THE LIFE AN D LETTERS

OF

D . EPH A K M . JOS BL C ,

BY SIR W I L L IAM RAMSAY

F . R . S .

WITH AN INTRODUCTION DEALING WITH THE LIFE AND WORK OF SIR WILLIAM RAMSAY

F . G . DONNAN , F . R . S .

LONDON LTD CONSTABLE AND COMPANY . I 9 I 8

CONTENTS

LI ST OF ILLU ST RATI ONS

IN TRODU CT I ON

CHAPT ER

IN DE X

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

' '

OSEP C M. . F r on t zs zece J H BLA K , D j

GLASGOW COLLEGE

W M C M. D ILLIA ULLEN , .

BLACK LECT URING

THE PHILOSOPHERS BLACK AND HU T T ON

DR D M . A AM S I T H

JOS EPH BLACK

INTR ODUCTION

SIR WILL IAM RAMSAY

IR WILLIAM RAMSAY was born in Glasgow in

18 52 . His paternal grandfather was a dyer at

i t 1 80 Hadd ng on , who in 7 became a partner in the firm

Camlachie of of Arthur Turnbull , , manufacturers chemicals used by dyers . As Sir William Ramsay has

a himself rel ted , it is probable that both potassium bichromate and the well-known Turnbull ’ s Blue were

s discovered by his grandfather . He appear to have been well known to many celebrated French chemists Of his - De Morveau . day, such as Gay Lussac , , and Vauquelin

1 82 o He died in 7 , leaving three s ns and a daughter

An Sir drew Ramsay , who afterwards became Andrew

s F R S of Ram ay , . . head of the Geological Survey Great

Britain ; John Ramsay , who became a sugar manu

li of facturer in Demerara ; Wil am Ramsay , the father

Sir William Ramsay ; and Eliza Ramsay , who was an enthusiastic worker in field botany . William Ramsay was trained as an engineer , and took part in the great railway development of the period . He possessed a good

of a knowledge science and mathem tics , and spent the later years of his life as a local manager of the Scottish

6 Ix x INTRODUCTION

A his Union ssurance Company . On the Side of mother ,

a i l C ther ne Robertson , Sir Wil iam Ramsay was descended

r from an Edinburgh family which had , for several gene a tions , produced medical men of note . After having studied at a preparatory school and at the

Glasgow Academy , Sir William Ramsay matriculated in

in b 1866 the University of Glasgow Novem er , , at the

Of re age fifteen . His first years at the University we

Of spent , after the Scottish fashion those days , in the i study of classics , general literature , logic , ph losophy , and 6 . 18 a mathematics Turning to science in 9, he beg n the study of practical chemistry in the labora

u tory of Robert Tatlock . D ring this period he came under the influence of An derson in chemistry and

Sir William Thomson in physics . Having decided on chemistry as a profession , he went to the laboratory of

Fitt i Tiibin en 18 1 Professor g at g in 7 , where after two

’

f Ph D . s years work he obtained the degree o . for a re earch

. in on toluic acid Return g to Scotland , he became at first assistant in The Young Laboratory of Technical

18 t o Chemistry under Bischof , and then , in 74, assistant

Professor Ferguson in the University of Glasgow . In 1880 he was appointed Professor of Chemistry at

he University College , Bristol , where soon afterwards

s a al o became Principal . He rem ined seven years at

i u r Bristol , do ng an immense amo nt of resea ch , teach in n g, and administrative work , and co tributing greatly to the development and prestige of what was then a INTRODUCTION xi struggling and poorly financed provin cial University l Col ege . In 1887 Sir William Ra msay was chosen to succeed Professor Alexander Williamson in the Chair of Chemistry at University College , London . Here he worked until

1 12 his retirement in 9 , and here all his greatest dis coverie s were made . His last few years were spent in the

n f pleasant Bucki ghamshire country , a few miles rom H igh Wycombe , where he had built a chemical labora

son was tory attached to his house , and , assisted by his , busily engaged on chemical researches when death over

. 1 16 6 took him in July , 9 , at the age of 4.

’ Sir William Ra msay s scientific work may be divided

fir 1 — . 8 80 into five periods The st period , 74 , was spent in the University Of Glasgow . During this time he did a considerable amount of important work in the field of

r organic chemist y , including the production of various pyridin ic acids from the pyridine bases which Professor

n a A derson had prep red many years previously , the synthesis of pyridine from hydr ocyanic acid and acet y

n lene , and the production Of pyridi e by the action of heat on the silver salts of the acids obtained by the oxidation of — the alkaloids quinine and cinchonine an important

r discovery , showing for the fi st time the relation of the l alkaloids to t heir parent substance pyridine . A though overloaded with t he hea vy work of teaching large numbers

Ra m fo of medical students , Sir William say und time not only to carry out original investigations himself but also xii INTRODUCTION to encourage some of the senior students to undertake A researches under his guidance . mongst these may be D i . . h S t ells . specially mentioned J J obbie and A . m It is interesting to Observe that out of this early work at Glasgow grew Sir William Ramsay ’ s predilection for

. As physical chemistry he has himself related , his researches on the complex mixture of pyridine bases led him to adopt an d modify methods for determining

vapour densities , in order to help in elucidating the

of molecular weights the substances involved . Having inherited a wonderful gift of manipulative Skill and

for ex eri dexterity , combined with a practical genius p

m e t in - n g, he soon taught himself the art of glass blowing

o and learnt to construct all his wn apparatus . In this way he acquired an extraordinary pOWer in the accurate

of l ui — a manipulation iq ds , vapours , and gases power

un which increased with each research he dertook, and which was destined to play an iIn port ant rOle in the

Of famous discoveries his later life .

1880-8 In the second period (Bristol , 7) Sir William Ramsay threw himself enthusiastically into the field of physical chemistry . Together with his assistant and collaborator , Dr . Sydney Young , he published numerous

- eva or researches on vapour densities , critical constants , p d dis . an rr ation , sociation , etc , devised and constructed ma y ‘ n ew forms Of apparatus adapted to the investigation of

of liquids and vapours . In spite the heavy calls on his time and strength made by his teaching and administra INTRODUCTION xiii

tive work , the researches published by Sir William Ramsay during the seven years at Bristol established his reputation as one of the most eminent physical chemists in Europe . His scientific research work in London (1887-1916) may be divided broadly into three periods . In the first of these he continued the physico-chemical work which had i occupied h s attention at Bristol . Perhaps the most remarkable research Of this period was his investigation (in

\ collaboration with Dr . John Shields) on the molecular weights of pure liquids as deducible from the variation — with temperature of their molecular surface energies . In the second period of his scientific work in London came

% the wonderful discovery of the series of inert elementary gases . Beginning with the discovery , in con junction With Lord Rayleigh , Of argon in atmospheric ” l nitrogen , and of he ium in the gas evolved from the li mineral cleveite on heating , Sir Wil am Ramsay , with the imaginative insight of genius , perceived that these gases must belong to a new series or family of elements

i of M nd elé f in the class fication e e . All the accumulated skill and experience of many years of tireless research , all the courage , fire , and energy of a master mind at the zenith of its power , were thrown into action and ably supported by the skill and energy

r Of of his assistant , D . Morris William Travers , one his own students , Sir William Ramsay achieved one of the e gr atest triumphs that science can record , the discovery xiv INTRODUCTION

Of — the elementary gases neon , krypton , and xenon the missing members of the new group of elements that his

s geniu had divined .

’ Coming now to the last period of Sir William Ramsay s

ho on e work , the writer well remembers w Monday morning he came down to the laboratory in a state of great excite ment and made experirnent s to ascert ain whether argon and helium would discharge an electroscope . What did it all mean , we wondered Rutherford and Soddy in Canada had just published a paper in which they had demon st rat ed that the radio-active emanation was really a gaseous substance— but one that had no power of chemical combination Ramsay ’ s mind had again leapt across the gulf Of the unknown with the instinctive V ision of genius .

his Soon came discovery , in collaboration with Dr . Soddy , that the element radium was constantly being trans

T e of muted into the element helium . h theory radio activity put forward by Rutherford an d Soddy was proved to be correct , and the first definitely recognisable transmutation of the chemical elements was established

n ow on a fir m experimental basis . Sir William Ramsay entered the new field o f radio-active transformation with characteristic energy, but also with characteristic origin ality . Just as Sir Humphry Davy about a hundred years previously had made use of the then newly dis covered and powerful weapon of the voltaic electric

o current to decompose the elements p tash , soda ,

S O lime , etc . , Sir William Ramsay employed the torrent of INTRODUCTION xv kinetic energy set free in the transformation of radium emanation to attempt the decomposition of our present-day

stable elementary substances . The results which he Oh tained have been criticised, and in part contradicted by the results of other investigators . On this matter we may

safely leave the final decision to the future . Whatever the

judgment on matters Of detail may be , the attempt which Sir William Ramsay made was characteristic of his daring

' and original genius , and will some day prove to be , if

of not the final solution the problem , at all events much nearer to it than anything attempted by his con

temporaries . One of the last great researches which he undertook

was the determination of the density Of niton , the gaseous

emanation Of radium . In this work , carried out in

collaboration with his assistant and former pupil , - ’ . Wh tlaw Dr y Gray , Sir William Ramsay s experimental

r genius eached its culminating point . What other man

a could have successfully determined , or even ttempted

d Of 0 00 to determine , the ensity 5 cubic millimetre of an unstable gas

It is seldom , however , that really great achievement in

‘ any sphere of life is due to the possession Of a S ingle

’ wa quality . Wonderful as s Sir William Ramsay s

e of xperimental skill , this formed but a small part his

rich natural endowment . Above all , he was the great

Of investigator , full rare intelligence , insight , imagina w i tion , and curiosity . Combined ith these qual ties he xvi INTRODUCTION

Of possessed in high degree a daring originality thought , and a courageous and sanguine temper of mind that fi f dif culty only spurred to higher e fort . Last but not least , his tireless energy extracted the ma ximum work out of every day by means of his exceptional power of instant

as . action . Nothing w ever postponed What an ordinarily very active man would do on Monday morning Sir William

Ramsay did on Saturday afternoon . To the very end Of his life he retained that wonderful freshness of mind and receptivity for new facts and ideas which were two of his most dis t in uishin g g characteristics . Of him one might truly say that age could not wither nor customstale his infinite variety . The ama z ing quickness and perpetual activity of fi his mind were most extraordinary . It is dif cult t o believe that there were many moments when no new t houghts or ideas were fermentin g in his brain . Thus Sir William Ramsay was a constant source of inspiration to his students . Fired as they were by the great example which he set of a life devoted to scientific investigation , their minds were spurred to action by constant associa tion with a mind of unequalled freshness , originality , and o p wer .

It is hard to find words adequate to describe Sir

’ William Ramsay s rare personal charm . In him a keen wit and a rich humour were combined with

o br ad human sympathy . The warm blood that coursed INTRODUCTION xvii

through that active brain . was pulsed by the kindest

of hearts . To his students past and present he was

ve e r the sincerest and most accessible of friends . The honours which the world hastened to lay at his feet

never changed him , never altered the gentle quality

S a of his pirit . The gre t things he did never lessened t his sympathy and understanding for the less gif ed . He was indeed a great gentleman as well as a great

Possessed of an excellent and well-stored memory and

fine W u a sense of humour , Sir illiam Ramsay co ld tell

e or s an anecdot story in the mo t delightful way , and was an excellent and witty speaker both in public and in

u o private . He co ld sing a song well and play his wn

accompaniment . He could converse freely in several im foreign languages . Who that knew h can ever

of forget the irresistible attraction his personality , the magic Of the smile that flashed SO often from a face illumined by the high intelligence of a great mind and the radiance Of a warm heart The unaffected friendliness and the almost boyish vigour and eagerness of his spirit

e never des rted him . His was a unique and endearing

personality . In Sir William Ramsay the great tradition of British

pneumatic chemistry reached its crowning glory . It is remarkable how many great British chemists have shown pre-eminent ability in the investigation of the nature of gases . To appreciate the truth of this state xviii INTRODUCTION

ment one has only to recall the names of Hales , Mayow ,

D r Boyle , Black , Priestley , Cavendish , alton , Humph y

G . Davy , and raham In the seventeenth century John Mayow gave striking evidence of that practical genius in the investigation and manipulation Of gases which in the case of Sir William Ramsay was developed to the highest pitch of perfection and refinement of technique . The investigation Of the fixed air whose presence differ entiat es the mild from the caustic alkalies played

rOle a fundamental in the work of Joseph Black . This

’ e xact quantitative work of Black s must have appealed l i strongly to Sir Wi l am Ramsay , who in his remarkable book on The Gases of the Atmosphere has given a most masterly account of the main work Of the pneu

matic chemists .

’ It was Sir William Ramsay s custom for many years to lecture once a week during the summer term on the

history of chemistry . He possessed an excellent and

first - hand knowledge of the subject , and held very strongly that all students of chemical science should make themselves familiar with the fundamental re

on M searches which their science was founded . any generations of students remember with gratitude these

’ of lectures Sir William Ramsay s , from which they

invariably derived the greatest pleasure and profit . The cla ssic work of Joseph Black inaugurated the modern

period of the quantitative study of chemical react ions .

ha It was this classic investigation which Lavoisier , as he s

T HE L I F E AN D L ET T E R S F S E PH B LA K M D O O C . J ,

CHAPTER I

HERE are some natures so happily constitut ed that they escape many of the trials which beset most

for men . Marcus Aurelius thanked his adopted father having taught him the advantages Of a smooth and inoffensive temper ; constancy t o friends without tirin g or fondness ; being always satisfied and cheerful ; reaching forward into the future, and managing accord ingly not neglecting the least concerns , but all without r hurry , or being embar assed . Such a character had

’

Joseph Black . Dr . Robison , the editor of his lectures; his successor in Glasgow College , and his biographer,

AS be wrote advanced in years , his countenance con tinned to preserve that pleasing expression of inward satisfaction , which , by giving ease to the beholder, never a u n f ils to please . His manner was perfectly easy and affected , and graceful . He was of most easy approach, affable, and readily entered into conversation , whether

or serious trivial . His mind being abundantly furnished with matter, his conversation was at all times pertinent B 2 THE LIFE AND LETTERS OF

and agreeable . He was a stranger to none of the elegant accomplishments of life . His friend , Dr . Ferguson , said of him As Dr . Black had never anything for ostenta tion , he was at all times precisely what the occasion

no required , and more . Never did anyone see Dr . Black hurried at one time t o recover matter which had been h improperly neglected on a former occasion . Everyt ing being done in its proper season and place , he ever seemed to have leisure in store and he was ready to receive his

a u friend or acquaintance , and to t ke his part with cheerf l

o ness in any conversation that ccurred . His successor,

’

. Of Dr Thomas Thomson , found Dr . Robison s estimate Black ’ s character so just that he appropriated it almost verbatim in his History of Chemistry without the formality of quotation marks .

Black himself , it will be seen , began a new epoch in

Chemistry and Physics , by his fundamental work on

on Heat , and the nature of chemical combination and his name must ever remain associated with those of other illustrious Scotsmen of his day as one who led the way in chemical research and its technical applications .

’ Of Joseph Black s ancestry there is little to tell . There is a tradition that a son of the Laird of Lamont - had remarkably black hair . He was called Gillie dhu ,

’ illi — of Mac e . and his sons g dhu , sons the black servant

o on of Some f them settled the North Coast Ireland , whence some of their descendants came to Belfast and settled there . They anglicised their name to Black .

n - Sir Joh Eccles of Orange Grove , about two miles

Mr B e . . from elfast, had thre daughters Jean married M D . JOSEPH BLACK , 3

Black of Belfast . Their son John went to Bordeaux, and - settled there as a wine merchant . He married Margaret

H hh ead Gordon of oug in Aberdeenshire . A sister of

Miss Gordon married James Russell , and another, B Ferguson . Their sons were Joseph lack, Adam Fer guson , and James Russell .

’ The Revd . G . M . Black s grandfather was George

senr . Black , Of Belfast . He and his brother Samuel were

i n i e o . . s vere g s of Belfast [ Mayors%. Joseph Black used to say that his brother George would have surpassed him if he had been allowed to follow the bent of his mind, ni which was towards science and mecha cs .

S S 1 This hort ketch was written by his nephew . Black has left a short autobiographical memorandum which runs as follows

I 16 A 1 28 was born at Bordeaux , th pril , 7 . My father was a merchant settled there , but born in Ireland , and

of of the son of a citizen Belfast Scotch extraction . My father ’ s residence at Bordeaux was in the suburb called

Chartron - the , and he had also a farm and country house and vineyard on the other S ide of the river on a hill called

fin e of rIver Lormont , which commands a prospect the ' At this and city . villa , and at his house in town , he had sometimes the honour to receive a visit from the Baron de Montesquieu , who had the goodness to favour my father with his friendship and protection . My mother

l Halhead was of the fami y of Gordon of in Aberdeenshire ,

Mr c T ese n otes ere ind s o n m e s. a id o of h w k ly h w by Bl k, w w - Co on e ac the rot er of the R ev. G. . ac a rand ne e l l Bl k, b h M Bl k, g ph w of the subject of this memoir. 4 THE LIFE AND LETTERS OF a branch of which family had also settled in Bordeaux in the mercantile line . I received the first beginning Of education from my

t s mo her, who taught all her children to read Engli h .

12 was a At years of age I sent to Belf st , to live with some

’ of my father s relations, and to acquire the ru diments of

Latin and Greek . After 4 years spent there at a private

as school , I was sent to the University of Gl gow, where I attended all the lectures on the languages and philosophy in a regular succession . Being then required by my father to choose a profession or employment , I chose that M of edicine , the elements of which I began immediately to study by attending the lectures of the Professor of l Anatomy and of Dr . Cul en , who was at that time

Professor of Medicine at Glasgow . Dr . Cullen began also at this time to give lectures on Chemistry , which l had never before been taught in the University of G asgow, and finding that I might be useful to him In that under taking , he employed me as his assistant in the laboratory , and treated me with the same confidence and friendship

one and direction in my studies , as if I had been of his own children . In this situation , I lived three years .

ch mical In the early part of my y studies , the author whose works made the most agreeable impression on my mind was Markgraaf of Berlin ; he contrived and exe cuted his experiments with so much chym ical skill that they were uncommonly instructive and satisfactory and he described them with so much modesty and simplicity, avoiding entirely the parade of erudition and

-i t en self mpor ance, with which many other authors O A MD . J SEPH BL CK , 5

cumber their works , that I was quite charmed with

Markgraaf, and said to Dr . Cullen I would rather be the

’ author of Markgraaf s Essays than Of all the Chymical

’ a Reau mur s , works in the libr ry . The celebrated method of writing appeared to me also uncommonly pleasing .

After 3 years spent with Dr . Cullen , I came to Edinburgh to finish my education in medicine . Here I attended the

Of nr he . se . t lectures Dr Munro , and other medical

r 1 P ofessors , until the summer of the year 754, when I

of received the degree of Doctor Medicine , and printed my inaugural Dissertation De Hu mere Acido a Cibis Orto ” at Ma nesia Alba g . Another fragment of autobiography was found by

Dr . Robison , who succeeded Black as Lecturer on

1 66 Chemistry in Glasgow in 7 . It was wrapped round a bundle of letters from President Montesquieu to Mr .

: Was Black , senior, at Bordeaux My father honoured M ’ with President ontesquieu s friendship , on account of r his good characte and his virtues . He had no ambition

c benevo to be very rich , but was heerful and contented ,

ri lent and liberal minded , indust ous and prudent in

of business , the strictest probity and honour, very temperate and regular in his manner of life . He and

a e my mother, who was equ lly domestic, educated thirte n of their children , eight sons and five daughters , who all f grew up to be men and women , and settled in di ferent places . My mother taught her children to read English , u there being no school for that purpose at Bordea x .

Dr . Robison , who succeeded Black as lecturer in

’ 1 66 Chemistry in Glasgow in 7 , was asked by Black s 6 THE LIFE AND LETTERS OF executors to revise and publish his lectures this he d id

180 in 3 and to the book he prefixed a short life of Black . There is no correspondence dealing with his early days but Robison says that he spent his time , after his arrival

1 6 in Glasgow in 74 , to good purpose . Letters from

’

Black s father which Robison had seen , express his great satisfaction with the accounts which he had t e

' ceived from others of his progress in his studies . He

’ attended George Ross s classes in Humanity , and

’ James Moore s in Greek ; John Loudon was Professor of Logic and Rhetoric he was succeeded in 1751 by the celebrated Adam Smith . Thomas Craigie was then Professor of Moral Philosophy and in 1 752 Adam Smith

for of exchanged his Chair of Logic that Philosophy , and

1 6 retained it until 7 4, to be himself succeeded by Dr .

- on Thomas Reid , author Of a well known treatise his l subject . Natura Philosophy was taught by Robert

1 1 Dick the elder in 75 he was replaced by Robert Dick ,

M D of . . , his son . The Professor Mathematics was Robert

Simson , also M . D he had been appointed to the f A 1 1 1 O . Chair in 7 . These were the Professors rts In those days it was not customary for the average student to take the degree of Master Of Arts it was as

r a rule only theologians who g aduated in Arts . Even in

186 1 18 the middle of last century , from the years to 73 ,

122 Of 3 , students who entered in the Arts Faculty only

372 took a degree . The larger number attended classes to acquire knowledge . The entry of Joseph Blac k as a matriculated student stands thus recorded in the College Album JOSEPHUS

8 THE LIFE AND LETTERS OF

knowledge of French , and be able to translate Latin and

easy Greek authors , and have some acquaintance with i German . Having learned thus the mean ng of words , n conti ued Lord Kelvin , a boy should study Logic , so r as to be able to apply his wo ds sensibly .

It is probable , however, that Black , although he entered the University under the presidency of Master Thomas

n ot a . Craigie , did attend his cl sses From what his

biographer Robison says , it might appear that Black had

of attended the lectures both Dr . Hutchison , Professor

’ Crai ie s A g predecessor, as well as of dam Smith , his successor in 1 752 but this is impossible in 1750 Black

i went to Edinburgh . And indeed he h mself remarks that he attended all the lectures in the languages and

on philosophy in a regular succession .

i 18 0 Glasgow University at that time , and indeed unt l 7 ,

was situated in the High Street , a long , narrow street ,

ll the - winding slowly uphi from Tron , or weighing place ,

of to the Cathedral . Many the houses had their gables

towards the street , and some were entered by outside

’ stairs . Probably it was about the time of Black s attend ance at the College (as the University was always termed) that a by-law was passed prohibiting the residents from keeping pigs in the triangular space between the house i and the front stair, which , unlike ord nary stairs , did not - ll stand at right angles to the house , but para el to it .

’ The houses were small and irregul arly built in Black s day they were doubtless inhabited by a respectable set of citizens but in the early part of last century many of them had become slums and the wynds or narrow G SG W C LA O OLLEGE .

