Performance De La Chaîne De Valeur Des Perches De Teck ( Tectona Grandis L.F.) Au Sud-Bénin

Performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin

Kossi Nounagnon Augustin AOUDJI

UNIVERSITÉ D’A BOMEY -CALAVI

FACULT É DES SCIENCES AGRONOMIQUES

Performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin

Kossi Nounagnon Augustin AOUDJI

Thèse soumise pour l’obtention du Doctorat unique en Sciences Agronomiques de l’Université d’Abomey-Calavi (Bénin), défendue publiquement le 16 décembre 2011.

Thèse composée d’articles en français et en anglais

Directeur de thèse Prof. dr. ir. Philippe Lebailly Université de Liège – Gembloux Agro Bio Tech, Belgique

Superviseur Dr. ir. Anselme Adégbidi Université d’Abomey-Calavi, Bénin

Photos de couverture Quelques séquences dans la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck au Sud-Bénin. À gauche : en haut, une plantation de teck avec des perches matures ; en bas, le chargement des perches de teck fraîchement coupées dans un camion. À droite, deux formes d’utilisation des perches de teck : en haut, un enclos d’élevage de moutons construit à base des perches de teck dans un village ; en bas, un échafaudage réalisé avec des perches de teck, sur un chantier de construction en ville. Photos K.N.A. Aoudji (2010).

Pré-rapporteurs Prof. Magloire Lanha Université d’Abomey-Calavi, Bénin

Prof. Egnonto M. Koffi-Tessio Université de Lomé, Togo

Prof. Philippe Burny Université de Liège – Gembloux Agro Bio Tech, Belgique

Composition du jury

Président Prof. dr. ir. Brice A. Sinsin Université d’Abomey-Calavi, Bénin

Rapporteurs Dr. ir. Anselme Adégbidi Université d’Abomey-Calavi, Bénin

Prof. dr. ir. Jean C. Ganglo Université d’Abomey-Calavi, Bénin

Membres Prof. Magloire Lanha Université d’Abomey-Calavi, Bénin

Prof. Egnonto M. Koffi-Tessio Université de Lomé, Togo

Prof. Philippe Burny Université de Liège – Gembloux Agro Bio Tech, Belgique

A ma chère épouse Estelle Yêhouénou

Remerciements

Cette thèse s’inscrit dans le cadre du Projet Interuniversitaire Ciblé "Contribution au développement d’une filière de teck au départ des forêts privées du Sud-Bénin (Département Atlantique)" grâce auquel j’ai bénéficié d’une bourse d’étude, pour le Diplôme d’Etudes Approfondies (DEA) et le Doctorat. J’exprime ma profonde gratitude à la Commission Universitaire pour le Développement (CUD) – un organisme de la coopération belge au développement – qui a financé ce projet. Je suis très reconnaissant envers mes promoteurs, Prof. Philippe Lebailly et Dr. ir. Anselme Adégbidi. Tout d’abord, cette thèse a été bâtie sur des bases qu’ils avaient déjà jetées en concevant l’axe 4 du projet (Approche socio-économique de développement d’une filière pour la production et la valorisation du bois de teck). De plus, ils m’ont accompagné dans sa réalisation, en me prodiguant des conseils, en m’orientant vers la documentation pertinente, et en faisant montre de disponibilité pour la lecture et l’amendement de mes manuscrits. Je loue la patience dont ils ont fait preuve à mon égard, ce qui m’a permis de progresser dans le travail tout en apprenant. Je remercie spécialement Dr. ir. Anselme Adégbidi qui m’a fait confiance et m’a offert l’opportunité de réaliser cette thèse. J’exprime également ma profonde gratitude à Prof. Valentin Agbo, pour son accompagnement sur tout le parcours. Les autres membres du projet m’ont aussi grandement aidé dans la réalisation de cette thèse. J’adresse mes chaleureux remerciements à Prof. Jean C. Ganglo, coordonnateur local du projet, qui m’a apporté son appui à travers les divers conseils, la lecture de mes manuscrits, et un accompagnement spirituel d’une portée inestimable. J’exprime ma profonde reconnaissance envers les autres enseignants impliqués dans ce projet, notamment Prof. Noël Fonton, Prof. Brice A. Sinsin, Prof. Philippe Lejeune, Prof. Charles De Cannière, et Prof. Jan Bogaert, pour les conseils qu’ils m’ont prodigués en diverses occasions. Je ne saurais oublier les autres doctorants du projet, Mme Mireille S.S. Toyi, MM. Armand S.I. Yêvidé et Gilbert Atindogbé, pour les échanges constructifs et l’esprit de fraternité qui ont prévalu dans le groupe. Pour les mêmes raisons, il m’importe de remercier également tous les étudiants que j’ai côtoyés, pendant qu’ils réalisaient leur mémoire de fin d’étude dans le cadre du projet. Il s’agit de

i Performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin

Mlle Caroline Séhouéto, MM. Saturnin Akoha, Castro Hounmenou, Brice Missanon, Virgile-Marx Dah-Dovonon, Kévin Affoukou, Alexis Hounhinto, Abidine Koukpéré, Richard Akpovi, et William Sossa. Je souligne l’énorme contribution du personnel local du projet à cette thèse, par son travail. Il s’agit du conducteur de véhicule, M. Justin Anagonou, et de toutes secrétaires comptables qui se sont succédées : Adéline Chanhoun, Episthème Agloboe, Rosalie Guidigo, et Carolle Brun. À leur suite, je loue le travail remarquable de Mme Marleine Agbodjogbé, principale interlocutrice pour toutes les questions administratives au niveau de l’Ecole Doctorale de la Faculté des Sciences Agronomiques (Université d’Abomey-Calavi). Mes deux séjours en Belgique (2009 et 2011) au sein de l’Unité d’Economie et Développement rural de l’Université de Liège – Gembloux Agro Bio Tech ont grandement contribué à l’avancement de ma thèse. Mes remerciements vont à toute l’équipe de cette Unité. Je remercie en particulier M. Fabio Berti et Dr. Thomas Dogot qui m’ont éclairé sur diverses préoccupations, Mme Christine Fadeur qui m’a généreusement aidé dans la documentation, Mmes Nadine Stoffelen et Anne Pompier qui se sont chargées de préparer et de coordonner chaque séjour. J’ai bénéficié de l’apport inestimable de M. Clément Gbéhi. Les discussions avec lui m’ont aidé à affiner le thème et les objectifs de cette thèse. J’ai également bénéficié de l’aide de nombreux amis et aînés. Je mentionne particulièrement M. Faustin Vidogbèna qui m’a fait confiance en proposant ma candidature à Dr. ir. Anselme Adégbidi. En outre, il a toujours été là pour m’écouter et exprimer ses opinions sur diverses questions concernant mon travail. J’ai une pensée spéciale pour mon frère Essègbèmon Akpo qui a toujours été disponible pour lire et faire des observations constructives sur mes projets d’articles. Je suis redevable envers Dr. Carolle Avocèvou- Ayisso, Dr. Fifanou G. Vodouhê, Dr. Sylvain Kpènavoun Chogou, Dr. Esaïe Gandonou, Dr. Orou Gandé Gaoué, et Prof. Romain Glèlè-Kakaï, pour leurs conseils. La collecte des données fut une étape cruciale à laquelle plusieurs personnes ont participé. Je remercie de nouveau M. Saturnin Akoha, pour sa grande implication dans la phase exploratoire, pendant qu’il préparait son mémoire d’Ingénieur Agronome en 2008. Je remercie également M. André Montcho qui a été mon guide, pendant que je collectais les données dans la commune

ii Remerciements de Zè. Je n’oublie pas les enquêteurs qui m’ont assisté, notamment Mlle Honorine Flora Chabi, MM. Franck Ludovic Aboki, Romaric Azonnoudo et Corneille Bodjrènou. Je suis redevable envers les agents de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck au Sud-Bénin (pépiniéristes, paysans planteurs de teck, commerçants, courtiers, transporteurs, agents forestiers, et consommateurs). Ils ont contribué à la matérialisation de cette thèse, en donnant de leur temps, en fournissant des informations personnelles et des données sur leurs activités. Il m’importe d’exprimer ma reconnaissance envers les nombreuses personnes qui m’ont encouragé à aller de l’avant. Il s’agit de : Prof. Euloge Agbossou, Dr. Mahamadou Dahouda, Dr. Pierre Vissoh, Dr. Bernard Ahamidé, Dr. Mathieu Hounsou, Dr. Michel Ahohounkpanzon, Dr. Belarmain Fandohan, Dr. Gérard N. Gouwakinnou, Dr. Achille Assogbadjo, Dr. Enock Achigan-Dako, Dr. Marius Ekué, Dr. Bruno Djossa, Dr. Luc Sintondji, Dr. Frédéric Houndonougbo, les époux Yao et Gisèle Akpo, Mlles Josiane Yêhouénou et Gisèle Sinasson, Mmes Fructueuse Ouidoh, Espérance Zossou, Carole Sossa Vihotogbé, Caroline Hounkpétin, Gisèle Adjovi, et Peggy Tohinlo, MM. Adi Mama, Désiré Agossou, Laurent Houessou, Luc Da Gbadji, Ludovic Andres, Charles Tamou, Augustin Kouevi, Claude- Gervais Assogba, François Dossouhoui, Edmond Totin, Clément Sèwadé, Achille Hounkpèvi, Euloge Togbé, Issa Kétounou, Dossa Wénon, Perrier Biadja, Télesphore Sodahlon, Abdelaziz Lawani, et Franck Lègba. A toutes ces personnes, et aux nombreuses autres dont je n’ai pu mentionner le nom ici, j’adresse un grand merci. Pour finir, j’ai une pensée spéciale pour toute ma famille, et pour mes beaux- parents. Leurs encouragements incessants ont été pour moi une grande source de motivation. Je rends hommage à mon père Akognon Aoudji pour qui l’évolution de cette thèse a toujours été une préoccupation majeure.

iii

Résumé

La performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin a été analysée, dans le but de générer des informations utiles pour exploiter le potentiel de la foresterie paysanne dans l’amélioration des moyens d’existence des populations, la fourniture de produits forestiers et de services environnementaux. Quatre questions ont été abordées, eu égard aux contraintes identifiées : (i) quelles sont les opportunités de relations gagnant-gagnant et d’une meilleure coordination entre les agents de la chaîne de valeur ? (ii) La chaîne de valeur contribue-t- elle à créer de la richesse, et à améliorer les moyens d’existence des populations ? (iii) Les bénéfices sont-ils répartis équitablement entre les agents impliqués dans le processus de production - consommation ? (iv) Comment la foresterie paysanne peut-elle répondre aux attentes du marché ? Pour apporter des éléments de réponse à ces questions, il a fallu analyser le fonctionnement de la chaîne de valeur ; analyser l’efficience opérationnelle dans chaque maillon de la chaîne – à travers la capacité des activités concernées à générer de la valeur ajoutée et des revenus – évaluer le degré d’équité dans la répartition de la valeur ajoutée directe entre les agents de la chaîne de valeur ; et analyser le degré de satisfaction des attentes des consommateurs. Une enquête a été réalisée en deux phases, entre août 2008 et septembre 2010, auprès des agents et organisations impliqués dans la chaîne de valeur. En outre, des données relatives à l’environnement institutionnel ont été rassemblées, à partir de sources primaires et secondaires. Au cours de la première phase, les répondants ont été sélectionnés suivant un échantillonnage par choix raisonné, et les données ont été collectées à base d’entretiens semi-structurés et de focus groupes. Cette première phase a permis l’identification de tous les agents participant à la chaîne de valeur, notamment les pépiniéristes, les planteurs, les intermédiaires locaux, les courtiers, les commerçants, et les consommateurs. Ces derniers forment deux groupes : les consommateurs ruraux et les consommateurs urbains. La deuxième phase de l’étude s’est focalisée exclusivement sur les acteurs clés de la chaîne de valeur, notamment les planteurs, les commerçants, et les consommateurs. Les planteurs de teck et les consommateurs ruraux ont été

iv Résumé

échantillonnés dans le département de l’Atlantique, à travers cinq communes (Allada, Kpomassè, Toffo, Tori-Bossito, et Zè) représentatives des conditions agro-écologiques dans lesquelles la sylviculture paysanne du teck s’est développée au Sud-Bénin. Les enquêtes auprès des commerçants et des consommateurs urbains ont eu lieu dans les villes de Cotonou, Abomey- Calavi, Porto-Novo, Sèmé-Kpodji, et Ouidah. Au niveau des planteurs et des commerçants, les répondants ont été sélectionnés suivant un échantillonnage par grappes, au niveau administratif le plus bas. Ces enquêtes ont porté sur environ 15% des villages dans les communes sélectionnées, et 15% des quartiers urbains dans chaque ville, respectivement pour les planteurs et les commerçants. Dans le cadre de l’étude auprès des consommateurs, les répondants ont été sélectionnés suivant un échantillonnage systématique. La taille de l’échantillon est de 254, 107, 195, et 223 répondants, respectivement pour les planteurs, les commerçants, les consommateurs ruraux, et les consommateurs urbains. Les données collectées auprès des planteurs et des commerçants comprennent, entre autres, les fonctions remplies dans la chaîne de valeur, les interactions avec les partenaires commerciaux, les coûts supportés et les revenus générés par les activités. Quant aux consommateurs, ils ont notifié, entre autres, leurs attentes et leurs perceptions au sujet de neuf attributs, en utilisant une échelle de Likert à 7 points ; ce qui a permis de déterminer les attentes non satisfaites du marché. Le fonctionnement de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck au Sud-Bénin est caractérisé par la prédominance du marché comme structure de gouvernance, une faible coordination entre les planteurs et les commerçants, et une forte influence du gouvernement sur les opérations dans la chaîne. L’administration forestière – chargée du contrôle du respect de la législation forestière par les agents de la chaîne de valeur – joue un rôle important dans le fonctionnement de la chaîne. Des faiblesses ont été observées dans la politique forestière, la législation forestière, et leur application ; mais la politique fiscale est favorable à la foresterie paysanne. Les activités de la chaîne de valeur contribuent à créer de la richesse, avec une valeur ajoutée positive à toutes les étapes (production et commercialisation). Par ailleurs, elles dénotent d’un potentiel d’amélioration des moyens d’existence, grâce à un revenu du travail familial positif aussi bien au niveau des planteurs que des commerçants. Toutefois, les coûts de transport élevés et l’existence de rentes dans le système de commercialisation entravent la performance de la

v Performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin chaîne de valeur. Les commerçants sont les principaux contributeurs, et aussi les premiers bénéficiaires de la valeur ajoutée. Ces résultats n’impliquent pas une iniquité en défaveur des planteurs. Ces derniers peuvent améliorer leur part de valeur ajoutée, en s’appropriant de nouvelles fonctions permettant d’accroître la valeur bord champ du bois. Quatre segments de consommateurs, avec des profils sociodémographiques différents, ont été identifiés. Des efforts sont requis pour satisfaire les attentes du marché par rapport au prix, la disponibilité facile du bois, la fréquence des bosses sur le bois, la courbure, la longueur, la dureté, et la durabilité du bois. Trois implications de politiques majeures émergent de cette étude : le soutien au développement d’associations de planteurs de teck, l’amélioration de l’environnement institutionnel, et l’amélioration des conditions de transport. Mots clés : chaîne de valeur, performance, perches de teck, foresterie paysanne, Sud-Bénin.

