MARRIAGE AND MATCHMAKING NOVELS OF THE PAST FOR THE PEOPLE TODAY: A COMPARATIVE STUDY ON JANE AUSTEN’S AND PRAMOEDYA ANANTA TOER’S SELECTED NOVELS

A Thesis Pr esented to The Gr aduate Pr ogr a m in English Language Studies in Partial Fulfillment of the Requir ements for the Degr ee of Master of Humanior a in English Language Studies

by Maria Zakia Rahmawati 06 6332 010

THE GRADUATE PROGRAM IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA 2010 A THESIS

MARRIAGE AND MATCHMAKING NOVELS OF THE PAST FOR THE PEOPLE TODAY:

A COMPARATIVE STUDY ON JANE AUSTEN’S AND PRAMOEDYA ANANTA TOER’S SELECTED NOVELS

by

Maria Zakia Rahmawati 06 6332 010

Approved by

Dr.Alb. Budi Susanto, S.J. Advisor Yogyakarta, December, 2010

ii A THESIS

MARRIAGE AND MATCHMAKING NOVELS OF THE PAST FOR THE PEOPLE TODAY:

A COMPARATIVE STUDY ON JANE AUSTEN’S AND PRAMOEDYA ANANTA TOER’S SELECTED NOVELS

Presented by

Maria Zakia Rahmawati

Student Number: 06 6332 010

Was defended in front of the Thesis Committee

and declared acceptable

Thesis Committee:

Chairperson: Dr.Novita Dewi, M.S.,M.A (Hons)

Secretary: Dr.Alb. Budi Susanto, S.J.

Member: Dr.B.B. Dwijatmoko, MA

Member: Dr. St. Sunardi

Yogyakarta, December 2010 The Graduate School Sanata Dharma University

iii STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY

This is to certify that all the ideas, phrases, and sentences, unless otherwise stated, are the ideas, phrases, sentences of the thesis writer. The writer understands the full consequences including degree cancellation if she took somebody else‘s ideas, phrases, or sentences without a proper reference.

Yogyakarta, 01 December 2010

Maria Zakia Rahmawati

iv

LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS

Yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma:

Nama : Maria Zakia Rahmawati Nomor Mahasiswa : 06 6332 010

Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan

Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul:

MARRIAGE AND MATCHMAKING NOVELS OF THE PAST FOR THE PEOPLE TODAY: A COMPARATIVE STUDY ON JANE AUSTEN’S AND PRAMOEDYA ANANTA TOER’S SELECTED NOVELS

Dengan demikian saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma hak untuk menyimpan, mengalihkan dalam bentuk media lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pangkalan data, mendistribusikan secara terbatas, dan mempublikasikannya di Internet atau media lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta ijin dari saya maupun memberikan royalty kepada saya selama tetap mencantumkan nama saya sebagai penulis.

Demikian pernyataan ini yang saya buat dengan sebenarnya.

Dibuat di Yogyakarta

Pada tanggal : 01 December 2010

Yang menyatakan

Maria Zakia Rahmawati

v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This thesis is very important for me, since it was done in my hectic schedule and work. Without the support from my family, friends, and colleague, finishing this brush was quite impossible. All praise is for Allah, the Exalted. May Allah‘s peace and blessings be on Muhammad, on his family, and on his Companions.

The author wishes to acknowledge the members of her thesis supervisor,

Dr.Alb. Budi Susanto, S.J for his tremendous effort and assistance in the completion of this project. The author especially wishes to acknowledge Dr.Novita Dewi,

M.S.,M.A (Hons) for her ongoing support and instruction, without which the achievement of this goal would have been impossible.

vi TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Page ...... i Approval Page ...... ii Defense Approval Page ...... iii Statement of Originality ...... iv Lembar Pernyataan Persetujuan Publikasi ...... v Acknowledgements ...... vi Table of Contents ...... vii Abstract ...... viii Abstrak ...... ix

Chapter I. Introduction ...... 1 A. Background of the Study ...... 1 B. Research Questions ...... 12 C. Purpose of the Study ...... 12 D. Research Objectives ...... 17 E. Research Benefits ...... 18 F. Procedures ...... 18 1. Data Collection Procedures ...... 18 2. Data Analysis Procedures ...... 18 3. Strategies for Validating Findings ...... 19 G. Significance of the Study ...... 19 H. Hypotheses ...... 21 I. Expected Outcomes ...... 22

Chapter II. Literature Review ...... 23 A. Marriage and Matchmaking Definition ...... 23 B. Characters in Pride and Prejudice ...... 32 C. Characters in Emma ...... 36 D. Characters in The Girl from the Coast ...... 37

Chapter III. Ironies in Austen’s Selected Novels and Toer’s The Girl from the Coast ...... 39 A. Literary Classification ...... 39 B. Tone ...... 43 C. Ironies of Aristocratic Marriage and Matchmaking in Austen‘s British Community and Toer‘s Indonesian Colonial Society ...... 46

Chapter IV. Rights of Women in a Family, The Function of Marriage, and Women’s Concern in Economic Safety ...... 61 A. Women Position in Marriage and Rights of Property ...... 68 B. The Function of Marriage ...... 71

C. Women‘s Concern in Economic Safety ...... 73

Chapter V. Conclusion ...... 79 References ...... 86 Appendices ...... 89

vii ABSTRACT

Rahmawati, Maria Zakia. 2010. Marriage and Matchmaking Novels of the Past for the People Today: A Comparative Study on Jane Austen’s and Pramoedya Ananta Toer’s Selected Novels. Yogyakarta: English Language Studies, Graduate Program, Sanata Dharma University.

Marriage and matchmaking are very dominant in the novels discussed because both authors want to explain – in various ironies, paradoxes, and ambiguities – that marriage and matchmaking do not happen because of the specific financial benefit for the continuing of the aristocrats. Do marriage and matchmaking not also possible – and even better – happen based on the equality of man and woman, egalitarian and democratic? The data in this research includes Austen‘s selected novels (Pride and Prejudice, Emma, and Mansfield Park) , a novel by Toer (The Girl from the Coast), public documents (e.g. newspapers, magazines, journals), and private documents (e.g. personal journals). Such approach has its implication to provide the context for the recent period of (20 - 21st century) to get the picture of Austen‘s view on marriage and matchmaking in the past (18 – 19th century), based on the women characters‘ view as the models. Analyzing the data would be done by doing critical reading on the materials. This research will try to answer three questions. Firstly, due to globalization and pluralism, how does the society in Austen‘s novels view marriage? Is it the same as how do the society here view marriage? And what are their reasons to get married? Secondly, are there any aristocratic social gatherings to get a spouse in Indonesia? Thirdly, are the personality and social class accepted during that period still important especially in Indonesian society nowadays? Then, this research finds some findings. Firstly, that education for the women is needed. So, women will have choices, opportunities, and they can be independent. Toer has already mentioned this in his novel, yet, in that period of time, the whole learning of women ought to relate to men because women are just one of man‘s properties. Secondly, since there exist few dating agencies that are equipped to direct a young man or woman with planning a working date, one must presume that society perceives little value in that dating strategy. Therefore, matchmaking more often happens between families, and social gatherings are not common in Indonesian societies except in big cities. Thirdly, although both Austen and Toer talked about the importance of social class and personality in their novels, they also stated that class, money, and appearance should not be the only factors in choosing a husband or a wife. Both authors try to tell us that a woman needs to feel freedom to run their own life. What this research has contributed to literary study is that the readers could learn about equality (and egalitarianism) besides the early form of nationalism (and democracy) through the discussion of marriage and matchmaking in the novels.

viii ABSTRAK

Rahmawati, Maria Zakia, 2010. Pernikahan dan Perjodohan di Masa Lalu Untuk Masyarakat Kini, Studi Perbandingan dari Novel Terpilih Austen dan Pramoedya Ananta Toer. Yogyakarta: Kajian Bahasa Inggris, Program Pasca Sarjana, Universitas Sanata Dharma.

Topik pernikahan dan perjodohan sangat dominan dalam teks-teks novel yang dikaji. Kedua pengarang berusaha menjelaskan - dalam beragam ironi, paradoks dan ambiguitas - bahwa perjodohan dan pernikahan sesungguhnya bukan hanya demi keuntungan finansial yang eksklusif demi pelestarian kalangan aristokratik. Bukankah perjodohan dan pernikahan juga mungkin - dan sebaiknya - terjadi berdasarkan unsur kesetaraan antara laki-laki dan perempuan, egalitarian dan demokratik. Data dalam penelitian ini meliputi beberapa novel Austen (Pride and Prejudice, Emma, and Mansfield Park) , sebuah novel karya Toer (The Girl from the Coast), dokumen publik (surat kabar, majalah, dan jurnal), dan dokumen pribadi (jurnal pribadi). Teknik pendekatan sastra seperti ini berarti menyajikan konteks masa kini (abad 20-21) untuk memahami arti penting dari pandangan Austen terhadap pernikahan dan perjodohan pada masa lalu (abad 18-19) berdasar sudut pandang tokoh-tokoh perempuan sebagai modelnya.Analisis data dilakukan dengan melakukan pembacaan secara mendalam pada data tersebut. Penelitian ini akan mencoba menjawab tiga pertanyaan. Pertama, dengan terjadinya globalisasi dan pluralisme, bagaimana masyarakat dalam novel Austen memandang pernikahan? Apakah sama dengan bagaimana masyarakat di sini dalam memandang pernikahan? Dan apakah alasan mereka untuk menikah? Kedua, apakah di Indonesia ada perkumpulan untuk mencari pasangan hidup? Ketiga, apakah sifat dan kelas sosial yang diterima selama masa itu masih penting terutama dalam masyarakat Indonesia saat ini? Penelitian ini memperoleh beberapa temuan. Yang pertama, pendidikan bagi wanita sangat diperlukan. Dengan demikian, wanita bisa memiliki pilihan dan kesempatan, dan mereka bisa mandiri. Toer pun menyebutkan hal ini di novelnya, meskipun pada saat itu pendidikan bagi wanita selalu dihubungkan dengan pria karena wanita hanyalah salah satu dari hak milik pria. Kedua, karena hanya sedikit agen perjodohan yang memberi kesempatan bagi pria muda atau wanita untuk berkencan, seseorang pasti menganggap bahwa masyarakat hanya melihat sedikit keuntungan dari strategi berkencan tersebut. Maka dari itu, perjodohan lebih sering terjadi antara keluarga, dan perkumpulan sosial bukanlah hal yang umum terjadi di Indonesia kecuali di kota-kota besar. Ketiga, meskipun Austen dan Toer berbicara tentang pentingnya kelas sosial dan kepribadian dalam novel mereka, mereka juga menekankan bahwa kelas sosial, uang, dan penampilan seharusnya tidak menjadi faktor penentu dalam memilih pendamping hidup. Kedua pengarang mencoba memberitahu kita bahwa wanita perlu kebebasan untuk menjalankan hidup mereka. Sumbangan penelitian ini di ranah sastra adalah bahwa pembacanya diharapkan bisa mengkaji ulang tentang pengertian kesetaraan (dan egalitarianisme), juga nasionalisme awal (dan demokratisasi), berdasarkan alur argumentasi yang dibangun melalui konteks pernikahan dan perjodohan dalam novel-novel terkait.

ix CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

A. BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

It is nonetheless true that the adage ―Life imitates art far more than Art imitates life‖ was expressed by Oscar Wilde. It is a turnaround from the usual situation in which the artist creates art inspired by the life and world around them.

When life imitates art, reality reflects what had previously been expressed in art. How about these selected novels by Austen? Do the novels imitate life, or the other way around, later, life imitates them? As mentioned by Wellek and Warren (1956),

―literature represents life, and life is, in large measure, a social reality, even though the natural world and the inner or subjective world of the individual have also been objects of literary imitation‖1. Austen might have copied life into her works, yet years, centuries later, people imitate her work in some ways, such as matchmaking agency, young people gathering to meet their partners, and marriage as a means of social class-climb-up.

Austen‘s novels, like any other novels, are built from language; language represents a culture. A culture symbolizes human life. Indonesia has its own language and culture, and so do England. We have our way of life and individual variety, and so do England. The reason why I chose literature as my study is that literature is the mirror to see a nation. A novel is among other literary works like paintings, portraits, sculptures, comedies, tragedies, theatres, that can imitate their creators‘ existence across variety of nations.

1 Wellek, R. and Warren A., Theory of Literature (Australia: Penguin Books, 1956). p. 94.

1 To give some examples, haiku, a short Japanese poem tells us about the four seasons in the country. The poems mostly reflect the nature, animals, plants, human, and the poets usually sit together to build a haiku to become longer poems. Japanese counts haiku only in seventeen syllables or less, whereas other nations like English or

Indonesians could make a story in long lines in poems. Sapardi Djoko Damono, a famous Indonesian poet and writer, often creates stories based on his experiences in his poems. Yet The Solitary Reaper by William Wordsworth (1770-1850) which contains a lot of imageries is a creation of Wordsworth‘s imagination of a reaper who works alone in a field. And Pride and Prejudice, a novel by Jane Austen (1775-1817), is a long written story, which has imaginary characters and settings. Yet, it reflects a tradition and a custom in England in the 18th era.

Next, a modern kind of novel by women for women, now known as chick literature appears in contrast to Austen‘s novels. Chick literature still has the same life issues surrounding the life of women, such as love, marriage, matchmaking, dating, relationships, friendships, but it portrays them in a very light tone, humorous, without reducing the quality of the novels. The way women see marriage issue is of course different from the way women in Austen‘s novels handle it. Their purpose to get married is not to gain a better financial support but to get a partner in life. There are more choices for women because they have a job and career which is enough to support their needs.

Pride and Prejudice is already translated in Indonesian. Then, one day, I found a popular novel based on Pride and Prejudice, but still in English, entitled Me and Mr. Darcy. The writer is an American woman. She talks about her meeting and acquaintance with Mr. Darcy, the male character in Pride and Prejudice, and describes her astonishment and gladness in meeting an English man. She also joins a

2 trip to England, the setting of Austen‘s novels, and commenting on the splendour and also unusual habit of the English people, their enormous breakfast, having tea in the evening, from the American point of view. Whenever a work is read, we could learn so much traditions, way of life, society, and again, translation is the tool, yet, it really doesn‘t matter what language it is used.

Then, how can we say that we have a universal theme in world literature? It is the difference that makes it remarkable. The extraordinariness of a culture grabs our attention more than usual topic. Social class, nations, and gender are considered unimportant since readers will enjoy the differences.

In Java where I live now, language is used differently by different class. The higher the social status, the higher Javanese is used. Families of a higher status usually like to matchmake their daughters. They have to know the background of the future husband, their wealth, their job, and their education. Toer expressed his disapproval of matchmaking in The Girl from the Coast by writing in Indonesian, even though actually the characters speak in different level of Javanese according to their social class and the aristocrats sometimes speak in Dutch. The Girl from the

Coast is the example of a failed matchmaking. The heroine is not matchmade to be a real wife, but she is only a practice wife. Having similar background is important in marriage although it is not the main consideration. As Ackiss explained in his article,

The reality is that economic and social status shapes our lives. Even in our egalitarian age, the reality is that few of us ever marry someone whose parents are a lot richer or poorer than our own2.

2 Ackiss, David L.: ―Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice, Volume I, Chapter 8: A Close Reading” (www.solonschools.org/accounts/LFitch/PrideandPrejudice). Accessed on 6 June 2010.

3 As a result of lack of education women were expected to marry in order to find someone to support them since they did not have the knowledge to find jobs. This directs into the social and financial pressures that resulted in women getting married.

In England of the 18-19th century as described in Austen‘s novels, women were often married because the girls‘ parents would often search for men who were wealthy, had a title and could advance their social status. Marriages of daughters were used to secure business deals, increase wealth, and to raise status. It was as if women were being treated as objects that could be bought and sold at a time. They did not want to risk being rejected from their families by not marrying someone in a higher class.

Anderson has explained that:

Nationalism arose when there were changes in the dynastic realm. In the older imagining, states were defined by centers, borders were porous and indistinct, and sovereignties faded with one another. However, in the 17th century, the automatic legitimacy of the sacral monarchy began its decline and people began to doubt the 3 belief that society was naturally organized around high centers.

Behaviour, lifestyle, and opportunities of the society depicted in the novel are different from now. English people in middle class of late 18th and early 19th century is obviously unlike Indonesian people two hundred years later. However, once more, values could be taken and learnt from the past. Let us start with what women do in daily life. Do they work? A woman from lower class could work as a cook, a butler, a housekeeper, or a housemaid. Mrs. Bennet spends so much money on having them to work in her house, while actually she could do the housework by herself, and with the help of her five daughters. They do not seem to be very busy at all, since they use their time only to practise their music, writing letters, reading books, playing cards, having morning visit to their relatives and friends. When they come from the middle class, it seems that the only job depicted in the novels is being a governess. A woman

3 Anderson, B., Imagined Communities (London, New York: Verso, 1991), p.36.

4 could be a private teacher for girls at home, with uncertain working hour.

Compare it with our girls at school now. After they finish their study in a high school or higher, a university, they have several kinds of jobs to choose. A high school graduate could take a language course or practical skill to prepare them to be a mechanic, a computer user, a writer, or a babysitter, a very womanlike. A university graduate has more opportunities to choose, like being a lawyer, an engineer, and many others. This kind of choices is also depicted in chick literature. Even though chick literature seems to support the woman who does not need marriage as ‗an alternative profession‘, arranged marriage or matchmaking seemed to be a good way to find

Mr.Right if we had considered the process. Young people need guidance to do that, and other people help. At least the parents will try to introduce the daughter to a person whom they know very well. When a couple meet in an arranged married, they will start to know each other for some time, like weeks or months. It will not take long because both of them are ready to start a relationship. And when finally they come to a marriage, a commitment is set. Therefore, both of them feel responsible to make the marriage last. Marriage needs love, but love grows from responsibility and commitment.

Marriage looks like a kind of job in the novel Austen‘s novels, where women could get a new position in the society as a wife and a mother. This worthy profession starts when a girl is introduced to the society and entered a marriage market at the age of sixteen or seventeen as Lady Catherine mentions:

"All! What, all five out at once? Very odd! ……………

"Yes, my youngest is not sixteen. Perhaps _she_ is full young to be much in company. But really, ma'am, I think it would be very hard upon younger sisters, that they should not have their share of society and amusement, because the elder may not have the means or inclination to marry early. The last-born has as good a right to the pleasures of youth at the first. And to be kept back on _such_ a

5 motive! I think it would not be very likely to promote sisterly affection or delicacy 4 of mind.

Elizabeth Bennet, the character that Austen chose to be logical and thinks that a marriage should be based on love, even mentions (PP, 254):

―But I believe I must date it from my first seeing his beautiful grounds at Pemberley."

She herself views marriage as a benefit for her, after she finds Darcy is a real man of fortune.

What did men do to earn a living, then? How did they spend the day? Whalan mentioned the gentlemen job in her article Understanding the society in which Austen sets Pride and Prejudice. Mr.Darcy and Mr.Bingley inherit properties and estates from their fathers. Perhaps what Bingley has is not as much as Darcy‘s, but he has factories to control and both of them invest some amount of money in the bank5. They have enough time to do what they like and enjoy spare time activities. Even more, when they get married to a girl, they would get what the girl has. Therefore, Wickham would be a very lucky man when he could marry Georgiana Darcy, but he is not as fortunate since he marries Lydia Bennet. George Wickham does not elope with a rich married woman, and choose a single girl because once a woman gets married, she becomes one of her husband‘s property. When a man finds out that one of his

‗property‘ is taken by another man, he could sue a large amount of money through the court. But, if a woman finds out that her husband leaves her with his mistress, she could do nothing. Wickham is quite smart by marrying Lydia, since he could still get the dowry and after Darcy marries Elizabeth Bennet, he supports Wickham‘s family

4 Austen, Jane, Pride and Prejudice (London: Penguin Books Ltd., 2004), p. 113. All subsequent references to this work, abbreviated PP, will be used in this thesis with pagination only. 5 Whalan, P.: ―Emma - Understanding Jane Austen's World” (www.jasa.net.au/ study/whalan.htm). Accessed on April 29, 2008.

6 and helps him to get a position in the militia. Women as one of men‘s properties are mentioned even clearer in this Indonesian novel, The Girl from the Coast. The nobleman in The Girl from the Coast does not position her as a wife, but only as a practice wife before his wedding to a woman of his class comes.

It is said by Friedan that marriage, which used to be a woman‘s only way to social function and economic support, is now a choice for most women as well as for men.6 Therefore, arranged marriage or matchmaking is not considered essential by a woman as the only way to find a prospective husband.