( A B O UT

M D JOSEPH BLACK , 9 lanes leading away from the street and entered usually

” ’ or through closes, narrow entries , were in the writer s l reco lection very unsavoury . About two-thirds of the distance between the Trim

on - S and the Cathedral , the right hand ide of the street , — stood the Old College . It was a sombre building the

of sandstone Glasgow, though excellent for building — purposes, soon turns black extending perhaps about i s xty or eighty yards along the street . Above the entrance was a bust of Charles I . The Senate Hall l occupied the front of the bui ding . The story is told that fi during one of the Of cial feasts held in that chamber, i when it was the custom to sit long over the w ne, one of t the guests was s ruck with the pale face of his neighbour, who appeared to be asleep— no extraordinary Circum D stance . What ails ru m sheu gh ? he asked the man ’ ” ’ Sh beside him ; he s looking gey gash . , man ,

’ ’

wi . said he , he s been his Maker thae twa hours - A stair led up to the Senate room , flanked by a heraldic lion and unicorn . Opposite the main entrance, at the

Of other side the court , stood a tower and in a niche in Z the wall stood a bust of achary Boyd , the author of a rirned of the version of parts Bible . Passing through

one l the archway under the tower, entered the Col ege

Green , a meadow stretching down towards a brook,

on l n . named the Molendinar, which mil s used to sta d Immediately alongside of the College were the Professors ’ houses, thirteen in number the incumbents of the older

C r h an hairs had each a house , facing a cou tyard , wit entrance from the High Street . On the other side of the 10 THE LIFE AND LETTERS OF

l u Col ege stood the College ch rch, in which sermons were preached every Sunday by one Of the Professors of the

Theological Faculty . The major portion of this building

e had b en erected in 1632 ; a library was also added . The noblemen and gentry of the district all subscribed

to help the cause of learning ; and the King , Charles I

of himself, headed the list subscriptions ; the letter - which he directed to be written bears the sign manual , and runs as follows

Charles R . It is our gratious pleasure to grant for advancement of the librarie and fabrick of the Colledge of Glasgow the

n so me of Two Hundred Pounds Sterlin .

s The note follows in a different hand Y soume was

8 16 payd by y Lord Protector An . 54 .

’ This was the scene of Black s labours . Early rising

’ was in fashion ; in the writer s time the lectures began

’ at eight in the morning ; in Black s at seven . The doors were closed punctually at four minu tes past the

and i hour the inhabitants of Alb on Street , which faced

n the entrance to the College, were in the habit of seei g numbers of youths in scarlet flannel gowns scurrying

ou t towards the gate , with the certainty of being locked

the moment the tinkling bell had ceased to ring . In the

Humanity and . Greek classes the hour was opened with a short prayer then the roll was called each an swered in turn adsum when the Latin equivalents

of the Christian names were given , beginning with ” a Ad mus . Some were quaint it took long before we recognised that K entigernus stood for the somewhat D A M . 1 1 JOSEPH BL CK ,

a uncommon n me of the Glasgow Saint Mungo , sometimes adopted as a praenomen by loyal citizens nor was

Milcol b um us easily recognised as Malcolm . Lads in the junior class of Humanity were supposed to have already some knowledge of the language it was

or 8 begun at school at the age of 7 , and the boys at

ol College were as a rule I 4 or 15 years d . There was always , however, a considerable sprinkling of seniors ; generally men destined for the ministry , whose means

e had not p rmitted an earlier start . Some of these came from the Highlands and Islands , and had very small acquaintance with the English language . I remember , in the senior Humanity class , sitting next a lad from Fort William , whose native language was English , although he spoke Gaelic fluently on my other side was

B enbecu la a man about thirty from , an outlying island south of Harris , in the Hebrides . The latter had great difficulty in understanding the English equivalents of

’ some of the words of Horace s Odes and he frequently held conversations in Gaelic with my right-hand neigh bour in order to get at the meaning of some diffi cult

of passage . The order proceedings both in the Latin and the Greek classes was the Professor called out the name of one of the students and asked him to translate a given passage ; if he did it correctly he was asked questions as to the syntax and as to the meaning of the passage

if he failed to answer, the question was put round the

a cl ss . In this manner ten or twelve students were

’ a examined daily . In Black s day the English langu ge

e was us d only in case of necessity as a rule , the students 1 2 THE LIFE AND LETTERS OF

were addressed in Latin . It used to be related that the

O door having been left pen , a student , incommoded by

the draught , ejaculated , Claude ostium whereupon the Professor, annoyed at the interruption , shouted , Claude Os tuum The method of teaching in the classes of Logic and

f . Rhetoric , and of Moral Philosophy was di ferent In these classes the Professor read lectures . The - students took notes in a scrap book , and wrote them out h in a fair hand eac evening . Usually they collated them - with those of their class fellows ; and , indeed , it was

was possible to buy the notes thus accumulated . There very little variation from year to year . Robison , in his

’ preface to his edition of Black s lectures , states that he

’ utilised Black s own notes for the most part ; but as f these were in places fragmentary and di ficult to decipher,

c o of I had the assistance of a very fair py notes , taken by a student , or rather manufactured by a comparison of many such notes . Copies of this kind were to be pur chased for four or five guineas . This copy belonged to Dr .

al Black, and he had made many terations and insertions ” of whole pages with his own hand . I myself possess a copy of manuscript notes of Lectures read in Edinburgh

M. D . 1 . by Joseph Black , , in 773 It is well bound , and written by an unknown scribe in an excellent hand .

C The work of lasses in Logic and Philosophy, besides such lectures and the reading of books recommended by the Professors , consisted in writing periodical essays on t e some prescribed subjec s . Black appears to have follow d

of such courses instruction for four years, that is till May ,

14 THE LIFE AND LETTERS OF

Professors of Mathematics from 1699 to 1761 and all the occupants of the chair of Chemistry from 1747 t o

’ 18 a 74, with the single exception of Black s immedi te

’

LLD . successor, John Robison, Black s leanings towards

e natural science , however, were probably encourag d by his intimate friendship with the son of the Professor of

Natural Philosophy, Dr . Robert Dick, later successor to

his father in the chair, who, unfortunately, occupied it

only a few years , for he was early cut off by death . Black m also owed much to Cullen , of who a very interesting

Histor account is given by Thomas Thomson in his y . Cullen was Lecturer in Chemistry in the University from 1746 to 1 756 and in 175 1 he was appointed Professor i of Medicine ; at that t me , and, indeed , until Thomas t Thomson taught chemistry , hat subject was taught only l by a lecturer . Thomson attributes to him a singu ar

for talent arrangement , distinctness of enunciation ,

Of a vivacity m nner , and profound knowledge of his science

— in — short , enthusiasm qualities which made him adored

a by his students . He took especi l pains to gain their friendship by frequent social intercourse with them , and

’ no doubt early recognised Black s great promise . Robi son says that Cullen saw in chemistry not merely a curious and useful art , but a vast department of the science of nature , which must be founded on principles as immutable as the laws of mechanism , and which may be

Of one day formed into a great system doctrines , of various degrees of subordination and dependence . He was determined to attempt this mighty task, and promised himself great reputation by its accomplishment . Nor M D . 1 JOSEPH BLACK , 5

was he altogether disappointed . He quickly succeeded in taking chemistry out of the hands of the artists, the . metallurgists and the pharmaceutists , and exhibited it

i l as a liberal sc ence , the study of a gentleman . His pupi s

e al b came ze ous chemists as well as refined physiologists . Young Black was particularly delighted with a view which accorded so happily with those enlarged habits of thought which he had acquired ; and his great bias to

NO this study was soon perceived by Dr . Cullen . pro fessor took a more lively interest in the progress of an emulous student that Dr . Cullen . It was his delight to f encourage and assist their e forts , and therefore he was not long in attaching Mr . Black to himself, in the most inti mate c o-operation ; insomuch that the latter was con sidered as his assistant in all his Operations ; and his experiments were frequently adduced in the lecture , as good authority . Thus began a mutual confidence and friendship , which did honour both to the Professor and his pupil , and was always mentioned by the latter with ” gratitude and respect .

’ Cullen s single contribution to chemico-physical litera ture dealt with the boiling of ether on the reduction of

The pressure , and its growing cold during the process . reason of this behaviour , however, was later discovered by Black , for Cullen confined himself to recording the

Observation . In his autobiographical sketch Black says that he spent three years with Cullen ; he probably began to

’ 1 attend Cullen s lectures in November, 749, the last year

of his studies in Arts . CHAPTER II

HEMISTRY , in these days , was handmaid to - medicine the influence of the iatro chemists , founded by Paracelsus , still held its sway, although — certain bold investigators among them Boyle , Mayow ,

— a S and Hales century before , had haken themselves free from its thraldom . And the lectureship on chemistry in Glasgow was regarded as a step to a more remunerative position , and was held , along with the Crown professor

of 1 1 1 6 ship medicine , by Cullen from 75 to 75 . Black’ s methodical habits led him to keep a sort of commonplace book, in which not merely the results of his experimental work were entered , but also notes on

i of medicine , jur sprudence , or matters taste and he practised double entry, for he also kept separate j ournals in which these notes were distributed according to their subjects . From these notebooks the dates of his

o an most irn p rt t discoveries can be traced .

Dr . Robison , who had access to these notes , found in the oldest parcel queries respecting the nature of cooling mixtures, and the cold produced by liquefaction ; but it was not until his removal to Edinburgh, in the

a 1 2 on x ye r 75 , that any observations the nature of fi ed

i . air occur . Rob son wrote I do not imagine that Mr

’ Black s researches at this time (or perhaps at any time)

16 MD JOSEPH BLACK , . 1 7

have been keen or pertinacious . This could not accord with the native gentleness of his mind but his concep tions being distinct , and his judgment sound , his progress

S in scientific research , if low, was steady, and his acquisi

‘ tions were solid . Perhaps this moderation and sobriety

Of thought was his happiest disposition , and the most hi conducive to s improvement . In 1751 Black went to Edinburgh to finish his medical studies, and lived with his first cousin , Mr . James Russell ,

of Professor Natural Philosophy there , whose mother , a

’ Miss Gordon , was sister to Black s mother . There he

Of of 1 took the degree doctor medicine in 754. It is true that he might have graduated in Glasgow three years earlier but no doubt his thoroughn ess made him

f of wish to O fer a thesis worthy praise , and it was this

hi of thesis which e stablished s reputation . More this hereafter . It is at this date that the first of his preserved letters was written ; it was to his father . According to the custom of the time he begins

Most Sir Your most affectionate letter of the 8 th Aprill shews you in such a light as must warm the heart of a

Of f son with the highest degree gratitude and a fection . Others in the pursuits after happiness or pleasure must commonly seek those sources of it which they cannot enj oy without some inconvenience t o the rest of their fellow creatures ; hence they have their imaginary happiness so much soured by Envy, Jealousy , or self 18 THE LIFE AND LETTERS OF

d issa ointed disapprobation that they find themselves pp . Your happiness on the contrary is quite secure because you place it entirely in making others happy and doing those things to the utmost of your power which you can

afterwards reflect upon with satisfaction . I must own your letter had that effect upon me that it made me apply to my work with double eagerness and alacrity with the

Of hopes being some time what you are at present .

l Of I am not yet insta led into the order the great wig ,

but have gone through all the examinations , nothing

off is wanting but the ceremony , that has been put by the Proffessors to wait for some others that are to be 6 promoted along with me days hence . In my last letter to you I proposed to go immediately to London to spend some time in the Hospitals there . I am n ow advised to put that off and remain here yet a while longer I must own the reasons for it are very strong quite unanswerable by me unless you disapprove

Of . them . The following are the chief Of them I have n ow studied the Theory of medicine 85 have likewise been taught every thing upon the Practice which can be m learned in a College . I have also seen so e real Practice

have even practised a little myself . But all this is not enough . I should be thoroughly acquainted with the real Practice 85 this is a thing very different from what can be learned in a College ; thus for instance we are taught by our Professors that if a sick person breaths

f one with great di ficulty, thing must be done ; if his

how S respiration is yet more laborious , another . But hall we ju dge of the nice degrees of laborious breathing unless MD . 1 JOSEPH BLACK , 9

d a l 8c from a y y familiar acquaintance with , study of,

&c the appearances and looks Of Patients . Most young Physicians neglect this essential point of their art in their education very Often acquire it when they come to

’

Practice at the expense of their patients safety . I have not had time this last winter to apply to it suf ficiently

t oo tho I had the opportunities , my attention was much taken up with some of the Colleges , preparing my Thesis ,

l on reca ling to my mind everything I had learned ,

Of ac account the examinations . If I go to London to

of quire this part medicine , I may see a good deal Of

ac u ain Practice , but I am a stranger there , have no q tance whom I can venture to trust so much or be so familiar with as to trouble him with all my questions and . s — On i is l on doubt the contrary here , medic ne a lowed all hands to be in a very flourishing condition . It is practised in the most rational S imple manner . I have the happiness to be lodged with a Gentleman who is justly esteemed by all his Brethren , who has extensive practice both as a Physician Surgeon 81 tho no Doctor

of l himself, yet the oldest them are not ashamed to consu t

8: with him in private . Besides this he is my intimate familiar Friend is willing upon every occasion to teach me as far as he knows himself . When I am well instructed in a method of Practice

S bf il f here , a very hort time London w l be su ficient for then I need only Observe the different manner Of doing

S of the same thing there , which I hall soon be master .

S ir of These , , are the chief the reasons which have been urged to me for staying here some time longer 20 THE LIFE AND LETTERS OF which I thought so good that I determined to acquaint you with them in the meanwhile will employ my time to the best advantage till I have your Opinion of them

Dr f %e Du t fu ll Son I am Sir Your most a fec y ,

OS C J EPH BLA K . Ed inbe I s t 1 June 754 .

This appears a su Itable place to give an account of .

’ r Black s celeb ated thesis, which gained for him not merely

Of the degree of Doctor Medicine , but also brought his name before every philosopher in Europe and America as that of a man who had made a discovery of more fundamental influence on the progress of Chemistry than any which had previously been described . Besides having been published as his thesis for the

Doctorate , this paper was communicated to the Philo

S a i 1 ophic l Society of Ed nburgh in June , 755 , and appeared in the second volume of their essays in the following year . In the Olden days it was considered quite as marvellous l that a gas could be made to occupy a sma l volume , or that air could be produced in quantity from a stone , as that an Arabian djinn of enormous S ize and ferocious mien could issue from a bottle , as related in the

Tale of a Fisherman , one of the charming stories of

’ the Arabian Nights Entertainments. It is true that in the middle of the seventeenth century Robert Boyle had enunciated his famous discovery, Touching the Spring of the Air in which he proved that the greater the ' pressure to which a gas is exposed the smaller the volume

’ the it will occupy . But however great pressure, Boyle s

' 2 2 THE LIFE AND LETTERS OF

with the stone . They imagined that they had received benefit from a medicine invented by a Mrs . Joanna Stephens and through their influence she received five

u for thousand po nds revealing the secret , which was

London Gaz ette 1 h t 1 . published in the on the 9 June , 739 It was described as follows

My medicines are a Powder , a Decoction , and Pills .

of -S 1 2 The powder consists Egg hells and Snails , both 3 calcined . The decoction is made by boiling some Herbs 4 ’ of (together with a Ball , which consists Soap , Swines

Cresses , burnt to a Blackness , and Honey) in water . The

of Pills consist Snails calcined , Wild Carrot seeds , Burdock

seeds , Ashen Keys , Hips and Hawes, all burnt to a ” a Blackness , So p and Honey .

ul le Dr . C len and his col agues held opposing views as to the efficacy of such quaint and caustic remedies and

O it was with the bject of discovering a milder alkali ,

Of and bringing it into the service medicine , that Black began his experiments on magnesia . They are described

‘ ‘ e in a pap r entitled Experiments upon Magnesia Alba ,

% uicklime , and some other Alcaline Substances it

1 - Egg shells and S n ail s c alc ined in c rucible surround ed with coal f r r n eft in eart en are an to s a e in r m f r o 8 hou s. The l h w p l k a d ry oo o h u m o a mi 2 m ont s . T e S e s t s eco e f d er taste and fa in to h h ll h b l , ll d pow er. 2 S nai s eft in c ruc i e u nti t e ave d one sm oakin t en ru ed l l bl l h y h g, h bb - - u p in a m ortar . T ake 6 parts Of Egg sh ell to I of S n ail powd er .

S nai s ou t on to be re ared in M a u ne u an d u u st . l gh ly p p y , J , J ly A g 3 Her s of d ecoc tion : Green C am omi e S eet en ne Pars e b h l , w F l, l y

and Burd ock leaves or root s. 4 S oap : B est Alic ant S oap . M D . 2 JOSEPH BLACK , 3 was the Chemical contents of his thesis for the degree of

. . 1 M D , which he took at Edinburgh in 754 he had been

1 making the experiments since 752 . The actual thesis

% : Hum ore et was in Latin De Acido a Cibis orto , Magnesia Alba the pamphlet was published in the following year . The medicines in vogue as solvents of the urinary

La is in ernalis or calculus were all caustic ; the p f , caustic

h of - potas , and the ley the soap boilers , or caustic soda .

or These substances are made from mild alkali , carbonates , by boiling their solutions with slaked lime , itself produced

S u icklirne by laking quicklime with water . Now q is formed by heating limestone in the fire ; it thereby

e or acquires its burning prop rties , causticity ; and this

of ah it was supposed to derive from the fire , which it

of sorbed , as it were, the essence . The act boiling the mild alkalies with lime was supposed to result in a trans

Of ference of this educt fire to the alkalies , which them

- of s . or selve became caustic Lime water, a solution

for al caustic lime , was used as a solvent the c culus and it was an attempt to produce a less caustic solvent from

Epsom salts that induced Black to begin his researches .

AS S old his notes how, Black began by holding the view . He attempted to catch the igneous matter as it

on escaped from lime , as it becomes mild exposure to the air he appears to have made some experiment with this view but his comment was Nothing escapes ” ir the cup rises considerably by absorbing a . Two pages further on in his notebook he records an experiment to compare the loss of weight sustained by an ounce of chalk 2 4 THE LIFE AND LETTERS OF when it is calcined with its loss when dissolved in spirit ” of l salt , or hydroch oric acid ; and he then evidently began to suspect the reason of mildness and caus

t icit y . a Another memorandum , a few pages later, shows th t i he had solved the mystery . When I precipitate l me f by a common alkali there is no e fervescence . The air

for n ot quits the alkali the lime , but it is lime any longer, ”

f . but c . c . c . It now e fervesces , which good lime will not But we must trace the chain Of reasoning which led

t o him to come this conclusion . Having prepared mild magnesia by mixing Epsom

or of a salt sulphate magnesia with carbonate of pot sh ,

or ~ e pearl ashes, he found that it is quickly dissolv d with violent effervescence or explosion of air by the acids

a of vitriol nitre , and of common s lt , and by distilled vinegar that the properties of these salts— the sul

of phate , nitrate , chloride , and acetate magnesium differ greatly from those Of the common alkaline earths - that when boiled with salt ammoniac , or chloride of l - ammonium , volatile crysta s of smelling salts were

on of deposited the neck the retort , which , on mixing

hl of with the c oride magnesium remaining in the retort , reproduced the mild magnesia that a sim ilar effect is produced by boiling mild magnesia with % any calcareous substance while the acid quits the cal

careou s salt to unite with the magnesia , mild mag mesia is again precipitated on addition of a dissolved

a alk li .

On igniting mild magnesia , it changed into a white MD JOSEPH BLACK , . 25

f powder, which dissolved in acids without e fervescence . And the process of ignition had deprived it of seven

t of twelf hs its weight . Black next turned his attention to the volatile part he attempted to restore it by dis solving the magnesia in a suffi cient quantity of Spirit

Of or s vitriol dilute sulphuric acid , and eparated it again

of by the addition alkali . The resulting white powder f now e fervesced violently with acids , and recovered all those properties which it had lost by calcination . It had acquired besides an addition of weight nearly equal to what had been lost in the fire ; and as it is found to f i e fervesce with acids, part of the addition must certa nly ” be air . Black here made an enormous stride he had weighed a gas in combination . He argues further It seems therefore evident that the air was forced from the alkali ” by the acid , and lodged itself in the magnesia . We may represent the change diagrammatically thus

—V i Magn esia Alkali itriolated alkal . \ 71 XL / — a n sia Spirit of vitriol Air + Mild m g e .

The next step was to try whether mild magnesia lost the same weight on being mixed with acid as it did

when heated in the fire . But , owing probably to the

solubility Of the fixed air in the water, a much less loss was found on dissolving the magnesia (35 grains out of 1 20) than by heating it (78 grains ou t of The amount of acid required to expel the fixed air

was , however, practically the same as . that required 26 THE LIFE AND LETTERS CF

ma nesia a sta 26 to dissolve the g , or heated magnesia ( 7 262 and grains) .

Turning his attention next to chalk , he dissolved some in muriatic acid , and having precipitated with fixed alkali no difference could be detected between the recovered and the original chalk . He had thus first

re separated the fixed air from the chalk , and then combined the two . These experiments led Black to

of conclude that fixed air must be Of the nature an acid , — for it converts quicklime the acrid earth , as he termed it— the e into crude lime , or mild earth , mildness b ing

its due to union with fixed air . The explanation is thus given of the curious fact that - mild magnesia , mixed with lime water, gives pure water for the fixed air leaves the magnesia and unites itself to the ma nesia n sta lime , and both the g and the chalk which

of are formed are insoluble in water . And the action quicklime in c au sticising alkali is similarly explained by its removing the fixed air from the alkali , thus rendering the latter caustic , while itself becoming mild .

Reasoning further, Black foresaw that caustic alkali ,

S added to Epsom salt or vitriolated magnesia , hould give a precipitate of magnesia which Should not efter vesce with acids, for here fixed air is excluded ; and ,

S also , that caustic alkali hould separate from acids lime in the quick state, only united with water . Similar experiments of treating chalk with acids and it heating , which had been performed with magnesia ,

ul showed similar res ts . But it had yet to be demonstrated that fixed air did MD . 2 JOSEPH BLACK , 7

not share the properties of ordinary atmospheric air .

S O e - Black plac d four fluid ounces of lime water, as well as four ounces of common water, under the receiver of - an air pump , and exhausted the air air rose from each in about the same quantity it therefore appeared that the air which quicklime attracts is of a different kind from that which is mixed with water . % uicklime does not attract air when in its most ordinary form , but is

of capable being j oined to one particular species only ,

which is dispersed through the atmosphere, either in

or the state of a very subtle powder, , more probably, in

Of that of an elastic fluid . To this I have given the name

xed air fi , and perhaps very improperly ; but I thought it better to use a word al ready familiar in philosophy than to invent a new name , before we be more fully acquainted with the nature and properties Of this sub ” stance . The next step was to examine the nature of caustic

l on alka i , and to prove whether it gained weight being made mild . This was achieved indirectly , by finding the amount of acid required to neutralise the same weight of caustic alkali and salt of tartar — what we know as potassium carbonate . Six measures of acid were required to saturate the former , and five the latter and Black was very near the truth ; indeed his error was

of only about 4 per cent . He proved , by addition sul

huric s alkali p acid , that the cau tic fcontained no lime , and therefore that its causticity was not due to an ad

of mixture that substance .

