 1 ***** 2 * * *** 3 2.083 12 4 .250 .958 4 3.500 4 4 .126 .773 5 * * *** 6 ***** 7 * * *** 8 1.500 16 4 .376 .994 9 6.500 4 4 .049 .422 10 2.250 16 4 .225 .940 11 2.750 4 4 .175 .880 12 1.625 16 4 .342 .990 15 1.875 16 4 .287 .976 16 1.333 12 4 .423 .998 17 * ** * * 18 * * * * * 19 * * * * * 21 1.500 4 4 .352 .992 22 * ** * * 27 1.000 4 4 .500 1.000 “degrees of freedom for the numerator ‘“degrees of freedom for the denominator 302 Table 31. Comparison of Pattern Variances for Weft Y a m Twist. F-test. Adjusted Pattern df df p-value Design F-test num. * den.* p-value l-(l-p)" 1 5.600 12 12 .003 .055 2 1.500 16 12 .241 .996 3 3.200 12 12 .273 .425 4 6.000 4 12 .007 .129 5 4.050 32 12 .007 .124 6 1.825 24 12 .139 .950 7 **** * 8 6.038 16 12 .002 .031 9 1.500 4 12 .263 .998 10 4.157 16 12 .008 .153 11 1.800 4 12 .194 .987 12 1.650 16 12 .192 .986 15 24.300 16 12 .000 .000 16 1.300 12 12 .328 1.000 17 1.000 12 12 .500 1.000 18 11.779 76 12 .000 .000 19 3.850 24 12 .009 .170 21 4.200 4 12 .235 .379 22 1.000 12 12 .500 1.000 27 * *** * "degrees of freedom for the numerator ‘“degrees of freedom for the denominator 303 Table 32. Comparison of Pattern Variances for Fabric Grain. F-test. Adjusted Pattern df df p-value Design F-test nnm.“ den.* p-value l-(l-p)" 1 29.000 3 3 .010 .169 2 6.000 2 3 .089 .815 3 1.000 3 3 .500 1.000 4 *** * * 5 4.125 8 3 .136 .928 6 *** * * 7 55.000 6 3 .004 .065 8 6.000 4 3 .086 .803 9 3.000 1 3 .182 .973 10 8.250 4 3 .057 .653 11 75.000 1 3 .003 • .057 12 27.000 1 3 .014 .222 15 1.500 4 3 .385 1.000 16 * ** * * 17 2.000 3 3 .292 1.000 18 ***** 19 16.500 6 3 .021 .321 21 *** ** 22 2.000 3 3 .292 1.000 27 ***** “degrees of freedom for the numerator ^degrees of freedom for the denominator 304 Table 33. Comparison of Pattern Variances for Fabric Thickness. F-test. Adjusted Pattern df df p-value Design F-test num." den.* p-value l-(l-p)" 1 80.725 12 4 .000 .007 2 226.367 16 4 .000 .001 3 6.164 12 4 .047 .596 4 2.393 4 4 .209 .988 5 10.250 32 4 .018 .285 6 4.688 24 4 .072 .776 7 ***** 8 13.766 16 4 .011 .182 9 6.518 4 4 .048 .610 10 7.248 16 4 .034 .484 11 48.706 4 4 .001 .023 12 17.661 16 4 .007 .118 15 2.208 16 4 .231 .993 16 1.625 12 4 .340 1.000 17 5.078 12 4 .065 .720 18 4.429 76 4 .077 .781 19 2.281 24 4 .220 .991 21 1.000 4 4 .500 1.000 22 3.170 12 4 .138 .940 27 1.857 4 4 .282 .998 “degrees of freedom for the numerator ^degrees of freedom for the denominator 305 Table 34. Comparison of Pattern Variances for Warp Fabric Count. F-test. Adjusted Pattern df df p-value Design F-test nnm.“ den.