―Arranged marriage‖ is a sensitive word because many people view it cynically. They do not agree since it brings them a sense of unhappiness to the couple and the couples do not do it because they want it. It is merely to get the parents‘ blessings.

An arranged marriage is a marriage between two spouses arranged by the parents and sometimes the relatives. This culture is taken seriously by all members of the family. Some cultures still have this practice but the Western culture and even some parts in Indonesia have moved to other methods such as dating. Indonesia has the matchmaking practice on newspapers and shows on television, and the latest is through SMS on cellphones.

In 18-19th century, an arranged marriage meant that the parents and relatives found an appropriate person for their son or daughter. What happened in the novels is similar to what happened in Indonesia, in this research I would limit it in Java. That method is still used but it becomes more modest with some adjustment. Although the parents take the most important position in finding a spouse and checking his or her

6 Friedan, B., The Feminine Mystique (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc., 1997), p. xvii.

7 background, they will not force their children to marry a certain person. They will suggest the person they feel is suitable for their son or daughter. And then, the couple will meet for some time. If the couple agrees then they will get married.

One more thing that makes me interested in doing this research. I think when people are dating they tend to avoid commitment. Avoiding commitment means the relationship will not come to a responsibility. However, some people have different opinion. Arranged married will not make them feel ―love at the first sight, true love, or passionate love.‖ And it means they lack control of themselves. Perhaps we need to point out the importance in getting married is not a matter of judging each other as a couple, not a matter of money and not a matter of social status.

Hajnal in Mensch, first observed what he called a ―European‖ pattern:

Late age at marriage and high proportions of people remaining unmarried. In describing this distinctive pattern that prevailed from at least the eighteenth century, he hypothesized that an association existed between marriage and household formation, arguing that when marriage involved the establishment of a new household, as it did in much of Western and Northern Europe, the acquisition 7 of resources and skills was a determining factor in the decision to wed.

Although Lynch supports Hajnal‘s thesis, her argument is not consistent with a theory that connects age at marriage to economic resources. She claims that:

Late age at marriage represents a set of cultural values, although values that came, in part, from the economic realities of times past. While age at marriage is likely to be sensitive to the economic environment, particular marriage patterns 8 also appear to be shaped by the distinctiveness of individual family systems.

Other reasons to conduct this research is that although a large numbers of research about Austen have been done, there is not a research in contextualizing the marriage and matchmaking in her novels to marriage and matchmaking in Indonesia.

7 Mensch, B.S. and Singh S. (2005):‖ Trends in the Timing of First Marriage among Men and Women in the Developing World” (www.popcouncil.org). Accessed on 7 March 2007. 8 Lynch, D.: ―Social Theory at Box Hill: Acts of Union” (www.rc.umd.edu/praxis/boxhill/lynch/ lynch.html). Accessed on June 6, 2010.

8 The definition of marriage has been changing nowadays, compared to the definition of marriage in Austen novels.

Some possibilities might occur because what people read influence their ways of thinking. Pride and Prejudice was translated in Indonesian by Anton Adiwiyoto, and it was published by PT. Pantja Simpati Jakarta in 1985. It is mentioned by PT.

Pantja Simpati that Austen did not point to a certain period of time, but she could reflect the 18th century as the background of her writing. However, I could not find the Indonesian version in the bookstore these days. Perhaps the original language is more enjoyable than the translated one. Are people influenced by what they have read? According to Anderson,

Creation of imagined communities became possible because of what he calls "print-capitalism". Capitalist entrepreneurs printed their books and media in the vernacular (instead of exclusive script languages, such as Latin) in order to maximize circulation. As a result, readers speaking various local dialects became 9 capable of understanding each other, and a common discourse emerged.

Yet, what is happening in Indonesia is different from the novels. Avoiding the negative impact of early marriage that is shown in the novel, perhaps, become a consideration in a society.

Anderson proposed the following definition of a nation:

It is an imagined political community – and imagined as both inherently limited and sovereign. It is imagined because the members of even the smallest nation will never know most of their fellow-members, meet them, or even hear of them, yet in minds of each lives the image of their communion. The nation is imagined as limited because even the largest of them, encompassing perhaps a billion living human beings, has finite, if elastic boundaries, beyond which lie other nations. The nation is imagined as sovereign because the concept was born in an age in which enlightenment and revolution were destroying the legitimacy of the divinely-ordained, hierarchical dynastic realm. Finally, it is imagined as community, because, regardless of the actual inequality and exploitation that may

9 Anderson, B., Imagined Communities, p.37-46.

9 10 prevail in each, the nation is always conceived as a deep, horizontal comradeship.

Lynch mentions in her article, that in the context delineated in Anderson's

Imagined Communities, Emma's conviction that she can empathically project herself into the place of others and think what they think is not so much misguided as

11 mandated.

Lynch also stated that,

Imagined Communities highlights the capacity of newspapers and novels, the new vernacular print commodities of the early modern period, to weave together otherwise disconnected bits of information into a unity that creates the impression of a "sociological organism moving through homogeneous, empty time", presenting simultaneity, newspapers and novels supply readers with a prototype that prompt them to imagine the community in which they jointly participate every moment of every day, even though the identity of that community does not afford them the comforts of neighborly proximity.

In Emma, page 3312, we might think here of the cameo Emma uses to entertain

Harriet the evening after Mr. Elton rides to London to purchase a frame for Harriet's picture —a vignette that, extended, might serve as a chapter of that celebrated unwritten novel Miss Harriet Smith:

"'At this moment, perhaps, Mr. Elton is showing your picture to his mother and sisters and after being asked for it five or six times, allowing them to hear your name. How cheerful, how animated, how suspicious, how busy their imaginations all are!'"

Lynch also explained that we might think too of the conjectures (whose subject is, again, others' conjectures) that inform the remarks Emma makes to follow the arrival of the piano:

10 Anderson, B., Imagined Communities, p. 6-7. 11 Lynch, D.: ―Social Theory at Box Hill: Acts of Union” (www.rc.umd.edu/praxis/boxhill/lynch/ lynch.html). Accessed on 6 June 2010. 12 Austen, Jane, Emma ( London: Penguin Books Ltd., 2004). All subsequent reference to this work, abbreviated E, will be used in this thesis with pagination only.

10 ―How much your friends in Ireland must be enjoying your pleasure on this occasion. I dare say they often think of you, and wonder which will be the day, the precise day of the instrument's coming to hand‖ (E, 146).

It is described in Austen‘s novels that women could not get money except by marrying for it or inheriting it. The oldest son usually inherits an estate therefore a woman can only have the estate if she has no brothers. Related to the first research question, because Austen is also in the middle class society, she wants to militate against matchmaking by writing her novels. She criticized the aristocrats who are wealthy, but their money and property do not come from their job or their business.

The aristocrats are wealthy because of inheritance, and they want to stay wealthy by marrying someone from the same class. This is a notion of capitalism, whereas nationalism does not need capital.

Austen's heroines are not desperate to rush into marriage, and end up getting married because they fall in love, not the other way around. Sometimes rather sentimental, often stubborn, they are above all intelligent and quick-witted, willing and capable of learning from their mistakes. There is more similarity between

Austen's heroes, who tend to be reserved. Darcy and Mr. Knightly are often observed managing their estates, take their careers seriously, and business affairs. Henry Tilney is rather less reserved but no less mature and sensible. Moreover there is a steadiness and constancy in the way they conduct themselves. As mentioned by Barry, from the feminist point of view, Austen is quite modern in thoughts. She is focus on women

13 characters but she does not attack male version.

13 Barry, P., Beginning Theory: An Introduction to Literary and Cultural Theory (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1995), p. 122.

11

B. THE RESEARCH QUESTIONS

This research will try to answer three questions. Firstly, due to globalization and pluralism, how does the society in Austen‘s novels view marriage? Is it the same as how does the society here view marriage? And what are their reasons to get married? Secondly, are there any aristocratic social gatherings to get a spouse in

Indonesia? Thirdly, are the personality and social class accepted during that period still important especially in Indonesian society nowadays?

C. PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

The purpose of this study is to understand the marriage and matchmaking in the society in Austen‘s selected novels (18th century) compared to the Indonesian society. I provide one Indonesian novels by Toer (The Girl from the Coast) which showed our society around the turn of the 19th century. Toer (6 February 1925 – 30

April 2006) was an Indonesian author of novels, short stories, essays, polemic and histories of his homeland and its people. Toer was released from imprisonment in

1979, but remained under house arrest in Jakarta until 1992. During this time he released The Girl from the Coast, another semi-fictional novel based on his grandmother's own experience (volumes 2 and 3 of this work were destroyed along with his library in 1965). He died on April 30, 2006 at the age of 81. Toer earned several awards, and was frequently discussed as Indonesia's and Southeast Asia's best candidate for a Nobel Prize in Literature derives from autobiographical stories the author's grandmother told him when he was a child. It's about a happy, unnamed girl from a humble fishing village, whom a Muslim aristocrat from the city spirits away to become his latest "practice wife." This novel questions whether The Girl from the

12 Coast was happier being a poor nobody, because she was allowed to share her insights and be herself, rather than a rich man's concubine, or that she ends up believing her husband is the picture of evil, and that working people are the real heroes?

Public documents such as newspapers and women magazines will also support the findings. The documents provide us with the actual news of the present time, in this case, how marriage and matchmaking are like these days. How the societies give value to marriage is similar in a way, but it develops nowadays. Their reasons to get married and to arrange marriage are different because of certain phenomenon, such as: despite economic and social modernization, women‘s roles in societies continue to be defined primarily within the household. Compare it to the society in the novel!

Women stay at home, do household chores, and for the wealthy ones they read books and play musical instruments while the servants take care of the chores. They sometimes have works to do, which means earning money. They can sell painted tables, cover screens, and net purses. But that is it.

"All young ladies accomplished! My dear Charles, what do you mean?"

"Yes, all of them, I think. They all paint tables, cover screens, and net purses. I scarcely know anyone who cannot do all this, and I am sure I never heard a young lady spoken of for the first time, without being informed that she was very accomplished." (PP, 27)

The narrowing education gap between women and men also influence the decision to get married. Our culture needs a change in many aspects of its view and way of life. Strong cultural concepts are needed to create stronger marriages than what we now have. These could come through the parents more than through educational institutions and the mass media. Education was seen as the path to success. Competition in the work force led many to seek higher degrees. Therefore young people prefer to postpone marriage. The growth of education in this century led to the grouping of our young people together with others of the same age. More and

13 more, education became the norm. Young people found themselves away from their parents more often, and developed romantic relationships, apart from their parents‘ supervision, with friends in high school.

Women who are educated and have worked outside the home are expected to shoulder all the traditional housewifely duties when they become wives. Studying in town, learning how to play music, or drawing, is the kind of education mentioned in

Pride and Prejudice. When women do not go to town to study, they have a private teacher whom they call governess, to teach them at home.

"...... Do you play and sing, Miss Bennet?" "A little." "Oh! then--some time or other we shall be happy to hear you. Our instrument is a capital one, probably superior to----You shall try it someday. Do your sisters play and sing?" "One of them does." "Why did not you all learn? You ought all to have learned. The Miss Webbs all play, and their father has not so good an income as yours. Do you draw?" "No, not at all." "What, none of you?" "Not one." (PP, 112).

Lady Catherine emphasizes the importance of learning to sing, play music, and to draw for women, and she is surprised by the fact that not all of the Bennet sisters sing and play music and none of them draw.

"That is very strange. But I suppose you had no opportunity. Your mother should have taken you to town every spring for the benefit of masters." "My mother would have had no objection, but my father hates London." "Has your governess left you?" "We never had any governess." "No governess! How was that possible? Five daughters brought up at home without a governess! I never heard of such a thing. Your mother must have been quite a slave to your education."

Elizabeth could hardly help smiling as she assured her that had not been the case.

"Then, who taught you? Who attended to you? Without a governess, you must have been neglected."

14 "Compared with some families, I believe we were; but such of us as wished to learn never wanted the means. We were always encouraged to read, and had all the masters that were necessary. Those who chose to be idle, certainly might." "Aye, no doubt; but that is what a governess will prevent, and if I had known your mother, I should have advised her most strenuously to engage one. I always say that nothing is to be done in education without steady and regular instruction, and nobody but a governess can give it. It is wonderful how many families I have been the means of supplying in that way. I am always glad to get a young person well placed out. Four nieces of Mrs. Jenkinson are most delightfully situated through my means; and it was but the other day that I recommended another young person, who was merely accidentally mentioned to me, and the family are quite delighted with her. Mrs. Collins, did I tell you of Lady Metcalf's calling yesterday to thank me? She finds Miss Pope a treasure. 'Lady Catherine,' said she, 'you have given me a treasure.' Are any of your younger sisters out, Miss Bennet?" (PP, 112).

Lady Catherine finds it impossible to get education at home without the help of a governess since none of the Bennet sisters go to London to study. In her opinion, studying needs a steady and regular instruction which can only be given by a governess. Although Elizabeth Bennet insists that she and her sisters are encouraged to do a lot of reading at home, Lady Catherine still mentions the families who have a governess to teach their children have all the benefits.

Austen will be surprised if she is still alive now, to see how women have so many opportunities to learn and to work, to get along with friends, have their own business, and even when they want to postpone their marriage it is not a big mistakes in the society. After marrying Darcy, Elizabeth Bennet and her sister Jane, should help their younger sister, Lydia and her husband to pay their bill. Even though

Wickham and Lydia only earn a little money, their way of living costs far more than they earn.

"I wish you joy. If you love Mr. Darcy half as well as I do my dear Wickham, you must be very happy. It is a great comfort to have you so rich, and when you have nothing else to do, I hope you will think of us. I am sure Wickham would like a place at court very much, and I do not think we shall have quite money enough to live upon without some help. Any place would do, of about three or four hundred a year; but however, do not speak to Mr. Darcy about it, if you had rather not.

15 "Yours, etc."

..... Such relief, however, as it was in her power to afford, by the practice of what might be called economy in her own private expenses, she frequently sent them. It had always been evident to her that such an income as theirs, under the direction of two persons so extravagant in their wants, and heedless of the future, must be very insufficient to their support; and whenever they changed their quarters, either Jane or herself were sure of being applied to for some little assistance towards discharging their bills (PP, 263).

Women age when they get married is increasing. However, the characters in the novels are married in young ages. There is nothing wrong about it in a way.

Nowadays, women can obtain economic power and greater social status by getting married. Then they can have their own goals in career while their children are old enough to need less attention. Chick literature, novels by women for women, mostly talk about a modern woman who pursues her happiness by finding the right life, establishing the right career, finding a prospective husband or partner, yet, without getting dependent on him. These novels, I think, try to show that marriage and matchmaking is not the best possible chance of happiness.

As mentioned by Hull, the age at marriage in Java has been rising over the past four decades, and consummation is more likely to take place simultaneously, and in some cases prior to marriage.14 Austen does not describe Lydia Bennet, in Pride and Prejudice to have a proper stage in marriage. Her elopement with Wickham makes that clear.

Soon after you left me on Saturday, I was fortunate enough to find out in what part of London they were. The particulars I reserve till we meet; it is enough to know they are discovered. I have seen them both--" "Then it is as I always hoped," cried Jane; "they are married!" Elizabeth read on: "I have seen them both. They are not married, nor can I find there was any intention of being so; but if you are willing to perform the engagements which I

14 Hull, T.H. and Hull.V.J.: Changing Marriage Behavior in Java: the Role of Timing of Consummation. In Southeast Asian Journal of Social Science. Vol. 15, No. 1.1987. (www.policyproject.com/pubs/countryreports/ARH_Indonesia.pdf). Accessed on 26 May 2010.

16 have ventured to make on your side, I hope it will not be long before they are. All that is required of you is, to assure to your daughter, by settlement, her equal share of the five thousand pounds secured among your children after the decease of yourself and my sister; and, moreover, to enter into an engagement of allowing her, during your life, one hundred pounds per annum (PP, 202).

Lydia, after she gets married, will have her equal share which might not be enough to support her own family because even though her father is not poor, it is Mr

Collins who will inherit Mr Bennet‘s property, and not Mr Bennet‘s daughters.

D. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

A novel is neither a public document nor a historical fact. However, Junus brought up the advantage of fiction over non-fiction.

Fiction does not have to tell the audience that it tells a lie, while non-fiction should. Although the audience might suspect that anything told by fiction is a lie, they have no way of proving it. Or, in assuming that it is a lie, they also have to admit the possibility of truth in it. Nobody will deny this, for it is really the nature of fiction. Fiction integrates a possible lie with a possible truth. It is neither a simple lie nor a simple truth. And we receive is in such a way. The story is constructed in a similar way to that of fiction. The structuring, or the structural process, of the story is a fictional one. However, as fiction, it does not cut off its relationship to real life or the real world. As Wolfgang Iser has said, fiction brings 15 us to realize the weakness of a system.

This study will confine itself to portraying the marriage and matchmaking of the society in the novels and in Java, Indonesia. Java is chosen as the comparative object because it has a unique tradition in marriage. Starting from the matchmaking, marriage ceremonies which need a lot of expenses to invite a large number of guests, and the most important thing is the reasons of the people who want to get married.

Meanwhile, marriage and matchmaking in England as mentioned in the novels is very different. The matchmaking is quite open, parents do not force their children to marry a certain person, but they encourage marriage as a way to be independent and

15 Junus, U., Mustika Adat Alam Minangkabau: Fiction or An Account of Minangkabau Adat? Time Past, Time Present, Time Future Perspectives on Indonesian Culture (Providence USA: Foris Publication, 1998), p. 55-68.

17 stable in financial matter. Therefore, parents persuade their children to see the background of the man or woman that they are going to marry.

E. RESEARCH BENEFITS

What this research has contributed to literary study is that the readers could learn about equality (and egalitarianism) besides the early form of nationalism (and democracy) through the discussion of marriage and matchmaking in the novels. As mentioned by Wellek and Warren, literature represents life, and life is, in large measure, a social reality, even though the natural world and the inner or subjective

16 world of the individual have also been objects of literary imitation.

F. PROCEDURES

1. Data collection procedures

This research uses two data types, textual and contextual or social data.

Textual data includes Austen‘s selected novels (Pride and Prejudice, Emma, and

Mansfield Park) and The Girl from the Coast by Toer. Whereas social data includes public documents (e.g. newspapers, magazines, journals) or private documents (e.g. personal journals, emails).

Using public documents as data had some advantages. Those public documents could be accessed at a time convenient to the researcher, represent data which were thoughtful, and it saved time and expenses as a written evidence.

2. Data analysis procedures

Analyzing the data would be done by doing critical reading on the materials, sorting and arranging the data into different types (textual and social data, as

16 Wellek, R. and Warren A., Theory of Literature (Australia: Penguin Books, 1956), p. 94.

18 mentioned above) depending on the sources of information. For example, reading all the materials would help the writer to find the general idea about marriage and matchmaking. The idea would be used and applied in the study. The idea was shown by the lines in the novels and other sources, which would be extracted and discussed further. The information needed was concerning the reasons to wed, the social gathering in matchmaking, and about the habit and characteristics of the society in viewing marriage and matchmaking.

3. Strategies for validating findings

The writer was using a large number of data, including negative information.

Therefore the writer could always compare and contrast it. Selected novels by Austen with the focus on Pride and Prejudice and Indonesian novel by Toer The Girl from the Coast17 are presented here, so that the writer has related sources which support the

th analysis. The Girl from the Coast has the background around the turn of the 19 century, and public documents (e.g. newspapers, magazines, journals) which have been published recently will support the novels for the reason that the documents are the proof of real condition.

G. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

Literature is an expression of human life which entails the root of the society.

Therefore, as stated by Endraswara, even though literature and sociology are two

18 different things they could support each other. It is also mentioned by Levin in

Endraswara, that literature is not only the effect of social causes but also the cause of

17 Toer, Pramoedya Anantya, The Girl from the Coast (New York: Hyperion, 2002). All subsequent reference to this work, abbreviated GC, will be used in this thesis with pagination only. 18 Endraswara, S., Metodologi Penelitian Sastra (Yogyakarta: Pustaka Widyatama, 2006), p.78.

19 social effect. This study about marriage and matchmaking is conducted since

Austen‘s novels portrayed how the society viewed the phenomena, as shown in the pieces of the text. And as we could see nowadays, we do have similarities and some differences because both literature and society are developing.

Fuegen, in Fischer stated that ―literature is basically not a literary, but a social phenomenon. Through the inherent logic of its subject matter every work of literature

19 is basically a social document. Emma, one of Austen‘s novel mentions a lot about the importance of social class in that period of time. It also makes clear how one person becomes different from another just because they belong to different class in the society. The heroine of the novel, Emma, loves matchmaking and giving charity to others, yet the reason is that she could have a superior feeling by doing that. A kind of arrogance since she could do important things to people belongs to the lower class.