TO o e n pr ve that lim stone , or mag esia , loses its air 2 8 THE LIFE AND LETTERS OF

of when dissolved in an acid , but regains it on addition

a mild alkali , the acid in which the lime was dissolved

cau stic le passing to the alkali , Black added y to a solu

of tion of Epsom salt , the result being a precipitate

magnesia this dissolved in vitriol without effervescence ,

showing that no fixed air had taken part in the change .

a of al He lso , on adding caustic alkali to a solution ch k

S in pirit of salt (or hydrochloric acid) , produced lime ,

on - which being dissolved in water produced lime water , indistinguishable from that produced from quicklime

and water . He goes on to say that had we a method

of separating the fixed alkali from an acid , without at ’ l the same time saturating it with air , we shou d then

obtain it in a caustic form . It can be done , it is true , by heating nitre with charcoal , but the alkali is then found saturated with air ; and again by heating the

of alkali salts vegetable acids the same occurs . Black conjectures that the fixed air must be derived either from the nitre or the charcoal in the first case (indeed it

' is derived from both , the nitre supplying the oxygen to the carbon) and in the second , he remarks that the

n ot vegetable acid is really separated , but rather de stroyed by the fire . How nearly he came to the discovery that fixed air is produced from carbon

’ Hal es s It was Dr . experiments which put Black first ” on f n how a the track o fixed air . After noti g m gnesia

i e . ( . the carbonate) loses a great part Of its weight on

i of dist llation , much more than that the water which it

' contained , he says in his lectures This appeared at first an unaccountable fact ; but it made me recollect

30 THE LIFE AND LETTERS OF

is e exposed to the action of a strong fire , and th reby f converted into quicklime , the change it su fers depends on the loss Of a large quantity Of fixed air which is com bined with this earth in its natural state ; that this air

is expelled by the heat and that the solubility in water, and the remarkable acrimony which we perceive in

i or quicklime , do not proceed from any subt le other

matters received in the fire, but are essential properties

Of on for this earth , depending an attraction water, and for those several substances with which the lime is disposed to unite ; but that this attractive power or m activity remains imperceptible , so long as the li e or

a a c lc reous earth is in its natural state , in which it is

ir saturated and neutralised by the a combined with it . These sentences give some idea of the clear method Of

statement followed in his lectures . From 1 754 to 1 756 Black appears to have practised in

Edinburgh . Whether he paid his projected visit to

1 6 London is not known . But in 75 Dr . Cullen exchanged

of his Chair Medicine , which he had filled in Glasgow

S 1 1 on ince 75 , and his lectureship Chemistry , which he

S 1 i had held ince 747 , for the Chair Of Chemistry in Ed n bu rgh ; and it was fortunate for Black that his thesis

1 had been published in 754, for by the time the Glasgow Professorship and Lectureship were vacant his work

NO was beginning to meet with recognition . doubt

Old S O S Cullen recommended his pupil , who had ignally

distinguished himself, as the most fitting occupant Of the

combined posts and in 1756 Black moved to Glasgow .

’ It is related by Joseph s brother that he sent several M D . JOSEPH BLACK , 31 c 0pies of his thesis to his father in Bordeaux and the old gentleman showed one to the president Montesquieu .

After a few days Mr . Black received a visit from the president , who said to him Mr . Black , my very good

of friend , your son will be the honour of your name and

a NO your f mily . letters , however, have been preserved relating to this period .

n ot Black did long retain the Anatomy Chair, but made an arrangement with the Professor Of Medicine to ex

Oi change duties , with the concurrence the University . Robison gives a short Sketch of his work in the field Of ” of the Institutes Medicine , as the chair was entitled . They gave the greatest satisfaction by their perspicuity

S and implicity , and by the cautious moderation Of all his general doctrines . It required , however, all this

al l perspicuity , and this neatness in the manner Of ex hibitin t o for g simple truths , create a relish this great e moderation and caution , aft r the brilliant prospects Of systematic knowledge to which the students had been

’ s accustomed from the Doctor s celebrated predeces or .

t o But Dr . Black had no wish form a medical school which should be distinguished by some all-comprehend ing doctrine . He contented himself with giving a clear and systematic account of as much of physiology as he

on i S thought founded good pr nciples , and a short ketch Of such general doctrines as were maintained by eminent

on authors , but perhaps a less firm foundation . Without

e this , he said that his students could not r ad their writings ,

in . which , other respects , were highly valuable He then endeavoured to adduce a few canons of medical practice 32 THE LIFE AND LETTERS OF

and concluded with certain rules founded on successful

practice only, but not so deducible from the previously delivered principles of physiology ; observing that we

s on hould not despair of being able , some future day, to

O fir proceed in the pposite direction , deducing the st

principles entirely from the practice . It does not appear ,

however, that he had ever satisfied himself with his

method of treating these subjects . He did not encourage conversation on those topics and there are no remains

of e his medical lectures to be found among his pap rs . I owe the account now given Of them to a respectable

surgeon in Glasgow, who attended these lectures in the

two last years Of his Professorship in that University . Black engaged in practice while he held his double

chair in Glasgow . It cannot therefore be wondered at i that he found little time for research . Indeed, Rob son writes that he was never free from anxiety about his

patients, being deeply impressed with the immense

Of importance the healing art . Moreover, he doubtless considered that he had resolved the problem which he had set himself .

th 1 In a letter to his father , dated 4 April , 757 , Black tells Of his appointment to the Chair of Medicine I have little to say with regard to myself but that the long expected commission promoting me to the Professorship Of Medicine is at last come down ; that having found my health somewhat impaired by the more than ordinary application I have been obliged to give of late I am under a necessity of being more attentive to It than

usual , but I now find myself in a better way, and hope M D . JOSEPH BLACK , 33

r to regain the whole of my strength in summe . I think I remember in your possession some actual curiositys which were picked out of a lime q uarry on Blamont of Hill , consisted petrified shells , some of them

s Of incrusted with cry tals spar . As it is a part of my business to mention and exhibit such Phaenomena of

r Of h Natu e , any specimens t is kind would be extremely acceptable to me

I am , Dearest Sir, Your most Du tifull 8: most affete son

OS C J EPH BLA K . th A 1 Glasgow, 4 pril , 757 .

Robison says that Black ’ s countenance at that time of life— he was then about twen ty-eight— was equally

a engaging as his m nners were attractive , and in the general popularity of his character he was in particular

NO one a favourite with the ladies . , so far as we know, was singled out by his preference and to the end of his

days he remained unmarried . It appears that the ladies

regarded themselves as honoured by his attentions, and we are told that these attentions were not indiscrimin

ately bestowed , but exclusively on those who evinced a superiority in mental accomplishments or propriety of

demeanour, and in grace and elegance of manners . Another letter to his father is as follows

S SIR DEARE T ,

I have 2 kind letters of yours by me unanswered, which the constant hurry of my business this winter D 34 THE LIFE AND LETTERS OF

the necessity I was under of taking as much relaxa

on of tion exercise as possible account my health , have made me neglect but t oo long . I have therefore

of taken the first day the vacation to answer them . The kind expressions of affection fond regard which you give me in all of your letters make me ex treamly happy

excite the most lively sentiments of love gratitude . You need not imagine my dear sir that there is any need of your enumerating the many demands for money which lay you under a necessity to be as saving of the family stock as possible— I am fully sensible that it cannot be better placed than in your hands who employ your attention chiefly to the care protection of your numerous family are ready to help wherever the

of danger distress demands your assistance . I am fully sensible too that I have already been very expensive one of m y most agreeable reflections on my present situation is that I shall n ot now anyhow be a burthen to

of you . As for myself I have supported the toil last winter much better than expected— this I attribute entirely to frequent riding which I had recourse to when ever I found myself oppressed lowspirited I am S O fully convinced of its being a specific for frailty of the body langour of the mind that I believe I Shall pur chase a horse this summer although he S hould put me a

S little to my hift to maintain him . I am my dear Sir with sincere gratitude love your dutiful affect te son

O C J S EPH BLA K . 16 1 8 Glasgow , May , 75 . M JOSEPH BLACK , D . 35

A fourth letter from Black to his father has been preserved it is written from Glasgow, and shows how his time was occupied

S SIR DEARE T ,

I cannot reflect without blushing upon the long time I have been in your debt for many of the kindest and most agreeable letters that ever son received from

85 not n i a father, yet I hope it is from want of se sib lity to your goodness that I have been so long without acknowledging it . My business as a member of the

S College , the moderate hare of Practice I thave in t town country , tho they would be very li tle trouble to others who have more spirits and activity, is yet enough to give me constantly some care and employment , seldom leaves me in that state of ease good humour in which one would wish to write to their friends . I no doubt could write much oftener but I cannot always do

chearfull it y, I think in that case it is better to let it alone . It gives me great uneasiness to read the account you give of the insolent brutal behaviour with which

m o you were treated by that riotous b . There is no

t o assembly so deaf to reason , so insensible generosity

one and justice as of that kind . But if what I hear be

of 8: true , they had some cause complaint ill humour against the country gentlemen . I am told that some of these last had n ot only obliged their tenants to do the d u t ~ u on y p the high roads which the Law requires , but

&C under that pretence had made them lead gravel , for

of their private avenues and the walks their gardens . 36 THE LIFE AND LETTERS OF

No doubt the tenants might have had redress in a much

8: f m better more e fectual anner , but if I remember the manners of Ireland right , there is rather too much partiality upon all occasions for a gentleman when compared with a common man . I perceive by your last that you had got from brother

Robert an account of his journey hither, of the agree able time we spent together when he was in this country .

Edinb When we parted at . Jamie Burnet I came west

a neibourhoo by F lkirk, saw the works in the d of that i town , lately set on foot by a brother Doctor chem st , for manufacturing iron from the ore in a very large extensive way, called upon Katy Burnet on our way to

a Gl sgow, brought her to town with us, next day he

ou t set for Aberdeen again , she returned to the country where she continues to be extreamly diligent to make

The frequent bleak weather we have had this summer has made me more subject to colds than the last but these have been as ordinary chiefly in my head do not distress me in any other way than in making me a little

stupid 8: dispirited . I resolved last Spring to have lived

i not th s summer a month or so in the country, but have f got it e fected . I have at last wrote a paper upon the use of lime in

bleaching which I transmitted some posts ago to Mr . t Ferguson , shall do any hing further that is in my power . I see at the foot of your letter to James Burnet you mention a memorial from the Linnen Manufacturers

had which at their desire you sent me . I received the

CHAPTER III

HE volumes kindly lent me by Mrs . Black contain all the correspondence to and from Black which has been preserved . I t is of a very varied character, and

AS t e much of it is of no particular interest . already l marked, Black was the most methodica of men ; he docketed all his letters , and , if space allowed , he drafted

Of his reply on the back the letter received ; if not , he

Of of or used the blank sheets letters invitation , accounts , in noting his answers . He wrote a beautifully distinct hand his sentences are well punctuated and his spell

tr ed ing is modern , except in certain words , such as y , ” extream l y, and a few others he invariably omits the

h in r s g th ough , though, and similar word , rs thus anticipating one of the efforts of spelling reforme . It was in Glasgow that he carried ou t his second great

e pi ce of work , dealing with the Latent Heats of liquids and vapours ; and it appears appropriate to give some account of it in this place . a ’ It has alre dy been mentioned that Black s teacher ,

Dr . Cullen , had noticed that when ordinary ether, a - n very volatile liquid of low boiling point , is placed u der

of - l the receiver an air pump , it begins to boi and that its boiling has the curious effect of cooling it . An account

1 8 of this experiment was published in the year 74 , and is 38 O MD J SEPH BLACK , . 39 to be found in The Edin bu rgh P hysical and Literary

’ Essa s y . Robison , who looked through Black s early

O notes , says In the ldest parcels of these notes , I

i n find queries respect ng the nature of cooli g mixtures , and the cold produced by liquefaction but it is not till

1 2 some time after, I think not before the year 75 , that I ” can date any observation relative to fixed air . It is probable that Black ’ s attention was first directed to the

of subject latent heat by conversation with Cu llen . His published lectures begin with the heading General Effects of Heat and the subdivisions of the subject

1 are st . To ascertain what I mean by the word l nd . HEAT in these lectures . 2 y To explain the meaning f of the term cold , and ascertain the real di ference between

dl T o of he a em t s . r t tt cold and heat 3 y . mention some p

of which have been made to discover the nature heat , or to form an idea of what may be the immediate cause of h b i . t it 4 , and lastly , I shall eg n to describe the sensible effects produced by heat on the bodies to which it is ” communicated . He begins by arguing that it is heat which is the

of positive thing , and not cold, which is merely absence

on : our of heat . He goes to say But knowledge heat is not brought to that state of perfection that might

of enable us to propose with confidence a theory heat , or assign an immediate cause for it and further : When

a i we have at l st atta ned it , I presume that the discovery will not be chemical , but mechanical . He then touches

’ ’ Veru lam s on Lord (Bacon s) surmise , that in as much as

or heat can be generated by percussion , by friction , it 40 THE LIFE AND LETTERS OF mu st consist in a motion of the particles of bodies but

of Cle hom he inclines rather to a suggestion g , that heat d epends on the abundance of that subtile fluid , elastic

had hiloso matter, which been imagined before by other p

hers e p to be pr sent in every part of the universe , and to be the cause of heat . But these philosophers had

or assumed , supposed one property only belonging to this subtile matter, viz . its great elasticity , or the strong

Of repellency its particles for one another ; whereas ,

Cle hom Dr . g supposed it possessed another property

is for of also, that , a strong attraction the particles the

al other kinds of matter in nature , which have in gener

one more or less attraction for another . He supposes that the common grosser kinds of matter consist of attracting particles , or particles which have a strong attraction for one another, and for the matter of heat while the subtile elastic matter of heat is self-repelling ma tter, the particles of which have a strong repulsion for one another, while they are attracted by the other % f kinds of matter, and that with di ferent degrees of force . Such an idea of the nature Of heat is therefore the most probable of any I know it is , however, altogether ” a supposition . Black then divides his treatment of the action of heat into five sections , namely , Expansion ,

Fluidity, Vapour, Ignition or Incandescence , and

Inflammation or Combustion . Under the heading ” he Expansion , deals with the general law that heat produces expansion , and considers exceptions ; and he - treats of the non ponderosity of heat . In the second . the construction of thermometers ; and in this section M . 1 JOSEPH BLACK , D 4

he notices the very important experiment , made by

. 1 2 Dr Brook Taylor in 7 3 , of mixing a known volume of water at a known high temperature with an equal

% volume at a lower temperature , and learning whether the quicksilver is expanded by different heats in propor

f of tion to the di ferences these heats . This experiment

al 1 60 was so made by Black in the year 7 , at which time I did n ot know (as I said just n ow) that it had been ” made or thought of by any other person . He thus proved t hat the expansions of quicksilver, while it heated

of slowly, from the cold of melting snow to the heat l boi ing water, are very nearly proportional to the addi

Of tions heat by which they are produced . An interesting point in connection with the mercurial thermometer 18 its ceasing to indicate temperature owing

to the freezing of the mercury at very low temperatures .

one of Black was in correspondence with Mr . Hutchins,

of the servants the Hudson Bay Company, with regard to this ; and gave him instructions how to proceed in determining the freezing-point Of quicksilver ; he also

an d directed Dr . Guthrie at St . Petersburg it appeared ° that it freezes at minus 40 or 41 Fahrenheit . He then devotes some time to what we now term specific heats ; and describes an experiment made by ° 1 0 Fahrenheit , in which mercury at 5 was mixed with

° water at 100 the resulting temperature was not

but The quicksilver , therefore , is become less

0 warm by 3 degrees , while the water has become warmer by 20 degrees only and yet the quantity of heat which the water has gained is the very same quantity which the 42 THE LIFE AND LETTERS OF

i quicks lver has lost . This shews that the same quantity of the matter of heat has more effect in heating quick

a in silver th n heating an equal measure of water, and therefore that a smaller quantity of it is sufficient for increasing the sensible heat of quicksilver by the same

number of degrees . He goes on to say that each sub stance must attract its own particular quantity of heat perhaps not any two of them would receive precisely

a the same qu ntity, but each , according to its particular

of for capacity, or its particular force attraction this ” matter . The loss of heat by convection next occupies his atten tion ; and he alludes t o the function of clothes in re

taining heat , and the action Of the wind in distributing it . Under the heading Fluidity the following passage occurs Fluidity was universally considered as pro d u ced by a small addition t o the quantity of heat which

a body contains , when it is once heated up to its melting

t o point and the return of such a body the solid state , as depending on a very small diminution of the quantity

its of heat , after it is cooled to the same degree that a

solid body, when it is changed into a fluid , receives no greater addition to the heat within it than what is measured by the elevation of temperature indicated after fusion by the thermometer ; and that when the melted

body is made again to congeal , by a diminution of its ff heat , it su ers no greater loss of heat than what is indi cated also by the S imple application to it of the same

instrument .

% T O his was the universal pinion on this subject , so far BL M D . JOSEPH ACK , 43

as I know, when I began to read my lectures in the

1 University of Glasgow, in the year 757 . But I soon

as found reason to object to it , inconsistent with many remarkable facts , when attentively considered ; and I endeavoured to shew that these facts are convincing proofs that fluidity is produced by heat in a very different ” manner . Black ’ s next great contribution to science may now be shortly told ; it is fully described in his lectures ; but these , it must be confessed , are , though very clear, some what verbose . Between the years 1759 and 1763 he had formed opinions regarding the quantity of heat necessary to raise

of f equally the temperatures di ferent substances . Boer haave imagined that all equal portions of space contain

u Of of equal amo nts of heat , irrespective the nature the matter with which they are filled ; and his reason for this statement was that the thermometer stands at the same height if placed in contact with objects near each other . Here we have a confusion between heat and v B temperature ; and this was percei ed by lack , for he pointed out that a distinction must be drawn between qu antity and intensity of heat the latter being what we

te u S now call mperat re. He quotes Fahrenheit to how that while equal measures of water at different tempera

s tures acquire a mean temperature when mixed , it require three measures of quicksilver at a high temperature to convert two measures of water at a low temperature t o the mean of the two temperatures and this corresponds to twenty times the weight of the water . Black expressed 44 THE LIFE AND LETTERS OF this by the statement that the capacity for heat of quick

of silver is much less than that water .

1 But before this , in 757 , Black had made experiments a le ding up to these views . He had noticed that when ice

a e or any solid substance is ch nging into a fluid , it r ceives a much greater amount of heat than what is perceptible

% in it immediately afterwards by the thermometer . A great quantity of heat enters into it without making it perceptibly warmer . Conversely, in freezing water or

of of any liquid , a large amount heat comes out it which again is not revealed by a thermometer . He then proceeded to estimate the quantity of heat which had to be absorbed by a known weight of ice in

order to melt it . He hung up two globes side by side ,

18 about inches apart , in a large empty hall , in which the temperature remained practically constant each f ° F on e o 2 . globe contained 5 ounces ice at 3 , the other water at The latter had a delicate thermometer ° suspended in it . The temperature of the hall was 47 F . In half an hour the water had attained the temperature ° 0 4 F . and the ice took ten hours and a half to attain

a - the s me temperature , that is, twenty one times as long

as the water . The heat which the ice absorbed during

0 — X 2 1 1 had melting was (4 33) , or 47 units that is , it been absorbed by the five ounces of water it would have

of made it warmer by The temperature the ice , 8° - however , was warmer than its melting point , after the 2 1 half-hours ; hence 139 or 1 40 degrees had been

absorbed by the melting ice , and were concealed in the

water into which it had changed .

46 THE LIFE AND LETTERS OF

interval of temperature when exposed to a constant supply of heat with that required to dissipate the water

Of 8 0 into steam . But his estimate 3 units required to evaporate one part of water was not so accurate ; the 6 actual figure is 9 7 units on the Fahrenheit scale . Black

e in cited exp riments by Boyle , by Robison , his successor

r the Glasgow chair, and by Cullen , his predecesso , in which the boiling-point of liquids had been found to be lowered by reduction Of pressure ; he rightly ascribes

absor this to the freer escape of the vapour, and to the p

of tion heat by the vapour, and the consequent cooling of the liquid from which it is escaping . These conceptions of Black ’ s were utilised by his friend

James Watt in his work on condensers, and, as everyone

f a knows , e fected a revolution in the structure Of ste m

as e in engines, and a cons quence in the whole of our d u strial and social life and , further , they were developed

of a by many men science , until in the hands of the m sters - - Joule , Clerk Maxwell , Rankine , James Thomson , and

Kelvin , on the physical side , and of Willard Gibbs, the

on — American , the chemical side they form the very

c groundwork Of the sister sciences , physi s and chemistry .

’ Black s great Chemical discovery that a gas exists

n ot of which is clearly a modification atmospheric air , seeing it can be fixed by alkalies and alkaline earths , led the way to pneumatic chemistry, as it was called , and was followed by the discovery of oxygen by Priestley , of nitrogen by Rutherford , of hydrogen by Cavendish and

its Watt , and of the more recent discoveries of argon and congeners , all of them constituents of the atmosphere . M D . JOSEPH BLACK , 47

’ of And Black s proof, that the change a complex

S compound to impler compounds , and the building up of a complex compound from simpler ones , can be followed

of successfully by the use the balance , has had for its

of C consequence the whole development hemistry .

1 26 1 of From 7 to 755 Andrew Plummer , a pupil

o B erhaave and a graduate of Leyden , had filled the Chair of Medicine and Chemistry in the University of C Edinburgh ; he lectured chiefly on hemical pharmacy .

’ 1 6 On his death in 75 , Black s teacher, William Cullen , succeeded him in the vacant Chair, having been called the year before from Glasgow to assist him as j oint

Professor . It will be remembered that Black succeeded

l 1 66 Cullen in Glasgow, where he ectured until 7 . In that year Cullen was transferred to the Chair of In

it u tes of a st Medicine , and the Chemical Chair was ag in

- hi vacant in Edinburgh Black was called to succeed m .

Lord Playfair, in an address which he gave in Edinburgh ,

of entitled A Century Chemistry, said in regard to Cullen He saw that a science like Chemistry was not to be taught by mere lectures , but that there must be a free and unreserved communication between the teacher and the taught . He cultivated the personal acquaint

of l ance his pupi s , and zealously aided them to overcome

’ fi cleam ess of their first dif culties . It is said that Cullen s

o expositi n was remarkable , and that he was the inventor of diagrams , the precursors of chemical equations , which showed the results of reactions by means of lines j oining

o the reacting bodies an example is to be seen n page 2 5 .

A Sketc h of Cullen in his later years , executed by John 48 THE LIFE AND LETTERS OF

K ay (A Series of Original Portraits and Caricature

h . Etc ings, Edinburgh, is reproduced here The Professors in the University of Edinburgh had recommended Black for the Chair of Chemistry ten

1 6 years before , in 75 ; but the Town Council , who had m al ost absolute power over the University, were then

e t o Opposed to his election , and gav the preference Cullen .

Indeed , the history of that University consists in great

of part wrangles between University and Town Council , as may be seen from The Story of the University of Edin

bu r h g , by its late Principal , Sir Alexander Grant (Edin

’

burgh, During Black s tenure of the Chair, how

a r ever, peace prevailed , as ule ; but at the beginning

Of al last century , the strife was most incessant , until

1 8 8 it ended in 5 , when a new constitution was drawn

up by a Royal Commission . The buildings now standing were preceded by a set of

i 1 8 houses dat ng from the year 5 3 , when the Town Council

of opened the College . It consisted Hamilton House

a and the Reid Chambers, and a few ye rs later, of the

of i -oi- a Manse the K rk Field , which bec me the residence

of the Principal . Hamilton House was fairly large ; it

contained a hall , five classrooms , and three sleeping

apartments ; the Reid building contained fourteen ,

and the Manse four sleeping chambers . A library and

a 16 16 16 0 h ll were added in , and in 4 the west side of the t College court was built , with a series of rooms ; o her

166 1 68 buildings were added in 4 . In 7 Principal Robert

the it son , describing College as appeared in his time , A the wrote stranger, when conducted to view M D . N . W I LLIAM CU LLE ,

’ From K ay s portra its .