* p-value l-(l-p)" 1 *** * * 2 29.538 16 12 .000 .001 3 1.000 12 12 .500 1.000 4 5.885 4 12 .007 .131 5 4.683 32 12 .003 .063 6 9.660 24 12 .000 .002 7 3.051 24 12 .024 .369 8 11.586 16 12 .000 .001 9 21.846 4 12 .000 .004 10 7.423 16 12 .001 .011 11 3.731 4 12 .034 .481 12 8.769 16 12 .000 .005 15 9.806 16 12 .000 .002 16 2.346 12 12 .077 .782 17 5.795 12 12 .002 .045 18 2.862 76 12 .024 .365 19 3.308 24 12 .017 .284 21 29.538 4 12 .000 .000 22 11.705 12 12 .000 .001 27 20.306 4 12 .000 .001 “degrees of freedom for the numerator ‘’degrees of freedom for the denominator 306 Table 35. Comparison of Pattern Variances for Weft Fabric Count.. F-test. Adjusted Pattern df df p-value Design F-test num.* den.» p-value l-(l-p)" 1 1.583 12 4 .351 1.000 2 9.531 16 4 .021 .344 3 3.833 12 4 .103 .885 4 22.875 4 4 .005 .098 5 4.281 32 4 .083 .822 6 11.875 24 4 .014 .238 7 11.188 24 4 .015 .262 8 22.625 16 4 .004 .079 9 16.000 4 4 .009 .182 10 39.469 16 4 .001 .027 11 8.375 4 4 .032 .475 12 12.813 16 4 .012 .215 15 3.969 16 4 .096 .866 16 4.917 12 4 .068 .757 17 7.958 12 4 .030 .452 18 10.869 76 4 .015 .265 19 12.521 24 4 .012 .218 21 1.000 4 4 .500 1.000 22 6.167 12 4 .046 .614 27 20.306 4 4 .005 .089 “degrees of freedom for the numerator ‘“degrees of freedom for the denominator 307 Table 36. Comparison of Pattern Variances for Fabric Width. F-test. Adjusted Pattern df df p-value Design F-test nnm.* den.^ p-value l-(l-p)" 1 ** * * * 2 25.000 8 8 .000 .001 3 3.000 12 8 .064 .731 4 ***** 5 3.800 16 8 .031 .465 6 6.240 20 8 .006 .114 7 3.000 8 8 .071 .769 8 2.800 4 8 .100 .880 9 2.800 4 8 .100 .880 10 17.800 16 8 .000 .003 11 2.000 4 8 .186 .984 12 1.000 8 8 .500 1.000 15 4.800 4 8 .029 .440 16 1.600 8 8 .261 .998 17 21.200 8 8 .000 .003 18 3.000 8 8 .071 .769 19 25.600 8 8 .000 .001 21 2.800 4 8 .100 .880 22 * *** * 27 1.200 4 8 .382 1.000 “degrees of freedom for the numerator ^degrees of freedom for the denominator 308 Table 37. Comparison of Pattern Variances for Selvage Width. F-test. Adjusted Pattern df df p-value Design F-test num." den.* p-value l-(l-p)" 1 ** * ** 2 3.074 16 76 .001 .007 3 4.471 12 76 .000 .000 4 4.471 4 76 .003 .039 5 7.195 32 76 .000 .000 6 *** ** 7 2.515 24 76 .001 .019 8 8.382 16 76 .000 .000 9 6.706 4 76 .000 .002 10 * * * ** 11 *** ** 12 1.118 16 76 .355 .999 15 **** * 16 1.490 12 76 .147 .907 17 3.539 12 76 .000 .005 18 1.000 76 76 .500 1.000 19 **** * 21 * * ** * 22 1.863 12 76 .053 .557 27 6.706 4 76 .000 .002 “degrees of freedom for the numerator ^degrees of freedom for the denominator 309 Table 38. Comparison of Pattern Variances for Space Between Motifs. F-test. Adjusted Pattern df df p-value Design F-test num.* den.