Abstract

Performance of the teak ( Tectona grandis L.f.) poles value chain in Southern Benin. The study analysed the performance of the teak ( Tectona grandis L.f.) poles value chain in Southern Benin. This was done to generate the information required to take advantage of the potential of smallholder forestry to improve people’s livelihoods, and provide forest products and environmental services. Four questions were addressed, in relation to the constraints identified: (i) what are the opportunities for win-win relationships and better coordination among value chain agents? (ii) How well does the value chain contribute to create wealth, and improve people’s livelihoods? How fairly are benefits shared among participants in the chain? How can smallholder forestry meet the market’s expectations? These questions have been investigated by analysing the functioning of the value chain, the operational efficiency at each stage of the chain – based on the ability of the activities to generate value added and revenues – the level of equity in the distribution of the value added among chain participants, and the level of satisfaction of consumers’ expectations. A survey was implemented in two stages, from August 2008 to September 2010, among the agents and organisations involved in the value chain. In addition, data related to the institutional environment were collected from both primary and secondary sources. During the first stage, respondents were selected based on purposive sampling, and data were collected based on semi-structured interviews and focus group meetings. This stage led to the identification of all the agents participating in the value chain, namely nurserymen, teak planters, local intermediaries, brokers, traders, and consumers. The second stage focused exclusively on the main stakeholders in the value chain, namely teak planters, traders, and consumers (rural consumers and urban consumers). Teak planters and rural consumers were surveyed in the Atlantique department, across five communes (Allada, Kpomassè, Toffo, Tori-Bossito, and Zè) representative of the agro- ecological conditions under which smallholder teak planting has developed in Southern Benin. The surveys among traders and urban consumers were carried out in the following towns: Cotonou, Abomey-Calavi, Porto-Novo, Sèmé-Kpodji, and Ouidah. In the surveys of planters and traders, respondents were selected based on cluster sampling at the lowest

vii Performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin administrative level. Those surveys included about 15% of villages in the selected communes, and 15% of urban quarters in each town, for planters and traders, respectively. In the consumer survey, respondents were selected based on systematic sampling. The sample size was 254, 107, 195, and 223 respondents for planters, traders, rural consumers, and urban consumers, respectively. Among other data, planters and traders provided information about their functions in the value chain, the interactions with trade partners, the costs and revenues from their activities. The data collected from consumers included, among others, their expectations and perception about a set on nine attributes, based on a 7 points Likert scale. These enabled us to determine the level of satisfaction of their expectations. The functioning of the teak poles value chain in Southern Benin was characterised by the predominance of market driven governance, a weak coordination between planters and traders, and a towering influence of the government on value chain operations. The forest service – in charge to check the conformation of value chain agents to the forest regulation – played a critical role in the functioning of the chain. Weaknesses were found in the forest policy, the forest regulation, and their implementation, but the tax policy was favourable to smallholder forestry. Value chain activities contributed to create wealth, with a positive value added at all stages (production and marketing). In addition, these activities showed the potential to improve livelihoods, thanks to a positive gross profit to both planters and traders. However, the high transport costs and the existence of rents in the marketing system hampered the performance of the value chain. Traders were the main contributors to the value added, and the main beneficiaries as well; but these results did not involve inequity to the detriment of teak planters. There are opportunities for planters to improve their share of the value added, by acquiring new functions in the value chain, so as to increase the farm gate value of timber. Four consumer segments, with various socio- demographic profiles were identified. The results showed the need of efforts to meet the market’s expectations about price, easy availability of teak poles, knot frequency on the timber, bending, length, hardness, and durability of the timber. Three major policy lines emerged from this study: the support to the development of planters’ associations, the improvement of the institutional environment, and the improvement of transport conditions. Keywords: value chain, performance, teak poles, smallholder forestry, Southern Benin.

viii

Table des matières

Page Remerciements ------i Résumé ------iv Abstract ------vii Table des matières ------ix Liste des tableaux ------xiii Liste des figures ------xv Chapitre 1 : Introduction générale ------1 1.1. Problématique ------1 1.2. Objectifs ------3 1.3. Cadre conceptuel ------4 1.3.1. Indicateurs de performance dans la chaîne de valeur ------4 1.3.2. Opérationnalisation du cadre d’analyse de la performance et hypothèses de recherche ------5 1.4. Présentation du département de l’Atlantique, principale zone d’étude -- 11 1.4.1. Caractéristiques géographiques ------12 1.4.2. Caractéristiques démographiques ------15 1.4.3. Caractéristiques économiques ------15 1.5. Structuration de la thèse ------17 Chapter 2: Functioning of farm-grown timber value chains: lessons from the smallholder-produced teak ( Tectona grandis L.f.) poles value chain in Southern Benin ------19 Abstract ------19 Résumé ------20 2.1. Introduction ------21 2.2. Methods ------23 2.2.1. Data collection ------23 2.2.2. Data processing and results compilation ------25 2.3. Results ------26 2.3.1. Mapping the value chain ------26 2.3.2. Value chain governance ------35 2.3.3. Institutional environment ------36 2.3.4. Decomposition of consumer price among value chain actors ------39 2.4. Discussion ------41

ix Performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin

2.4.1. Agents and their functions in the value chain ------41 2.4.2. Value chain governance ------42 2.4.3. Institutional environment ------43 2.4.4. Decomposition of consumer price among value chain actors ------45 2.5. Conclusions ------46 Chapter 3: Socio-economics of smallholder teak ( Tectona grandis L.f.) planting in Southern Benin: a farming system approach ------48 Abstract ------48 Résumé ------49 3.1. Introduction ------50 3.2. Methods ------52 3.2.1. Components to describe the teak planting systems ------52 3.2.2. Sampling and data collection ------54 3.2.3. Data processing and analysis ------55 3.3. Results ------58 3.3.1. Overview of smallholder teak timber production in Southern Benin ------58 3.3.2. Differentiation of teak planting systems ------60 3.3.3. Characterisation of the teak planting systems ------63 3.4. Discussion ------68 3.4.1. Teak planting systems ------68 3.4.2. Characterisation of the teak planting systems ------69 3.5. Conclusions ------72 Chapitre 4 : Coûts et valeur ajoutée dans la commercialisation des perches de teck au Sud-Bénin ------74 Résumé ------74 Abstract ------74 4.1. Introduction ------76 4.2. Méthodologie ------77 4.2.1. Collecte des données ------77 4.2.2. Traitements et analyses des données ------78 4.3. Résultats ------78 4.3.1. Typologie des commerçants de perches de teck ------78 4.3.2. Coûts de commercialisation------80 4.3.3. Valeur ajoutée et ses composantes ------83 4.4. Discussion et conclusions ------85

x Table des matières

Chapter 5: Value added and equity in the smallholder-produced teak ( Tectona grandis L.f.) poles value chain in Southern Benin------88 Abstract ------88 Résumé ------88 5.1. Introduction ------90 5.2. Methods ------91 5.2.1. Sampling and data collection ------91 5.2.2. Data handling ------92 5.2.3. Production-trading account per respondent ------93 5.2.4. Production-trading account per stakeholder ------94 5.2.5. Accounts consolidation and analysis of equity in the value chain -- 94 5.3. Results ------94 5.3.1. Value added in the value chain ------94 5.3.2. Contribution to value addition, costs and benefits sharing in the value chain ------97 5.4. Discussion ------98 5.4.1. Value added in the value chain ------98 5.4.2. Equity in the value chain and upgrading potential for smallholder farmers ------99 5.5. Conclusions ------100 Chapter 6: Satisfaction across urban consumers of smallholder-produced teak (Tectona grandis L.f.) poles in Southern Benin ------102 Abstract ------102 Résumé ------103 6.1. Introduction ------104 6.2. Methods ------106 6.2.1. Sampling and data collection ------106 6.2.2. Data processing and analysis ------108 6.3. Results ------109 6.3.1. Characteristics of the sample ------109 6.3.2. Categories of teak poles and consumption forms ------109 6.3.3. Teak pole market segmentation ------112 6.3.4. Profiling the consumer segments ------115 6.3.5. Satisfaction across the consumer segments ------122 6.4. Discussion ------124 6.4.1. Consumers segmentation and profiling ------124 6.4.2. Satisfaction across the consumer segments ------125

xi Performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin

6.5. Conclusions ------127 Chapitre 7 : Discussion générale et conclusions ------129 7.1. Discussion générale ------129 7.1.1. Opportunités et défis pour la chaîne de valeur ------129 7.1.2. Création de richesse et revenu des agents de la chaîne de valeur - 130 7.1.3. Partage des bénéfices et équité dans la chaîne de valeur ------131 7.1.4. Satisfaction des consommateurs ------132 7.2. Conclusions ------132 7.2.1. Synthèse des résultats et principaux enseignements ------132 7.2.2. Implications en matière de politiques ------135 7.3. Limites de l’étude et suggestions pour des recherches futures ------137 Références bibliographiques ------139 Curriculum vitae ------154 Liste des publications ------155

xii

Liste des tableaux

Page Tableau 1.1. Présentation du compte de production-exploitation. ------8 Table 2.1. Characteristics of the various categories of teak poles produced by planters. ------27 Table 2.2. Distributions of the acreage of teak plots and the total acreage of teak plantations per farmer. ------29 Table 2.3. Differences across traders with respect to working capital. ------31 Table 2.4. Functional analysis for the smallholder-produced teak poles value chain in Southern Benin. ------33 Table 2.5. Access to financial service for planters and traders. ------35 Table 3.1. Eigen analysis of the correlation matrix. ------61 Table 3.2. Correlation between principal components (PC) and original variables. ------61 Table 3.3. Characteristics of the teak planting systems identified. ------63 Table 3.4. Farmers’ socio-demographic characteristics across the teak planting systems. ------64 Table 3.5. Ranking of motivations for planting teak across the teak planting systems. ------65 Table 3.6. Results of Kendall’s test of concordance on motivation ranking across the teak planting systems.------65 Table 3.7. Production-trading account of teak pole across the planting systems for 1 ha of plantation, in the first rotation. ------67 Table 3.8. Production-trading account of teak pole across the planting systems for 1 ha of plantation, in coppicing rotations. ------68 Tableau 4.1. Structure des coûts de commercialisation, en franc CFA (XOF), dans le marché de gros, pour un chargement de 600 perches. ------81 Tableau 4.2. Structure des coûts de commercialisation, en franc CFA (XOF), dans le marché de détail, pour un chargement de 600 perches. ------82 Tableau 4.3. Compte de production-exploitation des commerçants dans le marché de gros, pour un chargement de 600 perches, en franc CFA (XOF). ---- 84 Tableau 4.4. Compte de production-exploitation des commerçants dans le marché de détail, pour un chargement de 600 perches, en franc CFA (XOF). -- 85 Table 5.1. Consolidated production-trading account for a loading of 600 teak poles. ------95

xiii Performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin

Table 5.2. Price decomposition along the value chain, for a loading of 600 teak poles. ------96 Table 6.1. Diameter, unit retail price, and consumption forms of smallholder- produced teak poles in Southern Benin. ------111 Table 6.2. Percentage of respondents per consumption form across consumer segments. ------113 Table 6.3. Socio-demographic characteristics of teak pole consumers per market segment. ------116 Table 6.4. Behaviour patterns of smallholder-produced teak pole consumers across segments. ------119 Table 6.5. Average quantity of teak poles purchased and average expenditure for the last consumption, per consumer segment. ------120 Table 6.6. Motivations across smallholder-produced teak pole consumer segments. ------121 Table 6.7. Results of Kendall’s concordance test on motivation ranking within teak pole consumer segments. ------122 Table 6.8. Gap analysis of the satisfaction level across teak pole consumer segments. ------123

xiv

Liste des figures

Page Figure 1.1. Une plantation paysanne de teck, 2 ans après la première coupe. --- 3 Figure 1.2. Perches de teck dans un dépôt urbain de vente en détail. ------3 Figure 1.3. Carte du département de l’Atlantique. ------13 Figure 2.1. Map of Southern Benin. ------25 Figure 2.2. Map of the smallholder-produced teak poles value chain in Southern Benin, and the derived firewood channel. ------28 Figure 2.3. Percentage of teak planters with respect to the marketing channel used ------30 Figure 2.4. Relative importance of the various crops replacing teak plantations. ------37 Figure 2.5. Percentage of traders who claimed ownership of licences, and percentage who engaged in the activity after 2004 when the issuance of new licences for logging and timber trade had been frozen. ------38 Figure 2.6. Value of a consignment of 600 medium poles from teak planters to urban consumers. ------40 Figure 2.7. Distribution of consumer price among actors in the urban marketing channel. ------41 Figure 3.1. Conceptualisation of the teak planting system as a component of the farming system. ------53 Figure 3.2. Dendrogram showing the clusters identified from the hierarchical ascending classification. ------60 Figure 3.3. Score plot for principal components 1 and 2 from PCA. ------62 Figure 4.1. Perches de teck fraîchement coupées. ------77 Figure 4.2. Système de commercialisation des perches de teck au Sud-Bénin. 79 Figure 5.1. A lorry being loaded plantation gate. ------92 Figure 5.2. Costs and benefits sharing among stakeholders in the smallholder- produced teak poles value chain in Southern Benin. ------98 Figure 6.1. Pictures showing consumption forms of smallholder-produced teak poles in Southern Benin.------112 Figure 6.2. Hierarchical ascending cluster showing the consumer segments. 114

Chapitre 1 : Introduction générale

1.1. Problématique En économie, la performance est une préoccupation majeure à tous les niveaux : les firmes individuelles, un secteur d’activités, une région, etc. La chaîne de valeur est l’un des niveaux d’analyse de la performance qui a fait l’objet d’une grande attention au cours des dernières décennies. Une chaîne de valeur regroupe « l’ensemble des activités nécessaires, pour mener un produit ou un service de sa conception, à travers les différentes phases de production (impliquant une succession de transformations physiques et l’utilisation de divers services), à sa distribution aux consommateurs finals, puis à sa destruction après utilisation » (Kaplinsky et Morris, 2002). L’intérêt d’étudier la performance d’une chaîne de valeur réside dans la notion de compétitivité systémique selon laquelle, tous les agents impliqués dans une chaîne de valeur peuvent bénéficier des retombées d’une amélioration de la performance de la chaîne (Kaplinsky et Moris, 2002). L’analyse de la performance des chaînes de valeur est utile pour éclairer les décideurs dans la conception des politiques sectorielles, notamment dans le secteur agricole des pays en développement (Herbel et al., 2003 ; Lebailly et al., 2000 ; Raikes et al., 2000 ; Rich et al., 2011 ; Banque mondiale, 2008). La chaîne de valeur objet de la présente étude dérive de la foresterie paysanne – c’est-à-dire l’aménagement à buts multiples de petites parcelles boisées par les petits exploitants (Harrison et al., 2002). Ce type de foresterie est pratiqué au Sud-Bénin et porte principalement sur le teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.). Les enjeux entourant la foresterie paysanne sont importants et se situent à plusieurs niveaux : l’amélioration des moyens d’existence des populations, la satisfaction des besoins en bois et autres produits forestiers, et la fourniture de services environnementaux. En effet, en tant que culture de rente pratiquée par des centaines de millions de personnes à travers le monde, la foresterie paysanne est présentée comme une activité pouvant contribuer à l’amélioration des moyens d’existence des petits exploitants (Anyonge et Roshetko, 2003 ; Nawir et al., 2007 ; Russell et Franzel, 2004 ; Scherr, 2004). L’importance de la foresterie paysanne est aussi soulignée, en ce qui concerne la satisfaction des besoins en produits forestiers (Russell et Franzel, 2004 ; Scherr, 2004), et la fourniture de services environnementaux

1 Performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin

(Anyonge et Roshetko, 2003). En effet, dans les régions tropicales qui, pour la plupart, sont confrontées à une forte déforestation (FAO, 2011), la foresterie paysanne suscite des espoirs pour le maintien d’un couvert forestier et, par ricochet, des fonctions économiques, sociales et environnementales de la foresterie. L’étude de la performance de la chaîne de valeur du bois des plantations paysannes est justifiée par trois observations rapportées dans la littérature, complétées par des observations de terrain dans la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck au Sud-Bénin. La première concerne les faibles revenus tirés du bois par les petits exploitants (Maldonado et Louppe, 1999 ; Nawir et al., 2007) ; d’où la nécessité d’examiner les retombées financières de cette production. Les faibles revenus des petits exploitants soulèvent aussi la question de l’équité dans la répartition des bénéfices entre les agents de la chaîne de valeur. En dehors du revenu des agents de la chaîne de valeur, la contribution de la foresterie paysanne aux moyens d’existence des populations dépend de sa capacité à créer de la richesse, et à offrir des opportunités d’emplois. Deuxièmement, d’autres auteurs ont rapporté l’absence d’informations sur le marché (Zubair et Garforth, 2006), les coûts de transaction élevés, les difficultés d’approvisionnement pour les commerçants de bois (Anyonge et Roshetko, 2003; Nawir et al., 2007). Enfin, troisièmement, on note le manque de débouchés pour les produits des plantations paysannes (Louis et al., 2003). Ces observations appellent les questions suivantes : quelles sont les opportunités de relations gagnant- gagnant et d’une meilleure coordination entre les agents des chaînes de valeur du bois des plantations paysannes ? Ces chaînes de valeur contribuent-elles à créer de la richesse, et à améliorer les moyens d’existence des agents qui y participent ? Les bénéfices sont-ils répartis équitablement entre les agents impliqués dans le processus de production - consommation ? Comment la foresterie paysanne peut-elle répondre aux attentes des consommateurs ? Quels changements de politique sont requis pour soutenir les chaînes de valeur du bois des plantations paysannes ? Ces questions n’ont pas encore fait l’objet d’études pouvant éclairer les décideurs dans les orientations de politique permettant de tirer profit du potentiel de la foresterie paysanne, en tant que contributeur à l’amélioration des moyens d’existence des populations, et pourvoyeur de produits forestiers et de services environnementaux. La présente thèse examine ces questions, en

2 Chapitre 1 : Introduction générale s’appuyant sur le cas de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck au Sud- Bénin. Dans la région méridionale du Bénin, la plantation du teck par les petits exploitants s’est développée à partir des années 1970s. Les perches, c’est-à- dire des bois ayant un diamètre compris entre 5 et 15 cm (Figures 1.1 et 1.2), représentent le principal objectif de production des planteurs. Le système de commercialisation permet de rendre ces bois disponibles aux consommateurs. La foresterie paysanne contribue notablement à la satisfaction des besoins en bois au Sud-Bénin. En effet, les perches de teck constituent le principal bois de service (bois de faible diamètre servant dans les constructions et autres petits ouvrages) utilisé par les populations dans la région, notamment dans les centres urbains. Les investigations dans la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck au Sud-Bénin ont révélé l’existence des principaux problèmes énoncés plus haut, en justification à la présente étude ; ce qui en fait un cas pertinent pour analyser les chaînes de valeur du bois des plantations paysannes.

Figure 1.1. Une plantation paysanne Figure 1.2. Perches de teck dans un de teck, 2 ans après la première dépôt urbain de vente en détail. coupe. Photo K.N.A. Aoudji (2010). Photo K.N.A. Aoudji (2010).