MD JOSEPH BLACK , . 49

University of Edinburgh , might , on seeing such courts and buildings, naturally enough imagine them to be almshouses for the reception of the poor ; but would never imagine that he was entering within the precincts of a noted and flourishing seat of learning . An area

e ul which, if entir , wo d have formed one spacious quad rangle , is broken into three paltry divisions , and eucom passed partly with walls which threaten destruction to

of low the passenger , and partly with a range houses , several of which are now become ruinous and not habit

i of able . The teach ng rooms the Professors are , in general , mean , straitened , and inconvenient ; and some Pro fessors of on , whose hours teaching follow immediately one another, are obliged to occupy the same rooms . To remedy this state Of affairs a subscription list was

O 1 68 1 88 pened in 7 , but with no result and in 7 a writer

S cots M a az in e TheO hras in the g , under the signature p

: 1 88 of tus , said In 7 the buildings the University are in the same ruinous condition that they were in in

1 68 7 , and the most celebrated University at present in

1 8 Europe is the worst accommodated . In 7 9, however

- of of the foundation stone the New College Edinburgh ,

as it was called at the time , was laid with great ceremony

10 0 of and rejoicing . There were then 9 students , whom

0 . 44 were in the medical faculty Robert Adam , who was

one of the celebrated family of architects , gave designs

for the buildings . But Black did not live to occupy his classrooms and laboratory ; it was not until 1 820 that

the chemical department was properly accommodated . It will appear later how Black made representations that E 50 THE LIFE AND LETTERS OF

a house for the Professor of Chemistry , contiguous to

V a his laboratory , was , in his iew, a necessity but such

house was never erected . Among Black ’ s colleagues and intimate friends were

of Dugald Stewart , at first Professor Mathematics (1772 and later (1785— 1828) of Moral Philosophy ; his philosophical works rendered him famous over all the

world . John Playfair , the biographer of Hutton , suc ceeded Stewart in the Chair of Mathematics the nominal

Professor, to whom he acted as colleague , was Adam

Ferguson , to whom Dugald Stewart had succeeded as

Professor of Moral Philosophy . As may be noticed , there was a good deal of shuffling of the cards ; the powers of the Professors appeared to be of an encyclo i paed c character .

’ During Black s student days in Edinburgh , as has been

a already stated , he lived with his cousin , J mes Russell ,

1 6 who was then a surgeon in practice . In 7 4 another

f : shu fling of cards took place Bruce , the Professor of

Public Law, was bought out ; James Balfour replaced 8 B C 1 2 1 . 2d ruce he subsequently sold his hair for £ 5 5s .

to his successor, Maconochie . Adam Ferguson replaced

Balfour , leaving the Chair of Natural Philosophy vacant

to this Russell was appointed , having contributed his

’ fraction to the purchase of Bruce s chair . The Town

Councillors were the electors , and no doubt means were taken to secure their support in engineering all these ’ h . 1 o n R obison changes On Russell s death , in 773 , J f , ’ Black s biographer, and the editor of his Lectures ,

is succeeded to the Chair of Natural Philosophy . He

CHAPTER IV

T is generally possible to gather from a man ’ s corre

s ond ence p not merely an idea of his manner of life ,

of . but also his character Black kept no diary , but as

m et odi has already been remarked , he was exceedingly h cal re and exact , and the letters which he wrot e and ceived throw much light on the way in which his life was spent . Many of the letters are from men whose names have become of world-wide fame others are from foreign correspondents ; many are from old students ;

are S a few from his relatives . I hall attempt here to extract from them such matters as appear of personal f or o general interest .

1 6 It may be remembered that in September, 7 3 , Black wrote to his father saying that he had wrote a paper on the use of lime in bleaching That letter, addressed F to Dr . erguson at Belfast , is the first of the correspond ence . He begins by referring to his previous reports , and continues : All the chemists agree that lime loses

on a great part of its weight being burnt . That this loss of weight is occasioned by the dissipation of an aerial

’ ” C Mark raaf s matter is clear from a onsideration of g . Black then refers to his own experiments made in

1 2— s th e 75 4, in which he establi hed nature of lime and 52 A MD JOSEPH BL CK , . 53

of r fixed air . He is doubtful as egards the use of i quicklime in bleach ng , and in this connection he adds Yet I have a suspicion that lime will n ot be so much

softened by solution as salts ; my reason , I confess , is

t oo l ou rather subti e, but I shall give y it for your private amusement . The most corrosive salts are rendered

of harmless by copious dilution , because each their particles is surrounded with a larger quantity of attract

for ing water, which chiefly by its attraction them , and

é ars partly too by keeping them more p , diminishes their disposition to unite with or attack other bodies . But the attraction of dissolved lime and water is incomparably

a of - greater th n that the non corrosive salts and water, and hence will have less effect ; this I take to be one - reason why lime water is so sharp upon Cloth . You may see how this Circumstance retards the junction of salts with one another in hitting the point of saturation with

an d l a diluted acid and alkali, wi l find t hat a brisk agita

or 6 l tion with a glass rod y hand e of a teaspoon , by throwing some confusion into the arrangement which the attraction of water occasions will promote the union

and effervescence after everything seems to be quiet . Here Black seems to have made some forecast of molecules A and their attraction . fter discussing the conversion of

a quicklime pplied to cloth into chalk , by the fixed air in

the atmosphere , he dissuades Dr . Ferguson from using dilute vitriol for this purpose ; the gypsum would be fi very dif cult to remove from the fibre , owing to its

sparing solubility in water ; moreover, soaping the

cloth would make it become greasy , the acid deserting 54 THE LIFE AND LETTERS OF

e of y earth to unite with the salt the soap , and that

e i e s s parat ng y oil . He doe not recommend buttermilk

se sous (lactic acid) or vinegar , becau their attack of chalk is so slow . The reason of this too is plain and easy . There is no substance that attracts and retains mephitic air so strongly as do the calcareous earths ; they therefore attract it very near as strongly as they do these very weak acids (by weak I do not mean dilute , but less active or powerful) and hence these acids expel the fi ” air slowly and as it were with dif culty . We have Dr .

’ Ferguson s reply to this letter, which need not be further considered but it appears that the upshot of the corre spon d ence was that the Linen Board of Belfast pro hibi ed t the use of lime in bleaching .

Thenle James y, who conveyed this information to

of Black, was anxious to get particulars the manufacture of the vitriolic acid from sulphur , as carried out at Newcastle an d at Prestonpans and Black replied

I am intimately acquainted with Dr . Roebuck , the contriver and principal proprietor of the work at Preston pans , but he never dropt the smallest hint to me upon i the subject , as I know that they are at great pa ns to keep it a secret as being a very lucrative business , I

o never presumed t shew any curiosity with regard to it . I am therefore perfectly ignorant of the method they use .

of Birmin The method was invented by Dr . Roebuck , g

in 1 6 C ham , 74 ; it consisted in the substitution of hambers of lead for the glass globes formerly in use ; in 1 749 works were erected by Roebuck and Garbet at Preston O MD J SEPH BLACK , . 55

pans . The cost was then about £30 per t on of sulphuric

n ow os acid it is about 3 . Among the letters received about this time was one from Mr . Alexander Wilson , who sold thermometers ; f l - he o fers small ones for a guinea , and the boi ing water ones at a guinea and a half Truly Chemistry was an expensive pursuit in these days In 1770 Black received from Lord Hopetoun samples of of of the soil the Leadhills , a district in the upper part

for Lanarkshire , examination . He found it to contain

1 of ore 79 grains gold per ton , besides lead (galena) , iron

ore . An pyrites and magnetic , as well as small garnets other batch contained spar with veins of black-jack - - or zinc blende there was also kupfer nickel , and from this Black prepared some niccolum , which he sent to Lord Hopetoun . I n the same year he was asked to examine the water

of a - - n supply Newc stle upon Tyne , obtained from a spri g at Coxlodge six bottles were sent by the carrier .

’ Black s answer and report are quaint ; he says If I were writing t o the Gentlemen who were to determine and direct in this matter, I should certainly stop here , well knowing what perplexity is often occasioned by speaking to People a Language which they do not under

’ A s stand . He then explains that soft and good contain from 5 to 40 grains of fixed matter from each

0 1 20 gallon , that hard waters contain from 4 to

’ t o of A s grains, according the distinction good from ” of had . A gallon the Coxlodge water was evaporated 28 in a glass bowl , and left a residue weighing grains ; 56 THE LIFE AND LETTERS OF

the residue consisted of earths , mostly calcareous , and a fixed alkali, the latter prevailing very much am ounting to 23 of the 28% gr ains combined with the

a riori fossil acids . If we may venture to judge p there

S S fore , I hould expect that the water hould draw strong and deep coloured infusions from tea , malt , and other

for vegetables , and would prove remarkably soft all oecon om ical purposes for bleaching linnen and with regard to its wholesomeness , I cannot conceive that the fixed alkali is less innocent than the gy psum and other earthy compounds that water commonly contains .

1 2 e In 77 , at the wish of Lord Hopetoun , Black visit d

on the Leadhills , and made a report the gold In the

of streams that neighbourhood . He found gold in the river sand , and recommended a trial on the rock of the

of - country , by aid a stamping mill . In the sand he found - ninety seven grains per ton . This was obtained by wash ing and then cupelling the galena left in the dish ; to

of remove silver the operation parting was resorted to . Each particle of galena had adhering to it a particle of a

compound of arsenic , iron , and some cobalt , from which it appears that there is a vein of cobalt somewhere in

of these hills . He gave Lord Hopetoun designs a me chanical a w sher which he had invented, and which , he

or says , would cost three four pounds . We next find a correspondence with Black ’ s intimate friend , the celebrated James Watt , with reference to the

of Can t re Crinan Canal , piercing the neck the Mull of y , which was then being projected . Watt had made a

and - survey , estimated the expense of a ten foot canal as MD JOSEPH BLACK , . 57 Watt finished his letter I hear of an acid somebody has discovered that turns water intoflint ; do you kn ow anything of it P But to this Black makes no reply . Black received numerous letters from old students of

ar of his , who had settled in v ious parts the world . One , written by a Mr . Alexander, settled at Bacolet , Grenada , i West Indies , beg ns by thanking him for the pains Black

on had bestowed on his instruction , and then goes to f describe a disease a fecting negroes , named the yaws ,

' and gives methods of cure practised by the negroes

of themselves . The letter then gives a statement the

1 2 rainfall at Grenada , from September, 77 , to March , - 1 a . 773 , mounting to thirty seven inches A later letter

of deals with the large amount mephitic air, meaning carbon dioxide in Grenada for quicklime rapidly

i on becomes bad . He also d scourses sugar boiling at s ’ his plantation , and criticise Franklin s theory of water spouts . The replies which Black sent to these letters are n not exta t . During the year 1 775 many letters passed between

on of Black and Henry Home , Lord Kames , the nature

i solution . Lord Kames imag ned that an emulsion of clay in water differs only in degree from a solution of salt in

ou t f water ; Black tries to point di ferences , but fails to convince Lord Kames . The last letter .to Black , which

' — finished the correspondence , begins Sir, This is

ou Sunday morning , and I figure myself applying to y as

Abraham did to the Lord , Behold, now I have taken

S upon me to peak unto the Lord , which am but dust 58 THE LIFE AND LETTERS OF and ashes Your response has n ot satisfied me more than the response of the Lord did Abraham . Black retorts that Lord Kames does not read his letters with a an d c re attention and the correspondence then ceases . The year 1 776 opens with the first of a long series of

’ Cr ll of Crell s An nalen . . e letters from M L , the editor , a

ou r P hiloso hical former Continental journal , resembling p

’ Ma az in Cr l e e l of . g . had been a student Black s In his opening letter he writes I wish I had an opportunity to send you some papers and dissertations I have pub lished ; my greatest reward would be your n ot dis l approving of them . The chief of them is a Chemica

’ Journal wrote in German ; I don t remember if you

F or Crell understand it . many years sent to Black succinct accounts of the progress of Chemistry on the

Continent these will be noticed later . Another foreign

- of c . e A orrespondent was Mr H rmann , dvocate General t had S rassburg , for whose mineralogical collection Black provided many specimens . A new Chemical laboratory in Edinburgh was built in

1 81 or 7 , to be more accurate, other and better accommoda tion was provided for chemistry in a portion of the old buildings Black was employed during that year, he tells

of of Patrick Wilson , son the Professor Astronomy in Glas

t o gow College (who was then assistant his father, Alexan der Wilson , and succeeded him in the chair in in flitting a vast rubbish of things and experiments from ” the old laboratory . Wilson made many experiments on snow crystals , and found the temperature of the air in

of their neighbourhood much higher than that the snow .

60 THE LIFE AND LETTERS OF

t o - at the p and a foot at the bottom , with wood scraps and after setting it on fire leaving it to smoulder for a - fortnight . The price of pearl ash , or fairly pure

potassium carbonate , from abroad , varied from fifty to

al seventy pounds a ton . The v ue of the import was at

that date about per annum .

1 8 In 7 3 Dr . Heysham sent Black a specimen of a dark coloured powder found near Ashburn , in Derbyshire ,

oil which , when moistened with linseed , gives a mixture which ignites in about ten minutes . Black identifies it as a compound of black magnesia (manganese) it is probably finely divided peroxide . The miners call it

now very improperly black wad . It is well known that the presence of compounds of manganese cause linseed oil to dry, or oxidise , more rapidly ; and this may

of happen , apparently , with such evolution heat as to inflame the oil .

’ Black s was a cautious nature ; he did not commit himself to the doctrine of phlogiston , then universally held . This doctrine , originally propounded by Stahl , was that when a body burns , a light , subtle material ” escapes ; to this he gave the name phlogiston . The h residue , which we now know to be the oxide , was t en ” a termed the calx , and was imagined to be the met l or other combustible body , less the phlogiston , which it had contained before burning . By heating a calx with some

s C sub tance rich in phlogiston , such as harcoal , the calx absorbed phlogiston from the charcoal , and the metal was regenerated . 8 1 . In March , 7 3 , Dr % uin , writing from London , MD 61 JOSEPH BLACK , .

’ desires Black s opinion regarding what had been told him by Dr . Kirwan , that Bergmann had measured the

S amount of phlogiston in ilver, by precipitating a known

C weight of it from its nitrate by opper the copper, going into solution , he believes , contains the phlogiston which has escaped from the silver . Lead precipitates the

C opper, and iron the lead ; and the relative weights of these metals must all contain the same amount of phlogis

t on . This , according to our modern views , is an inverted statement of the truth If we read for phlogiston

of removal oxygen , such experiments would give us the equivalents of the metals . According to still more

e of S in modern views , the pr cipitation ilver by copper

of volves the transference electrons , or particles of nega

an d tive electricity, from the copper to the silver ; the

of relative weights metals , precipitated one by another ,

of are combined with the same number electrons .

’ d e hlo ist i Dr . % uin also suggested that Priestley s p g c at ed air , now known as oxygen , is fixed air, less the

inflammabilit principle of y in a sense , too, this is right for fixed air is not combustible ; it is a compound of oxygen with carbon , and if the combustible matter, the carbon , be removed from it , oxygen remains . Black was not drawn by this letter ; he did not answer Dr . % uin for a year, and then did not refer to the subject . His attention at this time was much occupied by ad vising on improvements in the manufacture of cast and wrought iron but in a long report which is extant there is nothing that calls for special notice . 62 THE LIFE AND LETTERS OF

A correspondent sends Black an account of a method

of heating water practised in Canada . Pour a few

of spoonfuls water on the top of the stove , and quickly

’ on set the kettle the spilled water . Black s comments are Upon further consideration it appeared to me that this practice was one of the best illustrations of the Doctrine of Latent Heat for the small quantity of water thrown upon the stove is instantly converted into

of vapour, and striking against the bottom the kettle is thereby condensed into drops , at the same time com m un icatin of g a large quantity latent heat to the kettle . These drops now fall down from the bottom of the kettle to the stove , and are again converted into vapour .

of Hence it happens that this small quantity water, f alternately su fering expansion and condensation , is not

hot dissipated even by a very stove , but for a consider able time passes backwards and forwards between the stove and the bottom of the kettle , becoming a carrier of heat in the same manner that pieces of gold-leaf

of become carriers electricity between two plates , one being suspended above the other . Black made com

arative i p experiments , and found that wh le the water in a kettle placed directly on the stove had attained

° ° 6 F 102 3 . , were reached in the same time by a kettle thus treated .

a 1 81 During the months of J nuary and February , 7 ,

Dr . Pat Wilson , the Glasgow astronomer, described to Black experiments which he had made during a spell of

a cold weather . He mixed lcohol with snow, when the

° ° temperature fell from 24 above zero Fahrenheit to 28 MD 6 JOSEPH BLACK , . 3

al below zero , a drop of He so covered the bulbs

b - inst ru of thermometers with oar frost , and whirled the ments round at the end of a piece of packthread ; but

t n ot the tempera ure did fall ; naturally , the fall would depend on the hygrometric state of the atmosphere at the time ; it was probably saturated with moisture . Wilson also mentions that having placed in a Torricellian vacuum a thermometer , he noticed no rise of temperature when the empty space was lessened in volume , and no fall

s when it was increa ed . He appears to have imagined that the lowering of temperature when the volume was increased would be so great that some of the mercury

for would freeze ; but he gives no reason this surmise . He mentions incidentally that he has taken a Copy of

’ of the letter which Black received by help Mr . Watt s

C new opying machine , which , it would appear, had then only recently been introduced .

’ ’ Black s comments on Wilson s observations are of no particular interest and need n ot be quoted .

1 82 A certain Dr . Price , in November, 7 , whose former

b is on t o name was Higgin ottom , reported Black by

of A Mr . William Thomson , Christchurch , Oxford . p

arentl p y he claimed to have manufactured gold , and he

’ published an account of this in the Gentleman s Magaz in e and , according to Thomson , his statement is nothing

of but a mass errors throughout . In his reply, Black expresses his surprise that a degree should have been

on n conferred Mr . Higginbottom by the influe ce of

for ex eri Dr . Wall , knowledge , ingenuity , and skill in p ments . I thought it was necessary, however, to take 64 THE LIFE AND LETTERS OF ' some notice of the pamphlet in my introductory lecture t this season , but my only intention in this was earnes ly to dissuade my pupils from giving way in the least to the

’ P s ruinous notions and pursuits of Alchemy, which Dr . .

far publication , so as it may be credited, would have a tendency to encourage . I reminded my audience that numerous experiments to prove the possibility of trans formation had been forrn erly exhibited or described which were afterwards discovered to have been founded on mistakes or frauds ; and observed that the present age does not require incentive to experimental enquiries , with a view to deterring my young friends from enter ” taining alchemical Notions or Projects . Dr . Wall excuses himself for the part he has played and a final letter from him closes with the words Whatever other

e defects we may have , an attachment to y hermetic

Philosophy makes no part of our character .

1 82 In June , 7 , Black was consulted on the water supply t of Lei h he made no analysis , but characterised the ” water as disgusting and slimy .

We now come to a very interesting piece of history , namely , the process for manufacturing alkali, generally associated with the name of the French chemist Leblanc .

’ C 1 80 The world s hief source of soda , before the year 7 ,

or i was kelp, bar lla . The manufacture of kelp was carried on at a very early period on the north and west ” of flat - coasts Ireland , where tangle , a leaved seaweed ,

F n ou s almatu s of which the botanical name is p , grows in very large amount later, large quantities of kelp were produced on the islands and coast of the West of Scotland . MD A . 6 JOSEPH BL CK , 5

The seaweed was dried and burnt ; the ashes consist ” of largely sodium carbonate, or soda , and when treated with water the soda dissolves , and the solution ,

of when evaporated , gives crystals washing soda - if dried up , the powder is called soda ash , and a - specially pure variety is termed pearl ash . The same

' process was carried out on the Spanish coast , and the product was barilla the plant there burned was the

S alsola soda on , cultivated the coast of Spain . This trade in Britain was particularly brisk d u rmg the

of Peninsular War, for the sources Spanish barilla were cut off and the import of barilla into France ceased at

1 8 N the time of the French Revolution in 7 9. The ational Convention made a special appeal to the French chemists to help them and this was stimulated by the offer of a

substantial prize . Nicolas Leblanc is said to have begun his experiments in 1 784 in 1789 he submitted his plans

to the Duke of Orleans , from whom he received pecuniary

1 1 1 help ; and in 79 the process was patented . In 794 the Committee of Salut public made Leblan c give up

for his patent the benefit of his country , and awarded him

m u n ifi cen t of 2 the sum £ 4 to recoup him for his losses . He

1 806 persisted in his claims ; and in he received a reward ,

one but so small a that in despair he committed suicide . To understand the position in the year 1783 it must be realised that there was a duty on salt in Great Britain of £30 a ton ; and that the available soda WES very 26 i impure soda from Alicant contained Sic lian soda ,

2 1 6 3 that from Narbonne , 4 ; Norwegian kelp , and

Scottish kelp, 3 per cent of anhydrous carbonate .

F 66 THE LIFE AND LETTERS OF

’ Leblanc s soda process consisted in (1) treating common

salt with sulphuric acid by this , hydrochloric acid ” s off - come as a gas and salt cake , or sodium sulphate , 2 - remains . ( ) The salt cake was mixed with powdered

coal and carbonate of lime , in the form of limestone or

chalk ; the mixture was heated in a furnace . (3) The

heated mixture , or black ash , was treated with warm

of water ; the water dissolved out the carbonate soda , - ” while the residue, called soda waste , consisting of

i re calcium sulphide , was p led into heaps , having been

d of jecte . (4) The solution sodium carbonate was boiled

down and left to crystallise , when soda crystals were

deposited , and were sold as washing soda or the liquid was boiled to dryn ess and left soda-ash or quicklime was added to the liquors ; this c au sticises ” of them , and converts the soda into caustic soda , use - in soap making .

81 1 . In 7 Dr Brian Higgins , in England, had nearly forestalled this process but instead of heating the salt cake with coal and lime he heated it with coal alone ;

this reduces the sulphate to sulphide . The next step was

to fuse the sulphide with lead , and to stir it with an iron

rod the sulphur united with the lead , and caustic soda

o f floated on the t p o the melted sulphide of lead . This process failed owing t o the high price of lead but Higgins

or of suggested replacing the lead with iron , the use other

’ metallic oxides had lime been specified , Higgins s

’ process would have been identical with Leblanc s . Iron

1 was used in 775 , as appears in a letter from James Keir

8 h 1 8 t 2 . to Black , dated August , 7 He complained to

68 THE LIFE AND LETTERS OF

o Pit - small vegetables , Breeze , Charc al , coal , or any other

s or inflam ubstances containing , supposed to contain an

i or or one or of mable pr nciple or phlogiston , some , , more

or flu xed them ; which , when properly heated, melted, ,

produce a mineral alkali . And as to for touching and

the concerning the vegetable alkali, I pursue same process

Sal as above , except that I take Polychrest , vitriolated

or tartar, any substance or liquor containing vegetable

alkali and vitriolic acid , instead of the salts and mixtures

above mentioned . i Th s patent , in its quaint phraseology , is virtually

’ Leblanc s process . Black examined the product and

found it to be very strong and powerfull . It contains more alkali than the best Alicant barilla in the proportion 68 of to 44, and more than the best kelp in the proportion

68 10 of to . There is no need to use lime in drawing the

leys from it , as it is already in a caustic state .

’ I have failed to trace the history of Collison s works ; in all probability the manufacture was killed by the I enormous duty on salt . mmediately after the abolition of the salt tax in 1823 James Muspratt started alkali works in Liverpool and for S ix years they were the only

ones in Great Britain . His descendants still carry on the manufacture in conjunction with the United Alkali

S w Company . But this glimpse into the past ho s that as usual England was to the front in the applications of

chemical discovery , and that Leblanc was not the first

to use the process which goes by his name .

A year later , in answer to a request from Black for

M of information , the Rev . Dr . John Stuart , inister Luss, M D . 6 JOSEPH BLACK , 9

Pteris Loch Lomond , describes the burning of bracken ( a u ilina q , Linn . ) in a pit to white ashes, containing

o carbonate of potassium . This used to be carried n in

on Inch Murrain , one of the numerous islets the loch , but

for of had then been abandoned , the price ashes had been - e one . r duced by third The minister, however, induced

e two of his parishion rs to burn some , and sent two bottles ” to the Doctor .