Trying to matchmake Harriet is a way to raise Harriet‘s social class. Emma forbids her to continue her acquaintance with Robert Martin, a farmer, and matchmake her to

Mr. Elton, the town preacher.

Wollstonecraft stressed in Evans:

That women who lack education will ‗do today what they did yesterday, merely because they did it yesterday‘ without questioning why. This is because early nineteenth-century society believed that ‗in the education of women, the cultivation of understanding is always subordinate to the acquirement of some 20 corporeal accomplishment‘.

Evans also stated that:

Both the Bertram sisters and Mary Crawford in Mansfield Park feel they must marry for property because it ensures their survival. Without education and the possibility of owning property themselves, they have nothing. Women therefore had to rely on the marriage market for survival, which was perpetuated through the

19 Fischer, U.C.(2008): ―Phenomenological Approach to Literature, Sociology of Literature, Sociological Literary Research: Questions of Methods in Progress” (www.sunzi1. lib.hku/hkjo/view/6/600126.pdf). Accessed on 29 April 2008. 20 Evans, R., The Rationality and Femininity of Mary Wollstonecraft and Jane Austen. Journal of International Women‘s Studies Vol. 7. 3 March 2006.

20 propriety of women such as the Bertram sisters and Mary Crawford. These women became complicit in selling themselves for property by choosing to behave in a way which made them a desirable commodity for men to buy and sell on the 21 marriage market.

Austen was presenting ideas which became the foundation for an early form of feminism by weakening the boundaries between feminine and masculine whilst still contained within the patriarchal structures of early nineteenth-century culture in

Britain.

A study about marriage and matchmaking is important for several reasons.

First, understanding relationship between men and women can help us to appreciate the values in the society. Second, it can help us to see the importance of economic and social modernization in the society in England and Indonesia, focusing in Java.

H. HYPOTHESES

The definition of marriage has been changing nowadays, compared to the definition of marriage in Jane Austen novels:

Happiness in marriage is entirely a matter of chance (PP, 15).

There is not one in a hundred of either sex who is not taken in when they marry… it is, of all transactions, the one in which people expect most from others, and are least honest themselves (MP, 26)22.

The period of time must be different, but the people now seem living in the same world. Social class still exists, marriage as one of the phenomenons of the past still seen as a way to be accepted in the society, and matchmaking still happens even everywhere. Where social conventions to find a spouse still exists and getting more varied, for example, the use of internet, newspapers, magazine, and live show on television to find a date, and some couples meet because they chat by the internet.

21 Evans, R., The Rationality and Femininity of Mary Wollstonecraft and Jane Austen. Journal of International Women‘s Studies Vol. 7. 3 March 2006. 22 Austen, Jane, Mansfield Park (London: Penguin Books Ltd., 2004). All subsequent reference to this work, abbreviated MP, will be used in this thesis with pagination only.

21 Parents are not the only parties to match make their sons and daughters. Their sons and daughters could find their own way to find their future husbands and wives.

I. EXPECTED OUTCOMES

Increasing value in women life, the traditional male and female roles are being reevaluated, therefore a greater tolerance exists. Brown says in her article, that the spirit of nationalism in Austen‘s period was radically different from what it would become. The majority of English men and women lived by agriculture; England for them was not the abstract territory of the modern nation but the locus of a real community with real social relations with each other, not the imaginary community which creates some sort of bond between members of a population of tens – today

23 even hundreds – of millions.

The mass media keep everyone in touch with the larger community and its continued transformation. Anderson also mentioned that books, newspapers and novels in vernacular languages gave the idea to their readers that there existed, simultaneously in time, a group of readers like them consuming the same cultural

24 manufactures.

23 Brown, J.P. (1998): ―Jane Austen’s England” (www.jasna.org/persuasions/printed/number10 /brown. htm). Accessed on 20 June, 2010. 24 Anderson, B., Imagined Communities, p.9-36.

22 CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

A. MARRIAGE AND MATCHMAKING DEFINITION

It is clear that marriages in different societies and different historical periods have very different responsibilities towards each other. These responsibilities are not mentioned in detail, yet they are well recognized and implemented in marriages.

Marriage, as we can read from the novel, involves more than a legal relationship between a man and a woman, house holding, and having children. It includes how the societies view the marriage, what their expectations are, and the societies can even give social sanctions.

According to Haeberle, marriage is a biological fact that sexual intercourse between men and women can produce children, and that these children need adult care and protection for many years before they can look after themselves.25 However, in Indonesian culture I must emphasize that if a couple get married, it means they have a legal relationship and the couple provide each other with companionship and, finally, care in old age. Haeberle also notes that:

The two institutions have been found to serve many additional useful functions, such as economic cooperation between all family members. Marriage is concerned with social legitimacy, official family lines, property rights, and laws of inheritance. It is a transfer and management of wealth and status.

Marriage in different societies and different historical periods as we discussed in Austen‘s and Toer‘s novels, has clearly shown the responsibilities toward each

25 Haeberle, E.J. (1983): ―The Sex Atlas” ( www2.hu-berlin.de/sexology/ATLAS_EN/index.html). Accessed on 23 April 2007.

23 other. The responsibility of parents to children and the other way around, among siblings, between relatives, all come together in a marriage.

Matchmaking is any process of introducing people for the purpose of

26 marriage. And a matchmaker is someone who arranges or tries to arrange marriages.

The acceptance of dating systems, however, has created something of the reappearance and growth of something that was common in the past resurgence in the role of the traditional professional matchmaker. Those who find dating systems or services useful but prefer human intelligence and personal touches can choose from a wide range of such services now available. You can actually find people who are compatible, and this is a major advance that is going to keep the industry alive for the upcoming 50 years. Matchmakers offer ―a chance to connect‖ between a man and a woman.

According to Rayner, having someone presented to you who is of similar background, tastes and values is an excellent way of making the someone appears highly desirable. It may not be love at first sight, but it frequently becomes love.27 For this reason, we are as concerned today about how young people find their mates. In the early part of the 20th century - the upper classes in Britain had a careful system of match-making involving presentation at the royal court, the giving of private parties and balls with carefully controlled guest-lists and fierce chaperonage of virginal females.

It is showed in Emma, that one of Emma‘s mistake is she tends to concern herself too much with other people's lives. She loves gossiping and being a

26 Topic Matchmaking (www.answers.com/topic/matchmaking). Accessed on 26 May 2010. 27 Rayner, C. (2000): ―Why We Still Need the Matchmaker” (www.ne200008210006 wstatesman.com). Accessed on 31 July 2010.

24 matchmaker to some of her friends. She decides which man is suitable to be her girlfriend‘s husband.

"And you have forgotten one matter of joy to me," said Emma. "and a very considerable one--that I made the match myself…… (E, 5).

Austen‘s novels do not depict romantic scenes, which could make her readers interested, but, its meaning is clear. The novels show her wit and clear mind, that what the characters say is what Austen wants to explain. Her understanding of people‘s life, attitude, habit, background, tradition, and surroundings is reflected in her creation of characters and settings. Pride and Prejudice depicts a person, who is cunning like Miss Bingley, a flatterer who is disturbing and weird like Mr Collins,

Lady Catherine de Bourgh who becomes an obstacle of Elizabeth Bennet and Mr

Darcy‘s engagement, the proud and self-confident Mr Darcy, and the good looking but has very bad attitude, Wickham. Do we not find these kinds of people in our life?

They are around us, those are what make all these novels really enjoyable.

Among her novels, Pride and Prejudice is quite similar to Austen‘s life. Her brothers support her living with her mother since Austen did not inherit anything from her father. If only Austen had been married to someone, she would have to build her own family life and live in her own home. She used this condition as the background on almost all of her works. Charlotte Lucas, Austen‘s creation in Pride and Prejudice must decide between life as a spinster in the home of her brother and marriage to Mr

Collins, a man she cannot either respect or love. It is not a difficult choice though, since what she needs is just a comfortable home of her own. A different reason is shown by one of the Bennet girls, Lydia. We could see her lack of judgment and conscientiousness when she becomes very arrogant in being the first Bennet girl to be

25 married. Lydia is not concern about the situation of her marriage, the bad behaviour of her husband, or how she views the marriage in the future.

Pride and Prejudice also reflects that marriage is important because it is the only available way of self-definition for girls in her society. As Austen is not married, she knows that a girl must find a man for security. If a girl is married, she will not need to live with her brother and his family and she will not bother anybody for financial support. That is why girls are very easy to convince to get married.

Women are not able to inherit any money or properties if there is a male in the family. Moreover, it seems that no women possess a job in Austen novels. Women are likely to stay at home, raise their children, invite their friends to come along and be a good company to the family friends when they come to visit. Their life depends on the man whom they marry and their lack of money forces them to seek for promising husband. It means that, of course, through getting married they expect safer economic life. Men who are not very wealthy, however, expect women with larger dowries who could promise a more comfortable life for them. Austen depicts this in Sense and

Sensibility, when finally Willoughby marries Miss Grey instead of Marianne, because

Miss Grey could give more dowries to him. Men who are wealthy enough have more freedom to choose whether they want to work or not, and their behavior is more excused in the society than women‘s. Wickham in Pride and Prejudice happens to try eloping with Georgiana Darcy because he wants the 30,000 pounds share if he marries her. However, Austen does not mention what kind of social sanction Wickham got because of his attitude. In fact, he is free to do anything as he is a male.

26 Austen makes a contrast in her characters in Sense and Sensibility28, as much as she shows the contrast in the title. Elinor controls and expresses her feelings wisely and carefully, whereas Marianne is the other way around.

The difference between Elinor and Marianne is emphasized in the way they choose their future husband. Elinor chooses Edward, who is very shy but honest and calm. Marianne prefers a man who is attractive, elegant, and stylish to match with her behaviour. But it does not mean that she does not like Edward because she also said that Edward was a friendly person. He is just not her type of man (SS, chapter 3).

Marianne finally finds a man who is wiser, and quite different from her type, Colonel

Brandon. Sir John Middleton symbolizes a kind person of upper class. Sir John could mix his fortune of his upper class with his pleasant and sociable personality, but his wife is a model of an ordinary rich person who is well mannered, but monotonous and boring (SS, chapter 3).

Austen also shows her romantic character in Marianne (Sense and Sensibility), such as when she gives a locket with her hair to Willoughby. However, her romantic character is not suitable to reality. Misfortune happens and what she expects meets burden. Marriage is a need for her. Compare this to Colonel Brandon who is thirty- five years old and still not married. He may decide whether he wants to get married or not, and nobody will ask his consideration. Yet, women needs to marry to avoid people‘s judgment about her being spinsters and more importantly, to protect their role in the society and avoid poverty in their life.

Wealth and inheritance are very important in Sense and Sensibility (Chapter

1). The Dashwood girls are immediately thrown into a terrible situation, since they do not possess their fortune, cannot become heiress, because women are not legally

28 Austen, Jane, Sense and Sensibility ( London: Penguin Books Ltd., 2004). All subsequent reference to this work, abbreviated SS, will be used in this thesis with pagination only.

27 obtained assets and land at this point of time, and therefore, cannot earn a living either, since they do not work. Compare this to the Dashwood son, who inherits all property, while his half sisters and his step mother are ignored and live in poverty.

However, he is not the only person to blame because the laws decided women to be in such condition.

In Islam, as most Indonesians are Moslems, a woman has the right to inherit any share that their parents and relatives leave. Her share is half man‘s share, but it does not mean that she is inferior to man. Man in Islam is totally responsible to take care of his family and sometimes the relatives who need it. Although a woman has a job so she owns her income, this will not influence her share of inheritance. She has the higher and more secure of her right if it is compared to man. She does not have the financial responsibility to the family. When there are children in the family, all of them have the right to inherit the leave from the parents, no matter they are sons or daughters.

"Unto men (of the family) belongs a share of that which Parents and near kindred leave, and unto women a share of that which parents and near kindred leave, whether it be a little or much - a determinate share." (Qur'an 4:7).

In mimetic theory which is explained in Rimmon-Kenan, (i.e. theory which

29 considers literature as an imitation of reality), characters are equated with people.

Austen was writing about ordinary people. Janjua, in his article mentions that it was

Austen‘s dissatisfaction with the daily life around her that forced her to examine it so minutely.30 She presents a universal standard of values. Her moral complexity gives

29 Rimmon-Kenan, S., Narrative Fiction: Contemporary Poetics (London and New York: Routledge, 1998), p107. 30 Janjua, Q.I.: ―Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice A Critical Analysis” (www.scribd.com/doc/ 24940611/). Accessed on 20 June 2010.

28 sharpness to her theme. She cannot tolerate bad manners and morals. Her themes have universal view.

In a time when women were not properly educated, not allowed to work and generally not able to own property, not to make every effort to get married could be seen as irresponsible and a burden on the rest of the family. But Austen's heroines are not desperate to rush into marriage, and end up getting married because they fall in love, not the other way around. Sometimes rather sentimental, often stubborn, they are above all intelligent and sharp, willing and capable of learning from their mistakes.

Jenkyns said that Pride and Prejudice has a famous opening line, which leads to the theme of the story, ―It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good fortune, must be in want of a wife.31‖

However little known the feelings or views of such a man may be on his first entering a neighbourhood, this truth is so well fixed in the minds of the surrounding families, that he is considered the rightful property of some one or other of their daughters (PP, 1).

But I think, the title itself has exposed the content. Why misunderstandings happen in this story, why one character is so different from one another, then why as the story develops everything seems so right in its place, makes Pride and Prejudice an interesting novel. It portrays ordinary people‘s life. When people live with their family, then they meet new friends and one of them clicks to be their future husband, it is just as simple as that. A couple find an easy way to marry, other couples need more time to get to know each other before finally they get married, a husband and wife who live together without any passion, and another couple who have a happy

31 Jenkyns, R., A Fine Brush on Ivory: An Appreciation of Jane Austen (New York: Oxford University Press Inc., 2004), p.1.

29 marriage. That is life, nothing is perfect. Austen portrays life quite fairly, no real bad people here. But even her heroines make mistakes.

This novel was first published by the end of the 18th century, in 1813. The five

Bennet sisters, Elizabeth, or Lizzie, Jane, Lydia, Mary and Kitty, live with their mother, who is apt to suggest them to marry a wealthy man so that they will have a comfortable life. Yet, Elizabeth and Jane, who are cleverer than the younger Bennet, try to see life and marriage from different point of view.

The Bennets meet their new friends when Mr. Bingley stays in a nearby mansion. They dance in a ball, start to judge one another, and this story shows why the title Pride and Prejudice is definitely perfect. It is pride that makes them not revealing their very true personality. And it is prejudice that creates jealousy among the ladies. Later Caroline Bingley tries to persuade her brother, Charles Bingley, not to continue his acquaintances with Jane Bennet, and she also flirts Mr. Darcy to pay her more attention.

Women in this novel do not have any job. They earn nothing and they will not inherit anything from their parents. Therefore, Mr. Collins, a distant cousin, will get the whole estate of Longbourne. That is why when Elizabeth does not accept Mr.

Collins‘ marriage proposal, her mother gets shock but Mr. Bennet agrees with his daughter, since Mr. Collins is described as a bore and silly man who always follows what Lady Catherine says.

Pride and Prejudice tries to tell us that marriage which is too rushed and only such an impulsive action will not bring happiness and stay steady. It needs time to form a relationship with someone, where respect is essential, but self confidence is not less important.

Even matchmaking is considered to be an importance of inheritance in Emma.

30 If a match between Jane Fairfax and Mr. George Knightley really happens, then little

Henry Knightley will not inherit Donwell. The children of George Knightley will do.

Little Henry Knightley is the son of Isabella and John Knightley. Emma really disagrees in the idea of Jane Fairfax marrying Mr. George Knightley. In that case,

Emma Woodhouse called the matchmaking as ‗imprudence‘ (E, 136), although she herself does matchmaking for Harriet, yet by considering the financial guarantee and comfortable life. Emma mentions that George Knightley does not need to get married since he has got everything he needs, his farm, his sheep, his library, his brother‘s children. She emphasizes that a man still has a choice not to marry a woman if he possesses his fortune.

Marriage and matchmaking are usually a planned move. A new couple who is going through matchmaking needs to prepare their next step in life, getting married.

But what is described in Austen‘s novels, marriage and matchmaking are a kind of calculated move, not only planned. The perfect candidate for the husband is seen from the fortune and class background. How the marriage could provide a comfortable life is seen from the ownership of a property. Whether it is logic or not is distinguished from the society point of view. The novels end with everyone has a new perspective of life and marriage, the true nature of love, respect, and common sense.

Finding similarity in women characteristics nowadays with the characters in

Austen‘s novel is interesting. But to find a precise pattern is impossible. A woman who has Elizabeth‘s Bennett‘s intelligence and charm will not directly get a husband like Darcy, of course.

The age when men and women form marital unions is influenced by social norms and expectations regarding their roles as spouses and parents—factors that are plausibly changing with globalization, urbanization, and rising educational

31 attainment; as such, the timing of marriage should be of considerable relevance to researchers interested in the transition to adulthood in the developing world. If, for example, men are now postponing marriage because of greater expectations about job status and employment stability and the material possessions needed to form a household, and women are delaying marriage because of shifting gender roles, it is important to document these patterns of behaviour and to understand their potential implications both for individuals and for the larger society.

B. CHARACTERS IN PRIDE AND PREJUDICE

The explanation about the characters in Pride and Prejudice helps us to understand their behaviour and their view in the story, because this research is focused on this novel. I will not explain much about Elizabeth Bennet here, since she is already the centre of the novel. She will appear later in the discussions of marriage and matchmaking.

Elizabeth Bennet is the core of the story. Pride and Prejudice is about the relationship between her and Darcy, since when they get to know to each other, finding obstacles and differences in their characters, and Darcy is interested to her through her open mind and intelligence. Elizabeth finds happiness at the end.

"They have none of them much to recommend them," replied he; "they are all silly and ignorant like other girls; but Lizzy has something more of quickness than her sisters."(PP, 3)

Mrs. Bennet is quite lucky in her life since she has two daughters who are intelligent and kind. But her other three daughters are the results of her narrow- minded as a mother and a woman. Her three younger daughters are the copy of her.

They know nothing but spending their time gossiping, talking about fashion and men, and having parties.

32 Although Jane Bennet is depicted to be a smart woman like her sister

Elizabeth, she also has some differences. Despite the fact that she is more beautiful than Elizabeth, she seems to be too naïve.

Elizabeth: "Oh! you are a great deal too apt, you know, to like people in general. You never see a fault in anybody. All the world are good and agreeable in your eyes. I never heard you speak ill of a human being in your life." Jane: "I would not wish to be hasty in censuring anyone; but I always speak what I think." Elizabeth: "I know you do; and it is _that_ which makes the wonder. With _your_ good sense, to be so honestly blind to the follies and nonsense of others! Affectation of candour is common enough--one meets with it everywhere. But to be candid without ostentation or design--to take the good of everybody's character and make it still better, and say nothing of the bad--belongs to you alone. And so you like this man's sisters, too, do you? Their manners are not equal to his." (PP, 9).

Therefore, her friends could manipulate her in her relationship with Bingley.

However, she is the first person who sees Darcy from different point of view.

Mary Bennet is a girl who does not have self-confidence, so she tends to show her ability off, which is not good enough, to everyone around her.

They found Mary, as usual, deep in the study of thorough-bass and human nature; and had some extracts to admire, and some new observations of threadbare morality to listen to (PP, 42).

Catherine (Kitty) Bennet follows Lydia‘s behaviour, she starts to flirt any men she meets, but her character develops as the story ends.

Catherine and Lydia had information for them of a different sort. Much had been done and much had been said in the regiment since the preceding Wednesday; several of the officers had dined lately with their uncle, a private had been flogged, and it had actually been hinted that Colonel Forster was going to be married (PP, 43). . Lydia Bennet is Mrs. Bennet in a younger version. She loves to be the centre of attention and she is very proud that she gets married earlier than her four sisters.

"Well, mamma," said she, when they were all returned to the breakfast room, "and what do you think of my husband? Is not he a charming man? I am sure my sisters must all envy me. I only hope they may have half my good luck. They

33 must all go to Brighton. That is the place to get husbands. What a pity it is, mamma, we did not all go." (PP, 212)

Charles Bingley is a friendly person and he enjoys his friendship with all people. He is totally different from Darcy who is cold and quiet. He likes having conversation with everybody, but his sisters‘ opinion influences her relationship with

Jane Bennet since he often follows other people‘s words.