^ p-value l-(l-p)” 1 4.888 12 32 .000 .003 2 ** ** * 3 2.665 12 32 .000 .204 4 5.332 4 32 .013 .035 5 1.000 32 32 .002 1.000 6 *** * * 7 ** *** 8 14.994 16 32 .000 .000 9 ***** 10 *** * * 11 ** ** * 12 ** ** * 15 ** *** 16 3.777 12 32 .001 .022 17 ** *** 18 *** ** 19 1.999 24 32 .034 .442 21 *** * * 22 19.549 12 32 .000 .000 27 * **** "degrees of freedom for the numerator degrees of freedom for the denominator 310 Table 39. LfUIUkf CLLJ.au9Ll \J1. r'ClUUCJ.ii V CIJ. J.CIX. F-test. Adjusted Pattern df df p-value Design F-test num.* den.^ p-value l-(l-p)" 1 * * * ** 2 2.000 16 12 .114 .873 3 1.000 12 12 .500 1.000 4 * *** * 5 * * * ** 6 * * * * * 7 3.334 24 12 .017 .251 8 * ** * * 9 * **** 10 * **** 11 *** * * 12 * *** * 15 * **** 16 *** * * 17 * **** 18 * * * * * 19 2.167 24 12 .082 .766 21 * * * * * 22 2.000 12 12 .122 .891 27 * * * * * “degrees of freedom for the numerator degrees of freedom for the denominator 311 Table 40. Comparison of Pattern Variances for Warp "L*" Values. F-test. Adjusted Pattern df df p-value Design F-test num." den.* p-value l-(l-p)" 1 583.315 12 4 .000 .000 2 170.651 16 4 .000 .002 3 11.356 12 4 .016 .269 4 5.667 4 4 .061 .714 5 5.308 32 4 .057 .693 6 5.000 24 4 .064 .734 7 13.211 24 4 .011 .199 8 15.900 16 4 .008 .149 9 7.533 4 4 .038 .539 10 6.100 16 4 .046 .613 11 14.867 4 4 .011 .205 12 40.101 16 4 .001 .027 15 1.833 16 4 .295 .999 16 7.022 12 4 .037 .530 17 15.000 12 4 .009 .169 18 14.112 76 4 .009 .171 19 10.056 24 4 .018 .310 21 1.000 4 4 .500 1.000 22 11.289 12 4 .016 .271 27 15.867 4 4 .010 .184 “degrees of freedom for the numerator ^degrees of freedom for the denominator 312 Table 41. Comparison of Pattern Variances_£or_WarP_ Values. F-test. Adjusted Pattern df df p-value Design F-test num.- den.* p-value l-(l-p)" 1 1155.060 12 4 .000 .000 2 149.840 16 4 .000 .002 3 6.440 12 4 .043 .547 4 1.000 4 4 .500 1.000 5 10.420 32 4 .017 .265 6 13.450 24 4 .010 .176 7 ** *** 8 65.340 16 4 .005 .009 9 2.330 4 4 .216 .987 10 30.670 16 4 .002 .040 11 2.330 4 4 .216 .987 12 ** * ** 15 16.170 16 4 .008 .131 16 11.890 12 4 .014 .228 17 50.340 12 4 .001 .016 18 23.620 76 4 .003 .061 19 4.220 24 4 .085 .799 21 44.000 4 4 .001 .026 22 27.110 12 4 .003 .052 27 5.000 4 4 .074 .750 “degrees of freedom for the numerator degrees of freedom for the denominator 313 Table 42. Comparison of Pattern Variances for Warp "b*" Values. F-test. Adjusted Pattern df df p-value Design F-test num.* den.* p-value l-(l-p)" 1 53.266 12 4 .001 .012 2 * * * ** 3 27.466 12 4 .003 .043 4 2.800 4 4 .171 .940 5 24.249 32 4 .003 .050 6 8.017 24 4 .028 .346 7 * * ** * 8 48.224 16 4 .001 .014 9 1.000 4 4 .500 1.000 10 23.050 16 4 .004 .058 11 25.001 4 4 .004 .063 12 * * * ** 15 38.824 16 4 .001 .021 16 16.301 12 4 .008 .112 17 30.099 12 4 .002 .036 18 * * ** * 19 ** * ** 21 1.500 4 4 .352 .999 22 1.000 12 4 .555 1.000 27 15.200 4 4 .011 .152 ■“degrees of freedom for the numerator ^degrees of freedom for the denominator 314 Table 43. Comparison of Pattern Variances for Weft. ”L*" Values. F-test. Adjusted Pattern df df p-value Design F-test num.