1 th 1 8 l the On January s , 7 4, Black was consu ted about

% establishment of works for the manufacture of fossil

l a a k li, or soda , by Mr . James Gerard, surgeon , in Liver

e on pool . G rard says that as the duty salt is now lowered, it is a favourable time to consider such an undertaking , and Liverpool is a suitable place for such a manufacture he proposes to make sal ammoniac sulphuric acid,

’ C Glauber s salt , and alkali . He adds I have opies of

’ ’ ’ Dr . Higgins s , Fordyce s and Collison s patents, if you

’ wish to consult them . The last is artful and intricate .

I am told it answers, as also a work carried out at Bir ” min ham g by Keir, Bolton and Watt .

’ Black s answer is not preserved ; but on June 7th Gerard wrote : I am concerned and disappointed to find that I must n ot expect your assistance in the alkali ” pursuit . He does not reveal his own process he merely

al says that he gets as much alkali from 4 oz . c cined ’ l Glauber s salt as wil convert 3 oz . of tallow into good b - Can soap he also gets sal ammoniac as a y product . this be a foreshadowing of the ammonia-soda process P

1 82 During the year 7 , too , there are several letters from Crell; His great appreciation of Black is the invariable 70 THE LIFE AND LETTERS OF beginning of all his letters ; in the first he alludes to the very great estime I bear (along with all chemists) ” for you as one of the greatest chemists now living . I acknowledge with a very grateful mind how much I am indebted to you as my great teacher in chemistry and

S this very gratitude hall never cease during my life . In another letter he assures Black how much I esteem

O C u your pen, sincere , and friendly haracter . As us al , he informs Black of chemical novelties thus : The Count Sickingen has detected the way of making the

d u ctil of Platina , and finer wires of it than He dis

‘ ou t u solves it in R , and takes the 5 by lixivium sang in , i calcines the platinum salt , and beats it wh le hot with the ” the malleus on incus . In modern language , he dissolves

- r the platinum in nitro hydrochloric acid , p ecipitates it with ammonium chloride , and by heating to redness produces spongy platinum , which he hammers on an anvil while hot . Another piece of news is To tinge cotton with madder as constant as the Turkish garn is

or r a You infuse cotton with olive oil , the oil f om the wh le , press it out , to take the superfluous part away, by a lixivium of hot caustic alkali , boil it with a lixivium of

Rhu s coriaria alIS ° and g and being dried , again with the decoction of madder .

c 1 82 To these letters Bla k replied in September, 7 I nowSit down to return you my most S incere and hearty thanks for the chemical news with which you have if favoured me at d ferent times , and which consist of such a number of articles that I shall find difficulty now to

take notice of them all , tho there are none but what are M D . 1 JOSEPH BLACK , 7

are i curious and interesting . His comments of no spec al importance . Ammonia used to be made by allowing urine to putrefy and distilling it . M In reply to a request from Black , Mr . George acintosh of of Glasgow, sent him some the caput mortuum ,

i of that is , the residue from his st ll , one capable holding

for 4000 gallons of liquid . Incidentally Macintosh asks suggestions about mordanting cloth , and Black mentions bismuth as perhaps suitable in some cases . In October of that year a request arrived from

a his a Mr . John Maitl nd that Black would admit into cl ss

of a poor boy undoubted ability , and the request is at once cordially granted .

h 1 8 sic 2 t . On January 5 , 7 3 , a letter from Dr Guthry [ %

of arrives from St . Petersburg , which Black made extracts ; it is what he bases his lecture on Heat on i (p . He was able to freeze 5 by mix ng snow and

4; when the thermometer was at 20 to 24 below 0 of = 6 Reaumur, which , says he , is 4 54 degrees below

of or 1 8c 2 2 frost Fahrenheit to 3 below 0 . The 55 was

8: 1 . frozen in a glass tube 45 in . high in . diam set in a - freezing mixture of snow gb contained in an English - water glass wrapped up in furr to the brim . The stood

1 R eau mu r =6o of at 4 of degrees Fahrt . , it stood there during the rest of the process untill all the {5 in the tube was congealed . CHAPTER V

N the beginning of 1783 the first high honour was

conferred on Black , by the Imperial Academy of

St . Petersburg ; he received a letter from the Prince

Dashkow , from which this is a sentence The many kind instructions and all the good offices I received from you during my stay in Edinburgh encourage me to interrupt your more serious occupations , the more so , as it is to inform you that you were elected Honorary

M Of ember of the Academy Sciences here . It was my dear Mother whom the Empress made a few days ago ” Director of the Academy who proposed you . To this Black replied I cannot express the deep surprise and gratitude which I felt on receiving your letter of the

2 th ou 9 January last , by which y inform me that I have had the high honour to be proposed by the Princess Dashkow and elected by the Imperial Academy of Sciences an honourary Member of that Learned Cele bra ed t Assembly . It is the first honour of that

kind I have received , and I shall always consider it the greatest I can receive Jean Albert Euler sent Black

2 th his welcome to the Academy on the 4 February , and Black answered in faultless French ; he had evidently

not forgotten the language of his youth . He was in

doubt , however, how to address the Princess, and applied

72 MD . JOSEPH BLACK , 73 to Principal Robertson : Be so good as to inform me (in two words at the foot of this) how you address the ” i of Princess in the beginn ng your letter . The answer is

’ I have always addressed the Princess Madam , and

’ ’ the Sir s Prince , without any Highness . The Princes

on 1 2— 2 1 8 cor wrote the 3 February , 7 3 , asking him to respond with the Academy . Nobody better than you ,

all whose abilities are known in Europe, could add a m lustre to it . In his answer Black took some ti e the reply is dated 4th September % The diploma arrived

of . through Dr . John Grieve , by way Riga , in June

Sécrét aire About the same time M . Amelot , the per

ét u el E p , tells him that he has been elected Associé tranger e de la Société Royale de M dicine de France , and Black

r thanks the Academy th ough him in cordial terms , of course again in French . f Macculloh o . In a letter from Mr . , member the Hon

for the Board of Trustees Manufactures , we see an early effort to provide technical instruction for young opera ti e v s . He proposes t o Improve manufactures by estab lishing a Bleach field for the purpose of an Academy in some centrical place the most contiguous to where the - low price Linen Manufacture is carried on , where every person presented by the Board should be taught the

of making a refined Lee from burnt crude ashes , for at

least one whole season . Believing that the Doctor will agree with them that the illiterate vulgar can only be

taught by practical demonstration , but by no means by

’ either verbal lecture or written precept . Black s reply

is not preserved . 74 THE LIFE AND LETTERS OF

i of About th s time two long pieces correspondence , one

on on the rusting of iron bolts in ships , and the other

’ brewing and fermentation , took place . In Black s contribution to the first he does not admit that the water received fr om the copper sheathin g can have any disposition to corrode the iron he thinks it must have

not resulted from the juices from the wood . He does appear to have made any experiments on the corrosive - action of sea water on iron in contact with copper , but to have given a judgment according to the dictates of his inner consciousness . M r . The next letter, from Daly , to whom Black wrote , asking him to make inquiries as to the cost of lodgings

1 and tuition for his nephew, aged 5 , throws light on the

of manners the time . It appears the young gentleman - was to be accompanied by his body servant , and was to

in board with a curate , from whom he would receive

a : o f struction . Mr . D ly replied It is much m re di ficult than I expected . The first enquiry I made was of a curate within 4 miles of here (Leyland) . He seemed unwilling to take such a lodger into his house ; as he told me , he expected the servant would make free with his maid . But I suspected he was in greater concern for

o his pretty wife . Still he told me , n my assuring him t hat the servant could behave very soberly, that he would

0 Mr take him at £5 . . Daly went to no fewer than eight

of e curates , each whom raised the same objection mor

t 0 over, no one would take less han £5 a year to lodge and board the youth and his servant , and to give lessons to

h 1 t e . former He next tried the laity , and rode 4 miles

76 THE LIFE AND LETTERS OF

- With respect to the air balloons , which are now scarcely

in even mentioned in Paris, there is an account the last Mcrem e d e France of a method of conducting them in f n a . all dif erent directio s , and even gainst the wind The experiment is said to have been made in presence of

Mon olfi er g , who, with several others , subscribed to the

. is truth of it The inventor of Lyons , and it was there e ” the trial of it was made his name is Marci . In October

Grieve recurs to this matter Before I left Paris , there was fl in - one Bienvenu , who showed a y g machine , without any reference to the balloon , but which , I think, might

Of be applied to the direction these . It consisted of four

i k t o w ngs , li e so many inverted kites , fixed an axis , at

of angles about 45 degrees . These were found , on the

t o circular motion of the axis , act on the air like the perpetual screw of Archimedes , and that in any direction .

bow To exemplify this , he had a spring like a tied to the lower end of the axis , the string of which, being fixed to

a a circular piece of wood upon the xis, resembling a

on pulley, and being wound up this , was no sooner let go than the two ends of the bow recedin g from each other turned round the axis , and with it the wings . In this

In % u ner, the machine flew the height of about ten feet .

I have enclosed a very rude sketch of it . MD JOSEPH BLACK , . 77

The next letter which Black received on aerostation

1 8 was in October, 7 4, from James Lind , Windsor ; it is

: as follows My friend Mr . Cavallo is now at work

of compiling a history Aerostation , and as I believe you was the first person that attempted to make a body rise

of Inflammable as l in air by means g , you wi l oblige me much by informing me of the particulars and the date

of of that transaction . To the best my remembrance , it 6 was 1 . in the year 7 7 , and Dr Hutton assisted in the experiment . I likewise beg to know who was the person that first discovered the true Specific gravity of Inflam mable air . You will , I make no doubt , have had an

’ ’ of on account Dr . Priestley s improvement Mr . Lavoisier s process for obtaining In flamm able air by means of Steam and heated Iron . Mr . James Watt sent me a very

of particular account that curious process , which strongly confirms the truth of his hypothesis on the constituent

of parts water . I beg my best compliments to Dr .

Hutton . To this Black replied It gave me no small pleasure to receive a letter from you after so long an interruption

can of our correspondence , and I readily answer the

ou questions y put to me . The person who first discovered with exactness the specific gravity of inflammable air was f Mr . o Cavendish . I never heard any experiments made with that intention before his appeared in the Philo 66 Sophical Transactions for the year 17 . It had been my constant practice before , to shew every year in what

or manner it burns when it is pure unmixed with air , and in what manner it explodes when air is mixed with it 78 THE LIFE AND LETTERS OF

Mr e before it is fired but . Cav ndish made a variety of

such mixtures by rule and measure , and describes in the

same paper the manner in which they severally explode .

As soon as I read the above paper, it occurred to me as

’ r an obvious consequence of M . Cavendish s discovery that if a sufficiently thin and light bladder were filled

with inflammable air, the bladder and contained air would necessarily form a mass lighter than atmospheric

air , and which would rise in it . This I mentioned to some i of my friends , and in my lectures the next t me I had

air . occasion to speak of inflammable , and of Mr Caven 1 ’ 1 6 1 68 dish s discoveries , which was either in 7 7 or 7 . I thought it would be an amusing experiment for the l d ’ student I app ye to Dr . Munro s Dissector to prepare

for me the allantois of a calf . The allantois was prepared , but not untill some time when I was engaged with another

of n ot C part my course , and did huse to interrupt the

n on e busi ess then going , so I dropp d the experiment for

of that year, and in some the subsequent years I only mentioned it as an obvious and selfevident consequence

’ Mr e ex eri of . Cavendish s discovery , but nev r made the p ment , which I considered as merely amusing . I have heard in general that Dr . Priestley has obtained a cheap

for process preparing inflammable air , but have not

of ou learned any particulars it , if y have a little spare

time , it will be doing me a great favour to communicate ” a short account of it . r Dr . Lind eplied in November , giving an account of

’ Priestley s process for making inflammable air, taken

from the account which Mr . Watt was so obliging as

80 THE LIFE AND LETTERS OF merit in the invention of machines for general flights

e u . xc rsions The experiment with the bladder, which I

’ proposed as a striking example of Mr . Cavendish s

O discovery , was so very bvious that any person might have thought of it ; but I certainly never thought of making large artificial bladders , and making these lift heavy weights , and carry men up into the air . I have not the least suspicion that this was thought Of anywhere

t o before we began hear of its being attempted in France , and I do not doubt that what has been published in the

s Mon olfi er s . new papers is perfectly true , viz that Mon g had S ometime before conceived theidea of flying up into the air by means of a very large bag or balloon of common

rarif ed air simply y by the application of Fire or Flame . The idea being founded upon a principle which has

n long been known , and which has no co nection with

’ nl Mr . Cavendish s discovery , it is o y surprising that Monsr Mongolfi er should not have put it sooner in prac tice . I suppose therefore that though he might have formed the Project a long time before, he never was roused into an Operation for making the trial until others

of Inflamm able began to think flying by means of Air .

Of for Who first thought the method I cannot tell , I con fess I did not read the history of these Experiments ; they never interested me in the least . The hope that means might be discovered for moving these machines at plea sure and directing their course could only be formed by those who did not consider and understand their nature . The only Circumstance which enables them to subsist t in the air, however brisk the wind may be, is hat , as MD JOSEPH BLACK , . 81

f l e soon as they rise , they are in e fect perfect y becalm d I mean that there is not the least perceptible motion or impulse Of the air against any part of them ; this is perfectly evident from their situation . They float in

and n o on mid air, have hold anything else ; the air must therefore carry them along with a velocity equal to

' o of can m ke wn . a its The machine itself no resistance , i but wh le it moves along with the air, it cannot feel any motion Of the air against it in any direction . It must therefore be in effect a dead calm ; the motion of it cannot be perceived by those who are carried by it , except from the apparent motion of the objects on the su rface eof t o the earth , which seem slide away from them this tranquillity of the air with respect to them is one Circumstance which contributes to that composure of

of who mind which many those feel mount with balloons .

i hot i I can magine , however, that in a cl mate , when the

S weather is perfectly calm and the sun hining bright , a large balloon ascending with considerable velocity may i occasion a whirlwind and be nvolved in it , which may be attended with dangerous consequences to those who accompany it . And this among other things shews the folly Of attempting to give it motion at pleasure , or to command its motion or direction when it is up in the air for besides the impracticability of finding a power that f can be applied to produce this e fect , although the power

Of were found , any attempt to make use it would destroy the balloon by impelling it against the air, and exposing it to such shocks and violence as it cannot bear ; and

In further, attempting to use such a power, it must

G 82 THE LIFE AND LETTERS OF

of o necessarily happen , on account the great surface f l m the balloon , the resistance the air wou d ake to its motion thro it , that the men and machinery by which

u f it were moved m st necessarily go oremost , and the large

&c bladder, . would be dragged after them in a horizontal direction , which would require an apparatus totally f di ferent from what has already been contrived . - Black was no true prophet ; the airship of to day,

- is made possible by the internal combustion engine , no doubt an apparatus totally different from what he conceived ; the risks it runs are not due to the engine

running away from the balloon . In his account Of the part he played in suggesting

Of hydrogen as a means raising a balloon , he scarcely

' his did himself justice Thomas Thomson , follower in

1818 Of the Glasgow chair In , in his History Chemistry , tells the following tale There is an anecdote of Black

a i which I was told by Mr . Benj min Bell , of Ed nburgh ,

of - author a well known system of surgery , and he assured me that he had it from the late Sir George Clarke of

Penn icu ik C , who was a witness of the ircumstance

’ of Mr narrated . Soon after the appearance . Cavendish s

on a roxim a paper hydrogen gas , in which he made an pp

of tion to the specific gravity that body, showing that it

was at least ten times lighter than atmospheric air, Dr .

n Black invited a party of his friends to supper , informi g

t o S . . them that he had a curiosity how them Dr Hutton ,

of of Pennicu ik Mr . Clarke Elden , and Sir George Clarke

of were the number . When the company invited had

o assembled , he took them into a ro m . He had the

84 THE LIFE AND LETTERS OF

Mr had previously been made in Edinburgh by . Tytler

a with p rtial success . The height reached by Lu nardi was about three miles he descended not far from where

a he beg n his ascent , having been fortunate in weather

Of and in the direction the wind .

’ We must return to Dr . Grieve s letter from Paris it

’ t O ic : M touches another interesting p esmer s practice . But what of all other forms the most frequent subject

Ma netisme Animal of conversation here at present is the g ,

of one as it is called Mesmer a German Physician . The substance of It is that there Is a subtile fluid which fills the Universe , which forms a connecting medium between u s and the heavenly bodies , and between us and the earth . He says that he has discovered means by which

of he can direct the course this fluid , accumulate it in our body, and convey it to another at pleasure . He ascribes many diseases to the unequal distribution of it , and i offers to cure many by restoring the equ librium . The

S u system , ing lar as it is , has more friends than enemies his house is so much crowded that there are seldom fewer

one than two hundred people in it at time , and that in i succession from morn ng to night , all of whom undergo his Operations . When you are told that he has five guineas the first month , and four every subsequent one from each patient , and that he has already sold his secret

n a to a hu dred and fifty persons for a hundred guine s each , you will judge what an immense fortune he is likely to

was make in a Short time . I in his house the other day

‘ In and was witness t o his method Of operating . the middle of the room is placed a vessel of about a foot and M D . JOSEPH BLACK , 85

bac u et a half high, which is called here a q . It is so large that twenty people can easily S it round it ; near the edge hi of the lid w ch covers it , there are holes pierced corre sponding to the number of persons who are to surround it ; into these holes are introduced iron rods , bent at - f right angles outwards , and of di ferent heights , so as to answer to the part of the body to which they are to be

s applied . Besides the e rods , there is a rope which com mu n icates e bac u et one of the b tween the q and patients ,

S O and from him it is carried to another , and on the whole f round . The most sensible e fects are produced on the approach of Mesmer, who is said to convey the fluid by

of certain motions his hands or eyes , without touching

al the person . I have talked with sever who have wit m f a essed these e fects , who have convulsions occ sioned

of and removed by a movement the hand . In order to qualify this account , which will appear incredible, if not

S of Mr R oi ridiculous , I hall add the answer Le , the

Academician , to my question What he thought of it He has been appointed one of the Commissioners to examine into the operations of one B eslon who is a

‘ ’ — e scholar of Mesmer . His words were these J n en

’ puis pas encore juger mais j ai deja vu des choses tres lie ’ singu res.

e At this date , the recent exp riments Of Cavendish and Watt on the formation of water by the combustion of hydrogen were being vehemently discussed through

C the whole hemical world . Grieve , in this letter , says The chemical experiments made by Lavoisier and

on 8: i Meunier water , the conclus on drawn from them , 86 THE LIFE AND LETTERS OF

viz . that water is composed of dephlogisticated an d in

flammable air (oxygen and hydrogen) , does not meet with general credit in this place . It was some years later before they were accepted . In October Grieve wrote again : Since my last

of Mr letter , I had frequent opportunities seeing Lavoisier,

Of and visiting him at his house . It gave me much plea sure to hear the honourable mention he made publickly

of of your name , acknowledging you , in presence several s Academicians , as the author of all the e discoveries in Chemistry which have of late years made so happy a revolution in that science .

Mr Ar aun d As g , the inventor of the new lamps , is

Mr a come to London , and is j oined with Parker, the Gl ss

ou ll Manufacturer, in a patent for them , y wi soon know f l them . Their principle is simple , and their e fect high y advantageous ; by placing the wick in a Circular form i round a hollow cyl nder , and thereby establishing a f current of air from below to the inside o the flame .

Of 10 1 This increases the light in the proportion to , and as the heat is equally augmented , the smoke is totally

r M Ar au nd Of . consumed . g is a native Geneva It may be a matter of surprise that Black was not

w as stimulated , by hearing Of the rapid progress which being made , into himself sharing in the work . Robison

% . explains the reason . But alas his lot forbade His constitution had always been exceedingly delicate . The

t o slightest cold , the most trifling approach repletion , f immediately a fected his breast , occasioned feverishness , and if continued for two or three days brought on a

88 THE LIFE AND LETTERS OF arrangement of the subjects dealt with under the name

r z of Chemist y . To this letter Black replied I had the pleasure to receive your letter of the 6th

a current , and very much approve of your trying to pl n a new arrangement and Classification of the objects of chemistry . There is no doubt that many of the sub stances which not long S ince were considered as simple are now viewed in a very different light from that in i wh ch they formerly appeared . As you have been on the spot where those improvements have been most

as ardently promoted and discussed, and you are other

an wise very well prepared for such attempt , I am happy h to hear that you think of engaging in it , and ave no objection against your addressing it to me , but on the

he contrary shall think it an honour tho at t same time . I beg you will consider yourself as at full liberty to change

and your mind with respect to this point , give your work ,

r . when finished , any other form o titule that may suit l better . I have not yet seen the Nouvel e Nomenclature , but have commissioned a copy . Were it in my power to promote your undertaking by entering immediately

of into the consideration and discussion the subject , I should be very happy to do it but I confess I find it at

on present impossible while my course is going , my time

S O is so much filled up , I am hurried much from one

S it subject to another , that I can seldom down to study i ll new th ngs . I assure you that it wi cost me much study before I could attempt to think of a new arrange

Can ou ment like that you propose . y give me any

’ ord ce s new information concerning Dr . F y experiments B C E CT R N LA K L U I G .

’ Fro m Ka y s por t ra its.

90 THE LIFE AND LETTERS OF

- . 10 nitre It appears , however, that more than 9 ths of the liquor thus produced is water, which probably in its own form constitutes the greater part of the mass Of all sorts of air . I think it highly probable that the acid D(1 proceeds from the inflammable air, and that the air acts the same part that it does in the burning of sulphur and phosphorus .

% I remain Dear Doctor,

f e Yours a fectionat ly ,

S JAME WATT .

’ This letter of Watt s Shows clearly the difference of

of old the two points of view the new and the school . While Lavoisier and his followers advanced the view which is now universally accepted , namely , that hydrogen and oxygen , when exploded together , combine to form water , and nothing else , Watt was inclined to believe that the water was present in a concealed state in all gases, hydrogen and oxygen among others and that it was thrown ou t by the act of combination and was not

of the product the combination . Priestley s observation of the formation of nitric acid was due to his having

c onse used impure gases , contaminated with air, and quently containing nitrogen ; on explosion some of the nitrogen united with the oxygen and the water, forming

of t o a small amount nitric acid . Watt appears conjecture that this nitric acid is the real product of the combina

of of tion the hydrogen and the oxygen , and is the result

of the oxidation the hydrogen , just as sulphuric acid is

of produced by the oxidation sulphur, and phosphoric M D . JOSEPH BLACK , 91

Of acid, phosphorus . It was Cavendish who proved that if the hydrogen and oxygen are pure , no nitric acid is formed .

1 88 Birmin During October , 7 , Black visited Watt at g ham , and also stayed with the Dean of Christchurch at

Oxford . As regards the Dean , Black wrote I do not

l entre n ou s know what hea th he commonly enj oys, but ,

t oo he had the appearance of a person who slept warm , or in too soft a bed , which is very relaxing . I sleep at home upon two mattresses, and I have had much better sleep since I came home than when in England .

1 8 In March , 7 9, Dr . Hope , Lecturer on Chemistry at

who 1 8 Glasgow, had succeeded Dr . Irvine in 7 7 , wrote to Black I am sorry that I am n ot able to give you any satisfaction respecting the thoughts entertained by

’ ex eri the French chemists concerning Dr . Priestley s p ments on the d eflagration of pure and inflam mable air in the dryest state possible . I have heard them spoken

’ of but once or twice . Before the Doctor s paper itself reached Paris, an imperfect account of it had elevated

hlo istians much the hopes of the p g , and excited a little - of hl o istians . the alarms the anti p g A perusal , however, very easily caused both to cease . It is true that a very

’ poor translation of the Doctor s paper had been made in

c Matherie the absen e of La , and had been inserted into

ou rnal d e Ph si u e n ot the j y q , which might have had so much weight as a better one probably would have had .