1.2. Objectifs Notre objectif général est de générer des informations utiles pour exploiter le potentiel de la sylviculture paysanne du teck au Sud-Bénin. Cet objectif général est décliné en quatre objectifs spécifiques qui sont présentés ci- dessous :

3 Performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin

Objectif spécifique 1 : Analyser le fonctionnement de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck au Sud-Bénin ; Objectif spécifique 2 : Evaluer l’efficience opérationnelle dans les maillons de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck au Sud-Bénin ; Objectif spécifique 3 : Contribuer au débat sur l’équité dans les chaînes de valeur des produits agricoles ; Objectif spécifique 4 : Identifier les attentes des consommateurs de perches de teck au Sud-Bénin.

1.3. Cadre conceptuel La présente thèse s’articule autour de deux concepts clés : la chaîne de valeur et la performance. La chaîne de valeur – « l’ensemble des activités nécessaires, pour mener un produit ou un service de sa conception, à travers les différentes phases de production, à sa distribution aux consommateurs finals, puis à sa destruction après utilisation » (Kaplinsky et Morris, 2002) – est un concept qui a évolué dans le temps. Dans son évolution, le concept a bénéficié de nombreux apports, notamment la filière, de tradition française (Raikes et al., 2000). Il est difficile de rattacher l’analyse des chaînes de valeur à un courant théorique donné. En effet, l’analyse des chaînes de valeur emprunte les outils de plusieurs champs théoriques dont l’économie industrielle, l’analyse des systèmes, l’économie institutionnelle, etc. (Bencharif et Rastoin, 2007 ; Raikes et al., 2000) ; ce qui amène à considérer qu’elle relève plus d’une méthode que d’une théorie (Bencharif et Rastoin, 2007). Pour étudier la performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck au Sud-Bénin, les outils conceptuels mobilisés dans cette thèse proviennent du marketing, de l’économie néoclassique, et de la nouvelle économie institutionnelle.

1.3.1. Indicateurs de performance dans la chaîne de valeur La performance est un concept multidimensionnel qui englobe plusieurs critères. Dans la littérature, les deux critères les plus couramment utilisés, en référence à la performance sont : l’efficacité et l’efficience. L’efficacité désigne la capacité à réaliser un objectif donné (Deva, 1985 ; Fraval, 2000). Quant à l’efficience, ce concept est associé à l’optimum parétien dans l’affectation des ressources (Førsund et Hjalmarsson, 1974 ; Preston et Collins, 1966). Dans une chaîne de valeur composée de plusieurs groupes

4 Chapitre 1 : Introduction générale d’agents participant au processus de production - consommation, l’efficacité et l’efficience peuvent être analysées aussi bien au niveau des groupes d’agents qu’au niveau de l’ensemble de la chaîne. Outre l’efficacité et l’efficience, il existe un troisième critère de performance, l’équité qui est spécialement développé pour l’analyse des chaînes commerciales, et qui se rapporte à la "justice" dans ces chaînes (Fraval, 2000). En étudiant la performance dans les chaînes de valeur, les analystes ont surtout focalisé leur attention sur l’efficience – souvent comprise comme critère de performance par défaut – (Lebailly et al., 2000 ; Zoro Bi et Kouakou, 2004) et, dans une moindre mesure, sur l’équité (Koffi-Tessio et al., 2008 ; Maraseni et al., 2006 ; Vodouhê et al., 2008). Dans la présente étude, nous allons combiner les trois critères d’efficacité, d’efficience et d’équité, pour analyser la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck au Sud- Bénin. Le recours à ces trois critères de performance est justifié par la problématique de l’étude. En effet, comme on le verra plus en détail dans la section suivante (section 1.3.2), l’efficacité nous permet de cerner les questions relatives au manque de débouchés pour le bois des plantations paysannes. Quant au critère d’efficience, il est utile pour analyser les retombées de la plantation d’arbres au profit des petits exploitants, ainsi que les interactions entre les agents le long de la chaîne de valeur. Enfin, grâce à l’analyse de la répartition des bénéfices entre les agents dans la chaîne de valeur, l’équité peut aider à cerner les mécanismes qui sont à l’origine des faibles revenus générés par le bois au profit des petits exploitants.

1.3.2. Opérationnalisation du cadre d’analyse de la performance et hypothèses de recherche 1.3.2.1. Utilisation des outils du marketing pour l’analyse de l’efficacité Partant de ce que l’efficacité est la capacité à réaliser un objectif donné (Deva, 1985 ; Fraval, 2000), il est essentiel d’identifier au préalable la fonction d’une chaîne de valeur, avant de pouvoir en apprécier l’efficacité. Etant donné que la finalité d’une chaîne de valeur est de rendre disponible un produit donné au niveau des consommateurs, leur satisfaction peut être considérée comme une fonction de la chaîne de valeur. Dans la littérature, cette conception apparaît implicitement chez Srinivasan (1985) et Coughlan et al. (2001) pour qui la satisfaction des consommateurs est une mesure de l’efficacité d’une organisation. Cette approche a été retenue, parce qu’elle

5 Performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin nous permet d’aborder la question du manque de débouchés pour le bois des plantations paysannes. En effet, l’étude de la satisfaction des consommateurs permet d’identifier les domaines où des efforts sont requis pour répondre aux attentes du marché. Une telle étude repose sur le paradigme de la disconfirmation des attentes utilisé en marketing (Oliver, 1980 ; Taylor, 1997). Suivant cette approche, le degré de satisfaction des consommateurs dépend de l’écart entre leur perception après la consommation du produit et leurs attentes initiales. Pour un même produit, les consommateurs se différencient généralement en segments de marché, selon leurs besoins (Bock et Uncles, 2002 ; Thompson et al., 2010) ; d’où l’intérêt d’explorer une segmentation des consommateurs de perches de teck, avant l’analyse de la satisfaction de leurs attentes. Deux hypothèses sont retenues ici : (i) les consommateurs de perches de teck se différencient en segments selon les formes d’utilisation du bois, le profil sociodémographique, les habitudes, et les motivations ; (ii) la satisfaction des attentes des consommateurs requiert le concours de tous les agents de la chaîne de valeur.

1.3.2.2. Indicateurs comptables d’évaluation de l’efficience L’analyse d’une chaîne de valeur implique souvent la détermination et l’interprétation d’indicateurs comptables. Ces indicateurs sont développés dans le cadre de l’économie du bien-être, une composante de l’économie néo-classique (Raikes et al., 2000). Sur un plan opérationnel, l’efficience traduit le rapport entre une production (bien ou service) et les ressources utilisées à cet effet (Deva, 1985 ; Golany et Tamir, 1995). Elle est appréciée à travers des indicateurs tels que la productivité (Eilon, 1985 ; La Villarmois, 2001), la rentabilité (Eilon, 1985 ; O'Donnell et Swales, 1982), les coûts (Desbois, 2006), etc. Les indicateurs comptables mobilisés dans une analyse sont fonction des objectifs poursuivis. Dans le cadre de cette thèse, nos questions de recherche portent sur la capacité de la chaîne de valeur à créer de la richesse, et à contribuer à l’amélioration des moyens d’existence à travers les revenus des agents. Deux approches combinées permettent d’aborder ces questions : la détermination de la valeur ajoutée et sa répartition dans le compte de production-exploitation, et l’analyse des coûts de commercialisation.

6 Chapitre 1 : Introduction générale

Valeur ajoutée et sa répartition dans le compte de production-exploitation La valeur ajoutée représente la nouvelle richesse créée par une activité. Elle s’obtient par le chiffre d’affaires diminué des consommations intermédiaires employées dans la production (Lebailly et al., 2000 ; Riahi-Belkaoui, 1999 ; Tallec et Bockel, 2005a). La capacité d’une activité à créer de la richesse est une préoccupation majeure pour les décideurs ; ce qui justifie l’emploi courant de cet indicateur dans l’analyse des chaînes de valeur domestiques des pays en développement (Lebailly et al., 2000 ; Tallec et Bockel, 2005a). Outre la valeur ajoutée, le revenu de l’exploitant est un important critère dans la viabilité d’une activité. Ce revenu traduit la capacité de l’activité à améliorer les moyens d’existence. Par ailleurs, l’importance de ce revenu est un critère pour que l’exploitant soit motivé à poursuivre l’activité (Shepherd, 2007). Le compte de production-exploitation (Tableau 1.1) permet de présenter les consommations intermédiaires, le chiffre d’affaires, la valeur ajoutée créée et sa répartition entre l’entrepreneur (revenu net d’exploitation), les travailleurs (salaires), les institutions financières (frais financiers), et l’Etat (taxes) (Lebailly et al., 2000 ; Tallec et Bockell, 2005a). Le compte de production- exploitation est élaboré pour chaque maillon de la chaîne de valeur, et pour l’ensemble de la chaîne (Lebailly et al., 2000 ; Tallec et Bockell, 2005a). Nous supposons que les activités de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck au Sud-Bénin contribuent à créer de la richesse, c’est-à-dire qu’elles génèrent une valeur ajoutée positive. Les études antérieures ont révélé que l’efficience financière varie au sein des agents exerçant une même activité (Bamire et Manyong, 2003 ; Somda et al., 2005). La prise en compte de ces différenciations est utile pour la mise en œuvre d’instruments de politique adaptés à chaque groupe (Jamin et al., 2007). Nous supposons que, dans un même maillon de la chaîne de valeur, les agents se différencient en des catégories ayant des niveaux d’efficience variables.

7 Performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin

Tableau 1.1. Présentation du compte de production-exploitation. Emplois Ressources Consommations intermédiaires Salaires Frais financiers Chiffre d’affaires Valeur Taxes (recettes totales) ajoutée Revenu net Revenu brut d’exploitation d’exploitation Amortissement Source : Lebailly et al. (2000, p. 9).

Coûts de commercialisation Dans les pays en développement, la commercialisation constitue une étape critique dans les chaînes de valeur des produits ruraux. En effet, vu le faible niveau de transformation de ces produits, la commercialisation constitue la principale étape entre les producteurs et les consommateurs. Ainsi, il existe une unanimité sur le fait qu’une grande attention doit être accordée à l’étape de commercialisation dans les politiques de développement rural (Dorward et al., 2004 ; Poulton et al., 2006). Les coûts de commercialisation renseignent sur l’efficience avec laquelle les commerçants remplissent leurs fonctions au bénéfice des producteurs et des consommateurs (Shepherd, 2007). L’étude des coûts de commercialisation permet d’aborder la question des faibles revenus générés par la foresterie au profit des petits exploitants. En effet, les revenus des paysans dépendent fortement de l’efficience à l’étape de la commercialisation de leurs productions (Barrett, 2008 ; Markelova et al., 2009 ; Shepherd, 2007). La finalité de l’analyse des coûts de commercialisation est de détecter les goulots d’étranglement qui entravent la performance du système de commercialisation (Shepherd, 2007). Ainsi, nous supposons que dans la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck au Sud-Bénin, il existe des opportunités de réduction des coûts de commercialisation.

8 Chapitre 1 : Introduction générale

1.3.2.3. Analyse de l’équité dans la chaîne de valeur L’analyse de l’équité dans les chaînes de valeur des produits ruraux trouve ses fondements dans la controverse sur les bénéfices des commerçants. En effet, dans les pays en développement, les commerçants sont souvent perçus comme des spoliateurs qui engrangent des superprofits au détriment des paysans. Certains analystes évaluent l’équité en se basant seulement sur la répartition des bénéfices entre les agents de la chaîne de valeur (par exemple Maraseni et al., 2006 ; Vodouhê et al., 2008). Sur la base de la répartition des marges commerciales, ces auteurs ont conclu que les commerçants de produits forestiers non ligneux bénéficiaient de profits excessifs au détriment des collecteurs. Toutefois, selon Tanzi (1998), l’équité est un concept multidimensionnel. Ainsi, elle ne devrait pas être vue seulement comme une simple question de répartition des revenus ; mais elle recouvre également « l’égalité des chances et l’égalité d’accès, la répartition de la consommation, des richesses, et du capital humain » (Tanzi, 1998). De même, Coughlan et al. (2001) d’une part, et Fraval (2000) d’autre part font apparaître d’autres éléments dans leurs développements sur l’équité. Selon ces auteurs, l’équité implique une égalité de chances pour tous les participants de pénétrer ou de quitter un marché, et une répartition juste des coûts et des avantages entre les agents impliqués dans la chaîne. Dans la présente étude, nous choisissons une approche inspirée de Coughlan et al. (2001) et Fraval (2000). En plus de la répartition de la valeur ajoutée – qui est la richesse créée dans la chaîne de valeur – nous allons tenir compte de la répartition des coûts entre les agents, pour apprécier l’équité dans la chaîne de valeur. Cette dernière approche a été retenue parce qu’elle reflète la notion de justice qui est rattachée au concept d’équité. En effet, l’accomplissement des fonctions de commercialisation requiert des investissements en capitaux (licences, installations de stockage, etc.). Ces investissements constituent des prises de risques devant être rémunérées pour que les commerçants continuent de remplir leurs fonctions au profit des producteurs et des consommateurs (Shepherd, 2007). Dans la littérature, une approche comparable à celle retenue dans cette thèse a déjà été utilisée par Koffi-Tessio et al. (2008), dans leur étude sur les systèmes de commercialisation des produits alimentaires au Togo. Ces auteurs ont déterminé un indicateur d’équité pour chaque circuit de commercialisation,

9 Performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin en divisant la marge nette par les coûts totaux de commercialisation. En tenant compte des observations relatives aux faibles retombées financières du bois au profit des petits exploitants, nous émettons l’hypothèse que dans la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck au Sud-Bénin, les bénéfices sont répartis de façon injuste au détriment des planteurs.

1.3.2.4. Apports de la Nouvelle Economie Institutionnelle La Nouvelle Economie Institutionnelle désigne un ensemble de courants de pensée qui s’est constituée autour de la question des institutions (Ménard, 2003). Les institutions constituent « un ensemble de règles durables, stables, abstraites et interpersonnelles, cristallisées dans des lois, des traditions ou des coutumes, et encastrées dans des dispositifs qui implantent et mettent en œuvre, par le consentement et/ou la contrainte, des modes d’organisation des transactions » (Ménard, 2003). Les outils de la Nouvelle Economie Institutionnelle sont diversifiés (Ménard, 2003 ; Williamson, 2000). Cependant, nous nous intéresserons seulement à l’environnement institutionnel et aux structures de gouvernance. L’intérêt d’une étude de l’environnement institutionnel réside dans l’influence de cet environnement sur la performance économique (Coase, 2000; Davis, 2008; Ménard, 2003). Dans la présente étude, nous allons analyser la politique forestière, les lois et règlements, et la politique fiscale, afin de relever les éléments qui entravent la performance de la chaîne de valeur. Concernant la gouvernance, c’est-à-dire les relations de pouvoir qui déterminent l’allocation des ressources financières, matérielles et humaines dans la chaîne de valeur (Gereffi, 1994), elle fait l’objet d’une grande attention dans les chaînes de valeur (Gibbon, 2003 ; Muradian et Pelupessy, 2005 ; te Velde et al., 2006). En effet, une bonne gouvernance implique que les interactions entre les agents le long de la chaîne de valeur ont lieu de manière efficiente (Gereffi et al., 2005). Ces auteurs distinguent cinq types de gouvernance allant du marché (absence de coordination) à la hiérarchie (intégration parfaite), en passant par les réseaux. En analysant le fonctionnement de la chaîne de valeur, nous postulons qu’il existe des opportunités de relations gagnant-gagnant et d’une meilleure coordination entre les agents de la chaîne de valeur.

10 Chapitre 1 : Introduction générale

1.3.2.5. Rappel des hypothèses de recherche Le cadre analytique nous a permis de retenir sept hypothèses de recherche qui sont rappelées ci-dessous. L’objectif spécifique auquel est liée chaque hypothèse est précisé entre parenthèses. Hypothèse 1 : Il existe des opportunités de relations gagnant-gagnant et d’une meilleure coordination entre les agents de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck au Sud-Bénin (objectif spécifique 1). Hypothèse 2 : Les activités de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck au Sud-Bénin contribuent à créer de la richesse (objectif spécifique 2). Hypothèse 3 : Les agents opérant dans chaque maillon de la chaîne de valeur se différencient en des catégories selon leur efficience financière (objectif spécifique 2). Hypothèse 4 : Il existe des opportunités de réduction des coûts de commercialisation dans la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck au Sud- Bénin (objectif spécifique 2). Hypothèse 5 : Dans la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck au Sud-Bénin, les bénéfices sont distribués de façon injuste au détriment des planteurs (objectif spécifique 3). Hypothèse 6 : Les consommateurs de perches de teck se différencient en segments selon les formes d’utilisation du produit, le profil sociodémographique, les habitudes, et les motivations (objectif spécifique 4). Hypothèse 7 : La satisfaction des attentes des consommateurs requiert le concours de tous les agents de la chaîne de valeur (objectif spécifique 4).