"What do you think of _this_ sentence, my dear Lizzy?" said Jane as she finished it. "Is it not clear enough? Does it not expressly declare that Caroline neither expects nor wishes me to be her sister; that she is perfectly convinced of her brother's indifference; and that if she suspects the nature of my feelings for him, she means (most kindly!) to put me on my guard? Can there be any other opinion on the subject?"

"Yes, there can; for mine is totally different. Will you hear it?"

"Most willingly."

"You shall have it in a few words. Miss Bingley sees that her brother is in love with you, and wants him to marry Miss Darcy. She follows him to town in hope of keeping him there, and tries to persuade you that he does not care about you." (PP, 82)

Mr. Collins is such a bore, that when he does something, he puts his importance before others so as he can get the most of it for himself. His tendency to flatter Lady Catherine is tackled by Charlotte, as she reaches what she wants by making as if it is what Mr. Collins wants. Despite his selfishness, he tries to remind

Mr. Bennet in his letter that Lydia‘s attitude is a result of Mr. and Mrs. Bennet‘s mistakes in rearing their children.

Be assured, my dear sir, that Mrs. Collins and myself sincerely sympathise with you and all your respectable family, in your present distress, which must be of the bitterest kind, because proceeding from a cause which no time can remove. No arguments shall be wanting on my part that can alleviate so severe a misfortune--or that may comfort you, under a circumstance that must be of all others the most afflicting to a parent's mind. The death of your daughter would have been a blessing in comparison of this. And it is the more to be lamented, because there is reason to suppose as my dear Charlotte informs me, that this licentiousness of behaviour in your daughter has proceeded from a faulty degree of indulgence; though, at the same time, for the consolation of yourself and Mrs. Bennet, I am

34 inclined to think that her own disposition must be naturally bad, or she could not be guilty of such an enormity, at so early an age (PP, 198).

In her late 27, Charlotte Lucas is a mature woman who wants nothing but her own family. Marrying Mr.Collins gives her a home, a position as a parson‘s wife, a mother after her pregnancy. She proudly greets her friends and guests in her home, and she is quite happy in her way in marriage.

George Wickham is just like Bingley who acts as a foil to Darcy in a negative manner. His charm will impress anybody who knows him, but he is such a great pretender. Telling a lie has always been his behaviour and later is revealed that he is a gamester.

In spite of being an aristocrat, Lady Catherine de Bourgh is as arrogant as and as selfish as Mr. Collins. Yet, her words are quite rude when she can not get what she wants.

Mr. and Mrs. Gardiner are portrayed as ordinary people who are very down to earth and who present stability in marriage. Their love to their family and relative show their respect to other people. Mrs. Hurst and Miss Bingley in one chance make fun of them as they make no good as Elizabeth‘s relatives.

… and Mrs. Hurst began again:

"I have a excessive regard for Miss Jane Bennet, she is really a very sweet girl, and I wish with all my heart she were well settled. But with such a father and mother, and such low connections, I am afraid there is no chance of it." "I think I have heard you say that their uncle is an attorney on Meryton." "Yes; and they have another, who lives somewhere near Cheapside." "That is capital," added her sister, and they both laughed heartily (PP, 25).

While Miss Bingley and the Hursts are best described as snobbish and very proud of their being wealthy women. Miss Bingley‘s being cunning to Elizabeth even

35 makes Darcy pay more attention to the girl. She loves gossiping with Mrs. Hurst and always criticizes Elizabeth Bennet.

When dinner was over, she returned directly to Jane, and Miss Bingley began abusing her as soon as she was out of the room. Her manners were pronounced to be very bad indeed, a mixture of pride and impertinence; she had no conversation, no style, no beauty. Mrs. Hurst thought the same, and added: "She has nothing, in short, to recommend her, but being an excellent walker. I shall never forget her appearance this morning. She really looked almost wild." "She did, indeed, Louisa. I could hardly keep my countenance. Very nonsensical to come at all! Why must _she_ be scampering about the country, because her sister had a cold? Her hair, so untidy, so blowsy!" (PP, 24).

The Hursts marriage is like Charlotte and Mr. Collins‘. They married for gaining position in the society as an established relationship. A quite promising marriage and it might last forever, yet with no passion.

Georgiana Darcy and Colonel Fitzwilliam present their social class.

Georgiana is a well-behaved young girl and Colonel Fitzwilliam shows his view about what marriage is for.

Miss Darcy was tall, and on a larger scale than Elizabeth; and, though little more than sixteen, her figure was formed, and her appearance womanly and graceful. She was less handsome than her brother; but there was sense and good humour in her face, and her manners were perfectly unassuming and gentle (PP, 174).

The Lucases are trying to find a good suitor and preparing their daughter to get married to impress others. And Mrs. Philips is Mrs. Bennet‘s sister who underestimates Darcy.

C. CHARACTERS IN EMMA

I also want to include the major characters in Emma, since this novel is mentioned quite often in this thesis. Knowing the characters would help us to understand the way they think and act toward marriage and matchmaking.

36 Emma Woodhouse is wealthy, smart, and pretty. She has everything a woman wants. She likes giving and visiting poor family, but she is overconfident, sometimes.

Mr. Woodhouse is Isabella and Emma's father. He is an old man, accustomed to the caring attention of Emma. He hates change, and therefore thinks marriage as unhappiness. Mr. Woodhouse greatly regrets Isabella‘s, her eldest daughter, marriage, and speaks of her as though she were unreachable, instead of happily married.

Mr. George Knightley is an old friend of the Woodhouse family. His house is nearby, and he pays many casual visits to Hartfield. Emma did not always appreciate his advice, but he was always there for her.

Mr. John Knightley is George's brother, and husband to Isabella Woodhouse.

He is generally a good man, but he can be irritable or ill tempered. He does not have much patience for either his wife or his father-in-law's hypochondria.

Mr. Elton is the town preacher. He falls in love with Emma, who wants him to marry Harriet.

Harriet Smith is Emma‘s friend whom Emma wants to improve, and though she has good intentions, this elevation hurts Harriet. She refuses a proposal from Mr.

Martin, whom Emma believes to be too low-class.

Mr. Martin is the farmer who loves Harriet. Emma thinks him too low class, but Harriet at last comes to a decision to marry him, and it is believed as a good match.

D. CHARACTERS IN THE GIRL FROM THE COAST

While all characters in Austen‘s novels have names, Gadis Pantai or The Girl from the Coast does not have a name. Perhaps the writer wants to show the readers

37 that this girl portrays one of the poor and uneducated families in villages. She is only fourteen when she is married to Bendoro (an honorific title for Javanese nobility), a noble from the nearby city of Rembang. And suddenly, she moves from her poor fisherman village in the regency of Rembang in north coast of Java, Indonesia, in early 20th century.

The Girl from the Coast is stunned when she first meets things she never has in her village, like soft sofas, electric lights, bed with mattresses, and chocolate rice for her bread. In her loneliness, she soon realized that she is just a practice wife before Bendoro finds a woman of his class to be his wife.

The Girl from the Coast enjoys the financial and her social class climbing despite her distress of missing her family back in the village. She could give presents and hold a party in her village for her poor neighbours. However, when a girl named

Mardinah comes along to be her maid, she feels upset since Mardinah is very arrogant, just because she is a daughter of a low rank official and she could read and write, while the Girl from the Coast is illiterate. Lately people will find out that

Mardinah is sent to persuade Bendoro to marry the regent‘s daughter from Demak.

Mardinah is going to be his fifth wife if she is succeeded in her mission. Mardinah gets help from her brother Mardikun, whom the Girl from the Coast sees as a woman masseur, but later she finds out that Mardikun is a man. The novel The Girl from the

Coast also has Dul, the tale singer whom lately becomes Mardinah‘s husband because the villagers matchmake them. With Dul, Mardinah turns into a calmer wife, while

Dul becomes a more responsible man. He works, he joins other fishermen in his village, and he speaks.

38 CHAPTER III

IRONIES IN AUSTEN’S SELECTED NOVELS AND

TOER’S THE GIRL FROM THE COAST

A. LITERARY CLASSIFICATION

Wellek and Warren explained that,

Literature is a social institution, using as its medium language, a social creation. They are convention and norms which could have arisen only in society. But, furthermore, literature ‗represents‘ ‗life‘, and ‗life‘ is, in large measure, a social reality, even though the natural world and the inner of subjectivity world of 32 the individual have also been objects of literary ‗imitation‘. As mentioned by Anderson, fiction seeps quietly and continuality into reality, creating that remarkable confidence of community in anonymity which is the hallmark of modern nation. Anderson gives a good working definition of a nation: It is an imagined political community--and imagined as both inherently limited and sovereign.33 According to this definition, people libel an imagined communion with each other, even though they might not know everyone else. In Emma, Austen unifies the English nation by bringing stories from the border of the country to what she identifies as a fictive, yet obviously real, cultural heart of England. Marginal places affect Highbury and its residents (who seldom leave) as new arrivals bring the plot complications. For example, Harriet Smith, whose original home is never known;

Augusta Hawkins Elton, whose home was Bristol, "the very heart of Bristol", which had been a major port involved with the slave trade; Jane Fairfax, whose mother was from Highbury; and Frank Churchill, raised in Yorkshire, an outsider whose character strongly suggests the threats of France and who readily and frequently travels to

32 Wellek, R. and Warren A., Theory of Literature (Australia: Penguin Books, 1956), p. 94. 33Anderson, B., Imagined Communities, p.36

39 London and Richmond. Frank and Jane Fairfax meet in Weymouth, another real yet minor location, and their return to Highbury provides a thread connecting this seaside resort to the center of English culture.

Pride and Prejudice was first published in 1813 and is the second of Austen's novels. Her other novels include Sense and Sensibility (1811), Mansfield Park (1814),

Emma, (1816), Persuasion (1818), and Northanger Abbey (1818).Where to put this work in literary classification is a bit confusing.

Eighteenth Century

This apparently covers the years 1700-1799 or the years 1701-1800. On the one hand, Austen was born in 1775; she does have similarities to some authors that are classified as "18th century"; starting in the mid-to-late 1780's she wrote short humorous pieces for her family, and early versions of three of her later novels; and one of her novels (Northanger Abbey) is set in 1798-1799. But she didn't sell a novel until 1803, her first actual publication was in 1811.

Romantic

The term "Romantic" can be used in a general chronological sense (covering the late eighteenth century and the first half of the nineteenth century, the main peak of romanticism). According to Pope, where a historian may characterize the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries as ‗the Age of Revolutions‘, literary

34 historians are more likely to talk of ‗Romanticisms‘.

Victorian

Victoria acceded to the throne in 1837, was crowned 1838, and died in 1901

(Austen died more than a year before Victoria was even born).

34 Pope, R., The English Studies Book (London and New York: Routledge, 2002), p.41.

40 This thesis emphasizes its analysis on Pride and Prejudice, but let us see

Austen‘s Sense and Sensibility and try to classify it. Elinor shows the typical

Classicism with her intelligence, understanding, judgment, self-control, and balance.

Her rational thought is always proved in the story by reminding her sister, Marianne, to be more economical with her money. Not to keep a horse because stabling and feeding a horse is very much expensive. This novel was written around the turn of the eighteenth century, when there were two movements, Classicism and Romanticism.

Elinor, one of Austen‘s heroines in Sense and Sensibility has her self-control, steadiness, and wisdom. Those are the characters of eighteenth century Classicism.

Elinor‘s sister, Marianne, indicates Romanticism, imagination, idealism, impracticality, excess, in her weeping to ‗Dear, dear Norland‘, and she also gives her lock of her hair to her lover. She imagines a brighter future, a prosperous marriage, but reality wipes out her hopes. Mistake and misfortune could happen to one and all.

However, most of Austen‘s novels contain Romanticism in her tendency to write about the beauty of nature, her enjoyment to describe the splendour of a certain place, such as the incredible Pemberley in Pride and Prejudice, and even in her short story,

Sanditon, which refers to a lavish and comfortable place to relax in leisure time.

It is decided by laws that the Dashwood women (Sense and Sensibility) cannot inherit anything from their father. They need money but they do nothing to earn a living because they are not able to work. This condition does not help their life. As we can read from Austen‘s novel, women in the middle class and upper class never do any jobs since their husbands are the bread makers. Women from lower class work.

They are usually employed as maids, factory workers, or governesses. Therefore, the only way to solve the problem is to find a wealthy husband who could provide them a home of their own and a guarantee of a comfortable life. A family could still support

41 the daughters by giving them dowries when they get married, but of course, it is not the same as inheriting it. Dowry is only some money given as a present from a father to his daughter when she gets married. For that reason, a man who is not very rich sometimes comes to a woman who has a large dowry. This is what happens to

Willoughby, one of the characters in Sense and Sensibility. He turns his love to Miss

Grey because he knows that she is richer than Marianne, so she is a better prospect for marriage.

A contrast is seen between John Dashwood and the Dashwood women. John

Dashwood as the eldest son becomes very rich and owns all the estate and property, but his sisters have to move from his house to a cottage. A landlord has more choices if they want to work or not since they could rent their land to farmers and he will have plenty of leisure time. A man also has more freedom to behave in the society.

Wickham (Pride and Prejudice) is one of the examples. He elopes with Lydia, but people will only react to Lydia, as a teenager who leaves her family to live without marriage with Wickham. Women should take care of the home, get married, have children, and be well-mannered. Masculinity states tolerable character and manners.

For women, getting married is not an alternative, but a need. Even for Miss

Grey (Sense and Sensibility), who has a lot of fortune, still needs to marry to avoid people comments on her and to gain a position in the society. Compare it to Colonel

Brandon, he is 35 already when he decides to marry Marianne.

In Indonesia, Toer built up a reputation as a literary and social critic, joining the left-wing writers' group Lekra and writing in various newspapers and literary journals. Toer was released from imprisonment in 1979, but remained under house

42 arrest in Jakarta until 1992. During this time he released The Girl from the Coast35, another semi-fictional novel based on his grandmother's own experience. Known only as The Girl from the Coast, Toer's grandmother lived in a small Javanese fishing village around the turn of the 19th century (volumes 2 and 3 of this work were

36 destroyed along with his library in 1965).

B. TONE

Pride and Prejudice, similar to other Austen‘s novels, is written in gentle satire. Austen criticized people and society, their habits and culture, but she made them seem funny, so that people will see their faults. The main object of Austen‘s satire in the novel is the mercenary and the ignorance of the people. One of the characters in the novel which best carries these qualities are Mrs. Bennet, a foolish woman who talks too much and always worries and cannot think about anything else but getting her daughters married. Other character is Lydia Bennet, the youngest of the Bennet daughter who is dedicated to a life of dancing, trends, gossips, chats, and flirting. And there is also Mr. Williams Collins, the silly and arrogant man who is completely bewildered by Lady Catherine in every aspect of his life that he has forgotten his own morals and duty.

According to Buchi Emecheta in Humm, the creation of femininity enables her women characters to become strong and independent.37 Then the question that arise is, is Austen a feminist? It is true that she wrote a lot about women life. Her characters in her novels are mostly women, however, Austen tried to make their position equal to

35 Toer, P.A., The Girl from the Coast (New York: Hyperion, 2002). All subsequent references to this work, abbreviated GC, will be used in this thesis with pagination only. 36 Freudenberger, N: ―A Practice Wife's Story” (www.nytimes.com). August 2002. Cited on 21 April, 2010. 37 Humm M., The Dictionary of Feminist Theory. Second Edition. (USA: Ohio State University Press, 1995), p. 94.

43 men. Her heroine in Pride and Prejudice, Elizabeth Bennet is a smart and attractive woman. Elizabeth has her own ‗voice‘, she is not afraid to argue Darcy and other people‘s opinions whenever she does not agree with them. She does not accept that getting married and having children is the highest achievement to women those days.

Maybe Austen is a feminist in a way that she supports the idea that women need to have their own life and choice despite the fact that her heroines do not have career or job.

However, Austen accepts the differences between men and women in Pride and Prejudice. Elizabeth Bennet, her heroine, understands that she makes mistake upon her opinion about Darcy. But the mistakes give her a consideration that Darcy is the right man for her. As stated by Helénè Cixous in McGowan, that men or women: beings who are complex, mobile, open. Accepting the other sex as a component makes them much richer, more various, stronger, and – to the extent that they are

38 mobile – very fragile.

The contents of this letter threw Elizabeth into a flutter of spirits, in which it was difficult to determine whether pleasure or pain bore the greatest share. The vague and unsettled suspicions which uncertainty had produced of what Mr. Darcy might have been doing to forward her sister's match, which she had feared to encourage as an exertion of goodness too great to be probable, and at the same time dreaded to be just, from the pain of obligation, were proved beyond their greatest extent to be true! He had followed them purposely to town, he had taken on himself all the trouble and mortification attendant on such a research; in which supplication had been necessary to a woman whom he must abominate and despise, and where he was reduced to meet, frequently meet, reason with, persuade, and finally bribe, the man whom he always most wished to avoid, and whose very name it was punishment to him to pronounce. He had done all this for a girl whom he could neither regard nor esteem. Her heart did whisper that he had done it for her (PP, 218).

38 Easthope, A. and McGowan, K. (1998). A Critical and Cultural Theory Reader. Toronto and Buffalo: University of Toronto Press, p. 147.

44 The heroines in Sense and Sensibility, Elinor and Marianne Dashwood have similar circumstances as Austen, when they have to leave their home because John

Dashwood, their eldest brother, and his wife, Fanny, inherit Mr Dashwood‘s estate.

John Dashwood gives them a home, Barton Cottage. One their neighbour, Colonel

Brandon is falling in love with Marianne, but she declines him because he is not a man in her dream. A man to whom Marianne is in love with is the handsome and dashing John Willoughby. The marriages in Sense and Sensibility also have a clear vision, money. It is all about money and gaining a station in the society. Look how cunning Lucy is, she leaves Edward Ferrars because his mother disinherits him and gives all the estate to Edward‘s brother, Robert, to whom Lucy marries. She realizes that getting married to Edward will not guarantee her life with financial security and prosperity.

Meanwhile, John Willoughby, is engaged to Miss Sophia Grey, a lady of a good fortune, and leaves Marianne. At the end of the story, Willoughby confesses his unhappy marriage. He marries Miss Grey since he needs to pay his debt. Marianne finally realizes that she cannot be happy with Willoughby. She understands that

Colonel Brandon is the right man for her although he is not as rich and romantic as she expects.

Whereas The Girl from the Coast, is apparently intended as the first installment of a trilogy about the rise of Indonesian nationalism. Along with the novel's fast-moving episodes -- the girl must deal with palace intrigue and even assassination plots in the Bendoro's house, with some comic and sympathetic characters in her home village.

45 At first Toer's apparent message -- that village life, hard as it was, offered more rewards to an ordinary woman than this privileged imprisonment -- may 39 seem overly sentimental, but he is finally after something more complicated.

C. IRONIES OF ARISTOCRATIC MARRIAGES AND MATCHMAKING IN

AUSTEN’S BRITISH COMMUNITY AND TOER’S INDONESIAN

COLONIAL SOCIETY

Austen portrays the irony through her novels by showing the arrogance in how the upper class view marriage. Emma Woodhouse is a woman with a good fortune.

She is busy matchmaking her friends despite of her being single, because she thinks she helps the people from the lower class to climb to a higher position in the society.

Toer depicts The Girl from the Coast, who is matchmade by her family and her husband‘s noble family, who does not think that class and wealth in society are important, yet, she is getting accustomed to the comfort of living in her husband‘s mansion.

Pritchett notes that,

In Emma, Austen's response was a style of literary joke familiar to Austen. It was a form of humor in which she was skilled, having mastered the techniques of satire and parody in her precocious childhood writing; and in the later 1790s her 40 adult writing career began with three such novels.

Both Sense and Sensibility and Pride and Prejudice carry the evidence of their origin as thoroughgoing satires on the 1790s fashion for sentimental fiction. Pritchett also mentions that Austen writes about people who either drop out or want to drop out of the working, money-making world and parasitically live off of the interest from their capital. But to these characters property is the effect of accumulation, not its

39 The Girl from the Coast - a review (www.salon.com/books/review/2002/08/01/toer/ index.html). Accessed on 26 May 2010. 40 Pritchett, V.S. (2008): ―Jane Austen‘s Englishness: Emma as national tale” January 1, 2008. The Jane Austen Journal (www.thefreelibrary.com). Accessed on 1 August 2010.

46 beginning; wealth is the effect of acquisition, not its beginning. They show a measure of freedom from money and property in subordinating it to a notion of living.

According to Catherine Belsey,

The position of women in society has changed so slowly, in spite of such a radical instability in it, may be partly explained in terms of the relative exclusion of women from the discourse of liberal humanism. This relative exclusion, supported in the predominantly masculine institutions of our society, is implicit, for example, 41 in the use of masculine terns as generic (‗rational man‘, etc).