’ I found that it was imagined that the Doctor s experi

1 ments in which % grain of water was obtained, instead of of 4 grains , would little avail to shake the belief those who had conducted their experiments on so grand a scale 92 THE LIFE AND LETTERS OF

e rocu red man of wat er which that th y p y ouncesweight pure , e xactly equalled the weights of airs which had been used . The appearance of nitrous acid was not deemed more

e conclusive , as none had ever occurred in the exp riments in which the airs united by a gradual inflammation and on : as Mr . Cavendish , in his paper water, and nit

r c acid , had emarked its o casional occurrence , and had

indicated the source from which it proceeded . Such were the sentiments of those I heard speaking

u on the subject ; and very similar ones , I m st confess ,

’ did the reading of Dr . Priestley s papers call up into my

of a mind . But as the composition water unquestion bly

Of is the cardinal point the antiphlogistic system , to

l as which I profess myself very strong y inclined , and there exists no person in whose opinion I would rely

personally with such implicit confidence as on yours , S ince to you I owe any little chemical knowledge I may

hO e ou be possessed of, I p y will excuse the freedom I use in expressing how glad I should be to know the sentiments

ou y have formed on these experiments , and will pardon my thinking of troubling you S O much as to request to

’ P s be informed whether you imagine Dr . . Observations are sufficient to controvert or even to create a well grounded suspicion concerning the accuracy of those

& &C of Meu sn ier c . . Cavendish and Lavoisier , Monge , , I must conclude by assuring you of the very perfect respect with which I remain Your really obliged servant

%

H S O . T OS . CHA . H PE

S O 2 2 n d 1 8 . GLA G W , March , 7 9

94 THE LIFE AND LETTERS OF

return to Paris after a visit to Edinburgh , informed Lavoisier that Black was in the habit of using the new system in his lectures ; whereupon Lavoisier wrote to

’ Black the following letter : J apprend s avec une j oie

inexprimable que vous voulez bien . attacher quelque

’ mérite aux idées que j ai professé le premier contre la

u doctrine d phlogistique . Plus constant dans vos idées

que dans les miennes propres , accoutumé a vous regarder

’ i e d éfi ance - comme mon ma tre , j tais en contre moi meme

e tant que j suis écarté , sans votre aveu , de la route que

Si vous avez glorieusement suivie . Votre approbation ,

et u m Monsieur, dissipe mes inquiétudes , me donne

’ e n e e ce nouveau courage . J serai content jusqu que les circonstances me permettent de vous aller porter m oi

le i et meme témoignage de mon adm ration , de me ranger

’ au vos revolu t ion s o ere nombre de disciples . La qui p en France devant naturellement rendre inutile une partie

’ at taches il de ceux a l ancienne administration , est

e d u et le possible que j j ouisse plaisir de la liberté , premier

’ et usage que j en ferai sera de voyager , surtout en An leterre et Ed imbour g , a g, pour vous y voir,

et rofit er vos le ons et vos pour vous entendre , p de c de

conseils .

on : Robison then goes to say Dr . Black wrote him

a very plain , candid , and unadorned letter in answer,

expressing his acquiescence in his system . Mr . Lavoisier answers this by praising In the highest terms the elegance

f c c . of o & . & the style , the profoundness the philosophy, , , and begs leave to insert the letter in the An n ales d e

Chimie . Dr . Black , who had been in very poor spirits MD JOSEPH BLACK , . 95 when he wrote that letter and was much dissatisfied

W t it s i i h feebleness , was d sgusted with what he now conceived to be artful flattery , and refused to grant the

his request . Yet his letter appeared in that work before refusal could reach Paris .

ou t of This wheedling , in order to screw Dr . Black an

influ acquiescence , on which he put a high value for the

on ence it would have the minds of others , was surely

f . n ot unworthy o Lavoisier . Dr Black was only disgusted

f in with the flattery , but seriously o fended with its

of on sincerity and with a sort insult his common sense , by the supposition that he could be so wheedled , by a man whose publications never expressed the smallest deference F for . or . his Opinions , by this time , Dr Black had read

’ Elements o Chemistr and Mr . Lavoisier s f y, the various

dissertations by him and Mr . De la Place , published in

M em i h Ac dem n ot the o rs of t e a y . His name is once

s on of mentioned , even in the dis ertations the measures

heat , where his doctrine Of latent heat is delivered and

’

of own . employed as the result Mr . Lavoisier s meditations Nor is he named in those passages of the earlier disserta

of tions , where the characters and properties fixed air f of o . and the mild and caustic alkalies, are treated All

’ of own appears to be the train Mr . Lavoisier s thoughts ,

for which he was indebted to no man . Such inconsistency with the deference expressed in the above-cited letters

provoked Dr . Black to such a degree , that he resumed

on his critiques the nomenclature , and began to express

his dissatisfaction with some parts Of the theory, and his utter disapprobation of the unscientific and bullying 96 THE LIFE AND LETTERS OF manner in which the French chemists were trying to force their system on the world . But by this time , his health was become so delicate , that the least intensity

n u of study not o ly fatig ed him , but made him seriously ill , and forced him to give it up . I saw him but seldom at this time , being then in very bad health myself but

. all had this information from Dr Hutton , who shared his thoughts . It was at this time that he gave up his intention of making a considerable change in the arrange

of ment his lectures , and that he expressed himself , as

of i I have related , at the end the ntroduction to the par

l of ll t icu ar . n doctrines chemistry But sti , notwithstandi g the contempt which he expressed for the folly of a man who had tried , by fulsome and insincere flattery , to

O btain what he had given him unasked , by teaching all i t his doctr nes , Dr . Black considered the dea h of Lavoisier as a great loss to the science . He expected much from his penetration and sound sense ; and he considered him as the only person who could keep his followers

C right , by hecking their precipitate manner of pro ” n ceedi g. It appears to me that credit should be given to Lavoisier for sincerity in what he wrote to Black . An emotional Frenchman will express feelings perfectly genuine at the

. is moment , yet inconsistent with his other actions It

e e how ver , not to be wonder d at that Black , a calm ,

S deliberate Scotsman , who never acted on impulse , hould

of have failed to understand the mentality Lavoisier . e There is no doubt that Lavoisier was much to blam , not only in his omission to acknowledge what he owed to

8 M D . 9 JOSEPH BLACK ,

I mostly make use of it , tho it must be confessed that it takes almost no notice of light . Seven years earlier Cavendish had stated very clearly the two theories he believed them to be equally suitable to express the knowledge of the time ; but he decided to retain the older methods of expression as being more

C readily understood . Almost every other hemist followed

’ Black s example , and decided in favour of the new theories ; the exception was Priestley, who resisted to the last one of his latest publications was an attempt

’ to defend the Old views . There is no doubt that Black s pronouncement did much to ensure the acceptance of Lavoisier ’ s doctrines in Great Britain his friend Beddoes

1 1 wrote in April , 79 I am glad to see your renuncia ” An n es d e Ch mie tion of the old Chemical Theory in the al y . CHAPTER VI

’ E may now turn to some of Black s analytical

and technical investigations . In 1784 Watt asked Black to look into the composi tion Of a sample Of water which corroded a piston-rod

’ belonging to a Mr . George Meason . His report is :

fad eish The water reddened litmus , and had a taste .

in - On leaving it to stand a glass , small air bubbles adhered

. 10 to the walls Twelve ounces of it , treated with grains i - weight of l me water, lost its power to redden blue litmus . A wine-glass full Of water from the cistern became more white or muddy with sacch . Saturni solution (lead acetate) than the sample . It became very Slightly muddy with of D (silver nitrate) , and would not clear

-ro with (nitric acid) . The corrosion of the piston d was afterwards discovered to be due to the acidity of the Oil or tallow used as a lubricant and the admixture of a little soap with it made it alkaline , and stopped the

Corrosion .

in 1 8 Black made reports July and September, 7 4, on

of water from the water Leith , a small river running through what is now the northern part of Edinburgh ;

on and also water from Salisbury Crags , an escarpment

‘ 99 100 THE LIFE AND LETTERS OF

’ Of Arthur s Seat , whence it issued in a spring . His report

was No . 1 . clear to the Eye To the taste , it was

s sweet and good water . In dis olving soap, it was rather - softer than Edinburgh pipe water . 7000 grains weight f eva n . o of it left on p only grain solid matter, which

a - was saline and e rthy . Edinburgh pipe water contains

000 i 1 5 grains of this matter in 7 gra ns of the water . A Of m considerable part this matter is chalk or li e . Black and Robison were asked by the Commissioners of Police for Leith whether they recommended Salisbury

o Rock water, or L chend water to be brought into Leith

in pipes but there is no record of their advice . It is i - interest ng, however, to see how a water analysis was 8 carried out in 17 4.

Ma 1 8 In y, 7 7, Lord Elcho consulted Black about a

a miner l water supposed to be ferruginous , and asked

him how it compared with that of Tunbridge . Black

Of was unable compare them , for he did not know the i composition of Tunbridge spr ngs ; he recommends , f w however, a very ef ective plan of collecting such ater

without exposure to air .

’ From then on Black s time must have been greatly

ul occupied with cons ting work, for there is much corre

spond ence with inventors and business men . Some of e S his work is interesting , and may her be hortly de

scribed .

8 r 1 M . M e In October, 7 4, Robert Murray, of anchest r

on Square , London , consulted Black an improved method 2 of making sugar ; he enclosed a long letter in French,

10 2 THE LIFE AND LETTERS OF

al fluk es a were made in the Roy Dockyards , the of the riv l anchors having been bent by men pulling chains attached to them by means of tackle . It appears that at that date tons Of Swedish iron were imported from Sweden a and bout tons from Russia . The quantity of iron made in Great Britain was tons a year ,

-five - produced from eighty blast furnaces . Cort rolled his bars ; he did not forge them . The rollers were

’ rotated by one of Boulton and Watt s steam-engines ; hence his application to Black for advice .

’ Mr . John Roebuck , of Bo ness , consulted Black about glaze for pottery . In the reply, after instruction

of to use white lead instead red lead, and to add borax u a as a flux , he goes on I am doubtf l if mang nese or arsenic be necessary or useful in the Composition of

8c glazings , the last is so very dangerous to the health of the poor workmen that it cannot be used tho ever so cautiously without constant apprehensions of its doing mischief . He then describes the preparation of gold

: for gilding dissolving gold in aqua regia , evaporating the solution to dryness , and igniting ; or precipitating with sal martis (ferrous sulphate) . In either case the gold is mixed with borax and oil of lavender to give it the consistence of a paint . Black then goes on to describe the best method Of preparing a brightly coloured Purple of Cassius . 1 88 In November, 7 , the Trustees of Invention in

on Scotland asked Black to report a new blast , invented

Of by Joseph Baader, Munich , who requested them to supply him with money to develop his invention . The MD 1 JOSEPH BLACK , . 6 3

’ S smallest ize, he says , is applicable to a smith s forge , and

1 or 2 or 6 105 . would cost £ £ , instead of the usual £5 £ .

’ On Black s advice the trustees sanctioned the ex penditure

’ on a blower for a smith s forge before committing them selves further . I have not been able to ascertain whether the Tru stees of Invention were supported by public funds or were a private body but they must evidently

on e have filled a useful purpose . Indeed , is struck with frequent references to societies which existed in order to encourage invention and discovery some of these might with advantage be revived .

lot Bound in with his letters are a of samples of tape,

S of dyed in various hades blue and labelled , the first

o experiments I made t compare indigos . There is no

of further record such experiments . In 1 789 Black became financially interested in a pro

for of cess making alkali . In July that year he received

for for an Estimate a factory marine alkali from Mr . Birnie at Glasgow (Head Of Birnie states

of l that the cost lead from ore , including wages , coa s , etc . ,

1 t on as would be £59 5s . per . The lead w to be made into 6 calx (oxide) and ground , mixed with salt (at £ a ton ,

26 i z s including duty) , costing with labour , coal , etc . , £

86 l of the sum is £ 73 . The sa e the silver from the lead at

d . 6 s . d . 5 9 an ounce would bring in £60 75 . and there

of 2 were produced four tons mineral alkali, selling at £ 3

1 6d 2 . a ton , together making £ 5 75 deducting the cost ,

86 S 66 6d . OS . £ 7 , there is a weekly profit of £ . Black

al replied , asking In what manner is the alk i to be aerated ? He adds : Try whether the salt will be 104 THE LIFE AND LETTERS OF

the better of a slight calcination , or rather of a red heat

is before it dissolved in water , and mixed with the calcined lead the effect of the red heat will be to d ecom o M p und the agnesia muriate , purify the salt . Thus ” Calx la mbi the p will be employed to better advantage .

of He also enclosed a letter introduction for Mr . Birnie to Dr . Hope , of Glasgow Mr . Birnie has some beautiful specimens of red lead to give him .

1 8 . a In September, 7 9, Black wrote to Mr Ron ld

Crawford, of Glasgow, saying that Mr . Birnie had told him that he had received very friendly treatment from

Mr . Crawford . I take the liberty to begin in this manner a correspondence with you on the subject of his intended manufactory, in which I propose also to be

C Mr i oncerned . When . B rnie first spoke to me (although this is a sort Of manufacture which I have long wished to see established) I had no desire to have any share in

l d iffi den t the undertaking , being habitua ly very of all

ex ence new projects, on account of the time , p trouble they generally require at first to bring them to a state of perfection . I changed my mind , however, am now disposed to pursue the object with zeal until we Shall be

a satisfied with respect to its v lue . The next allusion to this manufacture occurs in

a 1 0 . . Febru ry , 79 Black received a letter from Mr W

Fullarton , saying that he had had an application from the Duke of Orleans , who was desirous to know the most expeditious and least expensive means of decomposing

a marine salt (or, as he c lls it , sel de cuisine and of ”

r or . extracting f om it the mineral alkali, sel de soude

10 6 THE LIFE AND LETTERS OF

’ B irn ie s Samuel patent , alluded to by Black , runs as follows

A Of i of method prepar ng and restoring the Calx lead , after being used in extracting the mineral alkali fr om - common salt , back into pig lead . By an easier and less k expensive process than any heretofore nown , by which

a means , very great quantity of mineral alkali may be extracted in this country to advantage from common salt .

The process was to calcine the lead ; to collect and melt the litharge the S ilver is thus separated . A mere allusion is made in the patent to the use of the litharge in producing alkali ; it is to be presumed that it was

on ground , mixed with salt , and heated treatment with water , caustic soda would dissolve , and the lead would

C on remain as hloride . The patent then goes to describe the method of regenerating lead from its chloride , namely , by mixing it with on e-sixteenth of its weight Of lime or f limestone and a suffi cient amount o coal and furnacing it .

b - Of The y product is calcium chloride , a combination lime with the marine acid , a marine salt with earthy base .

ord ce Evidently neither Higgins , F y , Keir, nor Collison had succeeded in establishing their processes on a large scale Black must have known of them and he must

or have preferred not to reveal their existence , they must

S have ceased t o manufacture . There is nothing to how

’ whether Birn ie s process proved a success it was

’ probably superseded by Leblanc s . Anyhow, alkali was MD 10 JOSEPH BLACK , . 7

on 182 not manufactured a large scale in England until 3 ,

’ Mu s ratt when p s works were started .

1 0 In May, 79 , Black made a long report to the Earl of Buchan on the best method of burning marl by

of e 1 1 e n the help p at and in April , 79 , he advis d Sir Joh

on for S Sinclair substances smearing heep . Sir John wanted to know whether some transparent varnish could not be substituted for the commonly used tar , which dirtied the wool and Black defended tar on the ground of its having long been in use he does not know whether

’ brimstone has been tried . Hogs lard containing a compound of mercury has been commended and defended

S by Sir Joseph Banks . In using tar it hould be incor

orated p with fat . Arsenic has also been employed , a very

’ small quantity being mixed with hogs lard ; Black thinks that it is likely to operate like quicksilver as a

f r d poison for vermin and as a em e y against scab .

1 1 Mr . Raspe consulted Black in November, 79 , about the best means of recovering silver from horn-silver (chloride) found in Cornwall he had tried amalgamation unsuccessfully ; also fusion in an iron pot with soda

’ ou t (carbonate) . In Black s reply he points that luna cornea will not amalgamate , either dry or wet . Mar graaf has substituted spirit of sal ammoniac (solution of

ammonia) for water, for it dissolves luna cornea but he is sure that this would be far t oo expensive an

or agent . He himself has tried melting with common

aerated fossil alkali (carbonate of soda) , but was dis

for appointed , although this process separates the silver , the latter remains disseminated through the mass in 16 8 THE LIFE AND LETTERS OF

small granules , and there is considerable loss but caustic alkali answered admirably . He also suggested

as for quicklime a substitute caustic , but has not tried i it h mself .

The levying of the salt tax evidently gave some trouble .

1 In October, 793 , Mr . Lockhart , Collector of Customs at — Port Glasgow, wrote to Black, asking for a definition of

’ : bittern . Black s answer was The residue after crystallising salt . The Bittern does not yield any more common salt by further evaporation , but it contains some ” Mr saline compounds which are useful in medicine . . 6 Lockhart then wrote The bushel of salt of 5 lbs . 6 I S d . weight pays a duty of . pr . bushel suppose it was wished to draw a duty in proportion for bittern , what quantity Of bittern would it require to have that duty of r 6d s . . laid upon it (This d uty is £3 a ton . ) Black refused to answer, for he says he did not wish to accept the responsibility to which Lockhart replied that any advice would be solely for his private information . Still Black would not advise but he determined the density of a sample of bittern and found that a gallon would weigh lbs . averd . These extracts give an idea of how Black occupied his

. S time He appeared to hirk correspondence, and in many c ases it must have been somewhat exacting . In Septem

1 8 Crell t Of ber, 7 4, his Old pupil complained hat a letter his , written a year before , still remained unanswered he asked Black to inform him of any observations he had made , and also to keep him informed regarding the f progress o discovery in Britain and America . In this we

1 10 THE LIFE AND LETTERS OF

He again begs a situation for the deserving young man , i Sievers , who knows German , Engl sh , French , and Latin . He again describes flexible sandstone it mainly consists 6 of siliceous earth Klaproth finds in it 9 % siliceous earth ,

2 ar ill 1 i . % g , and ron

as As there is no draft of an answer to this letter, and

’ Crell s letters cease at that date , it is to be presumed

that he gave Black up as hopeless .

’

Black s lectures were attended not merely by students , but also by the virtuosi of Edinburgh he succeeded

in raising great interest in the science of the day . Whether he was responsible for the foundation of a Chemical Society I cannot ascertain but among his papers

t 1 8 here occurs a list , of which only the date , 7 5 , is in his

handwriting, entitled List of the Members of the

S Chemical Society . This may have been a ociety of

persons residing in Edinburgh interested in Chemistry , but is more likely to have been a general society ; the grandfather of the writer was the President of a Chemical

1 8 Society in Glasgow , founded in 79 the Chemical Society of London did not come into existence until

18 1 of of 4 . It may be interest to reproduce the names

of for the members the Edinburgh Society, it may chance that some one of their descendants may be in possession

of some record of its proceedings and history .

N W ard . d erson John W ebster Hen . . J Al Mc Elw ain e S co or an eas . Wm . tt M g D y J Gi P ac e . Hallid ay H . h T ll W i son Ga . as orst er u o . J . F J y T ll m M Morran Frs . on t o er am ac Th o . c S . Bl k M g y

u ac d am Gi es h os. S ain son J o . Bl k A ll py T w MD . 1 1 1 JOSEPH BLACK ,

rn id e rc e s . u W Plu mbe o s d . Jas . Th B A h bb P n r mbie Wm ohns on Corn . e . C u . J t y J Ma ri nks Th C ot ier . Unthan Geo . o ba os . l h J k j Barro Hen o nston . y . J h J w onavan P et er Gem ou J . D m ex evens OSS S a . aco . S R obt . R l M y Al t W m on m . S d s van eu rs G. o er L . M T w y

S ed ic os. ed d oes (am t eem an n batavis) J . gw k Th B m on S eet e . o s Hu gh Brown T . k J Th p G K irkal i m . R o er son d e J ohn Boyt on W b t .

Ed w airc ou . S ro e . Carnfi ch el . F l gh J p l J s Coo e Nic E coc Bic ker McD on ald Th o . k h . l k i hd Gr Ga e os. Ed ar R c . a F . ll y Th g y

An ann Gu on o l . a e . M yt J l y J H yl

The only name that I can recognise is that of Dr .

Thos . Beddoes ; the names themselves would indicate

of that their possessors belonged to all parts the kingdom .

d for About this date Black paid a visit to Lon on , there is of of for a list a number London addresses , and a bill a

’ 1 1 teapot and standish , bought at Chippendale s , 9

Fleet Street . The price of platinum is now about £9 an ounce with

Lu z u rin a that in mind it is interesting to learn that Dr . g

2 for sent to Black lbs . of platinum , along with a bill

6 1 d . £ 3s . 4 . , which he objected to pay He wrote to Lu z uringa : When I received the two Pounds which e you procured for me , I received it as a present , neith r you , nor any other person gave me the least reason to

think that I was to pay for it , nor was I at all inclined

as s to buy platina . I consider it a pre ent from you , it is not more than a sufficient acknowledgment for the extraordinary trouble I had in correcting your disserta ” tion . On being reminded that he had promised to pay 1 12 THE LIFE AND LETTERS OF

for it , he sent the money by his brother in return Dr . Luz uringa sent him the diploma Of the Academy of

M B followm adrid, and lack responded in the g Latin epistle Academias R egiae Matritensis Literas quibus me in num eru m Sociorum CO—opt at u m esse didici t rad en d u s

cu ravit L n u er u z rin a . . mihi D . Ignatius u g M D p alumnus

ratissim u d oct issirne recor noster g s . Te Vir p Regiam Acad emiam certiorem facias me hanc benevolentiae su ae

ere testimonium cum reverentia an irnoqu e grato d ecip . Et illu st ris Acad em iae labores ad publicam salu tem prom ovend am d esignat os socia opera quantum potero ad u van di ercu id um j p p esse . Vale Scribebam Edinbu rgi Sc ot oru m die III t ie Mensis ulii MDC L I J Anno C X X X J. In this way an amicable understanding with Luz uringa

on 2 8th 1 8 was arrived at ; and December , 7 7 , Black wrote : I have not had leasure yet to undertake the set of experiments which I propose to myself on that metal lic substance ; my time has hitherto been suffi ciently filled up with business to prevent my enjoying such an amusement .

Ma 1 8 In y, 7 7 , Adam Smith introduced to Black a

Baert certain Baron de , who had travelled from Kiew to Astrakhan ; he was presented to Adam Smith by the

R ochefou cau l Duc de t . Black must have been at con

Sid erable pains to entertain this distinguished stranger, for he received an effusive letter in French from him . i The Baron , after leaving Ed nburgh , made a tour through

CHAPTER VII

LACK and Hutton were most intimate friends m every afternoon was passed together, and any evenings . It was with Black that Hutton discussed his

of theories geology and John Playfair, the Professor of

Mathematics in the University , and the biographer of

: Hutton , says There was in these two excellent men that S imilarity of disposition which must be the fou nd a tion Of all friendship , and at the same time , that degree of diversity , which seems necessary to give to friends the

for one highest relish the society Of another . They both cultivated nearly the same branches of physics , and entertained concerning them nearly the

O same pinions . They were both formed with a taste for what is beautiful and great in science ; with minds inventive , and fertile in new combinations . Both pos sessed manners of the most genuine simplicity, and in every action discovered the sincerity and candour of their dispositions ; yet they were in many things ex tremel y dissimilar . Ardour, and even enthusiasm in the

of of pursuit science , great rapidity thought , and much

on animation , distinguished Dr . Hutton all occasions .