1.4. Présentation du département de l’Atlantique, principale zone d’étude Au Bénin, le teck est planté par les petits exploitants dans les départements de l’Atlantique, du Mono, du Couffo, de l’Ouémé, du Plateau, du Zou et des Collines (Figure 1.3). La présente étude s’est focalisée sur le département de l’Atlantique ; mais les enquêtes ont été étendues à des villes dans les départements du Littoral (Cotonou) et de l’Ouémé (Sèmé-Kpodji et Porto- Novo), dans le cadre de l’analyse du système de commercialisation, et l’étude auprès des consommateurs urbains. La prééminence de l’Atlantique dans les enquêtes de terrain est due au fait que ce département est bien représentatif des différentes étapes de la chaîne de valeur (production,

11 Performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin commercialisation, et consommation). Pour ce qui est de la production, l’Atlantique est le département où la sylviculture paysanne du teck est plus développée au Sud-Bénin. En 2009, ce département a contribué pour 69,2 % à la production nationale de bois de service (DGFRN, 2010) ; et cette production provient essentiellement des plantations paysannes. En outre, toutes les zones agro-écologiques où le teck est planté au Sud-Bénin (terres de barre et dépressions) y sont représentées.

1.4.1. Caractéristiques géographiques

1.4.1.1. Situation géographique et administrative Le département de l’Atlantique est limité au nord par le département du Zou, au sud par l’océan Atlantique et le département du Littoral (ville de Cotonou), à l’est par le département de l’Ouémé, et à l’ouest par les départements du Mono et du Couffo (Figure 1.3). Il couvre une superficie de 3 233 km 2 – 2,8 % du territoire national – (INSAE, 2008), et est subdivisé en huit communes : Abomey-Calavi, Allada, Kpomassè, Ouidah, Sô-Ava, Toffo, Tori-Bossito, et Zè (Figure 1.3). Selon le découpage administratif, les communes sont subdivisées en arrondissements, eux-mêmes subdivisés en villages et quartiers de ville.

1.4.1.2. Climat Le climat du département de l’Atlantique est de type subéquatorial, caractérisé par deux saisons pluvieuses alternant avec deux saisons sèches. La grande saison pluvieuse dure de mars à juillet. Elle est suivie de la petite saison sèche, caractérisée par une baisse des précipitations pendant le mois d’août. La petite saison pluvieuse couvre la période de septembre à octobre. Enfin, la grande saison sèche dure de novembre à février. La hauteur moyenne annuelle de pluie est d’environ 1 100 mm. Les températures moyennes mensuelles varient au cours de l’année, entre 27 et 31°C, avec une amplitude thermique d’environ 3,8°C (INSAE, 2004).

12 Chapitre 1 : Introduction générale

1°50' 2°00' 2°10' 2°20' 2°30' 2°40'

Afrique N Lama Sud C ou Djigbé ffo #

Toffo 6°50' Y 6°50' Bénin

Y Zè Bénin

Alibori 6°40' Allada Y 6°40'

Atacora

Donga Borgou

S ô Tori-Bossito Y Sô-Ava 6°30' Ouèdo Y 6°30' é

m Collines é Kpomassè h Plateau

A Y Abomey-CalaviY C c Lac Nokoué o Zou a u L f f o # Atlantique # Mono # Ouidah # Ouémé Littoral (Cotonou) Y Pahou

6°20' 6°20' Légende Océan Atlantique Limite des départements Limite des communes Y Chefs lieu de commune 1°50' 2°00' 2°10' 2°20' 2°30' 2°40' Plans d'eau Cours-d'eau Routes bitumées 20 0 20 Kilometers Source: Fond de carte IGN-Bénin au 1/600 000 Pistes principales Pistes secondaires Forêts classées

Figure 1.3. Carte du département de l’Atlantique.

13 Performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin

1.4.1.3. Relief et hydrographie Les données présentées dans cette section ont été, pour l’essentiel, empruntées à INSAE (2004). Le département de l’Atlantique a un relief peu accidenté, globalement plat. Ses principaux traits caractéristiques sont : un cordon littoral sablonneux au sud, un plateau de terre de barre (majeure partie du département), des zones de vallées, et la dépression de la Lama. Le cordon littoral sablonneux s’étend le long de la côte, avec une largeur de 2 à 5 km. Il est découpé par des lagunes et des marais. Le plateau de terre de barre (plateau d’Allada) occupe la partie centrale du département. D’une altitude moyenne de 100 m, il couvre les communes d’Allada, Toffo, Tori- Bossito, Zè, et Abomey-Calavi. Quant à la région des vallées, elle comprend les bordures des lacs et les vallées des fleuves. Enfin, la dépression de la Lama, située dans la partie Nord du département, est un vaste sillon qui sépare le plateau d’Abomey au nord de celui d’Allada au sud. Le réseau hydrographique comporte des plans d’eau et des cours d’eau. Les lacs Nokoué (150 km 2) et Ahémé (85 km 2) sont les principaux plans d’eau. Ils sont reliés aux deux plus importants cours d’eau du département, à savoir : le fleuve Couffo qui se jette dans le lac Ahémé à l’ouest, et la rivière Sô qui se jette dans le lac Nokoué à l’est (Figure 1.3). Le réseau hydrographique comprend aussi une façade maritime (océan Atlantique), des petits lacs, la lagune côtière, des marais le long de la côte, des marécages, et des marigots saisonniers.

1.4.1.4. Sols Quatre types de sols sont rencontrés dans le département de l’Atlantique : les terres de barre (majeure partie du département), les vertisols, les sols minéraux bruts et peu évolués, et les sols hydromorphes. Les plantations paysannes de teck sont réalisées sur les terres de barre et les vertisols. Les terres de barres constituent le principal type de sol développé sur les plateaux. Les vertisols, sols argileux de couleur sombre en surface, sont caractéristiques de la dépression de la Lama au Nord. Les sols minéraux bruts et peu évolués sont rencontrés sur le cordon littoral. Leur texture est faite de sable, avec une teneur atteignant 90 % par endroits (Azontondé, 1991). Enfin, les sols hydromorphes, caractérisés par une présence plus ou

14 Chapitre 1 : Introduction générale moins prolongée d’eau, sont localisés dans les vallées des cours d’eau et aux abords des plans d’eau du cordon littoral (Azontondé, 1991).

1.4.1.5. Végétation et faune La mosaïque de forêts denses semi-décidues et de savanes guinéennes, végétation originelle de la région est largement dégradée, laissant place à des espaces cultivés parsemés d’îlots forestiers de faible étendue (Adomou, 2005). Ces reliques de la végétation naturelle sont conservées par les populations sous forme de forêts sacrées (Kokou et Sokpon, 2006). En ce qui concerne la faune, elle a aussi régressé, à cause de la destruction de ses habitats. Cependant, des espèces telles que l’aulacode ( Thryonomys swinderianus ) et le lièvre ( Lepus crawshayi ) sont rencontrées dans les jachères.

1.4.2. Caractéristiques démographiques La population du département de l’Atlantique est estimée en 2011 à 1 073 709 habitants, soit 11,8 % de la population béninoise sur 2,8 % du territoire (INSAE, 2008). Cette population est majoritairement de sexe féminin (50,9 %). La densité de population est de 332 habitants/km 2, mais elle n’est pas uniforme d’une commune à l’autre. La commune d’Abomey- Calavi a la plus forte densité : 571 habitants/km 2 en 2006 1 (INSAE, 2006). En effet, cette commune connaît une urbanisation rapide, à cause de la proximité de Cotonou, plus grande ville et principal centre économique du Bénin. Cette poussée urbaine est porteuse d’une demande pour les perches de teck, principal bois de construction dans la région. Les groupes socioculturels dominants dans le département sont : les Aïzo , les Fon , et les Toffin qui représentent respectivement 32,6 %, 28,9 %, et 9,5 % de la population (INSAE, 2003).

1.4.3. Caractéristiques économiques Les principaux secteurs économiques du département de l’Atlantique sont l’agriculture, la sylviculture, le commerce, et l’artisanat.

1 Les plus récentes projections de la population disponibles à l’échelle des communes portent sur l’année 2006.

15 Performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin

1.4.3.1. Agriculture L’agriculture occupe 30 % de la population active du département (INSAE, 2004). Elle englobe la production végétale, l’élevage, et la pêche. La production végétale est la principale composante des activités agricoles. La superficie de terres cultivables du département est de 240 000 ha dont moins de 100 000 ha cultivées (CeRPA Atlantique-Littoral, 2007 ; INSAE, 2004). Deux saisons culturales sont pratiquées, conformément à la distribution des pluies (grande saison et petite saison des pluies). Les cultures les plus pratiquées sont : le maïs, le manioc, la patate douce, le niébé, l’arachide, l’ananas, les cultures maraîchères, et les plantes pérennes. Le maïs et le manioc, base de l’alimentation des populations, viennent largement en tête. Ils totalisent ensemble plus de 80 % des superficies emblavées (CeRPA Atlantique-Littoral, 2007). L’ananas constitue une culture de rente en pleine expansion dans le département. Sa production est concentrée dans les communes d’Allada, Tori-Bossito et Zè. Les cultures maraîchères (tomate et légumes-feuilles) se développent, en réponse à la demande urbaine. En ce qui concerne les plantes pérennes, il y a la culture du palmier à huile qui est plus développée sur le plateau de terre de barre. Outre les palmeraies paysannes, le département abrite 10 854 ha de palmeraies industrielles (CeRPA Atlantique-Littoral, 2007) installées à partir des années 1970 sur des terres expropriées aux paysans. Au début de la décennie 1990, ces palmeraies ont été rétrocédées aux populations locales organisées en coopératives. Les autres cultures pérennes sont : les plantations de cocotier sur le cordon littoral, les agrumes et le manguier sur le plateau de terre de barre. L’élevage est généralement de type traditionnel et porte sur la volaille, les ovins, les caprins, les porcins et, dans une moindre mesure, les bovins. Au cours des dernières années, on note le développement de la cuniculture et de l’élevage d’aulacode. Les activités de pêches comprennent la pêche continentale et la pêche maritime (artisanale et industrielle). La pêche continentale est développée dans les communes d’Abomey-Calavi, Sô-Ava, et Kpomassè. Le non-respect des normes pour les engins de pêche entraîne la surexploitation de la ressource ; d’où une menace pour la durabilité de l’activité. La pêche

16 Chapitre 1 : Introduction générale maritime est pratiquée surtout dans la commune de Ouidah, et mobilise aussi bien les nationaux que des expatriés.

1.4.3.2. Sylviculture La sylviculture est pratiquée par l’Etat (plantations domaniales) et par les agriculteurs (plantations paysannes). Les plantations domaniales sont de type industriel, et sont localisées dans les forêts classées. Dans le département de l’Atlantique, les forêts classées (Djigbé, Lama-Sud, Pahou, et Ouèdo ; voir Figure 1.3) couvrent une superficie totale de 13 651 ha (MEPN et PNUD, 2009). L’essentiel de cette superficie est affecté aux plantations. Le teck est l’essence la plus plantée, suivi de l’acacia ( Acacia auriculiformis A. Cunn. ex Benth.). Les plantations domaniales de teck sont gérées par l’Office National du Bois (ONAB), pour la production de bois d’œuvre. Quant aux plantations domaniales d’acacia, elles sont destinées à approvisionner les centres urbains en bois de feu. Teck et acacia sont aussi les essences les plus plantées dans les agriculteurs. La foresterie paysanne est la principale pourvoyeuse de bois de service dans la région, grâce aux perches de teck et d’acacia.

1.4.3.3. Commerce et artisanat Le commerce occupe 32 % de la population active du département (INSAE, 2004). Les échanges commerciaux portent sur de nombreux produits locaux et importés (produits agricoles bruts, produits manufacturés, produits artisanaux, etc.). Le département abrite une cinquantaine de marchés qui s’animent à une périodicité de cinq jours (INSAE, 2004). En ce qui concerne les activités artisanales, elles sont diversifiées et concernent surtout l’artisanat de service et l’artisanat de production (réparations diverses, vannerie, couture, menuiserie, maçonnerie, etc.).

1.5. Structuration de la thèse La présente thèse est une compilation de cinq (5) articles complétés par ce chapitre introductif, et un dernier chapitre consacré à la discussion générale et aux conclusions, soit sept (7) chapitres au total. Les chapitres 2 à 6 correspondent aux articles qui se présentent comme suit :

17 Performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin

Chapitre 2: Functioning of farm-grown timber value chains: lessons from the smallholder-produced teak ( Tectona grandis L.f.) poles value chain in Southern Benin ; Chapitre 3 : Socio-economics of smallholder teak ( Tectona grandis L.f.) planting in Southern Benin: a farming system approach ; Chapitre 4 : Coûts et valeur ajoutée dans la commercialisation des perches de teck au Sud-Bénin ; Chapitre 5 : Value added and equity in the smallholder-produced teak (Tectona grandis L.f.) poles value chain in Southern Benin ; Chapitre 6 : Satisfaction across urban consumers of smallholder-produced teak ( Tectona grandis L.f.) poles in Southern Benin. Le chapitre 2 est consacré à l’objectif spécifique n° 1, notamment l’analyse du fonctionnement de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck au Sud-Bénin. Ce chapitre permet l’identification de tous les agents impliqués dans la chaîne de valeur, et l’analyse des interactions entre eux. L’objectif spécifique n° 2 est traité dans les chapitres 3 et 4 qui évaluent respectivement l’efficience au niveau des planteurs de teck et des commerçants de perches de teck. Le chapitre 5 est consacré à la détermination de la valeur ajoutée générée par l’ensemble de la chaîne de valeur, et l’étude de l’équité dans sa répartition entre les agents de la chaîne (objectif spécifique n° 3). Ensemble, les chapitres 2, 3, 4 et en partie le chapitre 5, nous permettent de traiter de la question de l’efficience dans la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck au Sud- Bénin. Le chapitre 6 traite de l’objectif spécifique n° 4, c’est-à-dire l’identification des attentes à satisfaire au niveau des consommateurs, la composante efficacité de la performance.

Chapter 2: Functioning of farm-grown timber value chains: lessons from the smallholder-produced teak ( Tectona grandis L.f.) poles value chain in Southern Benin

Aoudji, A.K.N., Adégbidi, A., Agbo, V., Atindogbé, G., Toyi, S.S.M., Yêvidé, A.S.I., Ganglo, J.C., Lebailly, P., 2012. Forest Policy and Economics, doi: 10.1016/j.forpol.2011.10.004.

Abstract The study examined the functioning of the smallholder-produced teak poles value chain in Southern Benin from an analytical perspective combining the governance structure, the institutional environment, and the distribution of consumer price among chain actors. The objective was to identify bottlenecks militating against improved functioning of the farm-grown timber value chains. A fieldwork was carried from August 2008 to September 2010, to identify the agents and the organisations involved in the value chain. Data were collected on the functions performed, the costs borne and the income received by each category of agent, the marketing channels within the value chain, the interactions among agents, the consumption of the product, and the role of the organisations connected to the value chain. This was done by combining semi-structured interviews, focus group meetings, and structured interviews. In addition, data were collected on the institutional environment from both primary and secondary sources. The following agents were involved in the value chain: nurserymen, planters, local intermediaries, brokers, traders, and consumers. The forest service was the main governmental organisation involved in the functioning of the value chain. The governance structure in the value chain was driven by a mixture of government and the market. Various weaknesses were found in the forest policy, the forest regulation and their implementation. Planters’ share of consumer price was lower than traders’ return. The relevant policy options to address these issues were discussed. Keywords : value chain; functioning; governance; institutional environment; smallholder forestry; timber.

19 Performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin

Résumé

Fonctionnement des chaînes de valeur de bois de ferme : enseignements à partir de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck au Sud-Bénin. L’étude a analysé le fonctionnement de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck au Sud-Bénin suivant un cadre analytique qui combine les structures de gouvernance, l’environnement institutionnel, et la répartition du prix du consommateurs entre les agents de la chaîne. L’objectif était de mettre en lumière les goulots d’étranglement qui entravent le bon fonctionnement des chaînes de valeur du bois des plantations paysannes. Une enquête a été réalisée, entre août 2008 et septembre 2010, afin d’identifier les agents et les organisations impliqués dans la chaîne de valeur. Des données ont été collectées sur les fonctions remplies, les coûts supportés et les revenus reçus par chaque catégorie d’agent, les circuits de commercialisation dans la chaîne de valeur, les interactions entre agents, les formes de consommation du produit, et le rôle des organisations impliquées dans la chaîne de valeur. Ces données ont été collectées grâce à des interviews semi-structurées, des focus groupes, et des entretiens structurés. En outre, des données relatives à l’environnement institutionnel ont été rassemblées à partir de sources primaires et secondaires. Les agents participant à la chaîne de valeur sont : les pépiniéristes, les planteurs, les intermédiaires locaux, les courtiers, les commerçants, et les consommateurs. L’administration forestière est la principale organisation gouvernementale impliquée dans le fonctionnement de la chaîne de valeur. La structure de gouvernance est caractérisée par le marché, ainsi qu’une forte influence du gouvernement sur la chaîne de valeur. Des faiblesses ont été observées dans la politique forestière, la législation forestière, et leur application. Les options de politiques pour résoudre les problèmes identifiés ont été discutées. Mots clés : chaîne de valeur, fonctionnement, gouvernance, environnement institutionnel, foresterie paysanne, bois.