* den.*’ p-value l-(l-p)" 1 794.886 12 4 .000 .000 2 358.043 16 4 .000 .000 3 139.684 12 4 .000 .002 4 57.341 4 4 .001 .016 5 35.046 32 4 .002 .031 6 43.283 24 4 .001 .021 7 132.350 24 4 .000 .002 8 50.172 16 4 .001 .016 9 1.000 4 4 .500 1.000 10 13.585 16 4 .011 .186 11 47.672 4 4 .001 .023 12 ** ** * 15 5.417 16 4 .057 .672 16 32.671 12 4 .002 .039 17 34.560 12 4 .002 .035 18 79.466 76 4 .000 .006 19 44.672 24 4 .001 .020 21 11.001 4 4 .020 .314 22 37.116 12 4 .002 .030 27 30.671 4 4 .003 .054 “degrees of freedom for the numerator ‘’degrees of freedom for the denominator 315 Table 44. Comparison of Pattern Variances for Weft. "« Values. F-test. Adjusted Pattern df df p-value Design F-test num." den.* p-value l-(l-p)" 1 77.308 12 4 .000 .008 2 15.578 16 4 .008 .154 3 2.333 12 4 .215 .992 4 1.000 4 4 .500 1.000 5 2.942 32 4 .152 .962 6 3.821 24 4 .100 .880 7 4.590 24 4 .074 .786 8 23.231 16 4 .004 .075 9 2.023 4 4 .162 .970 10 8.846 16 4 .024 .384 11 1.770 4 4 .297 .999 12 4.961 16 4 . 066 .746 15 4.135 16 4 .090 .847 16 4.538 12 4 .078 .803 17 12.051 12 4 .014 .244 18 5.316 76 4 .056 .685 19 1.026 24 4 .560 1.000 21 1.000 4 4 .500 1.000 22 2.641 12 4 .180 .981 27 1.385 4 4 .380 1.000 "degrees of freedom for the numerator ‘’degrees of freedom for the denominator 316 Table 45. Comparison of Pattern Variances for Weft "b*" Values. F-test. Adjusted Pattern df df p-value Design F-test num.* den.* p-value l-(l-p)" 1 61.134 12 4 .001 .011 2 ** *** 3 187.867 12 4 .000 .001 4 4.000 4 4 .104 .861 5 48.601 32 4 .001 .016 6 12.567 24 4 .012 .197 7 29.867 24 4 .002 .041 8 99.000 16 4 .000 .004 9 1.000 4 4 .500 1.000 10 64.249 16 4 .001 .010 11 27.002 4 4 .004 .065 12 ***** 15 67.750 16 4 .000 .009 16 37.400 12 4 .002 .028 17 28.400 12 4 .003 .048 18 20.463 76 4 .005 .079 19 25.834 24 4 .003 .054 21 2.600 4 4 .189 .977 22 2.800 12 4 .166 .962 27 38.400 4 4 .002 .034 "degrees of freedom for the numerator ‘’degrees of freedom for the denominator LIST OF REFERENCES A dictionary of silk terms. (1915). New York: Clifford & Lawton. a dictionary of textile terms. (1980). New York: Dan River. A history of Jacquard and the jacquard machine. (1950, Fall). American Fabrics. 15. 92-98. A lexicon of silk. (1957, Winter). American Fabrics. 41. 73. Americana woven in silk. (1938, February 1). Voeue 91. 20. 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