Of Great caution in his reasonings , and a coolness head f that even approached to indi ference, were characteristic I I 4 M D . 1 1 JOSEPH BLACK , 5

t o . . i of Dr Black On attending their conversat on , and the w ay in which they treated any question of science or

one philosophy, would say that Dr . Black dreaded nothing so much as error, and that Dr . Hutton dreaded f nothing S O much as ignorance that the one was always

of afraid going beyond the truth, and the other of not reaching it . The curiosity of the latter was by much the l most easi y awakened , and its impulse most powerful and imperious . With the former, it was a desire which he could suspend and lay asleep for a time with the

i other, it was an appetite that might be sat sfied for a moment , but was sure to be quickly renewed . Even the S implicity of manner which was possessed by both these

of philosophers was by no means the same . That Dr .

was Black correct , respecting at all times the prejudices

of of and fashions the world that Dr . Hutton was more careless, and was often found in direct collision with both .

From these diversities , their society was infinitely

pleasing , both to themselves and those about them . Each had something to give which the other was in want

of . Dr . Black derived great amusement from the vivacity

of of his friend , the sallies his wit , the glow and original turn of his expression and that calmness and serenity

of of on mind which , even in a man genius , may border

or i languor monotony, received a pleas ng impulse by

sympathy with more powerful emotions .

of On the other hand , the coolness Dr . Black , the judi

c iou sness of t o and solidity his reflections , served temper

the zeal and restrain the impetuosity of Dr . Hutton . In every material point of philosophy they perfectly 1 16 THE LIFE AND LETTE RS OF

of agreed . The theory the earth had been a subject of discussion with them for many years , and Dr . Black

r subscribed entirely to the system of his f iend . In science , nothing certainly is due to authority , except a careful ex amination of the opinions which it supports . It is not meant to claim any more than this in favour of the

Huttonian Geology ; but they who reject that system , without examination , would do well to consider that it had the entire and unqual ified approbation of one of the coolest and soundest reasoners , of which the present age furnishes any example .

It may be recorded here that Dr . Hutton was born in 1 726 that he was educated at Edinburgh High School and University ; that after relinquishing the study of M Law for that of edicine , he graduated at Leyden in

1 ur i 749. On ret ning to Ed nburgh he did not pursue the career of a medical man , but entered into partnership

of with a Mr . James Davie , who started the manufacture sal ammoniac (ammonium chloride) in Edinburgh . At

n the beginni g , however, Hutton studied farming in Norfolk ; and this turned his attention to the subject for which his name will always remain famous , the study

1 of geology . In 754 he returned to Scotland and super intended a farm in Berwickshire , which he had inherited there he resided until 1 768 but in 1765 he took active part with Mr . Davie in the management of their works . It was probably in 1765 that he became intimate with

Black .

’ K a s P ortraits Of and A tale is told in y Black Hutton ,

1 18 THE LIFE AND LETTERS OF

n has i He then proceeded Dr . Hutto ass sted in making a catalogue of your beautiful collection of Derbyshire h . as of fossils He published a Theory the Earth , which you r Excellency may perhaps have a curiosity to know something of . I Shall here give the general principles Of it .

‘ % There are two grand operation s going on perpetually

in Nature . One of these is the gradual and slow demoli

’ tion of the elevated parts of the Earth s surface by the

of action air, water, frost by the repeated impressions Of these agents the hardest Rocks and Mountains are slowly moldered down into Rubbish and dust . The i materials are carried down nto the Valleys by Torrents ,

Brooks , and Rivers , and are first deposited by the rivers during their course towards the sea , and thus form extensive and fertile plains , and afterwards are carried into the ocean by the same rivers which are constantly Changing their beds and washing away a part of the

a . soil , especi lly when they are swelled by floods When this matter is brought down to the ocean or other large f collections of water, wherever there is not su ficient current to keep it in motion , it is deposited at the bottom and forms new stratified matter . This operation is going on r S O f pe petually , and has produced much e fect that every elevated part of the surface of the Earth which we n ow see was once covered with other matter to a great

o on depth . Were it to g without being counteracted ,

’ the inequalities of the Earth s surface would be levelled

and in the course of time to a perfect plain , mostly covered up by the sea or by collections of stagnating water . But there is a Remedy in Nature to prevent such T HE P S P R S B C AND TT N HILO O HE LA K HU O .

’ From a 0 1 ra K y s p t it s .

1 20 THE LIFE AND LETTERS OF

t surface of the earth more than times , viz 5 miles depth of air equally dense with the air at the surface of the Earth would have a pressure equal to that of the atmosphere ; 5 miles of water would press 850 l = 2 atm os heres of times as much , 4 5o p ; 5 miles earth

2 wat er = ro 62 and stone 5 times as much as the , , 5

o atmospheres ; 50 miles of d atmospheres . (The Italian mile is to the English as 10 to The Earthquake which destroyed Lisbon affected the whole Island Of Britain and the Islands of the West

Indies . At what an enormous depth below the sea, must the fires and communications been situated by which such an effect could be produced % At such depths do these fires act in silence and darkness during successions of centuries, and under the pressure of the immense load b al of incum ent earth and water . Their most gener effect is to consolidate and harden into stone Of different

a kinds the material of former l nds , which have long

S i nce been carried into the ocean , and deposited at the bottom of it in the form Of regular but loose stratified matter the strata of sand are hardened into sandstone . Those which contain clay mixed with the other materials

’ c u of f are formed into S hist s s di ferent kinds . Collections of shells and coral s which are formed at the bottom of the sea and afterwards covered with stratified matter , are consolidated into limestones ahd marbles ; while

of the collections of vegetable inflammable matter, which great quantities are also carried into the sea , by many

1 Thi s should evi dently be 850 atmospheres and the pressure of the earth s ou d t ere ore b a s h l h f e tmo pheres. M D JOSEPH BLACK , . 12 1

d rivers, are compacte and indurated into strata of pit coal . It is also evident that the fires must act with all the different degrees of force ; a great part of the materials upon which they act must be S ituated beyond the reach of f their greatest power , and must therefore su fer but little change ; others receive so much heat as to be

t o of softened by it and made approach to a state fusion , and afterwards , when the heat leaves them , become dense and hard ; and are otherways changed in many

’ e Of resp cts, tho they still retain some marks their strati

fi ed texture . Others , again , which are penetrated by a more intense heat , are actually melted , and form many of the rocks and stones in which all appearance of strati

fi ed of arrangement is entirely obliterated . Some part the melted substances is occasionally thrown out on the

’ of Vu lcano s surface the Globe in the eruptions of . But it must also necessarily happen that the same explosive power by Which it is thr own ou t must force great quanti ties of it laterally in different directions among the strata which are at a great depth , and , by its accumulation in some places , must raise these strata and all the materials incumbent on them far above their former level ; and occasion those bendings , fractures , erections, and dis

Oi ou r locations them , which come into view after an

a imme surable lapse of time , during which the materials which covered them have been gradually demolished and carried away .

While all this goes on at such an immense depth, and under such an enormous pressure of incumbent

o materials , pr ducts arise and combinations are formed 12 2 THE LIFE AND LETTERS OF which we would in vain attempt to imitate at the surface f o . c om the earth Water , and even air , enter into the position Of many hard stones which appear t o have been

softened , and even melted , by a strong heat . Water in

of drops is sometimes found included in cavities agates ,

ou r crystals , and other stones , without perceiving the smallest communication between these cavities and the outside ; and there is a small quantity of water in the composition of the greater number of stones and

al miner substances . There is reason also to think that

C heat , acting in the manner and with the ircumstances

of above described , produces liquefactions certain bodies , the fusion of which in other circumstances and by other means is extremely difficult or impossible such as the

Of of fusion calcareous matter, and without separation

the fixed air . Perhaps they receive also into their com

of elect ri position a great quantity latent heat , or of the

of of cal fluid , or other subtile principles a fugitive nature , which quit these bodies when relieved from the great

of pressure and surrounding heat . The example % uartz

or siliceous matter gives reason to form this Opinion .

’ of ext reaml Tho at the surface the earth , it is y infusible , we find in many specimens that it has taken the impres

of sion of crystals schorl , in others from masses Of Felt

a nd spat , in others from crystallised native silver, which Shows that it was once more easily melted or softened

a of or th n any these bodies , that it remained soft after

they were congealed . We find also that it has often penetrated wood or chalk or limestone or shells in a manner which shows that

124 THE LIFE AND LETTERS OF

Of - fered . The boundless pre existence of time of the operations of Nature which he brings into ou r view ; the depth and extent to which his imagination has explored the action of fire in the internal parts of the

c on Earth, strike us with astonishment . And when we sider the view which he gives us of a great river such as

‘ of s that the Amazons , de cending in a thousand streams from the high centre of the Andes , and forming those immense and level plains thro ’ which it flows in the

it s greater part of course , the mind is expanded in con tem latin and p g so great an Idea , the length Of time which the change thus imagined (I may say demonstrated)

’ must have required ; the short-lived bustle of Man s remotest reach of History or Tradition , or of the inquisi tive Antiquarian appear as nothing when compared with an Object so great .

Nor has this system this merit alone . It is founded ffi on the e cacy Of powers which we see actually existing , and daily producing similar effects and it is supported by innumerable facts Observed in consequence of an accurate and judicious study of fossils for a great number of years . Dr . Hutton had formed this system or the principal parts of it more than 20 years ago 81 he has found reason to be more more confirmed in it by the t study of fossils ever since that time . O her authors have observed a great part Of the phmn om ena on which this system is built , and have perceived some of the truths deducible from them but none has perceived them in

or such a comprehensive manner , employed them so

' ably to explain the whole of these subjects . The paper M T D R D M S . . A A I H

N ( T HE A UT HO R O F T HE W EA LTH OF NATION S

’ From K ay s portra it s.

126 ' THE LIFE AND LETTERS OF he laid sure and strong the foundations on which Lyle

o u e and modern Geol gists have b ilt , and disp lled a host of

revolu phantasms . I suppose no man ever effected such a ” tion in Geology as has been done by his teaching .

’ Black s medical practice in Edinburgh was not a large one ; yet he appears never to have dropped it . From time to time he received letters on med ical subjects from

of his numerous pupils , which are little interest , and have

n ot . been reproduced here One , however , is worth i quot ng it was from Dr . Eason , and is dated September, 1 8 7 7 . It says ’ i Dr . Smith s swing ng cure for consumption has been tried here to no purpose we have had many c onsum p

of Dc tive complaints , and such a nature that if the was to practise in Manchester, he would soon find that nothing less than swinging by the neck would cure the ” : disease . To this Black replied in October The has swinging been tried here , and in some cases with

f one good e fect . Dr . Cullen informs me that he thinks of his patients recovered his health by it , and another

one was relieved in this last , it always diminished the frequency of the pulse .

1 8 On the last day of December, 7 9, Black presented a memorial to the trustees of the funds collected for

ti a building the New College , a building which s ll st nds , pointing ou t that the Professor of Chemistry has strong

for of claims a house contiguous to his laboratory . Part

for on his statement is reproduced here , it throws light the conditions in which he carried on his work . M D . JOSEPH BLACK , 1 27

, , one The Professor has it is true only, hour of teach

S ing , but he must pend several hours every day in his laboratory in preparing for the experiments and Opera

or tions of the next lecture , finishing those already begun

or and as these operations often last ten , twelve twenty

is four hours , or some of them several days, he under the

of necessity looking into it frequently during the day , and occasionally must be there early in the morning

Nor of late at night . is this sort labour confined to the session of the college ; he must have recourse to his

t o 8: laboratory at all times carry on his studies , qualify

for of himself the better the discharge his duty . To

t o study books , he can go his library , but he must have recourse to his laboratory when he studies Nature , when

r e he wishes to ascertain o discover new facts . To a com m od at e S him properly therefore , he hould have a house

o adjoining to his laborat ry, with a private entry from the on e of to the other . And supposing the Professor Chemistry should be allowed this advantage over the

Of on Professors Medicine , he need not this account be an object of envy ; his Offi ce is much more laborious than theirs who have only an hour of teaching daily ;

ex ence fewel it is also attended by considerable p for ,

n eces furnaces , glass, and materials . The time he must sarily bestow on his laboratory prevents him in some measure from courting the world , and giving those attentions which ' procu re favour and employment as a

or physician , and he is often employed for the public

‘ individuals in the examination of different substances

f of or dif erent questions which are objects chemistry , and 128 THE LIFE AND LETTERS OF many Of which require much time and laborious attention

i all fla for the r investigation . On these accounts he tt ers himself that his proposal will not be thought unreasonable by those who will be pleased calmly to consider what is - set . Of above forth But whatever may be thought it , he has done his duty to the public and to his successors fi i in of ce , by point ng out what is highly proper for pro m oting the improvement and facilitating the teaching

s u of a u ef l science . OS C J EPH BLA K .

Black , however, did not succeed in convincing the trustees ; no house was erected for the Professor of

on Chemistry . But it is an almost universal practice the Continent that the occupants of Chemical Chairs Shall have their laboratories in the same building and in connection with their houses of residence . In this connection an interesting remark may be quoted, made incidentally by Black in replying to

La e R avenhead G . Bruy re , Of , near Prescott , as to how ” to prevent the formation of larmes , or drops , which attach themselves to the roof of a glass-furnace and fall - into the glass pots . The sentence is In Philosophical

N ew Discoveries Enquiries , the principal or only object is but in attempting improvements of Arts the object in view is to make the art more profitable . It is chiefly those who aim at the first object who are the means of establishing new industries . The cost of living as a student in Edinburgh in those days can be gathered from a note to the Princess of

136 THE LIFE AND LETTERS OF

. t u a Academy Al hough the letter was nat r lly in French ,

’ Of Black s draft his reply is in English . there are many erasures and corrections .

EDINBURGH,

h 1 8 1 t . s July , 7 9

I received your intimation of the honour which the Royal Academy of Sciences has conferred on me by

n electi g me a foreign associate of their celebrated society . Have the goodness to assure them that this mark of their favour and regard has satisfied my highest ambition , and has added the sentiments of warm attachment and gratitude to the respect and admiration which I have always had for their eminent merit and rank among the learned and ingenious Societys of Europe. Allow me ,

Sir , to add that my satisfaction was much increased by the obliging manner in which you were pleased to c om m u n icat e this event , and that I think myself fortunate in this Opportu nity to assure you of the high esteem with which I have the honour to be ,

Sir, Your most humble and most obedient servant

OS C J EPH BLA K .

It is interesting to find , in a letter addressed to Joseph

Louis Macey , Orchard Street , London , in September,

1 0 79 , a letter from Black , docketed Description of my small beam . In this letter Black describes his balance a for weighing very small m sses , such as the globules of metals produced by essays with the blowpipe . The

fi r- s Of beam is a small piece of wood , of the thickne s a B M D . 1 1 JOSEPH LACK , 3

S -r hilling , and a foot long , 3 oths of an inch broad in the

r -r 20 middle and l oths inch at each end , divided into

a 10 p rts , on each side of the middle , each division itself

the divided into halfs and quarters . Across middle is - fixed by sealing wax one of the finest needles procurable .

u The f lcrum is a bit of plate brass , which lies on the table the two ends are bent up to a right-angle so as to stand upright these two ends are ground at the same time on

SO of a hone , that the extreme surfaces them may be on

h -10 the same plane . T ey rise above the table only ths

c Of an in h , so that the balance is very limited in its play .

1 1 The weights are globule of gold which weighs grain ,

2 1 -roth of and or 3 others which weigh a grain each , and also a number of rings of fine brass wire ; those I use

1 - of happen to be 3oth part a grain each , but I have others ll much lighter . You wi perceive that by means of these

f of weights placed at di ferent parts the beam , I can learn

of 1 the weight any little mass , from grain or a little more

1 -1200th to the of a grain . Had I occasion to use a more

one delicate , it would be easy to make it , by taking a

S of much thinner and lighter lip wood, and grinding the ” needle to give it an edge . It is probable that much of Black ’ s classic work was - performed with such a home made balance .

Another piece of apparatus , which has long ago come

’

into general use , is carefully described in a note in Black s

w d Peseli u eu r hand riting , under the title Hy rometer or q l employed by Pierre Jacques Papi lon . It is exactly d like an ordinary hy rometer, with a glass stem , graduated , however , in arbitrary degrees , with a bulb full of air, and 132 THE LIFE AND LETTERS OF beneath the bulb a smaller bulb containing the requisite amoun t of mercury to make it float to the height

r Among the letters received is one f om Dr . Lind , at

Windsor, describing how to make phosphorated lime

s s l in o (calcium pho phide) , by di ti l g phosphorus vap ur

-ho over red t lime in an iron tube . It was lately dis covered by Dr . Pearson , and emits fire , when put into ” water ; this is due to the escape of phosphoretted hydrogen , contaminated with the vapour of the liquid P 2 4 H . phosphide , . Dr Lind also describes a copying i press which he has nvented , and encloses a copy of the page on which the description is written also a number

Of S copies of ilhouettes, very well done . The last letter which has been preserved is one from M Sir John acpherson , who wrote from Broughton , near

o Of Lond n . After describing the method forging platina

: into vessels he goes on I met Mr . Proust at Segovia in

' S e Spain . He h wed my company and me many curious experiments , and finding I was from Great Britain , he asked me about you . When I mentioned my having the i happiness of know ng you very well , he exclaimed

’ ’ % le r Ah c est Patria che de la Chimie , and he insisted on my charging myself with a volume of his works to be presented to you . If you wrote to him to the care of our M inister in Spain , you would make him , and what is

Ma more , his Royal ster (who is likewise a chymist) very happy

Thus ends the correspondence of Joseph Black . I have endeavoured to extract from the numerous letters and

134 THE LIFE AND LETTERS OF

S pirit of philosophy , with the most perfect modesty, ffi recount his di culties , and how they were overcome ; Open to us the steps by which he had successfully ad vanced from one part to another of his brilliant course go over the same ground, as it were , in our presence , which he had for the first time trod so many long years before ; hold up perhaps the very instruments he had

then used , and act over again the same part before our eyes which had laid the deep and broad foundations Of

his imperishable renown . Not a little of this extreme interest certainly belonged to the accident that he had S O long survived the period of his success— that we knew there Sat in our presence the man now in his Old age

reposing under the laurels won in his early youth . But f take it altogether , the e fect was such as cannot well be

conceived . I have heard the greatest understandings of the age giving forth their efforts in its most eloquent tongues— have heard the commanding periods of Pitt ’ s majestic oratory— the vehemence of Fox ’ s burning declamation— have followed the Close compacted chain of Grant ’ s pure reasoning— been carried away by the

mingled fancy, epigram and argumentation of Plunket

S in but I hould without hesitation prefer, for mere t ellect u al gratification (though aware how much of it is d erived ' from association) to be once more allowed the privilege which I in those days enj oyed of being present while the first philosopher of his age was the historian

of - his own discoveries , and be an eye witness of those

experiments by which he had formerly made them , once

more performed with his own hands . A MD . 1 JOSEPH BL CK , 35

Black spared no pains to make his lectures attractive

i ex eri and useful . He llustrated them by numerous p h ments ; Robison tells us that , w ile he scorned the quackery Of a showman , the simplicity , neatness , and elegance with which they were performed were truly admirable And Brougham also praises his manipula tion . I have seen him , he writes , pour boiling water or one boiling acid from vessel to another , from a vessel that had no spout into a tube , holding it at such a dis

’ a S O t nce as made the stream s diameter small , and vertical

not on that a drop was spilt . The long table which the different processes had been carried on was as clean at the end of the lecture as it had been before the apparatus

No . t was planted upon it a drop of liquid , not a grain ” Of dust remained . It would serve little purpose here to enter fully into

’ the contents of Black s lectures ; they are of only

historical value . As already remarked , they were edited

180 by his friend and colleague , John Robison , in 3 ;

S and on p . 39 a hort statement has already been given

S how own howing he regarded heat , as illustrating his

’ o AS experimental work n latent heat . Robison s work

t o is now only be found in libraries , it may, however, perhaps prove of interest if I give a Short summary of the method in which this em inent teacher treated his

subject .

’ Part I of Black s lectures was , as already remarked , f taken up with the consideration o Heat . Part II is headed

f A ou t General E fects of Mixture . fter pointing that

such substances as oil and water will not mix , or unite , 136 THE LIFE AND LETTERS OF

s and n s t he deal with slow quiet unio , such as that of al with water ; then with instances where much heat is t evolved , as in the mixture of vitriolic acid with wa er or much turbulence , as when vitriol is added to ammonia .

He then distinguishes between suspension , as Shown by a mixture of clay and water, and solution , and deals with saturated solutions . Freezing or evaporation will serve to separate the constituents of a solution but certain forms of union are to be decompounded only by the addition of

a a third body, as, for ex mple , when oleum tartari (solution of potassium carbonate) is added to a solution of marble in the marine acid (hydrochloric acid) there is a copious precipitate of a matter identical with marble . He then discusses various theories by which an attempt

al has been made to account for chemic combination , and treats at length of elective attractions . l Part III deals with Chemica Apparatus , including

a d furnaces n fuels , and the various ways of applying

al heat . The next heading is The Chemic History of Bodies he classifies the various chemical substances in five Classes : ( 1) the sal ts ; (2) the earths ; (3) the inflammable substances (4) the metal s and (5) the

al as Of waters . He apologises for not making a speci cl s gases but defends his choice by the plea that the gaseous state is merely du e to the temperature to which bodies are exposed . Under the division Salts he describes cryst allisa tion and proceeds methodically through I , the alkaline ” salts , treating successively of the Vegetable alkali

the i l (Potash) . Foss l alka i (soda) , and the Volatile

138 THE LIFE AND LETTERS OF

on on of short treatise Geology, based the publications his friend Hutton . He then classifies the earths into the alkaline or absorbent earths ; the plastic , argillaceous , or or flin t t clayey earths ; the hard , siliceous , y ear hs ;

the fusible earths and the flexible earths . He describes alkaline earths under the species of calcareous earth and magnesia ; and then follows a long disquisition on ” c om fixed air, its discovery, its properties , and its pounds ; the digression covers the discovery of oxygen

and nitrogen , and a short description of gases in

general .

The compounds of the alkaline earths with acids ,

fi u or comprising gypsum (calcium sulphate) , (calcium ” of fluoride) , phosphat lime , and borat of lime are

then described and he proceeds to Section III , Barytes ,

St ron tites. and Section IV,

of Under Genus III , the plastic earths alum is treated .

al Genus IV , Hard stoney bodies , contains cryst ,

a ch lcedony , quartz , agate , flint , and a fine loose earth ,

al which may be c led silica limosa . Glass and porcelain are shortly described under this heading Genus IV comprises fusible stones these are Feldt spat porphyry ; the gam at the stony matter called schoerl by German and cockle by English

miners ; the zeolite lastly, the lavas , basaltes ,

pumice , and other fusible matters which have evidently been thrown out of the bowels of the earth by volcanic

e fires and explosions . Genus VI , the flexibl earths ,

contains two subdivisions , mica and amianthus , or

of . asbest os . Magnesia is always a constituent these MD . 1 JOSEPH BLACK , 39

After these sections follows an appendix on precious stones and gems . Class III covers Inflamm able or Combustible sub

: I Inflammable 2 stances . They are ( ) air ; ( ) Phos phoru s ; (3) Sulphur ; (4) Charcoal ; (5) Spirit of wine 6 ( ) Oils ; and (7) Bitumens . Fire-damp is treated of under the first heading ; also

’ of of balloons . Cavendish s discovery the composition water and Lavoisier ’ s deductions from his discovery complete the section .

nd Under phosphorus , calcium phosphide a phos

huret ted p hydrogen are touched and under sulphur, sulphides and sulphuretted hydrogen . Then follows an

’ h m o hos hori ro o r . appendix on py p , p p Heading V contains a description of the manufacture of alcohol and of ether a of d ulcifi ed of of lso spirit nitre , a mixture ethyl nitrite and nitrate also sugar, oxalic acid and its salts

and Section VI , oils, is divided into aromatic or essential l oi s , camphors , balsams and resins , caoutchouc , unctuous

oils (with an account of soap) , spermaceti and bees

wax ; the section closes with empyreumatic oils , pitch

and tar . Under Section VI , bitumens , the origin , sources ,

and mining of coal are described .