20 Chapitre 2 : Functioning of farm-grown timber value chains: lessons from the smallholder- produced teak ( Tectona grandis L.f.) poles value chain in Southern Benin

2.1. Introduction Market-oriented agriculture has become a major development strategy in most developing countries (Dorward et al., 2004; Jama and Pizarro, 2008). Despite the liberalisation in recent decades, the efficiency of markets in developing countries is still hampered by coordination failures, high transaction costs (Dorward et al., 2005; Poulton et al., 2006), imperfect and asymmetric information, lack of market institutions, and uncertainty concerning government policy (Coulter and Onumah, 2002). In recent decades, smallholder forestry – i.e. the multipurpose management of small woodlots by smallholder farmers (Harrison et al., 2002) – has been gaining more and more importance. Hundreds of millions of smallholder farmers are engaged in tree planting for various purposes (Ramadhani et al., 2002; Russell and Franzel, 2004; Scherr, 2004). Considering the alarming deforestation rate in most developing countries (FAO, 2011), and the growing demand for forest products (Scherr, 2004), smallholder forestry is expected to play a critical role in the forestry sector. Smallholder forestry is socially desirable, to provide forest products as well as environmental service. This activity is often viewed as a potential contributor to the improvement of the livelihoods of smallholder farmers (Anyonge and Roshetko, 2003; Russell and Franzel, 2004; Scherr, 2004). The management of small woodlots can generate substantial income to complement agricultural revenue. However, efficient markets are to play a critical role to capture this potential. It is known that the potential for smallholder farmers to draw income from their produce depends widely on the efficiency in marketing (Barrett, 2008; Dorward et al., 2004; Markelova et al., 2009). Unfortunately, various problems constrain both traders and smallholder farmers, regarding the marketing of farm-grown timber around the world. These include the lack of market information, high transaction costs, difficulties for traders to get timber supplies (Anyonge and Roshetko, 2003; Nawir et al., 2007), and the low return to smallholder farmers (Maldonado and Louppe, 1999; Nawir et al., 2007). The above remarks justify efforts to understand the functioning of smallholder-produced timber markets, so as to identify areas where interventions can improve the functioning of the industry as a whole. The rationale for targeting the overall functioning is that efforts to upgrade the

21 Performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin performance of individual firms in a region may have limited impact if they are “embedded in a sea inefficiency” (Kaplinsky and Moris, 2002). Accordingly, the value chain framework has emerged as a relevant tool to analyse industries. “The value chain describes the full range of activities which are required to bring a product or service from conception, through the different phases of production (involving a combination of physical transformation and the input of various producer services), delivery to final consumers, and final disposal after use” (Kaplinsky and Morris, 2002). Although the value chain analysis is mainly viewed as an analytical tool for understanding the way firms and countries participate in the global economy – i.e. global value chains – “it is also useful as an analytical tool in understanding the policy environment which provides for the efficient allocation of resources within the domestic economy” (Kaplinsky and Morris, 2002). The focus of the current study is about the latter aspect of value chain analysis, i.e. the analysis of domestic value chains. The objective of this study was to identify bottlenecks militating against improved functioning of the farm-grown timber value chains. We examined the case of the smallholder-produced teak poles value chain in Southern Benin which provides a case study to assess the functioning of farm-grown timber value chains. Teak planting by smallholder farmers has developed widely in Southern Benin. Pole – meaning here, timber with diameter ranging from 5 to 15 cm – was farmers’ main production objective. Value chains are usually described through four core elements, namely an input–output structure or the value–added sequence from production to consumption; a territorial structure i.e. the geographical concentration and/or dispersion of the activities; a governance structure that refers to the power relations that determine how financial, material and human resources are allocated within the chain; and an institutional framework that identifies how local, national, and international contexts influence activities within chains (Gereffi, 1994). However, there is no single way to carry out a value chain analysis (Kaplinsky and Moris, 2002), so that the aspects dealt with in a given study widely depend on the researcher’s purposes. In the current study, we mapped the value chain and then we focused mainly on the governance structure and the institutional environment. A good value chain governance ensures that interactions between firms along the value chain are efficient (Gereffi et al., 2005). There are five types of governance, from low

22 Chapitre 2 : Functioning of farm-grown timber value chains: lessons from the smallholder- produced teak ( Tectona grandis L.f.) poles value chain in Southern Benin coordination level to high coordination level: market, modular, relational, captive, and hierarchy (Gereffi et al., 2005). With regard to the importance of the institutional framework, it is known that economic performance is influenced by the institutional environment (Beck and Laeven, 2006; Davis, 2008; Nelson and Sampat, 2001). Lastly, we dealt with the input–output structure, but this aspect was treated at the surface level, based on the decomposition of consumer price among value chain actors. The main questions that were intended to be addressed in this chapter are as follows: What are the potential for win–win relationships and better coordination within the value chain? What policy changes are needed to back smallholder-produced timber value chains? Although the setting of this study is Southern Benin, the above questions are relevant to enlighten policy makers in most developing countries, considering similarities such as the prevailing deforestation, the development of tree plantation on-farm, and market inefficiencies.

2.2. Methods 2.2.1. Data collection A field work was conducted in Southern Benin (Figure 2.1), from August 2008 to September 2010. The research approach used was built on existing guidelines for value chain analysis (Kaplinsky and Moris, 2002; Lebailly et al., 2000; Tallec and Bockel, 2005b). Data collection was organised in two stages. The first stage consisted in identifying products flows and the operations performed from production to consumption, identifying all the agents connected to the value chain, and getting an overview of their respective functions. For this purpose, teak planters were chosen as the starting point. The value chain was then followed until we reached the end- consumers. A given category of agent was identified by relying on information provided by his trade partners. During this stage, respondents were selected based on purposive sampling. Data were collected based on semi-structured interviews, and focus group meetings. The organisations involved in the functioning of the value chain were also surveyed. Lastly, information on the institutional environment was collected from both secondary and primary sources.

23 Performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin

The first stage enabled us to differentiate two categories of agents connected to the value chain: (i) the direct agents who were those having the product ownership at a given time along the chain (planters, traders, and consumers), and (ii) the indirect agents who intervened merely in the functioning of the value chain. During the second stage, we focused exclusively on the direct agents, by carrying out in-depth surveys. Teak planters and rural consumers – also referred to as local consumers – were surveyed in the Atlantique Department, across five communes representative of the agro-ecological conditions under which smallholder teak plantations developed in Southern Benin, namely Allada, Kpomassè, Toffo, Tori-Bossito, and Zè (Figure 2.1). Surveys among traders and urban consumers were carried out in five cities (Cotonou, Abomey-Calavi, Porto-Novo, Sèmé-Kpodji, and Ouidah). Metropolitan centres were known as the major consumption centres of teak poles in Southern Benin; and traders have settled outlets there, to ensure the availability of this product to consumers. In the surveys among planters and traders, the respondents were selected based on cluster sampling at the lowest administrative level (village for planters, and city quarter for traders). Those surveys randomly covered about 15% of villages in the selected communes, and 15% of urban quarters in each town, for planters and traders, respectively. With regard to surveys of consumers – both local and urban consumers – the interviewees were selected by using a systematic sampling procedure (see further details in chapter 6; section 6.2.1). The number of respondents interviewed was 254, 107, 223, and 195 for planters, traders, urban consumers, and rural consumers, respectively. Data were collected through face-to-face interviews, using standardised questionnaires. At this stage, we were assisted in data collection by two enumerators. Planters and traders provided information about their functions in the value chain, the marketing channel used, their interactions with other chain partners (commercial exchanges, access to market information, access to financial service, association membership), the costs borne, and the revenues generated by their activities in the value chain. Consumers provided data on the various consumption forms of teak poles 2.

2 Many other data were collected during the in-depth surveys, but those data are presented in the following chapters.

24 Chapitre 2 : Functioning of farm-grown timber value chains: lessons from the smallholder- produced teak ( Tectona grandis L.f.) poles value chain in Southern Benin

1°30' 2°00' 2°30' 3°00' N

7°30' 7°30' Kétou #

Abomey # # Bohicon

7°00' Pobè # 7°00' # Aplahoué Toffo TOGO Y# NIGERIA Zè Y# Y# #Lokossa Allada Tori-Bossito Southern Benin Y# # Sô-Ava 6°30' Kpomassè 6°30' Y# Abomey-CalaviÊÚ ÊÚPorto-Novo Comé # ÊÚ ÊÚ ÊÚ Ouidah Cotonou Sèmé-Kpodji ATLANTIC OCEAN

1°30' 2°00' 2°30' 3°00'

20 0 20 40 Kilometers

Alibori

Atacora

Borgou # Legend Donga Country's boundaries Departments' boudaries Communes' boundaries (Atlantique department) Codes for departments Express road 1 Atlantique 2: Littoral Main roads (asphalted) Collines Y# Communes included in surveys of planters and rural consumers 3: Ouémé Towns included in surveys of traders and urban consumers 4: Pateau Benin ÊÚ 4 5: Mono # Other cities (administrative centres) Zou 6 6: Couffo # 5 1 3 2 Southern Benin # ATLANTIC OCEAN Figure 2.1. Map of Southern Benin. The map at the top shows the region where smallholder teak plantations developed the most in Benin; at the bottom, the location of the region on the map of Benin is highlighted (left), and Benin is positioned on a map of Africa (right). Teak plantations are also encountered to small extent beyond the region presented here.

2.2.2. Data processing and results compilation The first stage consisted in mapping the value chain, through the product and its various transformations along the chain, the agents involved in the value chain and their respective functions (Tallec and Bockel, 2005b). At this point, we presented the various marketing channels through which value chain agents used to operate. This section also included an overview of the organisations involved in the value chain. In the following sections, we discussed the governance within the value chain, and the institutional environment (the forest policy, the forest regulation, and the tax policy).

25 Performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin

Lastly, the decomposition of consumer price among value chain actors was elaborated. This was done by drawing on Tallec and Bockel’s approach to building consolidated accounts in value chain analysis (Tallec and Bockel, 2005a). Throughout this chapter, conversions of financial figures from the local currency (XOF) into USD are based on the average exchange rate from 1st March to 30 September 2010, period where in-depth surveys were carried out (XOF 1 = USD 0.002 3).

2.3. Results 2.3.1. Mapping the value chain

2.3.1.1. Products and transformations The smallholder-produced teak poles value chain in Southern Benin encompassed three stages: production, marketing, and consumption. Teak pole was produced based on coppicing management regime, with rotation of 3 to 5 years on average. Three growth stages – each corresponding to a category of timber – were distinguished in the value chain, namely small poles, medium poles, and large poles (Table 2.1). Most planters produced medium poles locally called “ chandelle ”. Only one piece of pole, with an average of 4 to 8 m in length, was obtained from a single tree. Bulk sale of stumpage teak plantation was done in two different ways: sale of entire plantation, or sale per load of one lorry that was the most popular mode 4. This was the same lorry of capacity 15 metric tons used for timber transportation. The quantity of timber per unit load varied according to the growth stage (Table 2.1). However, 1 ha of plantation yields on average 2.5– 3.5 loads of medium poles. From stumpage timber, the operations performed manually up to obtaining poles were as follows: logging, diameter-based grading, and quarrying on large poles – i.e., the removal of the bark and part of the sapwood to have approximately a parallelepipedic shape. Logging encompassed tree felling and pruning. The rationale underlying grading was to get homogeneous lots of timber with respect to diameter size, before

3 Source: http://www.exchangerates.org.uk/XOF-USD-exchange-rate-history.html (Access on 13 December 2010). 4 Apart from capital that limited traders’ ability to purchase entire plantations, they prefer to buy per load because of the heterogeneity of stems in smallholder teak plantations. By buying per load, traders operate a sorting during tree felling, so that small trees, bended, and poorly- pruned trees are left aside by lumberjacks.

26 Chapitre 2 : Functioning of farm-grown timber value chains: lessons from the smallholder- produced teak ( Tectona grandis L.f.) poles value chain in Southern Benin retailing (5 to 10 categories, depending on the trader). Firewood, a by- product of the chain, was obtained from the trees unsuitable to produce good poles, e.g. bended and poorly-pruned trees. Those trees remaining on the field after the harvest of poles were felled and processed manually in the form of bundles of firewood.

Table 2.1. Characteristics of the various categories of teak poles produced by planters. Category of poles Characteristics Small poles Medium poles Large poles Rotation age (years) 2–3 4–5 6–8 Diameter size (cm) 5–7 7–12 12–15 Number of wood per unit load 800 600 360–400

2.3.1.2. Value chain agents and their functions The value chain involved the following agents: nurserymen, teak planters, traders, local intermediaries, brokers, transporters, and consumers. There were two marketing channels, namely a local channel, and an urban channel (Figure 2.2). In the local channel, the timber was sold directly by farmers to village consumers on retail basis. The urban channel consisted in transporting the product to the metropolitan centres where it was sold by traders to consumers in retail outlets. Firewood, a by-product, was also commercialised in cities. Details on agents and their respective functions in the value chain are provided hereafter.

27 Performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin

Teak planters

Local Rural consumers intermediaries and of teak poles Brokers

Small wholesaler- Large wholesaler- Firewood collectors retailers retailers (Wholesalers)

Retailers buying Retailers buying Urban retailers from planters from wholesalers of firewood

Urban consumers Urban consumers of teak poles of firewood

Legend Local pole channel Urban pole channel Firewood channel Facultative stage

Figure 2.2. Map of the smallholder-produced teak poles value chain in Southern Benin, and the derived firewood channel.

28 Chapitre 2 : Functioning of farm-grown timber value chains: lessons from the smallholder- produced teak ( Tectona grandis L.f.) poles value chain in Southern Benin

Teak planters Timber production was planters’ main function. Apart from smallholder farmers, teak planters also included absentee farmers living in towns. The total acreage of teak plantations per farmer averaged 1.50±0.31 ha, but this value hided a high heterogeneity among planters (Table 2.2). The total acreage of plantations per farmer was generally small, with 50% of them holding less than 0.83 ha. Farmers’ estate of teak plantations is often distributed across several plots. The number of teak plots reported by individual farmers ranged from 1 to 5, and averaged 1.56±0.10. The distribution of the acreage of on-farm teak plots is provided in Table 2.2. Planters sold stumpage timber to local consumers (local marketing channel), and to traders (urban marketing channel). The latter channel was the main outlet (Figure 2.3). Small plots (less than 0.25 ha) were mostly dedicated to the local marketing channel, because they yield less than one full load of poles, the basic quantity purchased by urban traders (see section 2.3.1.1).

Table 2.2. Distributions of the acreage of teak plots and the total acreage of teak plantations per farmer. Acreage of teak plots Total acreage of teak plantations Parameter (ha) (ha) Minimum 0.03 0.03 First quartile 0.23 0.33 Second quartile 0.50 0.83 Third quartile 1.00 1.72 Maximum 25.00 25.00

29 Performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin

Local channel 3%

Both channels 42%

Urban channel 55%

Figure 2.3. Percentage of teak planters with respect to the marketing channel used (N=244).

Traders Traders’ activities consisted in buying teak pole from planters, and making this product available to urban consumers after loading, transportation, off- loading, grading, and quarrying. Their activities encompassed wholesale as well as retail, but the latter represented the basic activity for all traders. Our previous work (Aoudji et al., 2011b) classified these traders into four categories, based mainly on their exchange functions (wholesale, retail) and their trade behaviour (purchase of stumpage timber from farmers, or purchase of teak poles from fellow traders). They were typified as ‘large wholesaler-retailers’, ‘small wholesaler-retailers’, ‘retailers buying from planters’, and ‘retailers buying from wholesalers’. The first three categories of traders used to purchase their consignment of timber directly from planters (Figure 2.2). On the other hand, the last category used to buy their consignment from other traders, namely both types of ‘wholesaler-retailers’ (Figure 2.2). The difference between ‘small wholesaler-retailers’ and ‘large wholesaler-retailers’ was related to the fact that the latter category held a larger trade capital (Table 2.3), so that they used to purchase entire plantations, while the first category – as well as ‘retailers buying from planters’ – used to purchase teak poles per load of one lorry. In addition, ‘large wholesaler-retailers’ held their own lorry for timber transport.

30 Chapitre 2 : Functioning of farm-grown timber value chains: lessons from the smallholder- produced teak ( Tectona grandis L.f.) poles value chain in Southern Benin

Table 2.3. Differences across traders with respect to working capital.

Type of trader Working capital (XOF *) Large wholesaler-retailers (N=10) 4,050,000 a Small wholesaler-retailers (N=10) 1,450,000 b Retailers buying from planters (N=69) 539,565 c Retailers buying from wholesalers (N=18) 449,444 c Note: Data did not meet ANOVA requirements, even after log transformation. Kruskal– Wallis nonparametric test showed significant differences between categories of traders with respect to the working capital (p<0.001). a; b; and c: figures followed by different letters are significantly different (Mann-Whitney U test, p<0.05). * The average exchange rate during the survey period was XOF 1 = USD 0.002.

Local intermediaries We typified as local intermediaries, a category of agents who bought immature plantations from planters in urgent cash needs. Later, the mature plantations were sold to traders with a margin, and planters retrieved their land after logging. Those intermediaries were not specialised in trade, and some were themselves farmers, or brokers.

Brokers Brokers intervened in the sale of stumpage timber, by bringing together teak planters and traders. Most of those agents were themselves farmers, so that brokering was just a part time activity. Brokers also engaged in trade from time to time, in the same way as local intermediaries (see above). Brokers were characterised by their mobility, so as to search information about mature teak plantations by contacting planters. They were in contact with many traders. Brokers were rewarded for their service at a fixed rate by traders: XOF 5000 (USD 10) per consignment of one lorry. With regard to broker remuneration by farmers, the following rule was applied. When it was the planter who contacted the broker to require his service, the broker was rewarded 10% of the sale price. If this shouldn’t be the case, the broker claimed no reward. However, brokers often received small gifts from most planters.