England is a patriarchal society. Men work, they make money. Therefore, they take the important positions, make necessary decisions. For the women, money is a kind of guarantee not to depend on men. Getting married is one way to have a secure feeling, since they will not inherit any money from the fathers unless there is not any male to inherit the money. The women in Pride and Prejudice depend on men because they do not need to work for a living. The Bennet sisters will not inherit anything from their father since Mr. Collins is the one who will be the heir (see the appendix).

Mr. Bennet's property consisted almost entirely in an estate of two thousand a year, which, unfortunately for his daughters, was entailed, in default of heirs male, on a distant relation (PP, 19).

It is also claimed by Mr. Bennet that his two youngest daughters, Lydia and

Catherine, do nothing and waste their time walking to town to meet the officers in the militia regiment in Meryton.

"From all that I can collect by your manner of talking, you must be two of the silliest girls in the country. I have suspected it some time, but I am now convinced." (PP, 19)

When women need to find a job, society offers positions which fit their motherly nature such as teaching, nursing, yet recently a lot of women work as

41 Belsey, C., Critical Practice (London and New York: Routledge, 1980), p. 66.

47 lawyers, accountants, and others. Women are allowed to earn money although Islam mentions that being a mother and a wife as the most blessed and central one.

Marriages in Pride and Prejudice are presented here, as the characters have very different reasons and understanding about marriage:

1. Elizabeth Bennet and Fitzwilliam Darcy

We can see the reason why Darcy fell in love in this conversation between Elizabeth and him.

―My beauty you had early withstood, and as for my manners—my behaviour to _you_ was at least always bordering on the uncivil, and I never spoke to you without rather wishing to give you pain than not. Now be sincere; did you admire me for my impertinence?‖ ―For the liveliness of your mind, I did.‖ (PP, 258)

Elizabeth is not as beautiful as her sister, Jane. However, her intelligence and wit could catch the attention of Darcy. She is a smart partner to talk to.

2. Jane Bennet and Bingley

Jane and Bingley represent a successful marriage. Their marriage is based on very high understanding, although they are described as too naïve and trusting.

Therefore they are very easy to be cheated by people.

3. Lydia and Wickham

Whether Wickham really loves Lydia Bennet or not is clearly mentioned in Mr.

Gardiner‘s letter to Elizabeth. Wickham‘s feeling to Lydia is like a wooden match, it burns a little, light a fire, than fading. He wants no more than having fun and pleasurable experience in his love life. Her acquaintance to Wickham shows that logic, friendship, and common sense are not important in marriage.

But he found Lydia absolutely resolved on remaining where she was. She cared for none of her friends; she wanted no help of his; she would not hear of leaving Wickham. She was sure they should be married some time or other, and it

48 did not much signify when. Since such were her feelings, it only remained, he thought, to secure and expedite a marriage, which, in his very first conversation with Wickham, he easily learnt had never been _his_ design. He confessed himself obliged to leave the regiment, on account of some debts of honour, which were very pressing; and scrupled not to lay all the ill-consequences of Lydia's flight on her own folly alone.(PP, 216)

4. Mr. and Mrs. Hurst

They do not show they love each other, yet they understand that marriage is needed for socializing. Mrs. Hurst usually plays card with her husband or with her friends.

Therefore, their love could last stronger.

5. Mr. and Mrs. Bennet.

Mr. Bennet was attracted to Mrs. Bennet‘s beauty when she was young and he could not see her childishness. When they are both getting older, when the beauty has gone and when Mr. Bennet‘s young passion has vanished, he realized that what he needs in marriage is also friendship. Something he could not get from his wife since Mrs.

Bennet can only discussed balls, matchmaking, wealth, and fashion. Mr. Bennet sometimes responds sarcastically, but he never blames his wife. What he could do, then, is to work in his library or talk with his Elizabeth or Jane.

6. Mr. Collins and Charlotte Lucas

One of the reasons to get married is to put a woman as one of the possession of a man.

It is like when a young politician needs a woman to be his lady, not only to take care of his colleagues and raise his children, but also to perform in public, newspapers, televisions, yet, not as a woman he loves and needs. This is represented by William

Collins in Pride and Prejudice, when he tries to propose Elizabeth.

…… 'Mr. Collins, you must marry. A clergyman like you must marry. Choose properly, choose a gentlewoman for _my_ sake; and for your _own_, let her be an active, useful sort of person, not brought up high, but able to make a small income

49 go a good way. This is my advice. Find such a woman as soon as you can, bring her to Hunsford, and I will visit her.' (PP, 74)

How Mr. Collins acts is influenced by his background, that he is raised by an illiterate and miserly father, and Mr. Collins himself is not very intelligent.

Mr. Collins was not a sensible man, and the deficiency of nature had been but little assisted by education or society; the greatest part of his life having been spent under the guidance of an illiterate and miserly father; and though he belonged to one of the universities, he had merely kept the necessary terms, without forming at it any useful acquaintance (PP, 49).

A woman at her age of twenty seven has limited choice to find a husband.

That is why Charlotte sees Mr. Collins as his future husband. Despite of Collins arrogance, Charlotte could make him marries her. She uses his ambition to be the heir of Longbourn to get what she wants, a settle home and marriage. Her pregnancy is not of the high passion but it is one of Collins plan to have sons to keep the Longbourn for his family, and for Charlotte, children will complete her role as a mistress in her own family. Their marriage is not about love, but needs and common sense. Jane

Bennet explains to Lizzy what might be the reason for Charlotte to marry Mr. Collins.

"My dear Lizzy, do not give way to such feelings as these. They will ruin your happiness. You do not make allowance enough for difference of situation and temper. Consider Mr. Collins's respectability, and Charlotte's steady, prudent character. Remember that she is one of a large family; that as to fortune, it is a most eligible match; and be ready to believe, for everybody's sake, that she may feel something like regard and esteem for our cousin." ...... My dear Jane, Mr. Collins is a conceited, pompous, narrow-minded, silly man; you know he is, as well as I do; and you must feel, as well as I do, that the woman who married him cannot have a proper way of thinking. You shall not defend her, though it is Charlotte Lucas. You shall not, for the sake of one individual, change the meaning of principle and integrity, nor endeavour to persuade yourself or me, that selfishness is prudence, and insensibility of danger security for happiness."(PP, 93)

7. The Gardiners

This couple is kind people. They enjoy their love, quite stable in their

50 marriage. They appreciate one another and they have good times together.

People get together in marriage because they need love and because they do not feel perfect. Marriage cannot be analyzed scientifically since some parts of it are irrational. Not only love which is sometimes irrational, but perhaps the man and the woman themselves who are irrational. Romance is not always started with logic. If it is, it will last longer and more settled. But can it be romantic? The answer is, yes, it can be. But it needs a certain condition. Again, love is mentioned. Combine love and logic, exactly like Darcy and Elizabeth‘s marriage. Elizabeth does not fall in love at the first sight to Darcy. She meets a long process which is not always simple and easy.

"Oh! She is the most beautiful creature I ever beheld! But there is one of her sisters sitting down just behind you, who is very pretty, and I dare say very agreeable. Do let me ask my partner to introduce you." "Which do you mean?" and turning round he looked for a moment at Elizabeth, till catching her eye, he withdrew his own and coldly said: "She is tolerable, but not handsome enough to tempt me (PP, 7).

Mr. Bennet represents a romantic but dull man, who chose a pretty Mrs.

Bennet. The ideal woman for him is the beautiful one. Intelligence is not important for him, something that he will regret in his marriage life, whether he realizes it or not.

He does not respect Mrs. Bennet comments and views about anything and makes fun of her words.

"My dear Mr. Bennet," said his lady to him one day, "have you heard that Netherfield Park is let at last?" Mr. Bennet replied that he had not. "But it is," returned she; "for Mrs. Long has just been here, and she told me all about it." Mr. Bennet made no answer. "Do you not want to know who has taken it?" cried his wife impatiently. "_You_ want to tell me, and I have no objection to hearing it." This was invitation enough (PP, 1).

Mr. Bennet survives in his marriage although it was started by physical beauty and nothing else. Mrs. Bennet loves talking about nothing, since it is the only thing

51 she understands. All of her ambition is to marry his daughters to wealthy men.

Divorce is not common during the period. The idea of leaving a comfortable home, familiar circumstances, into a new life is not appropriate in marriage. When couples are used to have the same children, home, day-to-day routines, and friends, and suddenly started a new life with a totally different atmosphere, it is neither easy nor simple.

Darcy and Elizabeth begin their relationship in a different way. They talk, they do not talk non sense, but it is a discussion. Showing their perspective sights of a topic, just like their conversation about prides.

"Certainly," replied Elizabeth--"there are such people, but I hope I am not one of _them_. I hope I never ridicule what is wise and good. Follies and nonsense, whims and inconsistencies, _do_ divert me, I own, and I laugh at them whenever I can. But these, I suppose, are precisely what you are without." "Perhaps that is not possible for anyone. But it has been the study of my life to avoid those weaknesses which often expose a strong understanding to ridicule." "Such as vanity and pride." "Yes, vanity is a weakness indeed. But pride--where there is a real superiority of mind, pride will be always under good regulation." Elizabeth turned away to hide a smile (PP, 40).

Elizabeth Bennet tries to show that she and Darcy have the same position in their conversation, and actually, she does. She is the one who is able to tackle Darcy‘s argument with her intelligence and wit. And Miss Bingley, who tries to join in the discussion, is neglected since she can not follow their thought. She is desperate to catch Darcy as husband but her love is to have a higher class in the society, to be well

–off and own a wide and beautiful estate.

"_That_ is a failing indeed!" cried Elizabeth. "Implacable resentment _is_ a shade in a character. But you have chosen your fault well. I really cannot _laugh_ at it. You are safe from me." "There is, I believe, in every disposition a tendency to some particular evil--a natural defect, which not even the best education can overcome." "And _your_ defect is to hate everybody." "And yours," he replied with a smile, "is willfully to misunderstand them."

52 "Do let us have a little music," cried Miss Bingley, tired of a conversation in which she had no share. "Louisa, you will not mind my waking Mr. Hurst?" (PP, 41).

Perhaps Elizabeth also wants to compete with Darcy, and it seems that both of them do not realize that agreement will not arise from competition, but it will occur from cooperation.

While Mr. Collins is in his twenties and thirties, he is starting to doubt his future. He will inherit what the Bennets have, since Mr. Bennet does not have a son.

To show his position in the society, he should get married as soon as possible. He wants one of the Bennet girls. When his proposal is refused, he suddenly turns to

Charlotte Lucas.

.... He scarcely ever spoke to her, and the assiduous attentions which he had been so sensible of himself were transferred for the rest of the day to Miss Lucas, whose civility in listening to him was a seasonable relief to them all, and especially to her friend. The morrow produced no abatement of Mrs. Bennet's ill-humour or ill health. Mr. Collins was also in the same state of angry pride (PP, 80).

Charlotte does not think about love anymore since she searches a husband who can safe her from being a spinster who should live with her brother‘s home someday.

She is hiding her own despair. Therefore, they both get what they want. Charlotte could fulfil her dream to establish her own family, while Mr. Collins could advance his social status.

Mrs. Bennet is always viewed as a woman who is unintelligent, loves talking non sense but trying to matchmake her daughters to wealthy men. But let us see her from different point of view. She encourages her daughters to find a husband as soon as they become a woman. The future husband should be wealthy to support them. And when they have children in their young age, they still have time and energy to raise their children well, as well as their ability to earn a living. Or in Austen period, the

53 husband‘s ability to earn a living. However, in Wickham and Lydia‘s marriage, thing goes differently. They are married in a very young age without economic responsibility. Marital happiness cannot be reached through merely passionate love.

The women in this novel expect to marry in order to find someone to support them because they do not do any jobs. Even Elizabeth and Jane, they are ‗nice and smart‘ ladies whose marriages are based of love. Yet, they are maybe just lucky, since the men they fall in love with are wealthy.

Elizabeth, as they drove along, watched for the first appearance of Pemberley Woods with some perturbation; and when at length they turned in at the lodge, her spirits were in a high flutter. They were all of them warm in their admiration; and at that moment she felt that to be mistress of Pemberley might be something! (PP, 163).

Why matchmaking happened that time, is stated in Lady Catherine and

Elizabeth Bennet‘s conversation:

"Yes, and I had heard it before. But what is that to me? If there is no other objection to my marrying your nephew, I shall certainly not be kept from it by knowing that his mother and aunt wished him to marry Miss de Bourgh. You both did as much as you could in planning the marriage. Its completion depended on others. If Mr. Darcy is neither by honour nor inclination confined to his cousin, why is not he to make another choice? And if I am that choice, why may not I accept him?" "Because honour, decorum, prudence, nay, interest, forbid it. Yes, Miss Bennet, interest; for do not expect to be noticed by his family or friends, if you wilfully act against the inclinations of all. You will be censured, slighted, and despised, by everyone connected with him. Your alliance will be a disgrace; your name will never even be mentioned by any of us." (PP, 240).

Marriage was done based on honour, decorum, prudence, interest. The people in a higher class in the society were not to marry someone from the lower class. When it still happened, the new bride would not be able to be accepted by her ‗new‘ family and friends. However, to Elizabeth this is not a problem. She feels equals to Darcy since she is a gentleman‘s daughter when Lady Catherine still thinks her mother and her relatives are not from respectable families.

54 ".... My daughter and my nephew are formed for each other. They are descended, on the maternal side, from the same noble line; and, on the father's, from respectable, honourable, and ancient—though untitled--families. Their fortune on both sides is splendid. They are destined for each other by the voice of every member of their respective houses; and what is to divide them? The upstart pretensions of a young woman without family, connections, or fortune. .... If you were sensible of your own good, you would not wish to quit the sphere in which you have been brought up." "In marrying your nephew, I should not consider myself as quitting that sphere. He is a gentleman; I am a gentleman's daughter; so far we are equal."

"True. You _are_ a gentleman's daughter. But who was your mother? Who are your uncles and aunts? Do not imagine me ignorant of their condition." (PP, 241).

Men could decide what to do on women, just as in Pride and Prejudice when there is pressure on Elizabeth Bennet to accept Mr. Collins proposal. Mr. Collins said that,

"When I do myself the honour of speaking to you next on the subject, I shall hope to receive a more favourable answer than you have now given me; though I am far from accusing you of cruelty at present, because I know it to be the established custom of your sex to reject a man on the first application, and perhaps you have even now said as much to encourage my suit as would be consistent with the true delicacy of the female character." "Really, Mr. Collins," cried Elizabeth with some warmth, "you puzzle me exceedingly. If what I have hitherto said can appear to you in the form of encouragement, I know not how to express my refusal in such a way as to convince you of its being one." (PP, 75-76)

Mr. Collins tries to persuade that he is the subject, what he does in proposing

Elizabeth is the best thing in that situation, that he could safe her from being poor and single in her age. This also explains why Austen is not considered as a feminist, because she portrays the differences between men and women as a normal thing. It is there, it exists in the society. Yet, the way Elizabeth refuses a position as a wife shows her attempt to be independent, not striving for men‘s sympathy.

For entertaining their mothers‘ is the use of children. Nurturing them is not only a responsibility of parents, and matchmaking is a kind of joyful moment for the

55 parents. Showing their beautiful and handsome children gives pride. To matchmake them with an appropriate future husband or wife is another pride, especially when they are social climbers.

Since most of Indonesian citizen are Moslems, I will compare the situation in the novels to Islamic Law. Moslem women have right to her properties including money and real estate no matter they are single or married. It is not stated that men are superior to women. What a woman owns before marriage and what she gets after marriage belong to her. She has her right to buy and sell all her properties. However, a novel by Toer, The Girl from the Coast, which has an Islamic backround, does not reflect the women rights about inheriting the money from the family. What can you say about the life of a Javanese girl a hundred years ago, who lived on the coast?

Traditional and following what they have believed that have existed for a long time, rather than doing anything new or different is the first thing which comes up into mind. Old-fashioned, poor, simple ideas, and they were not used to easy life. Well, although ‗easy‘ is different from one person to another, The Girl from the Coast does not complain about her destiny as a fisherman‘s daughter. She spends her days mending the fish net, grinding shrimp powder, cooking for her brothers and father in a small kitchen, eating corns instead of rice, but she is happy with that. She missed the sound of the waves, the touch of the sand on her feet, and the taste of the sea water on her lips once she was away from where she used to be. They are traditional in both life and mind. Parents who have a daughter dream of finding a better home for the daughter. Their job as fishermen cannot give prosperity to their family. They are trapped in their secluded area, become the slaves of the sea. But The Girl from the

Coast really understands this destiny as a blessing from God, that they are free people who depend their life to the earth. They accept what the earth gives them. That is why

56 her feeling of the royal family life astonishes me. Poor people in her husband‘s mansion work as servants, cart drivers, or gardeners. They dedicate their life to the person whom they called ‗Bendoro‘, their lord. Their happiness is of course to serve their lord.

The novel's heroine, a village ''flower'' who symbolizes the sexual ideal of her time, is married at the age of fourteen by proxy, with a ceremonial dagger standing in for the groom and forced to move from her local village to the city. Her beginning into the world of the nobility happens together with her slow understanding that she is a ''practice wife,'' who will bear a child and be sent away when the nobleman chooses to marry a woman of his own station. She will not be allowed to keep her child.

In The Girl of the Coast period, a member of royal family had a lot of wives to show their power and authority. Some of their wives are a kind of gift and property that was given by a kingdom to show their faithfulness. The more wives they have, the more powerful a man feels. The Girl from the Coast is not even a ‗real wife‘ herself, she is only a practice wife before Bendoro marries a perfect woman of his class. She is like a symbol of wants for Bendoro, the authority of victorious noble.

Chodorow, in Humm argues that by being daughters women, unlike men,

42 learn to affiliate with others triggered by our initial affiliation with our mothers.

Bennet sisters really have different personalities to each other. The first and second daughters in the family are wise and witty, and the other three are sloppy and ignorant. Therefore, Chodorow is right in a way that daughters could follow their mother‘s attitude and behaviour; yet, it is still influenced by many other factors such as their home and environment.

42 Humm, M., The Dictionary of Feminist Theory, p.57.

57 As in other Austen‘s novels, Mansfield Park also portrays very different kinds of marriage. Austen even puts a clear contrast between one marriage to another. One of the three Ward sisters of Huntingdon marries Sir Thomas Bertram and becomes

Lady Bertram. Therefore, she uses her marriage to raise her social status and have financial security. The second Ward sister marries a clergyman and lives in a parsonage in Mansfield Park. She climbs up a little higher than her class. But the third

Ward sister marries a poor sailor and has a miserable life with her nine children. One of her daughter, Fanny Price moves to live with her wealthy aunt and uncle in

Mansfield Park. Although the Bertrams take Fanny to help the family, they really make sure that she does not belong to their station. The Bertram girls like to scold her about her modest dress, her inability to speak French well, and her reserved manner.

Yet, Edmund, the younger son of Bertram pays attention to the poor Fanny and which makes her falls in love with him. Edmund will not inherit his father‘s wealth because he is not the first son, and is prepared to be a priest in the parsonage. Before he is ordained to be the priest, Mary Crawford, a new neighbour who comes from London is attracted to the serious Edmund instead of Tom, the heir of Bertram property.

Tom‘s way of life which wastes too much money for unnecessary needs then makes the family meets financial shortage. Austen‘s criticism to primogeniture law is shown here. One son in a family can be very rich, the other son is led to choose some other jobs instead of being a prosperous landlord, such as a position in the army, as a clergyman, a lawyer, etc.

However, the heir is not always the person who is able to maintain the family‘s assets, here, Austen presents Tom Bertram. Lady Bertram seems wasting her time sleeping and let Mrs Norris take care of her children. None of the women, including the pure and innocent Fanny Price, possess a job. As described in some of

58 Austen‘s novels, women of middle class and higher class stay at home and do nothing to earn money. It is weird if we see how they could manage to have a lot of servants, cooks, gardeners, and how much money they spend to keep horses and carriage as a mean of transportation, they build a large stable, and the ladies wear luxurious dress with silk laces as described. And some family have pianoforte, and Mary Crawford even mentions to bring her harp from town. Some rich family do a lot of travelling and possess more than one mansion. Mansfield Park explains that all expenses are compensated from the plantation in Antigua which produces sugar, coffee, and rum.

Not forgetting that all richness and comfortable life is based on slavery in the plantation. While Pride and Prejudice just mentions at glance that the money comes from the land they rent for the farmers.