Class IV consists of Metallic substances . After a

general introduction , in which the properties of metals

of are defined , the oxidation the metals , their solution

al in acids , and their relation to the s ts is set forth and they are then discussed in the following order arsenic magnesium (by this manganese is meant) ; iron

or - mercury ; antimony ; zinc ; bismuth , tin glass 140 THE LIFE AND LETTERS or

cobalt ; niccolum lead ; tin copper ; silver

or gold ; and lastly, platina platinum . This classification is somewhat odd from a modern point of view ; for example , under magnesium (manganese) , the pre aration t p and proper ies of chlorine are described , and

also potassium chlorate ; under the heading Iron ,

Prussian blue , ink , and the metallurgy and medicinal

V irtues of iron are all gone into at length . Under the

heading Mercury , not only is oxygen again considered , but also the oxides of nitrogen and under the heading

a . Lead , the manufacture of flint gl ss The last section in the book deals with waters ordinary - waters , mineral waters , and sea water, with methods for

their analysis . The lectures in their printed form extend to over I 500 pages quarto ; Black was somewhat diffuse in treating his subject . The style is interesting , and a great amount of what may be called miscellaneous information was given . They were , no doubt , admirably adapted to

of attract and rivet the attention a general audience , as well as to be useful to the students of medicine . h W ile in Edinburgh Black published two papers , the

first communicated to the Royal Society , and published

the Philoso hical Tran saction s in p , the other in the

Transacti ns o the R i din bu r h o f oyal S oc ety of E g . The first

of n is entitled The Supposed Effect Boili g Water , in

disposing it to freeze more readily , ascertained by Experiments in it he showed that while unboiled d - water, on being coole below the freezing point , may withstand a considerable reduction of temperature

D M . 1 JOSEPH BLACK , 41

without freezing , boiled water always begins to freeze - as soon as the temperature falls below the freezing point .

l r If unboi ed wate is stirred , however, it behaves like the other . His explanation was that the boiled water is constantly absorbing air, which disturbs it , and thus f produces the same e fect as stirring . His other paper dealt with An Analysis of the Water of some Boiling Springs in Iceland the water was brought from the

. as large geyser near Reikiavik by Sir J Stanley . It w foun d to contain a considerable amount of silica in solution .

his In such pursuits , lecturing to students , preparing his lectures , attending to his correspondence , spending

one or of his afternoons in strolling with other his friends ,

Adam Smith , David Hume , Adam Ferguson , John Home ,

of Alexander Carlisle , Clerk Eldon , and his brother

Sir George , Roebuck , and James Hutton on the Meadows ,

Brun t sfi eld r or or Links , or towards Salisbu y Crags in the evening at the Oyster Club or some other mild convivial entertainment , Black spent his uneventful life . Thomas Thomson says that Hutton was the only one to whom Black imparted all his speculations in science , and who knew all his literary labours ; there was seldom a

s n o day on which the two friend did t meet . To quote further from Thomson Towards the end

u infirmities of the eighteenth cent ry, the of advanced

life began to bear more heavily on his feeble constitution .

Those hours of walking and gentle exercise , which had

e hitherto b en necessary for his ease , were gradually

curtailed . Company and conversation began to fatigue 142 THE LIFE AND LETTERS OF

he went less abroad, and was visited only by his intimate

. t oo him friends His duty at college became heavy for ,

ot of and he g an assistant who took a share the lectures ,

of and relieved him from the fatigue the experiments . The last course of lectures which he delivered was in the 6— 1 . t oo winter of 79 7 After this , even lecturing was much for his diminished strength , and he was obliged to absent him self from the class altogether but he still

f of retained his usual a fability temper, and his habitual cheerfulness, and even to the very last was accustomed

ou t to walk and take occasional exercise . As his strength declined , his constitution became more and more delicate . Every cold he caught occasioned some degree of spitting of blood ; yet he seemed to have this unfortunate dis

of position body almost under command , so that he

or never allowed it to proceed far , to occasion any

of distressing illness . He spun his thread life to the very last fibre . He guarded against illness by restricting himself to an abstemious diet and he met his increasing in firmities with a proportional increase of attention and

care , regulating his food and exercise by the measure of

of his strength . Thus he made the most a feeble con

i ut ion st t , by preventing the access of disease from abroad ,

of and enj oyed a state health which was feeble , indeed , but scarcely interrupted as well as a mind undisturbed

u in the calm and cheerf l use Of its faculties . His only apprehension was that of a long-continued S ick-bed from the humane consideration of the trouble and distress that he might thus occasion to attending friends ; and never was such generous wish more completely gratified .

1 MD 44 JOSEPH BLACK , .

a somewhat fantastic one be divided his property into ten thousand shares and he distributed it among numerous individuals in shares or fractions of shares

of or according to his conception their needs deserts . He had the reputation of being somewhat parsimonious but Robison states that he knew of many instances where

Black had risked large sums of money for his friends . The tale probably arose from his curious habit of weigh ing the guineas paid to him as fees by his pupils ; but this may have been a very necessary precaution , and

S of merely a ign his scrupulous exactness, Black furnishes an example of what is not infrequent of a man doing his best work at an early age . In his case , the cessation of his Originative activity was due in great measure to his poor health but he had the satisfaction of being able to influence many young men by his lectures to continue the investigations which he had not sufficient

n ow energy to pursue . We live in a more exacting age and yet few can be said to have made such a lasting irnpression on science as did Black by his fundamental

experiments on chemical combination and on heat . INDEX

cad em of ad rid 1 1 1 rou am ord a rec ation of A y M , B gh , L , pp i d em of ed c n e aris ac 1 Aca y M i i , P , 73 Bl k, 33 cad em of S c en ces ar s u c an ar of 10 A y i , P i , 93 , B h , E l , 7 130 i uss a 2 c ad em of Sc en ces, , 7 A y R i ( x kfl , 6 o erostation A , 77 CavaHo , 7 7

xan d er Mr . e , , 5 7 Al Caven di s 80 82 8 1 2 h , 77 , , , 5 , 9 , 9 , a m an u ac t u re of 10 Alk li , f , 3 9 8 ’ n cest r ac s 2 A y , Bl k , C aract ers of ac an d u t t n h Bl k H o , Ar aun d am 86 g l p , 1 15 r m ood 6 s es o , 5 9 , 9 A h f w Ch ar es 10 ’ l I , 9 , u t o o ra ac s A g p , k , 3 bi hy Bl Ch r a es M . 82 l , , Ch em ca S oc et 1 10 i l i y , ’ a an c e ac s 1 0 C r st c u rc Dean of 1 B l , Bl k , 3 h i h h , , 9 n 6 8 r r f n 82 a oon C a e M . o d o B ll i g , 7 , 3 l k , , El , an s Sir ose 10 C ar e Sir eor e of P en nic u ik 82 B k , J ph , 7 l k , G g , , arill a 6 6 8 C ass fi cation of c emica su b B , 5 , l i h l — ed d oes Dr . 8 88 st an ces 1 6 1 0 B , , 7 , : 93 : , 3 4

I I I Co ison o n 6 1 0 6 ll , J h , 7 , er m an n 6 1 Cort 10 1 B g , , en ven u 6 Cra ie om as 6 Bi , 7 ig , Th , , 7 rn am u e 10 10 6 e, S , , Cra ford on a d 10 Bi i l 3 w , R l , 4 tt ern 1 0 8 Bi , ac d eat of 1 1—1 Bl k , h , 4 43 Cr n an Can a 6 i l , 5 ac eor e Bl k , G g , 3 Dr 1 1 16 2 2 c Cu en . ll , , 4 , 5 , 4 , 5 , , 3 ,

M . lac R ev . . B k , G , 3

a c o n sen . 1 2 Bl k, J h , , 5 , 7 , 3 35

lac S am u e a Mr . B k, l , 3 D ly , , 74 ac W ill of 1 Dashk ow rin ce 2 Bl k , 44 , P , 7 lac 5 ea t 86 D ashk ow rin cess 1 1 B k h l h , , P , 7 B leachm avie am es 1 16 g: 5 3 D , J , ’ m r 8 onn e ro . on u tt on s av Sir u B y , P f , H D y , H ph y , 7 t eor 12 De B aert aron 1 12 h y , 5 , B , L 146 INDEX

en s t a arat u s 12 D pp , 9 o e r . 1 2 D i y H p , , 9 , 9 De hlo isti at ed air 86 88 o e p g g , , t oun , Lord , 6 H p 55 , 5 Deslon 8 - , 4 orn s ver 10 H il , 7 c o ert 6 k , R , u t chin s 1 Di b H , 4 ’ issertation ac s 2 0 , , 5 , at u t c in son Dr 8 D Bl k H h ,

u t t on Dr . 82 6 H , , 7 7 , , 9 , 12 5 ason Dr 86 12 6 E , , dromet er 1 1 Hy , 3 c c es Sir o n 2 E l , J h , cc es ean 2 E l , J , din u r niversit E b gh , U y c eland an a s s of s rin s I , ly i p g , 49 n d o sam es of 10 I ig , pl , 3 d u cation , , I fl m m able air 8 E 74 75 n a , 7 7 , 7 , 79 c o ord 100 E , L , nstitu t es of edic n e 1 l h I M i , 3 ron corros on of I , i , 7 4 ron m a ea e 10 1 a ren e t 1 I , ll bl , F h h i , 4 , 43 er u son d am 2 0 F g , A , 3 , 5 r Dr e u son . of B e ast 2 F , , f , 5 g l K ames LOrd , 5 7 i ed air 2 1 2 F x , , 7 , 5 3 e r am es 6 6 10 6 K i , J , , Flu l d it 2 y , 4 e 6 6 K lp , 5 9 , 4 , 5 5 7 ’ 5 9 e vin o rd 6 K l , L , 7 , 4 reez n of at er 1 0 F i g w , 4 u l ar t on 10 F l , 4 La ru ere 12 8 B y , at ent eat 8 L h , 3 , 43 , 44 , 45 , asc oi n e C. 10 1 G g , , 6 2 eo o ca t eories 1 18—12 G l gi l h , 5 avo s er 8 —8 L , 7 7 , 79 , 5 7 , erard am es 6 i i G , J , 9 - 9 3 9 5 i d in 10 2 G l g , ead m anufactu re of 10 L , , 3 ass u rn ac e 1 2 8 Gl f , ead il s 6 L h l , 5 o d ores 6 G l , 5 Le R oi 8 , 4 ord on ar aret 1 G , M g , 3 , 7 e an 6 6 8 10 c , , 6 5 , 5 D L bl 4 , r eve r . o n 8 G i , J h , 73 , 75 , 4 ’ ect u res ac s 6 1 -1 0 L , Bl k , , 35 4 u t rie 1 1 G h , 4 , 7 ect ure-n ot es 12 L , im est on e ana sis of 10 1 L , ly , 8 a es Dr . 2 H , , n d Dr . 1 2 l Li , , 3 eat H , 39 n d am es 8 Li , J , 7 7 , 7 ermann 8 H , 5 oc hart 10 8 L k , e s am Dr 6 0 ou d on ohn 6 H y h , L , J , i in ot t om 6 un a corn ea 10 H gg b , 3 L , 7 in s r an 66 6 Lu nard i 82 Higg , B y , , 9 , , o e C ar es 1 Lu z u rin a Dr 1 1 1 H p , h l , 5 g ,

148 INDEX

om son W l am 6 W at er an a s s 1 0 0 Th , i li , 3 ly i , 5 5 , 99 , ran sm u tation 6 W at t am es 6 6 6 8 T , 4 , J , 4 , 5 , 3, 7 7 , 5 , ru st ees of n vention 10 2 8 1 12 T I , 9 , 9 , 99 , 9 i son e an d er 8 W l , Al x , 5 5 , 5 W son atr c 8 6 2 i , P i k , 5 . n vers t of din u r 8 l U i i y E b gh , 4 n vers t of as o 8—1 U i i y Gl g w , 3 Y a s w , 57

Dr a . 6 6 W ll , , 3 , 4 Wat er 0 Zac ar o d , 9 h y B y , 9

PR INTE D IN GRE AT B R ITAIN B Y L I \V I L AM BR D O A ND S ON LT D. PLYM OU H. EN N , , T N OT ABLE BIO GRAP HIES

Letters an d R ecollection s of Alexan der Agassiz

h a s e ch of his fe an d or . d ed . . S S Z Wit k t Li W k E it by G R AGA I .

1 4 s . net .

T e rec ord of the s rr n fe of a rea sc en s . ass z who was no h ti i g li g t i ti t Ag i , t on of or d - d e re u e in u rn as a m or h o o s eo o s z oo o s ly w l wi p t t p l gi t , g l gi t , l gi t , an d rom o er of m u seum s bu t h ad een ra n ed as a m n n en neer p t , b t i i i g gi , ’ fou nd what for m ost m en wo uld h av e been a life s work in the st arti ng an d kl d ev elopi ng of the fam ou s Cal um et an d Hec a Copper Mines. The hi st ory of his early struggl es W ith pov er ty an d the s t rength of will whi ch enabled him to carry through the grea t en t erpri ses whi c h he un dert ook are vivid ly er d esc ribed in these pap s. i T his b ook gives on e a striki n g pic t u re of t he versat it y that made Al exa n der Agassi z on e of t h e m ost r em ar kabl e of n i n ete en th ce n t ur y bi ol ogist s. Th e M a n ch est r Gu a d za e r n .

T he Life of Henry Labou chere B Y ALGAR LABOUCHERE THOROLD

e . n et . With Phot ogra v u re Fron ti spi ec I S S .

His ar e c areer his an d t he s or es . h c h ha e c u s re rou n hi , , l e s v i d wit t i . w i v t d d e asan t o r e as It IS easan t rea n am e m u s ha e m a e t he a s p e o . Mr . ar , t v d lif l t w it pl t d Alg

Th e Tim es . T horold ha s given u s a g ood b ook .

h ma n a an e n h en n rec or of his or A p or ra of t e nd l g g k . A boo of vivid t it ” i t i d w k — /z P u nc . high hi st oric a l val u e .

BY G. M V T he Life of John Bright . TRE ELYAN

um erous us ra o s. . n e . sth Impressi on . N Ill t ti n l ss t

The oo u c ommen su ra e h the am e of it s su ec a e it s ace h b k , f lly t wit f bj t , will t k pl wit % - ' n Th e D a il el a . t he stan d ar d L ives of st a te sm e . y T egv ph

oo of rea an d n eres h ch is an a n ho o o f oo era u re a s A b k g t vivid i t t , w i t l gy g d lit t

a r a n d a h s or Mr . T re e an resen s u s h t he c u r e f a w e ll as port ait i t y. v ly p t wit pi t o rea m an esson s o f c ou ra e ma n n es s and u n s er n u r h n ess ma be earn g t ; l g , li , w vi g p ig t y l t % ' r The Wes t n c m s t er Ga z et t e. of this ec ord .

T he Life of Charles Eliot Norton

- o F rom his Lett ers an d N o t e books. With a bi graphi c al commen t by

SARA N ORTON M . A . DE WOLFE HOWE n et 2 V ols. 2 18 . . T he b est bi ogr a phica l b ook of t he y ear by a l on g w ay is t he Life an d Le tte rs of ’ n -T/ze S her e Char les Eli ot N or to . p .

Early Mem ories by S en ator Hen ry Cabot Lodge

l 2 5 . 6 d . n et .

’ n is Mr o e s en u ne o e an d n o T he c hie f a ttrac tion of t he re m i n i sc e c es . L dg g i l v k w f era u re W e shou e t o u o e man of t he a n ec o es of m en o f e ers l edge o lit t ld lik q t y d t l tt , b t m u s c on e n ou rse es h sa n ha he re er t o Mo e on fe o er u t t t lv wit yi g t t t y f tl y , L g ll w , Oliv W e n e H o m es E m erson and o e a ou e er on e of hom E n shm en are d ll l , , L w ll , b t v y w gli ”

The S ec ta t or . a lw ays gl a d t o l e arn some thi n g n ew . p Essays Biographical and Chemical

S I R S Y LL. n . F . R . S . s . 6 d . net. By WILLIAM RAM A , , 7

' This c ollec ti on of essa ys aflord s m ost a ttrac tive and i nstruc tive readi ng t o a ll t hose who t ake an i n te rest i n t he a ttempts t o solve the man y p roblems with which - n a u re su rrou n s u s. The L a nc et . t d .

is oo t o re a a ou ioneers of sc enc e he r r a s an d he r r u m hs en I t g d d b t i , t i t i l t i t i p . Ev ‘ ' it is good for t he st u de n t w ho has t o gri n d u p fac t s a bou t sc i en tifi c w orthies an d serve them u p hot t o a vorac i ou s ex ami ner ; a lbeit in su c h a c ase it sm acks str on gly of ’ n n old heroes n o u n or h o on s as S ir Thomas Bro n e rem ar s in sc u ss t ur i g i t w t y p ti , w k di in t he m e c na r u e s of m u m m es. an ra e su c h a s u en ou et some of g di i l vi t i At y t , t d t w ld g t he fac ts a bou t his heroes pleasa n tly en ou gh in rea di n g wha t S ir W illi a m R amsay has t o sa in t he resen o u me c onc ern n B o e an d Ca e n sh D a a nd Graha m p t v l i g yl v di , vy , % - n n B r e N at u r e. B lac Kelvi a d e th lot .

A New Era in Chemistry S om e of the m ore im port an t d ev elopm ents in general chemi stry d uri ng % the as u ar er of a c en ur . . C. O S u or of The l t q t t y By H J NE , A th - ” ec r ca a ure of a er and ad o act v etc . ra Cro n El t i l N t M tt R i i ity, Ext w

6 d n et . 8vo 0 a es. 8 8 . . . 34 p g hi is en ou h t o sa ha Pro . ones oes s or h a rness n t o e er one It g y t t f J d w k wit f i , givi g v y so far as w e ha e ee n a e t o sc o er his d u e an d su n t he s u en h a v b bl di v , , pplyi g t d t wit s h s f h h re -The At na m c l ear an d c onc ise su m mar y of t he re earc e o w i ch e t a ts . he u

n Pr b em f h m S om e Fu n dame tal o l s o C e istry , Old an d New f ’ T T S D . S c ro essor o Chem str in the ueen s By E . A . LE , P f i y %

n vers e as . em 8v0 . 2 2 + a es. us ra ons. U i ity, B lf t D y 3 xiii p g 44 Ill t ti

8 8 . 6d . net .

In du strial Chemistry : A Manu al for the Stud en t and Manu fact urer

d ed O S in c har e of nd us r a C em str rat E it by ALLEN R GER , g I t i l h i y, P t

ns u e roo n N. Y . and F D . B T ormer I tit t , B kly , ; AL RE B AU ER , f ly rofessor of Chem str in the n ers of a ne in co a ora on P i y U iv ity M i , ll b ti 8v m an e er s con a n n 0 us ra ons. o a o . 2 . net . with y xp t , t i i g 34 Ill t ti R y l 4 8

W e s r n a se rea e rs t o secu re his oo as a a n s a h h s an ar o t o gly dvi d t b k , it tt i ig t d d f ” n The Chem ic a l Tr ad e ou r na l excell e ce . j

Contem porary Chemistry

’

OU B B SC. u or By E . E . F RNIER D AL E , . , A th % of The ec ron heor etc . 8 . net . El t T y , 4 Spec i al atten ti on has been paid to physi cal chem i stry and to cu rr en t m s at s ca and e ec r c eor es of c em ca enom ena atte pt phy i l l t i al th i h i l ph .

Chem ic al Re a agen ts : Their Purity an d Tests

new and m roved e t ased on and re laci the ates ed on A I p T x , b p l t iti ’ u Transla g K r au ch s an a . . C tz . S C C . of M l By E MER K . by H HEN K

2 0 a es em 8v0 . 6 8 . net . 5 p g . D y ON ON W C L D , . .

T HRESHOLDS OF SCIENCE

d ed for th e n sh an u a e rom n en n sh sc fi r s E it E gli l g g by p i t E gli i en ti c expe t . ser es o f hand sc en fic e - oo s r en in S m e n on - echn ca A i y i ti T xt b k , w itt i pl t i l an u a a nd u s ra d h nu m erous c u res a nd d a ram Cr own e e s. l g g , ill t t wit pi t i g

8710 2 n et car /z . hese o um es m u s c om m end he m se es to eachers , / T v l t t lv t , th d o bec ause e m etho in them is s u n d an d the i r m att er is well ch osen . The you ng st ud en t or laym en is at onc e giv en a bed rock fou n d ati on for m ore ad vanced books on the subjec ts.

Mechan ics

. . . z oo x iii a 0 us ra ons. By C E GUILLAUME + p ges. 5 ill t ti

’ Th m n i a m s a ra n o W e e ol u e o Mec ha n cs s o c e n ro u c o t ha subjec . v . i t tt tiv i t d ti t t t w ou ld st rongly advi se o u r read ers t o r ead thi s b ook for t he sa k e o f t he t eac hi n g m eth od ” ’ t he be r a h e asu re a r The Tea c her s Wor ld . book will e d wit pl s w e ll as p ofit .

' Chemistry

O S DAR ZE NS . 12 2 x a 1 u s ra on s. By GE RGE + p ges. 3 ill t ti

T he n s ru c on s are en in s m e an d rec an u a e a n d t he u s ra ons are g pl l g , ll i t ti iv i . di t g i t ti c ear an d s n c . T o ac he rs t he ser es ro e a e r a e oon a n d t he ma n l di ti t te i will p v v it bl b , y ” l su ggesti on s an d m e thod hi n ts thr ou g ho u t t he vol u m e s W ill be wa rm ly we c omed . Th E u ca ti on New s e d a l . Botan y ' S -- C I a s. 2 By E . BRU KER . S l xv p ge 35 ill ust rati on s.

’ W a h r u h re comm e n he e xc e e n o u m e o n B a n is so s m e e c n t o o g ly d t ll t v l ot y . It i pl h a t he e n n er c a n u se e t so n eres n ha t he a a nc e s u e n W en o t t b gi it , y i t ti g t t dv d t d t ill j y ’

The T a r : Wor ld . dippi n g i n to i t s pages. e che Z oology 6 C . 2 1 a es. 1 u s ra ons. By E . BRU KER 9 xiii p g 5 ill t ti

V r n er n a nd u o f n or m a on — Yk clz l u a r z a n e S oo G d . e y i t esti g f ll i f ti .

Mathem atics

LAI SANT . 1 8 V i a s 100 u ra o ns . . e O er s By C A 5 + ii p g . v ill t ti

e m s f t h e h n i e m h a W e d o not T here is c oll ec t d o t o e b st t i g s n l em en tary a t e m tic s. n n h r o o h c h e s so m u c h i n so ac e ss e a orm T e ac her s of ar hm e c k o w a ot e b k w i giv c ibl f . it ti m r in e e m en ar s h oo s W fi n he m os s u W e a se hem and Of geo et y l t y c l ill d t b ook t u e f l . dvi t ” o e it l o S choolm a s t er . t g t .

IN AC TIV E P REPARATIO N Astron om y

O By CAMILLE FLAMMARI N .

Phy sics

FELi x C E By ARR .

‘ Geology an d Physical Geography

By CHARLE S V EL Ai N .

W CON O O O C. S C . . TABLE LTD , L ND N