31 Performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin

Transporters Transportation consisted in the transfer of teak poles from plantation gate to the sale outlet. This was performed by road, with lorries containing 300 to 800 poles. ‘Large wholesaler-retailers’ transported their products by themselves, and rendered transport service to the other traders. Independent entrepreneurs also offered transport service.

Consumers The results revealed that all social classes used to purchase teak pole which was by far the main service wood used by consumers in Southern Benin. A low percentage of the household-heads involved in the consumer survey had never purchased teak pole before – 5.8%, and 5.1% for city-dwellers and rural residents, respectively. With regard to professional background, teak pole consumers included employees, farmers, fishermen, craftsmen, small traders, small entrepreneurs, professionals, unemployed, trainees, students, and retired people. The consumption forms were varied and included hangar, shack, grass hut, roof structure, shelves, fence, building of fishing equipments, clothes airer, TV aerial support, electricity transportation, scaffolding, and stake to build suspended slab. The last three consumption forms were rare among the local consumers while grass hut, fence, and the building of fishing equipments were almost typical to rural areas. As a by- product from the value chain, firewood was consumed by households, as well as food sellers. Moreover, teak pole was recycled in the form of firewood, after repairing and replacement jobs. The functions performed by each category of agent in the value chain are summarised in Table 2.4.

32 Chapitre 2 : Functioning of farm-grown timber value chains: lessons from the smallholder-produced teak (Tectona grandis L.f.) poles value chain in Southern Benin

Table 2.4. Functional analysis for the smallholder-produced teak poles value chain in Southern Benin. Stage of the Functions Agents Output chain Production Production Planters Stumpage timber Financing (facilitating function) Local intermediaries – Marketing a Logging (felling and branch Traders (‘wholesaler- Consignment of poles with heterogeneous removal) retailers’, ‘retailers buying sizes Loading from planters’) Transport to urban outlets Transport entrepreneurs, Consignment of poles with heterogeneous ‘Large wholesaler-retailers’ sizes in the outlet of LWR, SWR, and RBP Wholesale ‘Wholesaler-retailers’ Consignment of poles with heterogeneous sizes delivered to RBW Off-loading Traders (all types) Consignment of poles with heterogeneous sizes in the outlet Diameter-based grading Traders (all types) Lots of poles with homogeneous size in the retail outlet Quarrying Traders (all types) Quarried poles Retail Traders (all types) Lots of poles with homogeneous size in the retail outlet Note: LWR, SWR, RBP, and RBW mean respectively ‘large wholesaler-retailers’, ‘small wholesaler-retailers’, ‘retailers buying from planters’, and ‘retailers buying from wholesalers’. a Institutions of micro-finance fulfilled a financing function (facilitating function) in the marketing stage, by providing credit to traders.

33 Performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin

Apart from the agents described above, nurserymen were connected to the value chain as indirect agents. They supplied planters with the seedlings required to settle the plantations. Nurserymen were not specialised in the production of teak seedlings, but they rather produced seedlings of various species including acacia ( Acacia auriculiformis A. Cunn. ex Benth.), eucalypt ( Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh.), and oil palm ( Elaeis guineensis Jacq.). However, the seedlings in some cases were produced by the teak planters themselves.

2.3.1.3. Organisations involved in the functioning of the value chain There were mainly three types of organisations involved in the functioning of the value chain: government Departments, financial organisms, and traders’ associations. The forest service was the main government Department involved in the functioning of the value chain. The “Direction Générale des Forêts et Ressources Naturelles” – a Department of the Ministry of environment and nature protection – was in charge of implementing the country’s forest policy, the regulation, and the monitoring of all activities related to logging, marketing and processing of forest products. This included the issuance of licences, logging permits, and passes to traders, and collection of taxes for the Treasury. The tax office and the Department of domestic trade (implementation of general regulation on trade) were other governmental services involved in the functioning of the value chain. There were two types of organisms granting credit to the value chain agents: institutions of micro-finance and informal credit organisations. A low proportion of people benefited from credit (Table 2.5). Informal credit was more accessible to planters, but the amounts obtained were limited (Table 2.5). Interest rates were high and amounted 24% in institutions of micro- finance, and 100–300% in the informal credit system. Traders used partly their credit in the teak business while farmers spent theirs outside timber production, basically in agricultural production (for formal credit) and social issues (for informal credit). With regard to traders’ associations, there were many informal associations gathering the traders operating in the same area. Association membership was reported by 42% of the traders surveyed. The main advantage claimed

34 Chapitre 2 : Functioning of farm-grown timber value chains: lessons from the smallholder- produced teak ( Tectona grandis L.f.) poles value chain in Southern Benin from association membership was collective collaboration with the forest service, so as to be protected from harassments.

Table 2.5. Access to financial service for planters and traders. Type of agents Variable Planters (N=254) Traders (N=107) Agents with ongoing credit from IMF a (%) 2.8 6.5 Agents with ongoing credit from informal 16.9 0 sources (%) Average amount secured from IMF XOF 172,857 b XOF 1,298,571 Average amount secured from informal XOF 36,442 0 sources a IMF stands for institutions of micro-finance. b The average exchange rate during the survey period was XOF 1 = USD 0.002.

2.3.2. Value chain governance A mix of government and market was the governance structure prevailing in the smallholder-produced teak poles value chain in Southern Benin. This is explained by the towering influence of government in the value chain. Regarding coordination among value chain agents, it was found that bargaining occurred at all levels, between nurserymen and teak planters, between teak planters and traders, among traders for wholesale transactions, and between traders and end-consumers. Contractual arrangements between value chain agents were not found. Consignments were paid cash, and credit granting was scarce. With regard to the coordination between planters and traders, getting information about potential trade partners was a critical issue; and this was perceived during focus group discussions as a major constraint by both categories of agents. Traders had to find a new supplier for each purchase of stumpage timber. Since traders were settled in metropolitan centres, it was difficult to them to identify farmers whose teak plantations were mature. Inversely, farmers did not have any information about potential customers. Accordingly, brokers played a critical role by assisting most traders to find potential suppliers, i.e. farmers who held mature plantations. Among the traders who used to purchase stumpage timber (‘large wholesaler-retailers’,

35 Performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin

‘small wholesaler-retailers’, and ‘retailers buying from planters’), 80.9% operated through the intermediate of brokers, and 19.1% relied on relatives.

2.3.3. Institutional environment

2.3.3.1. Forest policy The forest policy of Benin was directed to the forestry sector as a whole, and not specifically to smallholder forestry and the related value chain. However, some policy elements have markedly influenced smallholder forestry development. These included the national reforestation initiative, and various forms of incentives for tree planting. The national reforestation initiative was unveiled in 1985 to tackle environmental concerns. In this framework, citizens were sensitised to plant trees. The initiative widely benefited from the involvement of media (national radio, rural radios, TV channels, newspapers). The tree plantation campaign is launched the first of June each year. Incentives for tree planting were provided by forestry projects and NGOs in the form of subsidised seedlings. The subsidy amounted up to 80% of seedling costs. However, this was not a constant policy over time. Incentives also appeared in the form of tax exoneration over logging in privately planted forests. The study showed that farmers’ interest in teak growing has decreased in recent years. Planters complained about the sharp drop in the income generated by teak plantations. During the 1980s, the revenue generated by 1 ha of teak plantation at the growth stage of medium poles was estimated XOF 500,000–800,000 per rotation. During the study period, 1 ha of the same type of plantation generated XOF 120,000–300,000. The trend during the study period was the conversion of teak plantations to other crops. From 1999 to 2010, 14.2% of the surveyed planters had converted partly their teak plantations to other crop. Oil palm was the main crop replacing teak plantations (Figure 2.4). The acreage of plantation converted to other crop ranged from 0.07 to 4 ha, and averaged 1.0±0.32 ha per farmer. The main constraints raised by farmers with regard to the policy were the lack of support in silvicultural management and marketing. From the side of traders, the constraints raised were related to the toughness of the regulation, and harassment by the forest service.

36 Chapitre 2 : Functioning of farm-grown timber value chains: lessons from the smallholder- produced teak ( Tectona grandis L.f.) poles value chain in Southern Benin

Acacia Pineapple 3% 3% Orange 3%

Natural oil palm 14%

Improved oil palm 77%

Figure 2.4. Relative importance of the various crops replacing teak plantations. (N=36)

2.3.3.2. Forest regulations The main regulations governing the forestry sector in Benin were the law 93–009 from the 2nd of July 1993, and its implementation decree 96–271 from the 2nd of July 1996. These regulations governed tree planting, forest logging, trade, and processing of forest products. According to the regulation, there was no restriction to plantation settlement. However, restrictions applied to logging, even from private forests, in order to ensure a sustainable exploitation of the country’s forest resources. Licences were required for participating in teak pole trade, and more generally to perform activities in relation to logging, trade, and processing of forest products in Benin. Teak pole traders were required trade and logging licences to perform their activities. However, only trade licence applied to the ‘retailers buying from wholesalers’, since their activity did not encompass logging. The licence was renewed each year on request by the trader. The renewal costs per licence were estimated to XOF 79,500 5 (USD 159) in 2010. Forest products traders had to register their business. The registration costs for the category "A", the one required to commercialise teak pole, were estimated XOF 100,000 (USD 200) in 2010.

5 This includes business rate (XOF 32,000), establishment fees (XOF 17,500), gathering the required documents (XOF 20,000), and bribe fees (XOF 10,000).

37 Performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin

The issuance of new licences has been frozen since 2004, for logging and timber trade. The official reason underlying this decision was to maintain an adequacy between the number of agents involved in logging and trade activities and the country’s forest resources, so as to ensure the sustainability. This represented a weakness owing to the fact that even agents willing to perform their activities in a formal framework were constrained to operate through the informal path, by hiring licences from those already established. The majority of traders claimed ownership of the licences (Figure 2.5); but we could not check this because of the sensitivity of the issue. Nevertheless, we were aware that the percentage of traders who held effectively the licences was lower than claimed, since many of them started their business after 2004, when the issuance of new licences had been frozen.

100 90 80 70 60 Claimed ownership of 50 logging licence 40 Claimed ownership of 30 trade licence 20 Started trade after 2004 10 Percentage oftraders (%) 0 LWR SWR RBP RBW

Category of trader

Figure 2.5. Percentage of traders who claimed ownership of licences, and percentage who engaged in the activity after 2004 when the issuance of new licences for logging and timber trade had been frozen. LWR, SWR, RBP, and RBW mean respectively ‘large wholesaler-retailers’, ‘small wholesaler-retailers’, ‘retailers buying from planters’, and ‘retailers buying from wholesalers’. The figures show the gap between traders’ statement and the reality. In reality, those who started their business after 2004 did not have a licence.

Traders buying from planters had to get logging permit and pass prior to tree felling and transport to urban areas. Both documents were issued by the regional forest office (“Inspection Forestière”) for free; but evidence of rent- seeking behaviour was found among forest service workers.

38 Chapitre 2 : Functioning of farm-grown timber value chains: lessons from the smallholder- produced teak ( Tectona grandis L.f.) poles value chain in Southern Benin

2.3.3.3. Tax policy Planters, brokers, and local intermediaries did not pay any tax for their activities in the value chain, but levies applied to traders and transporters. Taxes were paid at both national and decentralised levels. With regard to traders, taxes paid at the national level consisted in business rates, a prerequisite to licence renewal. The amount paid per year ranged from XOF 25,000 to 60,000 (USD 50–120) per licence in 2010. At the decentralised level, traders paid taxes to municipalities, for using public lands as retail outlets; but the tax policy varied across the municipalities. For instance, this tax was collected systematically in Cotonou, while in Porto-Novo, its payment was reported only by the traders operating on the side of main avenues. The amount paid in Cotonou, the Beninese largest town, varied from XOF 5000 to 10,000 (USD 10–20). In Porto-Novo, it averaged XOF 5000 (USD 10). In Abomey-Calavi, Sèmé-Kpodji, and Ouidah, tax payment to the municipality was not found during the study period. Transporters paid taxes for their activity at national level. They also paid taxes at decentralised levels (XOF 200–500 (USD 0.4–1) per consignment). Timber transportation also involved indirect levies through gasoil taxes. In summary, the tax policy in force seemed fairly affordable to all the value chain agents, since none of them reported this as a constraint.

2.3.4. Decomposition of consumer price among value chain actors The decomposition of consumer price among chain actors was focused on the urban marketing channel 6. This was studied by considering separately the two paths through which teak pole was supplied to city-dwellers (Figure 2.2): First path: Planters → Retailers [‘large wholesaler-retailers’, ‘small wholesaler-retailers’, ‘retailers buying from planters’] → Urban consumers; Second path: Planters → Wholesalers [‘large wholesaler-retailers’, ‘small wholesaler-retailers’] → Retailers [‘retailers buying from wholesalers’] → Urban consumers.

6 Since rural consumers were directly connected to planters in the local marketing channel, the interest in decomposing consumer price in that channel was limited.

39 Performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin

The wider increase in the product’s value occurred at traders’ level (Figure 2.6).

XOF 18,207 (Intermediate inputs)

Teak planters

XOF 65,793 XOF 65,793

Wholesaler-retailers and Wholesaler-retailers retailers buying from planters

XOF 271,792

Retailers buying from wholesalers

XOF 384,258 XOF 385,722

Urban consumers of teak poles

Figure 2.6. Value of a consignment of 600 medium poles from teak planters to urban consumers. The average exchange rate during the survey period was XOF 1 = USD 0.002.

Traders received the wider share of the retail price (Figure 2.7). Planters, transporters, and workers also received a non-negligible share (13–18%). In the second path of the channel, traders’ share of consumer price (40%) was split among ‘wholesaler-retailers’ and ‘retailers buying from wholesalers’. Taxes and brokers’ commission represented 1.7–2%, and 1.4% of the price, respectively. The other costs – about one tenth of the retail price – (Figure 2.7) included the purchase of seedlings, finance charges, bribes, communication, and renting of the retail outlet.

40 Chapitre 2 : Functioning of farm-grown timber value chains: lessons from the smallholder- produced teak ( Tectona grandis L.f.) poles value chain in Southern Benin

100% 11 12

17 17 Other costs Taxes 13 18 Brokers' commission Workers' remuneration 23 Transportation costs 36 Retailers' gross profit 17 Wholesalers' gross profit

15 15 Planters' gross profit 0% Path 1 Path 2

Figure 2.7. Distribution of consumer price among actors in the urban marketing channel. Note: In Path 1, 'retailers' includes 'large wholesaler-retailers', 'small wholesaler-retailers', and 'retailers buying from planters'. In Path 2, 'wholesalers' encompasses 'large wholesaler- retailers', and 'small wholesaler-retailers' while 'retailers' stands for 'retailers buying from wholesalers'. The decomposition of consumer price does not include local intermediaries who sometimes purchased immature plantations that were later sold to traders with a margin (see section 2.3.1.2). This is because it was not possible to collect accurate data on these transactions which occur sporadically.

2.4. Discussion 2.4.1. Agents and their functions in the value chain Two significant results were found with respect to agents and their functions in the value chain: the predominance of personal capital in financing value chain activities, and the incomplete differentiation of functions among the various categories of traders operating in the marketing system. The value chain was characterised by few availability of external finance. The lack of financial service is well known as an impediment in developing countries (Dorward et al., 2004; Winter-Nelson and Temu, 2005); so that it does not represent a typical pattern of the farm-grown teak poles value chain in Southern Benin. Even though teak planters were receiving no credit in the framework of plantation management, the recourse to local intermediaries for the sale of immature plantations provided evidence of financial constraints. However, the issue of credit for small-scale timber production

41 Performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin should be handled cautiously. This is because credit granting to smallholder farmers for forest management had shown contradictory results including unsuccessful story (Hyman, 1983), as well as successful one (Junkin, 2007). Despite the various business sizes, no meaningful difference was found among traders with respect to the exchange functions performed. For instance, large traders competed in the retail market with small retailers whom they supplied. The lack of specialisation seemed to be the consequence of the low level of coordination in the marketing system. This could signify constrained performance, as the marketing system failed to take advantage of the social division of labour. According to Fafchamps et al. (2005), the presence of traders of extremely different sizes in the same market suggests that some of them, namely the large traders, are collecting rent. Policy targeting the differentiation of functions within the marketing system should treat separately large traders and small retailers (see section 2.4.3).