Lady Bertram (nee Mary Ward), for that reason, is making her fortune by marrying Sir Thomas. Edmund Bertram will be a great match for Mary Crawford, a second son marrying a twenty-thousand-pound-girl. That is the same circumstance where Fanny Price marries Henry Crawford, Mary Crawford‘s brother. Fanny could have had a much better prospect in her life. But again, Austen shows her disagreement in matchmaking, yet not in marriage. Austen‘s hero and heroin usually marry because of love. And if they have a wealthy family as well, or make a social leap, it is not because of the matchmaking, but mere because of a good understanding between a couple, logic, and the ability to behave in a sensible way.

Mc Millan mentions in her article that Toer‘s female characters often illustrate the author‘s critical view of social structures and practices that place restrictions on

43 women and force them to be subservient to men. The Girl from the Coast

43 Mc Millan, J. (2006): ―Strong Women: Female Autonomy Became a Prominent Theme in Pramoedya’s Writing‖ (www.insideindonesia.org/edition-88/strong-women). Accessed in 20 June 2010.

59 nonetheless remains a devoted and subservient wife. Social custom, and attitudes about what is right and proper, mean that she has no other choice. Then she begins to subvert the practice. While she remains outwardly faithful to her aristocrat husband she experiences and permits feelings of sexual attraction to another man, one of her husband‘s guests. When the two men vacate the dining room after a meal, the girl sits in the young noble‘s chair and ‗with excitement, she [feels] the trace of warmth he left behind‘. She eats food from his plate, thrilled that ‗the vegetables and grains of rice had touched his lips‘. The Girl from the Coast also takes practical lessons and skills away from her forced marriage, such as learning how to run a household by herself.

The girl may have been discarded by her husband and separated from her child but she is not defeated. She has gained a sense of identity that allows her a future beyond her temporary marriage.

60

CHAPTER IV

RIGHTS OF WOMEN IN A FAMILY, THE FUNCTION OF MARRIAGE,

AND WOMEN’S CONCERN IN ECONOMIC SAFETY

Marriage in Austen‘s selected novels represents marriage which is similar to marriage in Indonesia, portrayed in Toer‘s The Girl from the Coast. Austen shows the marriage in the middle class society but Toer tries to contrast the low class and the aristocrat and meet them in marriage and matchmaking. The purpose of the matchmaking, or arranged married is almost the same, to find a prospective spouse, which means gaining better social status and getting financial security.

According to Bodley,

Culture involves at least three components: what people think, what they do, and the material products they produce. Thus, mental processes, beliefs, knowledge, and values are parts of culture. Some anthropologists would define culture entirely as mental rules guiding behaviour, although often wide divergence exists between the acknowledged rules for correct behaviour and what people actually do. Consequently, some researchers pay most attention to human behaviour and its material products. Culture also has several properties: it is shared, learned, symbolic, transmitted cross-generationally, adaptive, and 44 integrated.

Marriage is a rich idea. Longman Dictionary explains that marriage is the relationship between two people who are married, or the state of being married. It is in the culture around the world and how to do it is different from one culture to another.

When a couple love each other, that is the base of a lasting commitment. After

44 Bodley, J. H. (1994): ―An Anthropological Perspective from Cultural Anthropology: Tribes, States, and the Global System” (www./imej.wfu.edu/articles/1999/1/02/demo/gallery/bytprof.html#bodley). Accessed on 20 June 2010.

61 men and women seek a mate, marriage is the end of having a date, engagement, proposal, inviting people. However, it is the beginning of family life. They start to expect children, build relationship of the in-laws, have family gathering, set a family goal, and the like.

To answer the second research question, we may come to this paragraph.

Generally, in Indonesia or in England, the two countries which become the background in the novels presented, a family always asks their daughter to find the best future husband. They mention some criteria of an appropriate husband, but they do not give enough guidance on how to sort out their children‘s choices of partners.

When girls come to school and college, they meet boys and they start to make a relationship. However, their family is not with them to judge their choices of their suitors. They get support from their friends, and that is it. Criteria are only criteria that their family talks about, but how those criteria will show up in a man or a woman, they do not have sufficient assistance.

Families, especially fathers, usually give protection to their daughters. Fathers will decide the future protector or the future husband. When those fathers are not around, or they do not provide enough support, a young woman will take longer time to make a decision to choose the best partner because there is nobody who tell them which guys meet the criteria and what other things to consider in marriage. However, we have never seen parties where young people meet, but the parties should be arranged by parents in a community. Such parties can be useful to protect young women to move safely when they seek a partners. Matchmaking only happens between families and social gatherings are not common in Indonesian societies except in big cities.

62 In making a judgment of dating agencies, one must first review the purpose of a date. A date is primarily a chance when a person can share time with an opposite sex person, and during that period of sharing they can learn more about each other. How the couple shares their time is decided by themselves. Then, it must be more than just one way. They can try any activities which are suitable for both of them.

Some people try to find a dating experience that will reveal the ability of the dating partner to work with other people. After all, if a date is a lead up to marriage, then a date should help two people to appraise how well they could act considerately as a married couple. If a person has that hope, then such an individual will want to contact dating agencies that can help to direct the search for appropriate dating circumstances.

The effort to determine how well two people will work together demands the investigation of events far different from a party or a dramatic performance. It requires the real circumstances, not make them up for a show on television, for instance. Then, people needs to find appropriate dating agencies that can bring the information needed.

Dating agencies that focus on gaining answers to questions about a client's physical appearance such as height, weight or hair and eye colour will not provide the sort of information that aids the planning of a working date. Dating agencies that fail to determine the willingness of an individual to put-forth extra time in the service of others are not satisfactory agencies for the date seeker who wants a working date.

However, most dating agencies give attention to matchmake people with the same or similar interest and experience. The most important thing considered in the matchmaking process is whether a person is interested in getting along with another person, and that includes adjustment to one another.

63 Perhaps in the future society will adopt new ideas of dating, marriage, agency, obligations and other aspects of the current matchmaking industry. The clear changing that can be clearly seen now is matchmaking is more open and freer. Men and women put their self-portrait on the newspaper for dating agencies, and they mention their physical appearance and their interests. As shown in our local newspaper, Jawa Pos:

Long-haired teacher: single, 30 years old, Javanese, Moslem, 158 cm/62 kg, undergraduate, a teacher, fair skin, quiet, honest, understanding, mentally and physically healthy, and from a good family. Looking for a single man, about 32-35 years old, a diploma is a minimum, has a job, civil servant or private worker, dark skin, mentally and physically healthy, patient, honest, understanding, responsible, 45 not a drug addict, from a good family.

It was only one example of similar information. Women who decide to join the dating agencies are about 30-35 years old, older than what Austen consider as old maiden, Charlotte, in her Pride and Prejudice, 27 years old. Those women are usually educated, having a college degree, seeking a responsible man with good, at least stable, income. He should be A man with a good fortune, as stated in Pride and

Prejudice.

Austen mentioned parties and balls where young people meet and also their parents, although those events are not specifically arranged to look for suitors, of course. In the parties and balls, people gossip and discuss other people‘s wealth and social life. They cannot avoid talking about which men are prosperous enough to marry, because that time, it was not common if women worked and earned a living.

Balls are not very common these days, but matchmaking is great for the entertainment industry. Parents who are busy at work do not really have time to prepare their children for marriage, occupation, and living preparations. Therefore, young people begin to try their own ways in finding their partners. They send letters

45 Kontak Jodoh. Jawa Pos: Sunday, 30 March 2008.

64 to marriage biro in newspapers and magazines, arrange clubs for singles, and recently they meet in live shows on television. The producers set activities like games, going shopping together, doing sports, picnic, having candle light dinner, and at the end of the show the participants could choose the most suitable partner for them. If they cannot make it, they can still meet and become friends. They will talk more about careers and living arrangements, which sometimes they do not get from their parents.

It is quite different from the old times, when suitors should get to know the girls‘ parents. Then parents could observe their relationship and give necessary guiding to protect the single women and to come to a happy marriage.

Happy marriage? The ideal condition in a marriage is happy, lifelong, and wealthy, with kids, a nice house, and friendships with other married couples. The classic marriage has its ups and downs, its joys and difficulties, typical problems with children and in-laws. The terrible marriage ends in divorce, due perhaps to inappropriateness, exploitation, or unfaithfulness.

Austen placed women in different positions. Pride and Prejudice has

Elizabeth Bennet, who is independent and believes in marriage based on love and logic. In Austen‘s period, a woman was her husband‘s property. Her only destiny was taking care of home and children. Austen does not mention any kind of job which is done by her female characters. They are not the bread makers. They stay at home, read books, play music, visit their friends and relatives, and come to evening balls. It seems that a woman was just one of her husband property. She was neither independent nor kept her earnings. Gender boundaries were clearly drawn. They were experts in homemaking and serving their husband and raising their children.

Austen used her character, Mr. Collins, to mock the obsession of society with prosperity and class, and show his limited choices how women. How fast he switches

65 his choices to other woman, Charlotte Lucas, after he said his propose to Elizabeth

Bennet. In the same way, Charlotte Lucas only has two possibilities in her future life, to live with his brother as unmarried woman or marry a man like Mr. Collins without love or respect.

Marriage guarantees established life, which means living comfortably with the husband‘s money and property, raising children, and therefore save a woman from the opinion of the society as being a spinster. Toer also mentions that phenomenon in his novel The Girl from the Coast. The heroine, The Girl from the Coast herself, got married not because she feels that it should be like that. But, her family have prepared her at a certain age to find the best suitor to be her husband to continue another stage in her life. Whether or not the village people realize that lower class wife is nothing more than one of her husband‘s properties.

―So what do women own?‖ ―Nothing, Young Mistress. She herself is property.‖ (GC, 84)

However, the women now are more educated than women in the Austen era or in The Girl from the Coast setting. Although The Girl from the Coast had so much to learn: how to make batik, how to embroider, how to read, and how to recite the

Koran, she could not use it to make a living. Yet their opinion about marriage value is still similar. In The Girl from the Coast‘s case, despite the reason to marry Bendoro, actually she will survive without the marriage since she is a free woman in her village.

She could earn her own money. Whereas Lydia, in Pride and Prejudice, she is getting married only to have a position as a wife. She knows that Wickham cannot give her the pleasure of a larger income. Without education and the opportunity of owning money herself, Lydia has nothing.

Women must behave in a way that men will be attracted to them and this is what is needed to be an ideal woman in PP (27):

66 A woman must have a thorough knowledge of music, singing, drawing, dancing, and the modern languages, to deserve the word; and besides all this, she must possess a certain something in her air and manner of walking, the tone of her voice, her address and expressions, or the word will be but half-deserved.

In spite of all a woman must have, Darcy still adds more requirements, which is thought to be quite unusual that time.

"All this she must possess," added Darcy, "and to all this she must yet add something more substantial, in the improvement of her mind by extensive reading" (PP, 27).

Miss Bingley who participates in the marriage market, always tries to flatter

Darcy for anything he does. She is educated, but as other women in the novel, it means only learned in matters of the behaviour, manner, and emotion. This left them imprisoned in their own unawareness, meant for the world of marriage, household and home.

….had been educated in one of the first private seminaries in town, had a fortune of twenty thousand pounds, were in the habit of spending more than they ought, and of associating with people of rank, and were therefore in every respect entitled to think well of themselves, and meanly of others (PP, 10).

Logic plays a role. Marriage means more than a thing. As I have mentioned before, marriage involves love, feeling, respect, and common sense. But Austen seems to discuss it as a kind of merchandise.

"Is he married or single?"

"Oh! Single, my dear, to be sure! A single man of large fortune; four or five thousand a year. What a fine thing for our girls!" (PP, 2)

No wonder if Lydia could elope with Wickham in her very young age. She has not had the common sense as an adult to think further about marriage. Support from the family is needed and Lydia does not have it. Her sister, Elizabeth, worries about her but she does not try to stop her meeting the militia in town, even Mr. Bennet lets

67 her younger daughter leaves to meet the soldiers. Lydia gets a bad example from her mother who thinks of marriage as an opportunity to have a financial security, and her ignorant father who does not realize that Lydia‘s wild behaviour towards men has started to bring her misfortune, whereas Lydia is too young to be aware of morality.

Let‘s start from the very beginning of marriage life, the wedding. Women love weddings. It is mentioned by Lydia Bennet that she really cares with her wedding gown, her wedding ring, not the marriage life itself.

"Oh! mamma, do the people hereabouts know I am married to-day? I was afraid they might not; and we overtook William Goulding in his curricle, so I was determined he should know it, and so I let down the side-glass next to him, and took off my glove, and let my hand just rest upon the window frame, so that he might see the ring, and then I bowed and smiled like anything" (PP, 211).

She wastes money that she does not earn and she wastes her time. It is similar to our wedding these days. Javanese wedding, for example, has a long procession, symbolic actions, traditional wedding clothes which are worn not only for the bride and groom but also for the family and the relatives on the whole, even the Javanese mahr has symbolic meaning.

A. WOMEN POSITION IN MARRIAGE AND RIGHTS OF PROPERTY

Whalan noted in her article that wealth and breeding were both very important considerations when contemplating marriage at the beginning of the 19th century and of the two, breeding was the more important, even though it was becoming easier for wealthy people to buy their way into society.46 Mr Knightley (Austen‘s Emma) had good sense and knowledge of how the world of his time operated. He was aware that marriage may have an element of romance but it was also a business matter. Good

46 Whalan, P.: ―Emma - Understanding Jane Austen's World” (www.jasa.net.au/ study/whalan.htm). Accessed on April 29, 2008.

68 families ―connected‖ themselves to other acceptable families. One‘s breeding was even more important than one‘s wealth, although both must be considered when planning a marriage. To be considered of good birth your family‘s main income needed to come from landed property, not from trade. The usual way of owning land was through inheritance and it was normally the eldest son who inherited. Sometimes there was a smaller property that could be willed to a younger son or something came on the market and was bought for a younger son but property, sufficient to provide a good income through its rents, rarely came on the market, so inheritance was the usual method of becoming ―landed gentry‖. This meant that belonging to the right family was important.

Austen‘s novels have similar background, it can be said as Austen‘s life background. Those are people in the middle-upper class. The characters are the ones who are facing poverty and trying to avoid such kind of miserable life. Therefore, marriage is only a way to transform their lower class to a higher station, or to maintain their position if they are already in the secure position. Matchmaking is commonly done to find a perfect spouse, whereas perfect is defined by their fortune and class. However, Austen‘s heroines have answered the third research question.

The heroines are not the ones who follow the marriage market without any logic or sense, they are usually open-minded women, who have enough wit to gain their happiness through marriage which is based on love and responsibility. Class, money, and appearance are not the only factors in choosing a husband or a wife.

Women cannot give a will and they do not earn anything. Moreover, they will not inherit anything from their father. Let us see the Bennet family. There are only daughters and no son. The money and property will not go to Mr Collins if there is an heir. That is why Mr Collins is so sure that Elizabeth Bennet will accept his marriage

69 proposal. He will own all Elizabeth and her sisters‘ home. However, even though a son exists in the family, he will have to take care of all his sisters and mother, which may be a burden for him. Except if all girls could make their fortune by marrying prospective husbands. Charlotte Lucas (Pride and Prejudice) marries at the age of 27, which might also be a great relieve for his brother. If she has her life as an old maid, she will have to live with her brother, her sister in law, her nephew, and her niece.

Money and property cannot be possessed by women. Why Elizabeth Bennet cannot inherit her father's land and assets, because women generally inherit only if there are no male-line heirs left, and if there is more than one sister, then they are all equal co-heiresses, rather than only the eldest inheriting. Austen tells us about her women characters' education and accomplishments (those for Elizabeth Bennet, Miss

De Burgh and Georgiana Darcy). Women want to marry men and that they prefer some potential partners to others.

What do her women characters do? Middle class women spend their time sewing, embroidering, reading, playing music, visiting friends, just like what Mrs

Bennet and Charlotte Lucas do. Austen does not mention education specifically in her novels. Austen herself was sent to study when she was at her young age but it was not described how far she had been going on with her schooling. It seems that education was not very important for women in that period. They were taught about household duties, that a woman ought to get married and raise children.

According to Neale in Evans, Austen was calling for the equality of women through education.47 Although lacking education, Fanny brings her rational mind and strong principles to the Bertram family. Her qualities are only recognised by Sir

47 Evans, R., The Rationality and Femininity of Mary Wollstonecraft and Jane Austen. Journal of International Women‘s Studies Vol. 7. 3 March 2006.

70 Thomas at the end of the novel, when in despair of ‗ambitious and mercenary connexions, [he prized] more and more the sterling good of principle and temper‘

(MP, 269). He comes to recognise that ‗Fanny was indeed the daughter he wanted‘

(MP, 269). This highlights how in current British society and culture the representation of women is still essentially defined through masculine discourse, which women such as Austen began struggling against in the nineteenth century.

Extreme phenomenon happens in The Girl from the Coast. Although her family and villagers are very overwhelmed by this match, the girl gradually sees that the Bendoro considers her "a practice wife," a rehearsal for a later "real" marriage to someone of his class (GC, 76). Her heart drops when she realizes that she is more a possession than a person. The feeling of affection and money are shown both to differences and match each other. Money can have an equal influence over either, positively or negatively. It gives the girl a big home, rice to eat instead of corn, the finest batik fabrics and gold jewellery, but she loses her freedom to speak and to act like the way she used to be.

Aristocrats, the nobility-these people were the upper class who, by birth and destiny, ruled the lower classes (GC, 107).

She remembers a wife and a husband in her village can work, sit, eat, and speak together, but not in her new place in the city, in Bendoro‘s mansion. Money and power are the key motives for marriage without real affection.

B. THE FUNCTION OF MARRIAGE

Charlotte has made it clear that what she wants in marriage is a little of material comfort and financial security and it is equally evident from the above

71 passage that Elizabeth has but contempt for such concerns. Questioned by Elizabeth, she replies:

You must be surprised, very much surprised -- so lately as Mr. Collins was wishing to marry you. But when you have had time to think it over, I hope you will be satisfied with what I have done. I am not romantic, you know. I never was. I ask only a comfortable home; and considering Mr. Collins's character, connections, and situation in life, I am convinced that my chance of happiness with him is as fair as most people can boast on entering the marriage state (PP, 8).

Therefore here is Elizabeth's exclamation,

"Engaged to Mr. Collins! My dear Charlotte -- impossible!" (PP, 87) is the very expression of her complete doubt at seeing her best friend marrying without affection.

Elizabeth‘s father, captivated by youth and beauty, and that appearance of good humour which youth and beauty generally give, had married a woman whose weak understanding and illiberal mind had very early in their marriage put an end to all real affection for her. Respect, esteem, and confidence, had vanished forever; and all his views of domestic happiness were overthrown. But Mr.Bennet was not of a disposition to seek comfort for the disappointment which his own imprudence had brought on in any of those pleasures which too often console the unfortunate for their folly or their vice. This is not the sort of happiness which a man would in general wish to owe to his wife; but where other powers of entertainment are wanting, the true philosopher will derive benefit from such as are given (PP, 159).

Here, Elizabeth's observation reflects understanding of the function of marriage such as it was understood at the end of the eighteenth century, meaning that selection of a husband or a wife is of great importance to the individual because it is the agent of a social purpose, which is the moral education of children. (PP, chapter

19).

How Wickham and Lydia were to be supported in tolerable independence, she could not imagine. But how little of permanent happiness could belong to a couple who were only brought together because their passions were stronger than their virtue,

Elizabeth could easily guess.

72 "But I believe I must date it from my first seeing his beautiful grounds at Pemberley." (PP, 254).

Elizabeth, whether she realizes it or not, thinks that she also needs and considers money and prosperity of her future husband.

Lydia‘s narrow minded makes her thinks that marriage instantly moves her position higher than Jane Bennet at home:

"Jane, I take your place now, and you must go lower, because I am a married woman." (PP, 212).

It is mentioned by Lydia, because although she is younger than Jane, she has already been married. So, her position in seniority at home is higher than Jane who has not been married yet.

C. WOMEN’S CONCERN IN ECONOMIC SAFETY

The parents‘ eagerness to see their daughters married portrays another reality of Austen‘s day. Women in the lower class could work as maids or factory workers, but women in the middle and upper class did not have to work, and it was not a common thing in the society that they worked. Therefore, marriage opened a possibility into an economic security. Women‘s concern in economic safety became a main idea in her novels. For a woman of a small fortune, education was needed to get the respectable position, a settled wife who has a steady income from her husband.

Although marriage is the main theme in her novels, Austen does not waste her ink to describe weddings. All heroines marry someone by the end of the novels with no details about the wedding ceremony. Austen just wants to emphasize women‘s reality, and they use the education to get life which they thought to be steady and respected in the society.