2.4.2. Value chain governance It emerged from the analysis of the governance structure in the value chain that the driving forces were the government and the market. Regarding the role of the market, our findings are in agreement with Gereffi et al.’s (2005) prediction of governance structure in value chains. Indeed, arm’s length market relationships are more likely to occur in value chains with standard products such as teak pole. The complexity of teak pole is very low, and no processing occurs at planters’ level. te Velde et al. (2006) in the analysis of non-timber forest products value chains also found that the governance type predicted by Gereffi et al.’s typology related well to the empirical observations in the value chains studied. However, apart from market coordination, they found other governance types, namely relational and captive governance types, which were justified in the case of the chains studied. Networks are often viewed as a key coordination form in the marketing of agricultural products in Sub-Saharan Africa (Fafchamps and Gabre-Madhin, 2006; Hoffmann and Bernhard, 2007), but this was not confirmed in the smallholder-produced teak poles value chain in Southern Benin. The multi- year duration of the production cycle, and the small acreage of the teak

42 Chapitre 2 : Functioning of farm-grown timber value chains: lessons from the smallholder- produced teak ( Tectona grandis L.f.) poles value chain in Southern Benin plantations resulted in a low frequency of transactions on planters’ side. This in turn might explain why traders were not incited to invest in stronger relationships with planters. This might also explain why credit based transactions were rare between value chain agents, contrary to the observations reported in the marketing system of agricultural products in Benin and in Malawi (Fafchamps and Gabre-Madhin, 2006). The study highlighted the constraints faced by planters and traders to identify a trade partner. Overcoming these constraints will require a stronger linkage between those principal value chain agents. Collective marketing at planters’ level might contribute to strengthening trade relationships between planters and traders, thanks to a consistent availability of timber over time at group level. Russell and Franzell (2004) explored this path, by drawing on the beneficial effect of smallholder tree planters’ associations. There is sufficient evidence from the experience of Nordic countries that forest owners’ associations play a vital role in efficient timber marketing by finding outlets to non-industrial private forests owners, ensuring consistent delivery to customers, securing market opportunities, reducing transaction costs, and negotiating improved prices with customers (Jylhä, 2007; Kittredge, 2003; Niskanen et al., 2007). Outside the forestry sector, this type of action has also shown its usefulness to improve marketing performance, with beneficial effects for smallholder farmers (Devaux et al., 2009; Markelova et al., 2009; Shiferaw et al., 2008). Therefore, a key policy matter would consist in supporting horizontal coordination among farmers, through the development of plantation owners’ associations. The above policy recommendation was previously defended by Aoudji et al. (2011a). There is also path for improved horizontal coordination among traders. As highlighted by Fafchamps and Gabre-Madhin (2006), traders’ associations might contribute to the settlement of ethic rules among their members, for effective conformation to the regulation.

2.4.3. Institutional environment The study showed the lack of specific policy line towards smallholder forestry. However, an interesting point was that the taxation level seemed quite affordable in the value chain, especially for smallholder farmers. This was consistent with the objective of Beninese government to promote tree plantations.

43 Performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin

Teak planting has become less attractive to farmers in recent years, because of the sharp drop in the price of stumpage timber, and the availability of more profitable land use options, such as oil palm and pineapple cultivation. Presumably, the drop in timber price originated from the increase in the supply, the drop in the demand for some consumption forms such as scaffolding and stake to build suspended slab – for which recycling processes had developed 7 – the slow-down of construction jobs because of economic downturn, and the existence of rent in the marketing system. A similar case was reported in Indonesia where acacia plantations, based on outgrower schemes, became less attractive to farmers than oil palm plantations (Nawir et al., 2007). The practical lesson we can learn here is that promoting reforestation alone is not enough to ensure the sustainability of smallholder forestry. The answer to the question of what policy to support smallholder forestry will depend on its place in countries’ strategies to meet the demand for forest products and environmental service. Any policy relying on smallholder forestry for the provision of forest products and environmental service should target its competitiveness compared to alternative land use options. Policy support should go beyond the granting of subsidised seedlings, and target the efficiency in timber production at the farm level, as well as the diversification of outlets. This might require the settlement of a forest extension system. With regard to the constraints raised by planters about the lack of knowledge in silvicultural management, extension support appeared as a relevant policy option. In the literature, extension support was reported to impact positively on smallholder forestry (Baynes et al., 2009). The forest regulation was perceived as very tough by traders. Even if the excessiveness of the forest regulation in most developing countries has been highlighted (Scherr, 2004), this was exacerbated in the Beninese context by harassment from forest service workers seeking rents. The analysis of the prevailing forest regulation suggested the following discussion. A good

7 In the past, individual consumers used to purchase large quantities of poles (even more than 200 pieces), in order to build suspended slabs and scaffoldings. These poles were recycled as firewood after completion of the construction jobs. Currently, consumers can hire the poles from the service provider (form maker, builder) or from traders, for XOF 100–200 per unit. This is more advantageous than purchasing the poles (XOF 600–1200 per unit). That way, a lot of teak poles is used several times (3 to 5 times).

44 Chapitre 2 : Functioning of farm-grown timber value chains: lessons from the smallholder- produced teak ( Tectona grandis L.f.) poles value chain in Southern Benin institutional environment must not only produce the rules of the game, but those rules have to be implemented properly (Ménard, 2003). However, it appeared that the Beninese authorities could not implement properly the country’s forest regulation, considering observations such as performing trade without licence or hiring licence from fellow traders, and rent-seeking behaviour among government’s employees. The weaknesses of the regulation are discussed hereafter. First, the regulation considered no difference between traders with respect to business size, so that small retailers were required the same licence as for large wholesalers. Lutz (1994) pointed out the same weakness in the regulation governing the marketing of maize in Benin. Improvement regarding licence requirements might include criteria such as business size, and the origin of the timber commercialised. Second, the non implementation of the regulation generated rents to part of the traders who hired licences to new entrants. A similar observation was reported in the rattan value chain of Abidjan district (Côte d’Ivoire) where traders did not hold licence, but they hired this from civil servants (Zoro-Bi and Kouakou, 2004). Third, the freezing of the issuance of trade licence since 2004 might hamper competition in the marketing system, by protecting incumbents against new entrants who are constrained to bear additional costs through licence hiring. The marketing system of farm-grown teak poles diverged from contestable markets in which threat of new entries can enforce good behaviour by incumbents (Baumol and Lee, 1991). Therefore, the implementation of the forest regulation requires reforms in a way that enables economic agents to enter and exit freely from the teak business. This in turn could bring more equity in the timber marketing system. Lastly, rent- seeking behaviour among forest service workers was obviously an impediment to value chain operations. Tackling rent-seeking behaviour is the responsibility of the government, as part of its general efforts to improve economic performance.

2.4.4. Decomposition of consumer price among value chain actors The main picture emerging from the decomposition of the retail price among chain actors was the lower margin received by teak planters, as compared to traders. This result offers a complementary perspective to understand farmers’ loss of interest in teak growing, as discussed in section 2.4.3. Farmers’ relatively low share of consumer price does not seem to be a

45 Performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin typical pattern of the farm-grown teak poles value chain in Southern Benin, and comparable results have been reported in the literature – e.g., in the medicinal plants value chain in Benin (Vodouhê et al., 2008), and in the Agarwood ( Aquilaria crassna Pierre ex H. Lec.) global value chain (Jensen, 2009). The issue of equity in benefits sharing among value chain stakeholders emerges here, but this question falls outside the scope of the present chapter. In the particular case of the smallholder-produced teak poles value chain in Southern Benin, the relatively low share of the retail price captured by farmers might be explained by the fact that they perform a limited range of functions in the value chain – merely the supply of stumpage timber – while traders held the functions that significantly increased the value of the product (Figure 2.6). Further analyses are required to seek out upgrading paths for planters in the value chain, so as to increase the farm gate value of teak poles (see chapter 5).

2.5. Conclusions The smallholder-produced teak poles value chain in Southern Benin encompassed three stages: production, marketing, and consumption. The value chain involved nurserymen, planters, traders, local intermediaries, brokers, transporters, and consumers. The forest service was the main governmental Department involved in the functioning of the value chain. Institutions of micro-finance and traders’ associations were other organisations connected to the value chain. Those agents and organisations performed various functions to bring teak poles to final consumers. These encompassed production, exchange (wholesale and retail), transportation, handling (loading, off-loading, grading, and quarrying), and facilitating functions (financing and risk bearing). Basically, value chain operations were performed based on the agents’ personal capital. The marketing system involved various types of traders with respect to the business size, but no clear-cut differences were found with respect to their exchange functions. Lack of financial service was evident, and might be handled in the broad framework of rural development policy. The governance structure was characterised by the significant influence of government in value chain operations, and the predominance of spot markets. There is strong interest to improve the coordination between planters and traders. It is expected that the settlement of planters’

46 Chapitre 2 : Functioning of farm-grown timber value chains: lessons from the smallholder- produced teak ( Tectona grandis L.f.) poles value chain in Southern Benin associations could contribute to this, by enabling a consistent delivery of timber over time, through collective marketing. Therefore, the support to the development of planters’ associations is a critical policy matter. Planters’ share of consumer price was lower than traders’ return. Policy relying on smallholder forestry for the provision of forest products and environmental service should target its competitiveness compared to alternative land use options. To this end, an accent should be put on the efficiency of the marketing system, the efficiency in timber production at the farm level – a point where extension support might make relevant contribution – and the diversification of outlets. Weaknesses were found in the forest regulation. For instance, the freezing of the issuance of trade licence protected incumbent traders from fierce competition. The differentiation of licence requirements with respect to the business size (large wholesalers versus small retailers), and the source of timber commercialised (natural forest sourced timber versus farm-grown timber) appeared as useful paths for reforms in the forest regulation. The effectiveness of the recommendations discussed above might depend greatly on how successfully the government will tackle rent-seeking behaviour among its employees in charge of implementing the regulation.

Chapter 3: Socio-economics of smallholder teak ( Tectona grandis L.f.) planting in Southern Benin: a farming system approach

Aoudji, A.K.N., Adégbidi, A., Agbo, V., Lebailly, P. Manuscript submitted to Agroforestry Systems.

Abstract The farming system framework was used to characterise smallholder teak (Tectona grandis L.f.) planting in Southern Benin, and its contribution to livelihood improvement. It was intended to highlight the policy line suited to capture the potential of smallholder forestry, as provider of forest products and contributor to the improvement of rural livelihoods. The specific questions addressed were as follows: (i) how do farmers manage to integrate tree growing on the farm? (ii) How effectively does smallholder forestry contribute to improve livelihoods? Empirical assessments were based on a sample of 221 farmers selected through a cluster sampling procedure in the Atlantique department. A multivariate approach associating cluster analysis and Principal Component Analysis was used to build a typology of teak planting systems. Three planting systems related to various strategies of integration of teak on the farm were identified. Farmers were specialised in the production of pole to meet the urban demand for cheap construction timber. The top three motivations for growing teak included revenue seeking, satisfaction of household timber needs, and enforcement of ownership on land. It appeared that teak growing contributes to create wealth, and has the potential to improve livelihoods. Security in land tenure and the existence of a domestic outlet are essential to successful development of on-farm tree growing. Keywords : farming system, smallholder forestry, teak planting system, livelihood, value added, gross profit.

48 Chapitre 3 : Socio-economics of smallholder teak ( Tectona grandis L.f.) planting in Southern Benin: a farming system approach

Résumé

Etude socio-économique de la sylviculture paysanne du teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin : l’approche système d’exploitation agricole. Nous avons utilisé l’approche système d’exploitation agricole pour caractériser la sylviculture paysanne du teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud- Bénin, et sa contribution à l’amélioration des moyens d’existence. Il s’agissait de mettre en lumière les éléments de politique appropriés, pour exploiter le potentiel qu’offre la foresterie paysanne dans la fourniture de produits forestiers et l’amélioration des moyens d’existence en milieu rural. Les questions spécifiques abordées sont : (i) comment les petits exploitants intègrent-ils la plantation d’arbres dans leur exploitation ? (ii) dans quelle mesure la contribution de la foresterie paysanne à l’amélioration des moyens d’existence est-elle effective ? Les évaluations empiriques sont basées sur un échantillon de 221 agriculteurs sélectionnés suivant un échantillonnage par grappes dans cinq communes du département de l’Atlantique. Une approche multivariée combinant la classification hiérarchique ascendante et l’Analyse en Composantes Principales a permis d’élaborer une typologie des systèmes de plantation de teck. Trois systèmes de plantation, associés à différentes stratégies d’insertion du teck dans l’exploitation, ont été identifiés. Les paysans produisent essentiellement des perches, ce qui leur permet de satisfaire la demande urbaine en bois de construction bon marché. Les trois plus importantes motivations sous-tendant la plantation du teck sont : la recherche de revenu, la satisfaction des besoins du ménage en bois de construction, et la sécurisation du patrimoine foncier. L’étude a montré que la sylviculture paysanne du teck contribue à créer de la richesse et a le potentiel d’améliorer les moyens d’existence. La sécurité dans la tenure foncière et l’existence d’un débouché local sont importantes pour la plantation d’arbres par les petits exploitants. Mots clés : système d’exploitation agricole, foresterie paysanne, système de plantation de teck, moyen d’existence, valeur ajoutée, revenu du travail familial.

49 Performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin

3.1. Introduction Farming system is widely viewed as a reliable approach to support agricultural development in developing countries (Schiere et al., 2000; Whitbread et al., 2010). A farming system results from interactions among a number of inter-dependent components, where an individual farmer allocates certain quantities and qualities of factors of production to which he has access (Mahapatra, 1994; Reijntjes et al., 1995). This approach is suited to explore socio-economic issues related to tree growing by smallholder farmers. In recent decades, there has been a rising interest in smallholder forestry – i.e., the management of small woodlots by smallholder farmers (Harrison et al., 2002). The rationale underlying policy makers’ interest in this activity is twofold. First, in the current context of deforestation in tropical regions, smallholder forestry is expected to play a significant role in meeting the demand for forest products, and tackling environmental problems (Russell and Franzel, 2004; Scherr, 2004), so that it is promoted as an alternative to government-driven reforestation projects (Pasicolan et al., 1997). Second, given that shifting cultivation in smallholder agriculture is blamed for its role in tropical deforestation (Geist and Lambin, 2002), the management of tree plantations by farmers is viewed as a path toward the sustainability in land use. Scholars recognise the importance of the financial efficiency of agroforestry systems, and the need to develop appropriate methods to assess it (Harrison, 2003). Indeed, tree growing is expected to contribute to the improvement of smallholders’ livelihoods (Russell and Franzel, 2004; Scherr, 2004). This issue is crucial, owing to the fact that the alleviation of rural poverty remains a major policy matter in developing countries (Dorward et al., 2004). While on-farm tree planting is socially desirable, it is not always attractive to farmers, leading to failures in reforestation initiatives (Nawir et al., 2007; Persson, 2003). It has been also reported that farmers get a low return from timber production (Nawir et al., 2007), an impediment to the livelihood improvement objective assigned to smallholder forestry. If governments and donors want farmers to grow trees, they should build on the socio-economic context on which smallholder forestry develops successfully (Filius, 1997). Against this background, two questions emerge to enlighten policy makers:

50 Chapitre 3 : Socio-economics of smallholder teak ( Tectona grandis L.f.) planting in Southern Benin: a farming system approach

(i) how do smallholder farmers manage to integrate tree growing on the farm? (ii) How effectively does smallholder forestry contribute to improve livelihoods? Many studies have assessed the financial profitability of timber production (e.g., Avohou et al., 2011; Bertomeu, 2006; Rasul and Thapa, 2006). This is an advance in understanding the potential of smallholder forestry to generate income and improve livelihood; but there are three points justifying the need for further studies. First, ex-ante evaluations were mostly used to explore the profitability of timber production. Whether the predicted performances are effectively realised is questionable, hence the need of confirmatory data based on ex-post approach. Second, apart from farmers’ return, livelihood improvement by tree growing depends on its potential to create new wealth that is shared among farmers and other actors such as rural labourers. This can be assessed through the value added from timber production, a field which so far has received little attention. The value added shows the new wealth created by economic activities (Riahi-Belkaoui, 1999; Tallec and Bockel, 2005a). Third, none of the studies reported above has taken into account the fact that smallholder farmers are heterogeneous with respect to their practices, and their financial efficiency as well (Bamire and Manyong, 2003; Somda et al., 2005). Performance assessment in smallholder forestry should take into account these disparities, in order to allow meaningful conclusions. The rationale is that, taking into account the differences across farmers contributes to success in policy interventions (Jamin et al., 2007). Our objective in this chapter was to build on the farming system approach to characterise smallholder teak ( Tectona grandis L.f.) planting in Southern Benin, and its contribution to livelihood improvement, from an ex-post perspective. Teak growing by farmers has developed in that region during the past four decades. As a success story of on-farm tree growing development, teak planting in Southern Benin provides a case study to enlighten policy makers on how timber production is integrated on the farm, as well as its potential to improve livelihoods. The farming system approach offers the opportunity to connect the diversity of farmers’ production strategies with their financial efficiency (e.g., Pacini et al., 2003; Somda et al., 2003). This study built on a typology and characterisation of teak planting systems. Then, the value added from timber production, and the return to household’s factors of production (i.e., the gross profit) were

51 Performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin determined across the planting systems. The gross profit as a performance indicator is grounded in the foundations of farm household economics. Indeed, smallholders’ management decisions are intended not to profit maximisation, but rather the maximisation of the return to household’s factors of production, namely land, labour, and capital (Brossier, 2007). It was hypothesised that there are various teak planting systems which relate to different strategies of teak integration on the farm. We assumed that teak growing contributes to create wealth and improve livelihoods. It was also asserted that the financial performance varies across the teak planting systems.