73 The weak position of a woman in marriage sometimes is even fore grounded to gratify the husband who has brought her to a higher class. That a woman is just one of her husband‘s property is described on how Mrs. Elton calls his husband lord and master, although she says the words jokingly.

Climbing up the social ladder is possible for a young woman. Mansfield Park illustrated this by the marriages of its characters. Lady Bertram, Mrs. Norris, and Mrs.

Price are sisters. Maria Ward moves above her chosen social position by marrying the baronet, Sir Thomas Bertram of Mansfield Park; the younger sister, Mrs. Norris, weds at a middle class; the youngest sister marries Mr. Price, an ordinary sailor, Mr. Price, who will in time become an unemployed drunkard.

Feeling super, as illustrated in Emma, by helping people or relatives who are below the social class also happens in Mansfield Park. Emma tries to matchmake

Harriet to a man of a higher class since the only thing that makes her interested to people of the lower class is that she could show her power. Whereas Lady Bertram and her sister, Mrs. Norris helps Mrs. Price by inviting Fanny to live in Mansfield

Park, however, Fanny is treated differently from the Bertram children. She must take care of the household and she never has a change for social outing such as evening ball. Lady Bertram and Mrs. Norris have moved up the social position, but they do not think Fanny is fine enough to have the same chance as theirs.

A young woman, pretty, lively, with a harp as elegant as herself, and both placed near a window, cut down to the ground, and opening on a little lawn, surrounded by shrubs in the rich foliage of summer, was enough to catch any man's heart (MP, 37).

Education, again, is not one important thing for women to increase their social status. The first son in a family will inherit all money and property from his father.

Tom Bertram, the first son, is not an educated man. He spends his time by gambling

74 and being a drunkard. Still, his attitude will not change his position as the heir in the family. Meanwhile, Edmund, his younger brother seems to have a better attitude. He could be a better baronet than that of Tom, if a second son may inherit his father‘s fortune. He prefers to be a clergyman instead of studying law, as suggested by Mary

Crawford. Edmund is quite realistic, he knows that law is not good for him since he recognizes his inability to play words and that he does not have wit as much as a lawyer might need. He understands that being a lawyer is promising, in terms of the social position compared to being a clergyman. But something which is not fit in his ability and skill will do no good for him.

―You really are fit for something better. Come, do change your mind. It is not too late. Go into the law."

"Go into the law! With as much ease as I was told to go into this wilderness." (MP, 54)

Daughters are expected to marry within their own social level, or it would be much better if they could climb up the social ladder. Mary Crawford married Mr.

Rushworth, one of the richest men in the region. She does not care about how boring and dull the man is, as long as he could bring her into a higher social point.

Emma thinks that social position is very essential. She must give the honour of starting the dance to Mrs. Elton since she is a new bride, and Emma does not like the idea. She gets used to be the centre of attention as a woman of the highest class and hates a person who considers inferior takes the attention away. She is quite upset and she even thinks of getting married even though once she thinks that she does not want to do so.

Emma must submit to stand second to Mrs. Elton, though she had always considered the ball as peculiarly for her. It was almost enough to make her think of marrying (E, 198).

Marriage is a long process, influence people‘s whole life. Therefore, Elton‘s

75 decision to get married is criticized by Frank Churchill. It could shift the social class to a higher position or the other way around. It may change the way society judgement to be better or even worse. It possibly will give financial security or no fortune, and it may provide property or debt. Marriage is not a performance, which will only be shown in public, but a real process in life which includes human being, family, feeling, and consequences.

"Happy couple!" said Frank Churchill, as soon as they were out of hearing:-- "How well they suit one another!--Very lucky--marrying as they did, upon an acquaintance formed only in a public place!--They only knew each other, I think, a few weeks in Bath! Peculiarly lucky!-- for as to any real knowledge of a person's disposition that Bath, or any public place, can give--it is all nothing; there can be no knowledge. It is only by seeing women in their own homes, among their own set, just as they always are, that you can form any just judgment. Short of that, it is all guess and luck-- and will generally be ill-luck. How many a man has committed himself on a short acquaintance, and rued it all the rest of his life!" (E, 228)

It is totally different from Mr. Knightley‘s opinion about man‘s responsibility to a woman he marries,

A man would always wish to give a woman a better home than the one he takes her from; and he who can do it, where there is no doubt of _her_ regard, must, I think, be the happiest of mortals (E, 263).

Here is the slight difference between love and logic. As mentioned by Samuel Mulia in his article, love is really not blind. When a person loves someone, he or she will use his or her logic by not considering of having affair, being honest, and open.48 What happens to Frank Churchill is contrary to this statement. Frank tries to cover his engagement with Jane Fairfax because his aunt does not approve her, and he flirts with Emma and Harriet. Their marriage considers good enough, since Frank will save her from being a spinster and offer his financial steadiness. Then perhaps Jane Fairfax could help Frank to have a better personality and spirit.

48 Mulia, Samuel. Love Management. Kompas: 29 June 2008.

76 For our nameless heroine and other women like The Girl from the Coast, such short-term marriages are life-changing events. Back in her coastal village, the girl has become a local famous person.

All the eyes, fixed upon her, but respectfully lowered whenever she looked their way, seemed to be mocking her. Hypocrisy…. All of this was hipocrisy!...and the voices of the people, her former neighbours, no matter how softly they spoke, sounded hesitant, reluctant, even mocking to her ear (GC, 166).

She has once asked Mbok, her maid about who she was, and actually Mbok has carefully explained her fact:

―So what am I then, Mbok? ― ―Forgive me for saying this, Young Mistress, but you are the person of the lower class who, for the moment at least, has been hitched to the upper class. ― (GC, 96)

During Indonesian Monetary Crisis in 1996-1997, people chose marriage as a risk management strategy. As said in a research conducted by Nobles and Buttenheim

(2006),

Human capital accumulation is important, as individuals with more education and better employment may be more attractive in the marriage market. At the same time, assortative mating predicts that individuals will seek marriage partners of similar socioeconomic status, so that highly educated individuals may need to 49 search longer for a qualified partner.

Alternatively, there are several reasons why an economic crisis could delay marriages. Nobles and Buttenheim also finds that,

The marital search process may be longer and more costly in periods of uncertainty because wage declines, curtailed schooling, and reduced economic prospects make partners less marriageable. Additionally, young adults may delay marriage in order to postpone childbearing in societies where first births follow soon after marriage. If cultural norms related to marriage costs and standard of living do not quickly adjust to high inflation rates, then marriage becomes more expensive (given real income) and will be delayed.

49 Nobles, J. and Buttenheim A. (2006): ―Marriage in Periods of Crisis: Evidence from Indonesia” (www./en.scientificcommons.org/34147799). Accessed on 20 June 2010.

77

Of course we assume the condition in novels is stable since it is fictional. But let us see the value. The higher education promises a better living. So, women could have choices, opportunities, and they can be independent and free. People consider more problems that emerge if they are not ready yet to marry. Their standard of living will be lower and raising a child is considered as a burden. This explanation answers the first research question.

Both Austen and Toer, their novels of the past provide their readers an alternative of aristocracy, an imagined community. As Anderson noted, it is imagined because members will never know most of their fellow-members, yet in the minds of

50 each lives the image of their communion.

50 Anderson, B., Imagined Communities, p.6.

78 CHAPTER V

CONCLUSION

What is told in the novels as a fiction in the past is very common in a particular way in our life today. Matchmaking happens in all places, followed by marriage. The reasons and criticism behind marriage and matchmaking in Austen and

Toer‘s novels can be different from one society to another. But Austen and Toer have similar egalitarian consideration which is articulated in their novels.

Austen tries to include reality in tales. It is not easy to compare the life portrayed in Austen‘s Pride and Prejudice with the life in different year, and in different country, that means very different culture as well. However, there are some values that considered the same, at least, similar. Therefore, the first research question has been answered. Austen tries to tell us that a woman needs to feel freedom to run their own life. They have choices, they own opportunities, and they can be independent. In the 21st century, women have career, something which is not mentioned and discussed in the Pride and Prejudice, since it was written in the late

18th century or beginning 19th century the time when women of middle class did not do anything to make money. Even for a woman like Jane and Elizabeth Bennet, they spend their time for reading, letter writing, and music. But perhaps when women have the opportunities to do what they like, and do something to develop themselves like reading, writing, and even knitting, why not? Just simple thing, but it makes them feel confident and enjoy their being a woman, is now, in this century, what we consider as career.

Charlotte Lucas in Pride and Prejudice does not have many choices but getting married to Mr. Collins, which will free her from being single and staying in

79 her brother‘s house. Being independent as a single woman is not a proper choice in that period of time, yet, this is very common these days. When Elizabeth Bennet comes for a visit in Parsonage, she observes that Charlotte is quite happy with her marriage, although she looks more cheerful when Collins is away.

Earning their own money is important for women since it increases their self- confidence. It is a notion of capitalism and colonialism in which they will have their own autonomy and even gain respect from the husbands. Mr. and Mrs. Bennet is the other model. Mr. Bennet very often mocks his wife‘s opinion and attitude. Mrs.

Bennet is very dependent to his husband since she earns nothing and she does not inherit any money from her father. Therefore, all her expenses are her husband‘s responsibility. Moreover, she is not a smart woman who has a wider mind, she is not someone who could tackle other people opinion in adult discussions.

Since there exist few dating agencies that are equipped to direct a young man or woman with planning a working date, one must presume that society perceives little value in that dating strategy. Perhaps as more and more couples become divorced, society will come to expect a new type of dating strategy. When that happens, then the updated strategies will lead the way in the ever-changing world of arranged dating match-ups. Therefore, this answers the second research question, that matchmaking only happens between families, and social gatherings are not common in Indonesian societies except in big cities. Mathmaking results in irony in

The Girl from the Coast. The girl left her husband‘s mansion after she gave birth her baby since she is only a practice wife.

In the meantime, if we are making an assessment of dating agencies, and if we want to obtain the full settlement of dating, then we must feel sure what our reasons to start a relationship with other human beings are, and how we view marriage.

80 Education is important for women since an uneducated and unaware mother cannot rear her children to be a good person. This is a notion of identity, in which

Mrs. Bennet and her young daughters are the examples. She only thinks of herself.

The only thing which is important for her is finding appropriate husbands for her daughters. In Lydia‘s problem, she is only sixteen when she gets married. A sixteen year old girl is not able to understand her role as a wife yet, which includes a role as a manager in her household. She requires helps from her two older sisters, Jane and

Elizabeth, after she marries to Wickham. Her expense is exceeding her husband‘s income, which is used not only to maintain her household but also for Wickham to continue his way of living. Lydia, with little education and no means of earning is particularly powerless.

Education can also be meant knowledge to read. The women characters in

Austen‘s novels get their education through reading since some of them do not go to school. After the people read Austen‘s novels, there is egalitarian for women. This is what has been discussed in the previous chapter about print capitalism, that when people who speak different languages could understand each other, a common opinion comes up. People in the society think that matchmaking is not important anymore.

Toer shows how women are just one of man‘s properties in The Girl from the

Coast. Thus the whole learning of women ought to relate to men. To give men pleasant life, to be useful to them, to make herself respected and pleased by them, to raise them when young, to care for them when grown, to advise them, to encourage them, to make their lives enjoyable --these are the responsibility of women at all times, and they ought to be taught from childhood.

It is reflected in the story that being the wives of a king or any noble family is seen as a blessing. Wives of the noble family live in a very comfortable life in their

81 mansion, although they do not have any rights to give their opinions, and are always hidden from the public if they are just commoners or ordinary people. That is why when a man has more wives, he will have more pride. A woman like The Girl from the Coast is very free, but she is discarded at the end because she cannot give his husband a son. She has to leave the mansion without being able to keep her own daughter and she has to leave all of comfort she used to have as the wife of Bendoro.

However, she prefers to get the easy life she could easily grasp. Even though Bendoro is not in the royal family, not as rich and wealthy as a king, Bendoro is not poor himself. He was the assistant to the regent of Rembang. So, perhaps The Girl from the

Coast has considered this fact too when she started to stay in Bendoro‘s mansion, that she will not have a miserable life as Bendoro has settled a wealthy life. It is quite similar to Elizabeth Bennet, actually, that she is impressed by seeing Pemberley at the first time, that she could be the mistress and the owner in such a prosperous land of

Darcy.

Love is one thing that people consider to marry, but Austen novels provide other importance such as class, occupation, and wealth. When people marry, they can improve their social class if they are from lower one, or maintain their class if they are already in a higher class. People in the middle class will try not to go to a lower class by marrying someone in the same class, for example.

What makes the marriage and matchmaking in Austen‘s story and The Girl from the Coast different is that at the end, The Girl from the Coast found that life in her husband‘s mansion is not as grand as it looks. It is even shown in the middle of the story when the girl cannot stand her wealthy and lonely life any longer and prefers coming to her old house for a visit. Yet, she comes to her surprise when everybody in her village treated her as someone new, called her ―Bendoro Putri‖, ―Mrs. Bendoro‖,

82 the Bendoro‘s wife. Richness and power, higher class, is not a proof of perfect life.

She, therefore, would rather live as a free woman than devoting her life to her husband after she has a baby girl. Moreover, she is not allowed to take care of her own child. Yet, she can no longer stand following Bendoro‘s way in his way of life. It is not mentioned in the story whether The Girl from the Coast has proper education or not when she stayed with her husband except the household education including how to serve her husband, making embroidery and batik and reciting the Koran. However, in the epilogue, Sa‘idah, The Girl from the Coast‘s daughter, was well educated. She was well read, fine-mannered, and spoke Dutch and Javanese with equal ease. Sa‘idah is married to her headmaster in her school, who gave her his family name, Toer. A smart and wise woman at that time, who provides a good model to Toer. It does not happen in the Bennet‘s family, where Mrs. Bennet is not an educated woman, and then she cannot guide and be a good model to her daughters.

Austen stated that money is not the main consideration by showing her heroines who marry the men in the army. It is not only the aristocrats who are in the high social class, but also the people in the army who travel around the world and protect the country.

Women in Austen time were to expect they could find a wealthy husband or one with a stable income. Austen's choosing of Elizabeth as the main character shows that she did not believe in those ideas. In the novel Pride and Prejudice, Mr. Collins is an important character who shows Austen's ideas about marriage and the status of women. He helps to show that women should marry for love and not for money, class, or family. Mr. Colins is the cousin to the Bennets and he proposes to Elizabeth to be his wife. She believes marriage should take place between a couple who can love and mutually respect each other as intellectual equals- Mr. Collins is not a husband

83 Elizabeth would treat as an intellectual equal. Mr. Collins just wanted a respectable wife to take care of the children and home. She believed that women should not marry a man just because he was an appropriate bachelor. If Elizabeth had married Mr.

Collins, Mrs. Bennet would have been very glad since their estate will not go to another family after Mr. Bennet's death. Class, money, and appearance should not be the only factors in choosing a husband or a wife. This is something that Mr. Collins did not understand and believed he was totally eligible to marry nearly any girl he wanted. Here, this explanation has answered the third research question.

That characters with enough money to live comfortably are often shown to be capable of little else shows Austen‘s awareness of the new seductive power of money, not her sanction of it. Austen‘s novels may be seen as part of this shift in their overall investigative concern with money and how it shapes our lives. Her almost exclusive focus on the upper reaches of society came in part from an interest in exploring a group of people who had it within their power to live for something other than money or monetary survival. That they often fail to do so, how and why, is at the centre of her investigation.

A good quality marriage will create a fine home. In Austen‘s novels, a perfect home depends on what the members of the family do. When a house loses its attraction and pride because of the irresponsible and careless children, she criticizes the foolish parents who are pleasure-seeking, not active, or immature. A father like

Mr. Bennet is not bad-mannered or selfish, but he fails to make his house a place of harmony and joy. He is acceptable in society, but he does not realize his own role as a father in the family. He stays with his books in the library and ignores his daughters.

This also shows that his underestimating to women is always in his mind. His disappointment that he could not have a son who will inherit his wealth makes him

84 bewildered. His comments and manners confuse his wife and daughters, and he does not seem to care about it. His unawareness to one of his daughter, Lydia, causes her elopement with Wickham. And it is, finally, a wake up call to Mr Bennet.

Marriage should be based on many factors, not just inheritance economic consideration. Egalitarian, respect, and love should be taken into consideration as well. These are some of the ideas that Austen had tried to describe through the novel that has shaped various contemporary novels and other modern fictional literatures in

Indonesia.

85 REFERENCES

Albertson, D. Humanities at Stanford, Wolfgang Iser – Presidential Lecture Series. Stanford University, 2000.

Anderson, Benedict. Imagined Communities. London, New York: Verso, 1991.

Austen, Jane. Emma. London: Penguin Books Ltd., 2004.

Austen, Jane. Mansfield Park. London: Penguin Books Ltd, 2004.

Austen, Jane. Pride and Prejudice. London: Penguin Books Ltd., 2004.

Austen, Jane. Sense and Sensibility. London: Penguin Books Ltd., 2004.

Barry, Peter. Beginning Theory: An Introduction to Literary and Cultural Theory. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1995.

Belsey, Catherine. Critical Practice. London and New York: Routledge, 1980.

Creswell, John W. Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches. London: Sage Publications, 2003.

Easthope, Anthony and Kate McGowan. A Critical and Cultural Theory Reader. Toronto and Buffalo: University of Toronto Press, 1998.

Endraswara, Suwardi. Metodologi Penelitian Sastra. Yogyakarta: Pustaka Widyatama, 2006.

Evans, Rachel. The Rationality and Femininity of Mary Wollstonecraft and Jane Austen. Journal of International Women‘s Studies Vol. 7 #3 March 2006.

Friedan, Betty. The Feminine Mystique. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc., 1997.

Humm, Maggie. The Dictionary of Feminist Theory. Second Edition. USA: Ohio State University Press, 1995.

Jenkyns, Richard. A Fine Brush on Ivory: An Appreciation of Jane Austen. New York: Oxford University Press Inc., 2004.

Junus, U. Mustika Adat Alam Minangkabau: Fiction or An Account of Minangkabau Adat? Time Past, Time Present, Time Future Perspectives on Indonesian Culture, Foris Publication, Dordrecht-Holland/Providence USA, 1998.

86 Pope, Rob. The English Studies Book. London and New York: Routledge, 2002.

Potter, Alexandra. Me and Mr. Darcy. London: Hodder and Stoughton Ltd., 2007.

Rimmon-Kenan, Shlomith. Narrative Fiction: Contemporary Poetics. London and New York: Routledge, 1988.

Toer, Pramoedya.Ananta. The Girl from the Coast. New York: Hyperion, 2002.

Wellek, R. and Warren A. Theory of Literature. Australia: Penguin Books, 1956.

Newspapers

Kontak Jodoh. Jawa Pos: Sunday, 30 March 2008.

Mulia, Samuel. Love Management. Kompas: 29 June 2008.

Online Media

Ackiss, David L. Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice, Volume I, Chapter 8: A Close Reading. (www.solonschools.org/accounts/LFitch /PrideandPrejudice). Accessed on 6 June 2010.

Bodley, J. H. (1994): An Anthropological Perspective From Cultural Anthropology: Tribes, States, and the Global System. (http://imej.wfu.edu/articles/ 1999/1/02/demo/gallery/bytprof.html#bodley). Accessed on 20 June 2010.

Brown, J.P. (1998): Jane Austen’s England. (www.jasna.org/persuasions/printed/ number10/brown.htm). Accessed on 20 June 2010.

Fischer, U.C. (2008): Phenomenological Approach to Literature, Sociology of Literature, Sociological Literary Research: Questions of Methods in Progress. (www.sunzi1.lib.hku/hkjo/view/6/600126.pdf). Accessed on 29 April 2008.

Freudenberger, N.(2002): A Practice Wife's Story. (www.nytimes.com /2002/08/11/ books/ a-practice- wife-s-story.html). Cited on 21 April, 2010.

Haeberle, E.J. (1983): The Sex Atlas. The Continuum Publishing Company.New York. (www2.hu-berlin.de/sexology/ATLAS_EN/index.html). Accessed on 23 April 2007.

Hull, T.H. and Hull.V.J. (1987): Changing Marriage Behavior in Java: the Role of Timing of Consummation. In Southeast Asian Journal of Social Science. Vol. 15, No. 1. (www.policyproject.com/pubs/countryreports/ARH_Indonesia.pdf). Accessed on 26 May, 2010.

Janjua, Q.I.: Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice A Critical Analysis. (www.scribd.com/doc/24940611). Accessed on 20 June 2010.

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Lynch, D.: Social Theory at Box Hill: Acts of Union. State University of New York, Buffalo. (www.rc.umd.edu/praxis/boxhill/lynch/ lynch.html). Accessed on 6 June 2010.

Mc Millan, J. (2006): Strong Women: Female Autonomy Became a Prominent Theme in Pramoedya’s Writing. (www.insideindonesia.org/edition-88/strong-women) Accessed on 20 June 2010.

Mensch, B.S. and Singh S. (2005): Trends in the Timing of First Marriage Among Men and Women in the Developing World. John B. Casterline. No. 202. (www.popcouncil.org). Accessed on 7 March 2007.

Nobles, J. and Buttenheim A. (2006): Marriage in Periods of Crisis: Evidence from Indonesia. California Center for Population Research. www./en.scientific commons.org/34147799

Pritchett, V.S. (2008): Jane Austen’s Englishness: Emma as national tale. January 1. The Jane Austen Journal. (www.thefreelibrary.com). January 1, 2008. Accessed on 1 August 2010.

Rayner, C. (2000): Why We Still Need the Matchmaker. (www.ne200008210006 wstatesman.com). Accessed on 31 July 2010.

The Girl from the Coast - a review (www.salon.com/books/review/2002/08/01/toer/ index.html). Accessed on 26 May 2010.

Topic Matchmaking (www.answers.com/topic/matchmaking). Accessed on 26 May 2010.

Whalan, P.: Understanding the Society in Which Jane Austen Sets Pride and Prejudice. (www.jasa.net.au/ study/whalan.htm). Accessed on 29 April 2008.

Whalan, P.: Emma - Understanding Jane Austen's World. (www.jasa.net.au/ study/whalan.htm). Accessed on April 29, 2008.

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APPENDICES

89

Appendix 1

The following diagram may help illustrate the mysterious workings of such an entail; the original possessor of the estate is at the top of the diagram, males are denoted by

"M", females by "F", the current (male) owner of the estate by "X", siblings are arranged left-to-right from eldest to youngest, and the potential heirs to the estate upon the death of "X" are numbered in the order of successsion (potential co-heiress- ships are shown by several women being given the same number):

M(dead) | +------+------+------+ | | | | M(dead) F(12) M(7) M(9) | | +------+------+------+------+ M(8) | | | | | X M(1) F(11) M(5) F(11) | | | +------+ +-----+ M(6) | | | | F(10) F(10) M(2) M(4) | M(3)

Note that the technical interpretation of this chart is that, given this family configuration, the individual numbered (1) is the immediate heir of the man labeled

"X"; but if (1) died before "X", then (2) would be X's immediate heir; and if (1) and

(2) died before "X", then (3) would be X's immediate heir, and so on down the line

(i.e. if all individuals labelled with numbers (1)-(11) were to die before "X", then the individual numbered (12) would be X's immediate heir).

http://www.pemberley.com/janeinfo/pptopics.html#letteng

90

Bennets, Philipses, and Gardiners

Mr. Collins is a cousin of Mr. Bennet (an explanation of the entail is available).

+------+------+ | | | | | | Mr. Bennet === Mrs. Bennet Mrs. Philips === Mr. Philips Edward === M---- | Gardiner | +------+-+-----+------+------+ | | | | | | +--+-- +--+ Jane Elizabeth Mary "Kitty" Lydia | | | | [Catherine] Four children

Darcys, Fitzwilliams, and De Bourghs The individuals in parentheses died before the main action of the novel begins. (Old Earl of ----, surnamed Fitzwilliam) | +------+----+------+ | | | (Old Mr. === (Lady current Lady === (Sir Lewis Darcy) | Anne) Earl of ---- Catherine | de Bourgh) | | | +------+------+ +---+------+ | | | | | | Fitzwilliam Georgiana elder Colonel Anne de Darcy Darcy son(s) Fitzwilliam Bourgh

Lucases and Bingleys

Sir William === Lady +------+------+ Lucas | Lucas | | | | | | | +------+------+ Charles Caroline Louisa === Mr. | | | Bingley Bingley Hurst Charlotte Maria other boys Lucas Lucas and girls

http://www.pemberley.com/janeinfo/pptopics.html#letteng

91 Appendix 2

JANE AUSTEN LIFE AND WORKS TIMELINE HISTORY

Though Ms. Austen never married, she had plenty of important "dates" in regards to pivotal moments in her life. Like those before and after her, Jane lived, breathed, loved and died as anyone else. This timeline is an effort to put her life into perspective to help the reader understand what a very common and everyday person she was in her own time.

Much care has been taken to make this list as comprehensive and accurate as possible but please let us know if we missed something or something is inaccurate. Days of the week have been provided when possible.

YEAR DATE DETAILS AGE

Jane Austen is born to George and Cassandra Austen at Steventon Saturday, rectory. She is the eighth child and second daughter behind brothers 1775 December 0 James, George, Charles, Francis, Henry, Edward and sister Cassandra 16th (not to be confused with her mother, also named Cassandra).

The first home theatrical presentation is performed by the Austen family 1782 6 in their home.

Jane and elder sister Cassandra leave for Mrs. Crawley's boarding school in Oxford for their formal education. The school is then moved to 1783 7 Southampton where Typhoid Fever breaks out. The girls are returned home.

1784 The Austen family performs Sheridan's The Rivals. 8

1785 Jane and Cassandra arrive at the Abbey School in Reading. 9

Jane and Cassandra arrive back home from school, having completed 1786 10 their formal education.

It is believed that at about this time, Jane begins to write short stories and 1787 poems that later are collectively referred to as the Juvenilia and consist of 11

three bound notebooks of works.

Jane pens Love and Friendship and dedicates the work to cousin Eliza . It 1790 is believed that at about this time, she makes the conscious decision to 14 write for profit and become a professional writer.

Jane begins to write and later abandons a short play entitled Sir Charles 1793 17 Grandison or the Happy Man, a six act comedy.

Jane pens Lady Susan, an epistolary novel. 17

Monday, Jane pens the poem "Ode to Pity" for her Juvenilia. 17 June 3

92

It is believed that before 1796, Jane read aloud to the Austen family her 1795 story entitled Elinor and Marianne. The discerning Austen reader would 19 know these to be the main characters in Sense & Sensibility.

Nephew of nearby neighbors Tom Lefroy places a visit to Steventon. It is believed that Jane very much fell in love with Tom based on her letters to December 20 Cassandra, indicating that the two had been spending a lot of time in one another's company. Tom is studying in London to become a barrister.

Tom Lefroy is taken away from Steventon and Jane by his family as the 1796 January marriage arrangement is deemed highly impractical as both have no 20 money. Jane will never see Tom again in her life.

Jane begins penning First Impressions. This work would go on to August 20 become her most famous piece known more as Pride & Prejudice.

Jane and sister Cassandra arrive back home for good from their formal December 21 education at boarding school.

1797 Work is completed on the first draft of First Impressions. 22

Jane's father George Austen attempts to have one of Jane's works Wed, published for the first time. It is unknown whether Jane knew of this November 22 1st attempt but the request is denied by the publisher Thomas Cadell (of London).

November Jane returns her efforts to revise Elinor and Marianne. 22

November The Austen girls pay a visit to their brother James and his wife in Bath. 22

Jane completes her revisions of Elinor and Marianne. The revision 1798 removed the epistolary point of view and stages the story more in the 3rd 23 person.

Begins work on Northanger Abbey though initially known as Susan and 23 later Catherine .

1799 Continues writing and eventually revises Northanger Abbey. 24

May Mother and Jane visit Bath. 24

Jane returns to and completes her short play Sir Charles Grandison or 1800 25 the Happy Man.

Work is completed on Susan. 25

Jane's father George Austen unexpectedly announces his retirement from December 26 the ministry. He uproots the family from Steventon and settles in Bath.

Jane visits good friends Catherine and Alethea Bigg in Hampshire at 1801 January 26 Manydown Park.

May Mr Austen moves the family (mother, Jane and Cassandra) to Bath. 26

93 October The Austen's return from holiday in Sidmouth, Colyton and Steventon. 26

1802 September Charles, Jane and Cassandra leave for Godmersham. 27

October Charles, Jane and Cassandra arrive home from their trip to Godmersham. 27

Thursday, Jane and Cassandra visit good friends Catherine and Alethea Bigg at November 27 th Manydown Park. 25

Jane Austen receives her only proposal of marriage from Harris Bigg- Thursday, Wither, an unattractive Oxford educated young man and childhood friend December and heir to a large family estate. Jane accepts the proposal for practical 27 2nd reasons. The very next day, however, Jane withdraws her acceptance, feeling it to be a mistake.

December Jane works on revising Susan. 28

With Jane's permission, brother Henry submits Susan to publisher

Benjamin Crosby of Crosby & Company in London who buys the 1803 28 copyright for the work for 10 pounds. Crosby promises the book will be published but never fulfills his obligation.

Mr. Austen and family (mother, Jane and Cassandra) once more spend September 28 time at Godmersham.

October The Austen's return to Bath from Godmersham. 28

1804 Jane begins work on the novel The Watsons. It would go unfinished. 29

Jane and family spend the summer months in Lyme Regis. 29

Sunday, Friend and mentor, Madam Lefroy, is killed in a freak horse riding December 29 th accident on Jane's 29th birthday. 16

Jane's father George Austen dies suddenly from illness taking the family Monday, by surprise. Jane consciously stops work on The Watsons. The Austen 1805 January 29 st brothers agree to help support the mother and sisters. The Austen girls 21 are forced to rent living quarters.

March Mrs. Austen, Jane and Cassandra move to 25 Gay Street. 29

Jane finishes writing Lady Susan. 29

1806 February Austen and Cassandra revisit Manydown Park. 30

Wed, July The Austen girls leave for Bath. 30 2nd

Friday, The Austen girls join Mrs. Austen's cousin in Warwickshire. 30 August 5th

Thursday, The Austen women leave Warwickshire. 30 August

94 14th

The Austen sisters and mother, along with friend and widow Martha October 30 Lloyd, move to Southampton to live with newly married brother Frank.

1807 March The group moved within Southampton to the Castle Square house. 31

Yet another visit to the Bigg family. Jane takes part in one of the family 1808 January 32 theatricals "School for Scandal" .

Tuesday, Jane is in Godmersham. 32 June 14th

Friday, Jane leaves Godmersham. 32 July 8th

Monday, Frank offers up a six-bedroom cottage (known as Chawton House) in October Chawton near his estate for the women to permanently move into as their 32 24th own home.

Jane writes an angry letter (under the pseudonym Mrs. Ashley Dennis = M.A.D.) to publisher Benjamin Crosby and offers up a revised version of Wednesda the manuscript for Susan to force Crosby's hand in publishing the work 1809 y, April or returning to her possession. Crosby claims that no timeline was ever 33 5th set for the books publication and as such Ms. Austen can continue waiting or purchase back the copyright for the novel. Without the means to do so, Jane cannot purchase the copyright.

Edward has Chawton Cottage remodeled for the Austen girls. 33

May The Austen women visit Edward in Godmersham. 33

Friday, Mother Cassandra, sister cassandra and Jane move into Chawton House 33 July 7th to a more quiet and settled life.

August Jane tackles Sense & Sensibility once more. 33

1810 July Jane and Cassandra visit the Biggs in Manydown once more. 34

Sense & Sensibility is accepted for publishing by Thomas Egerton. 34

1811 February Jane works on Mansfield Park. 35

March Jane visits Henry and wife Eliza in London. 35

Wed, Sense & Sensibility is published by Thomas Egerton with Henry Austen October 35 acting as literary agent. The novel is greeted with favorable reviews. 30th

Last additions to the Juvenilia notebooks are thought to have been made. 35

Extensive revisions take place on First Impressions. 35

1812 Much of the year is spent revising First Impressions. 36

95

The copyright to First Impressions is sold to Thomas Egerton for November 36 publication for the sum of 110 pounds.

Thursday, Pride & Prejudice is published by Thomas Egerton with Henry Austen 1813 January acting as literary agent. Thanks to a large amount of resources put into 37 28th advertising the piece, the novel is an instant success.

Thursday, Jane leaves for London to nurse an ailing Eliza. Eliza dies just three days 37 April 22nd later, leaving Austen brother Henry a widower.

Saturday, Jane departs her brother's side. 37 May 1st

June Mansfield Park is completed around this time. 37

September Jane places her last visit to Godmersham. 37

October A second edition of Pride & Prejudice is printed. 37

Saturday, Sense & Sensibility in first edition form sells out completely, forcing a October 37 second edition to be printed. 2nd

Egerton takes on Mansfield Park for publication. 37

1814 January Jane begins writing Emma. 38

Jane is escorted by brother Henry to London and they catch "The March 38 Merchant of Venice" at the theater.

Mansfield Park is Published by Thomas Egerton. Largely ignored by Monday, professional reviewers, the novel is nonetheless another success to the 38 May 9th public square. The first edition sells out in a short six months.

Jane writes a letter to her niece, Fanny Knight, in response to relationship 38 advice. She advises not to marry if the affection is not there.

All copied of Mansfield Park are sold making this the most profitable October 38 work of Austen's career thus far.

Wednesda 1815 y, March Jane completes Emma. 39 29th

Tuesday, Jane begins writing Persuasion. 39 August 8th

Henry and Jane head to London to negotiate with famed publisher John 39 Murray for the publication of Emma.

Monday, Jane is invited to admirer Prince Regent's London residence at Carolton November House by his librarian, James Stanier Clarke. The Prince makes a 39 13th mention that Jane should include him in the dedicated of her next work despite her (private) disgust of his moral character. With little choice, she

96

reluctantly agrees to do so.

Saturday, December Jane returns to Chawton. 40 16th

Emma is published by John Murray. The book is well received and sales December 40 thrive. The novel is dedicated to the Prince.

Henry Austen repurchases the copyright to Susan back from Benjamin 1816 January 40 Crosby. The title is changed to Catherine.

A second edition of Mansfield Park is published by John Murray. 40

John Murray publishes a second edition of Mansfield Park. Sales do not February 40 meet expectations negating the earnings from Emma that same year.

Henry Austin's bank venture fails, forcing the Austen family into Saturday, financial uncertainty and delaying the publications of The Elliots and March 40 Susan. In addition to this, investments in the venture by brothers Edward, 16th James and Frank are also lost.

At some point in this year, Jane becomes feeling ill but ignores her start 40 of well-being to continue her works, namely The Elliots.

May Cassandra takes Jane to Cheltenham to seek medical care. 40

Cassandra and Jane return from Cheltenham. Jane continues work on The June 40 Elliots.

Thursday, Jane completes a first draft of The Elliots (later to become Persuasion). 40 July 18th

Jane's health declines enough for her family to begin noticing she is 40 unwell.

Tuesday, Jane rewrites the concluding two chapters of The Elliots and finishes the 40 August 6th work.

Jane begins work on The Brothers (later published under the name of 1817 January 41 Sanditon).

Despite completing some 12 chapters of The Brothers, Jane is forced to Tuesday, stop due to her ever-increasing illness. Walking becomes a chore and 41 March 18 nothing can be done without great difficulty and loss of energy.

April Jane's illness ultimately confines the author to her bed. 41

Sunday, Jane pens a short will. 41 April 27th

Saturday, Cassandra takes Jane to Winchester for treatment. 41 May 24th

41

97 Friday, Jane Austen dies in Winchester during the early part of the day. July 18th

Thursday, Jane is buried, at her brother Henry's doing, in an aisle of the nave at -- July 24th Winchester Cathedral.

Northanger Abbey and Persuasion are published through John Murray as

a set thanks to the direction of Henry and Cassandra. Henry pens a December -- biographical note for the piece identifying for the first time that Jane Austen is the author of these works. Sales start strong but tail off.

John Murray destroys the remaining unsold copies of Northanger Abbey 1820 -- and Persuasion.

Richard Bentley purchases all of the remaining copyrights to Jane 1832 -- Austen's works.

After a twelve year hiatus of no Austen works in publication, Bentley December publishes all of the works in a collection of illustrated five-volume series -- known as the Standard Novels.

Bentley publishes the collected works of Jane Austen for the first time. 1833 October -- Jane Austen's novels would never go out of print again.

Nephew James Austen publishes his memoirs entitled "A Memoir of the 1870 Life of Jane Austen" and brings Jane Austen's life and works to a greater -- audience, solidifying her place in history.

http://www.janeausten.org/jane-austen-timeline.asp

98

Appendix 3

BIOGRAPHY OF JANE AUSTEN

Jane Austen was born at Steventon Parsonage, Hampshire, England on

December 16, 1775. The seventh of eight children, she was educated by her minister- father and the Abbey School in Reading, England. The first twenty-six years of her life were spent in the rectory, but in 1801, the family moved to Bath in hopes of restoring her father's health. In 1805, upon his death, they moved to Southampton, and then to Chawton, Hampshire in 1809. Austen's novels incorporate her observations on the manners of her time and class, and while they often relate courtship, love, and marriage, Austen herself never married.

Austen began her literary career by writing parodies and sketches for her family, some of which survive today. Pride and Prejudice was first published in 1813, and is the second of Austen's novels. Her other novels include Sense and Sensibility

(1811), Mansfield Park (1814), Emma, (1816), Persuasion (1818), and Northanger

Abbey (1818). Also surviving are a few novel beginnings, some verse, some prayers, and many letters. Jane Austen died at the age of forty-two on July 18, 1817 in

Winchester, England of what historians now believe to have been Addison's disease.

99 Appendix 4

BIOGRAPHY OF PRAMOEDYA ANANTA TOER

Pramoedya Ananta Toer (1925 – 2006) is considered to be one of Indonesia‘s greatest modern literary figures. Born on the island of Java, he took part in

Indonesia‘s revolt against Dutch rule in 1945, and in 1947 he was jailed for two years for carrying anti-Dutch documents. While in prison, he wrote his first novel, The

Fugitive, about the struggle against colonialism, which established his reputation and launched an extraordinary literary career. From 1950 to 1965, Pramoedya played an increasingly important role in Indonesian intellectual life. First as a member of Lekra, the Institute of People‘s Culture, and later as editor of Lentera (Lantern), the cultural section of the leftist paper Bintang Timur (Eastern Star), Pramoedya advocated a new socially conscious Indonesian literature. He was also one of the founders of the

―Multatuli‖ Literature Academy and a Teacher at the ―Dr. Abdul Rivai‖ Academy for

Journalism in Jakarta. Arrested during the Indonesian government‘s massive repression of 1965, Pramoedya was imprisoned until 1979, spending the last ten years on the brutal Buru prison island, where he composed his best-known novel, the Buru

Quartet. From 1979 – 1992 he was placed under house arrest in Jakarta, and was eventually released after the downfall of the Suharto regime. During this time he wrote The Girl From the Coast, a semi-fictional novel based on his grandmother‘s life, and the memoir A Mute’s Soliloquy (1995).

That, however, never prevents him from getting international acknowledgements. So far his works have been translated into at least 28 languages, and he was awarded the 1995 Ramon Magsaysay Award for Journalism, Literature,

100 and Creative Communication Arts. He has also been considered for the Nobel Prize in

Literature. He also won the 2000 11th Fukuoka Asian Culture Prize and most recently the 2004 Norwegian Authors‘ Union award for his contribution to the world literature and his continuous struggle for the right to freedom of expression. He completed a tour of North America in 1999 and won awards from the University of Michigan. The new government in Indonesia not only allows his books to be published, but also permits him to travel abroad. There are academics and readers and friends—

Pramoedya is a friend of German Nobel prize winner Günter Grass—who honor him for what he has done. Denying any grudge against his fate, the author was fond of saying, ―In this world everything has its own purpose; even injustice has its purpose.

What is the purpose? It is to be fought.‖

Toer‘s Major works:

* Kranji-Bekasi Jatuh (1947) * Perburuan (The Fugitive) (1950) * Keluarga Gerilya (1950) * Bukan Pasar Malam (1951) * Cerita dari Blora (1952) * Gulat di Jakarta (1953) * Korupsi (Corruption) (1954) * Midah - Si Manis Bergigi Emas (1954) * Cerita Calon Arang (The King, the Witch, and the Priest) (1957) * Hoakiau di Indonesia (1960) * Panggil Aku Kartini Saja I & II (1962) * The Buru Quartet o Bumi Manusia (This Earth of Mankind) (1980) o Anak Semua Bangsa (Child of All Nations) (1980) o Jejak Langkah (Footsteps) (1985) o Rumah Kaca (House of Glass) (1988) * Gadis Pantai (The Girl from the Coast) (1982) * Nyanyi Sunyi Seorang Bisu (A Mute's Soliloquy) (1995) * Arus Balik (1995) * Arok Dedes (1999) * Mangir (1999) * Larasati (2000)

101