3.2. Methods 3.2.1. Components to describe the teak planting systems This section is intended to build on the literature the relevant approach to analyse teak planting on the farm. A system is viewed as “an arrangement of components or parts that act as a coherent whole that interact according to some processes to transform inputs into outputs” (Schiere et al., 1999). A farm represents a system including a set of subsystems such as the cropping system and the livestock farming system (Reijntjes et al., 1995). Likewise, teak planting, as a component of the farm, can be analysed as a system connected to the farm as a whole (Figure 3.1). Four basic variables have been selected to analyse the teak planting system: farmers’ production objectives, the estate of teak plantation, the farm size, and the contribution of family labour to timber production. Regarding farmers’ production objectives, a system is usually characterised by a goal, even this might be pervasive (Schiere et al., 1999). That variable has further importance, insofar as the silvicultural treatments implemented in a given plantation depends on the production objective (production of log, post, pole, or firewood).

52 Chapitre 3 : Socio-economics of smallholder teak ( Tectona grandis L.f.) planting in Southern Benin: a farming system approach

Total farm land

Teak plantation

Output measured as: Production - Timber production objectives - Value added (Farmer) - Return to factors of production

Family Capital labour

Legend Farmer’s management decisions Interactions Boundary of the teak planting system

Boundary of the farming system Figure 3.1. Conceptualisation of the teak planting system as a component of the farming system. The boundary of the teak planting system shows that only part of household assets (land, labour and capital) is invested in timber production. The remainder is used in other activities on the farm.

Besides the production objectives, the three other variables are related to the factors combined by farmers for a given output in the system (Figure 3.1). According to Mahapatra (1994), “a farming system is the result of complex interactions among a number of inter-dependent components, where an individual farmer allocates certain quantities and qualities of four factors of production, namely land, labour, capital and management to which he has access”. Those elements also appear in Lidestav and Nordfjell’s (2005) approach to analyse family forestry. Since land is a scarce resource for farmers in Southern Benin (Mongbo, 2000), the acreage of teak plantation highlights the importance of tree planting in the farming system; while the

53 Performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin farm size – a key criterion in farmers’ typologies (e.g., Bidogeza et al., 2009; Somda et al., 2005) – illustrates the importance of the farming activities as a whole. Family labour and hired labour were the two sources of labour available to farmers. The contribution of family labour to timber production (proportion of labour performed by family workers in the total labour required during the production cycle) provides understanding about farmers’ strategy on this asset, and on financial capital as well, insofar as it shows the opportunity costs of both assets. The rationale is that the use of family labour reduces expenditures for hiring workers; meanwhile teak timber production competes with other farming activities for this asset. About capital, the exploratory survey revealed that only financial capital was significantly involved in the management of smallholder teak plantations in Southern Benin. Besides farmers’ socio-demographic profile across the planting systems, the study assessed their motivations, an important point to understand why people invest in forestry (Salam et al., 2005).

3.2.2. Sampling and data collection Teak plantation owners were surveyed, between July and September 2010, in the Atlantique department, across the communes of Allada, Kpomassè, Toffo, Tori-Bossito, and Zè (Figure 2.1). That in-depth survey had been preceded by an exploratory study kicked-off in August 2008. No database of teak planters was available, so that respondents were selected based on cluster sampling, as suggested by Giannelloni and Vernette (2001). The sampling procedure has been described in detail in the preceding chapter (see section 2.2.1). All farmers holding teak plantations and present in the selected villages during the survey period were interviewed. In addition, those living in towns were contacted by telephone 8, and an appointment was arranged with them to complete the survey form. That procedure led to a success rate of 24% (28 respondents interviewed out of 116 planters concerned). The questionnaire encompassed respondents’ socio- demographic characteristics, the estimate of the farm size, and detailed data on teak silviculture.

8 Telephone contacts were obtained from local representatives.

54 Chapitre 3 : Socio-economics of smallholder teak ( Tectona grandis L.f.) planting in Southern Benin: a farming system approach

Teak silviculture was the main item of the questionnaire. First, respondents stated the acreage of their teak plantation and their production objective (pole, post, or log). In case of more than one plantation, the production objective was recorded separately for all plots. Second, planters were to specify their motivations for planting teak. This consisted in ranking three motivations selected from the exploratory study. The importance of each motivation was rated, by using a 7 points Likert scale, ranging from 1 (not at all important) to 7 (very important). Third, detailed data were collected about the last production cycle completed. We recorded the period (year and month) where the rotation began, the period of final sale, the rotation age, and the category of timber produced. We went through the production cycle year by year to inventory all silvicultural interventions, the inputs involved and their costs, the type of labour used (family labour, hired labour) and the related outlay if any. Lastly, respondents provided data on the revenue obtained from the plantation.

3.2.3. Data processing and analysis 3.2.3.1. Typology and characterisation of teak planting systems The first stage consisted in assessing the contribution of family labour to timber production. The total labour involved in the production was computed, and the contribution of family workers, as well. Labour requirement is 15 man-day/ha for field preparation, and weeding (hoeing, scything-pruning), and 10 man-day/ha for planting (data obtained from farmers). The contribution of family labour to timber production ( Pf) was calculated as follows: Pf=F l/T l; where Fl is the quantity of labour performed by family workers, and Tl is the total quantity of labour during the production cycle. From the 254 farmers surveyed, there were 33 respondents whose plantations have not yet completed one production cycle, so that Pf could not be computed over a full cycle. Those farmers were excluded from the typology and subsequent analyses. The typology of teak planting systems was elaborated based on hierarchical ascending cluster analysis, with data from 221 respondents. “Cluster analysis provides a multivariate technique specifically suited to the development of a typology” (Moos and Moos, 1976). Squared Euclidean distance was used as similarity measure, and agglomeration was based on Ward’s method (see Batagelj, 1988). The classificatory variables (production objectives, teak

55 Performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin plantation estate, farm size, and contribution of family labour to timber production) were standardised. Principal Components Analysis was performed to interpret clusters’ characteristics (Glèlè-Kakaï and Kokodé, 2004). Those analyses were performed by using Minitab, version 14. Farmers’ socio-demographic profile was described across clusters, by using the following variables: gender, age, professional background, and education level. Lastly, the motivations for planting teak were analysed. At this point, the consistency of motivation ranking among respondents was assessed per planting system, by performing Kendall’s test of concordance (see Lewis and Johnson, 1971).

3.2.3.2. Financial analysis The financial analysis consisted in elaborating the production-trading account (see Tallec and Bockel, 2005a, for details) for 1 ha of teak plantation. This was done based on pole, planters’ main production objective. From the 221 farmers who contributed to the typology, 184 were involved effectively in the financial analysis. Three (3) respondents were excluded because their economic figures were related to the production of post which falls outside the scope of the financial analysis. Thirty-four (34) farmers whose turnover diverged markedly from the overall trend (two times higher than average) were also excluded, to ensure the consistency of the results. These were farmers who sold their timber through an unusual channel: direct retail to rural consumers; but the typical outlet consists in wholesale of stumpage timber to urban traders. Farmers manage their teak plantations based on coppicing regime (see further details in section 3.3.1). Ideally, the investment costs of plantation establishment should be amortised over the total number of rotations (i.e., production cycles) up-to the replacement of the plantation; but this was not possible for practical reasons. Besides the lack of knowledge on the optimal number of rotations, we were constrained for aged plantations by the unavailability of accurate figures on planting investments. Since farmers do not keep any written record of expenditures, it was impossible to get accurate figures for investments made 10–20 years ago. In order to provide results showing the current production conditions, only financial figures related to the last rotation completed were exploited from a given respondent. The financial analysis was done by considering two stages in the

56 Chapitre 3 : Socio-economics of smallholder teak ( Tectona grandis L.f.) planting in Southern Benin: a farming system approach lifecycle of the plantations: the first rotation – where investment costs have been charged – and coppicing rotations. This was a realistic way to overcome the difficulties in amortising the investment costs over the productive life of the plantations. Calculation methods for the value added, the gross profit, as well as the statistical analyses performed are presented below.

Determination of the value added The value added is obtained by subtracting the purchases of materials and services (intermediate inputs) from the sales revenues (Riahi-Belkaoui, 1999; Tallec and Bockel, 2005a): VA=SR –II (1); where VA is the value added; SR is the total revenue from the plantation; and II is the value of intermediate inputs. SR is the sum of the sales revenues from teak pole, firewood, and maize. Maize revenue is obtained during the first year (first rotation only) while pole and firewood are sold in the last year of the rotation, so that capitalisation is required to bring maize revenue to the same basis as pole t-1 and firewood revenues. The capitalised maize revenue is Rm×(1+i) ; where

Rm is maize sales revenue, i is the annual interest rate – i.e. savings remuneration rate during the study period (3%) – t is the duration of the t-1 production cycle. Therefore, SR=R p+R f+R m×(1+i) (2); where Rp, Rf, and

Rm are sales revenues from teak pole, firewood, and maize, respectively. Intermediate inputs (all inputs up-to the sale of stumpage timber) were first computed for each year j of the production cycle ( II j). Then, II was calculated by integrating capitalisation as follows: t = × + − jt II ∑ II j 1( i) (3); where II is ‘intermediate inputs’ for the whole j=1 rotation, II j is ‘intermediate inputs’ in a given year j, i is the annual interest rate, and t is the duration of the production cycle. Lastly, VA is obtained by inserting equations (2) and (3) in equation (1): t = − = + + × + t−1 − × + − jt VA SR II Rp R f Rm 1( i) ∑ II j 1( i) (4). j=1

57 Performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin

Determination of the gross profit The value added encompasses planters’ gross profit, personnel remuneration – i.e. the amount paid to hired workers for tree planting and silvicultural treatments – taxes and finance charges (Tallec and Bockel, 2005a). Taxes and finance charges are not found. Therefore, the gross profit is obtained by subtracting personnel remuneration from the value added: GP=VA –PR (5); Where GP is the gross profit, VA is the value added, and PR is personnel remuneration.

t = × + − jt PR is computed for the whole production cycle: PR ∑ PR j 1( i) j=1 (6);

Where PR is the total personnel remuneration, PR j is personnel remuneration in a given year j, i is the annual interest rate, and t is the duration of the production cycle.

Statistical analyses Teak planting systems were compared based on the following variables: intermediate inputs, value added, gross profit, teak pole revenue, and turnover. This was done by performing analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Least Significant Difference (LSD) tests, for comparisons among means (Dagnelie, 1998). Normality and variance homogeneity were properly checked; and data were log-transformed, when required.

3.3. Results 3.3.1. Overview of smallholder teak timber production in Southern Benin Smallholder farmers in Southern Benin engaged in teak planting from the 1970s, by learning from teak growing in State’s plantations where they were employed in silvicultural treatments. In Benin, State’s industrial teak plantations are targeted at the production of logs for export, with rotation ages of 40–60 years. By contrast, smallholder farmers are specialised in the production of service wood – i.e., unprocessed timber used variously in small substructures – to supply metropolitan centres. The categories of timber produced by farmers include pole (5–15 cm diameter), post (15–25

58 Chapitre 3 : Socio-economics of smallholder teak ( Tectona grandis L.f.) planting in Southern Benin: a farming system approach cm diameter), and log (diameter exceeding 25 cm); but pole is by far the main production objective. Teak is usually grown by farmers on degraded agricultural lands which otherwise would return to fallow. Besides farmers, city dwellers are engaged in teak planting, as a strategy to secure their land. Coppicing is the management regime, with rotation ages of 3 to 5 years on average. Good trees are exploited as poles, and the remainder of the plantation is processed to firewood which is a by-product. Two stages are differentiated in the management of the plantations: the first rotation and coppicing rotations.

First rotation The first rotation encompasses the following activities: seedling production, pre-planting field preparation, planting and monitoring. Seedlings – stump mainly – are produced by farmers or purchased from nurserymen. Seeds are collected free from mature trees in the village during fruit maturation period (December to February), or purchased from residents around State’s teak plantations. Those residents collect and store teak seeds, for sale. An estimate of 3–5 kg of seeds is required to produce seedlings for 1 ha of plantation. Dormancy breaking is usually performed by alternating soaking and sun drying for 1–2 weeks. Germinated seeds are grown on the ground for 6–12 months; and then, roots and leaves are pruned to obtain stumps. Field preparation consists in weeding with hoes and machetes. Seedlings are planted from May to July at 2m×2m spacing, i.e. a density of 2,500 trees per hectare. In practice, the density varies slightly because pre-planting staking out is seldom performed. Maize is grown as intercrop twice during the first year. Beyond this age, the shadow from teak plants hinders intercropping. During the first year, silvicultural treatments consist in weeding that benefit to both teak and maize plants. Scything and pruning are performed during the second and the third years. Silvicultural interventions generally end after the third year.

Coppicing rotations From the end of the first rotation onwards, the field is cleaned after logging, and a new plantation develops from the stumps. At this stage of the plantation, maize intercrop is hindered by the fast growth of the coppiced

59 Performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin stems. There are as many as five stems per stump, but only one or two of these develop in marketable pole. Scything coupled with pruning and “thinning” are performed during the second year. Silvicultural treatments usually end after the second year.

3.3.2. Differentiation of teak planting systems Three clusters of teak planters were selected from the dendrogram of the hierarchical ascending classification (Figure 3.2).

738.44 738,44

492.30 492,30 Distance

1 2 3 246.15 246,15

0.0 AL1 AL3 ZE8 AL5 AL9 ZE3 ZE1 TF8 TF4 ZE9 KP5 ZE7 ZE2 AL7 TB6 TF1 TF6 AL2 AL6 AL8 ZE6 TB3 TB1 TB4 KP8 TB2 TB5 TB8 KP3 KP6 TB7 AL4 TF3 TF7 ZE4 ZE5 KP4 KP1 TF5 KP2 TB9 ZE37 ZE38 AL16 AL13 ZE40 KP10 AL23 TF64 TB33 AL39 AL48 AL21 TF54 TF50 TB37 TF37 TF45 ZE46 AL12 TF15 TB14 ZE28 AL14 AL17 TB12 TB27 AL11 ZE17 AL32 AL50 TF26 KP12 ZE57 ZE13 ZE25 TF42 ZE53 TF59 TB32 ZE33 TB39 AL27 ZE47 TB19 ZE58 AL28 TF55 TB13 TB18 TB25 TB41 ZE22 TF29 ZE44 TB38 AL35 AL47 TF33 ZE52 TB35 TF49 ZE31 TF13 ZE39 AL37 ZE14 TF53 ZE60 TF44 ZE23 AL10 ZE59 TB10 AL19 TB15 KP21 AL44 TF22 TF30 ZE12 AL15 ZE15 ZE16 TF24 TB17 AL20 AL49 TF52 TB45 TF32 ZE24 ZE43 TF28 TB22 TB48 TF10 TB52 TB31 TF19 AL24 TF57 ZE56 ZE34 KP20 TF25 ZE30 TF51 TF58 TB20 TB21 TB23 TB53 TB54 ZE61 ZE45 TB24 TB47 KP15 TB26 TB43 TF48 TB30 TF16 ZE49 ZE51 TB51 TF11 AL30 TF27 AL33 KP11 AL25 AL26 AL29 AL38 AL43 AL22 AL31 ZE55 AL34 AL40 KP14 KP22 TB16 TB11 TB36 ZE50 AL36 ZE42 KP19 TF21 TF39 ZE54 TF20 TF40 TF43 AL41 ZE35 ZE36 AL42 KP13 TF41 TF38 TF23 TF61 AL51 TF12 TB40 ZE11 KP16 TF34 ZE10 TF62 KP17 KP18 TB44 TB55 TF14 TF18 ZE32 0,00 Teak planters

Figure 3.2. Dendrogram showing the clusters identified from the hierarchical ascending classification. The broken line shows the cluster selection used. 1, 2, and 3, represent the numbering of the clusters.

Those clusters were interpreted as follows, based on Principal Components Analysis (PCA). The eigenvalue analysis of correlation matrix (Table 3.1) showed that the first two components explained 81.4% of the variability. Those two components could therefore be used to interpret adequately the outcome of the PCA. The correlations between the principal components (PC) and the original variables (Table 3.2) showed that the first component (PC1) was positively correlated with the acreage of teak plantation, and the

60 Chapitre 3 : Socio-economics of smallholder teak ( Tectona grandis L.f.) planting in Southern Benin: a farming system approach production objectives. On the other hand, the second component (PC2) was positively correlated with the farm size, and the contribution of family labour to timber production.

Table 3.1. Eigen analysis of the correlation matrix. Parameters PC1 PC2 PC3 PC4 Eigenvalue 2.3918 0.8654 0.4931 0.2498 Proportion 0.598 0.216 0.123 0.062 Cumulative 0.598 0.814 0.938 1.000

Table 3.2. Correlation between principal components (PC) and original variables. Variables PC1 PC2 PC3 PC4 Production objectives* 0.558 -0.099 0.568 -0.598 Teak plantation estate 0.584 0.086 0.250 0.768 Farm size 0.421 0.700 -0.530 -0.226 Contribution of family labour to the -0.413 0.702 0.578 0.048 production** * ‘Production objectives’ is the number of production objectives. ** Proportion of labour performed by family workers in the total, during the production cycle.

The factorial plan of the first two principal components (Figure 3.3) is interpreted hereunder, based on the correlations between principal components (PC) and original variables (Table 3.2). Cluster 1 is associated with a low estate of teak plantation and a limited range of production objectives, with respect to PC1; and a small farm size and a low contribution of family labour to timber production, with respect to PC2. Cluster 2 is associated with a small acreage of teak plantation and a limited range of production objectives, with respect to PC1; and a large farm size and a high contribution of family labour to timber production, with respect to PC2. Cluster 3 is associated with a large estate of teak plantation, and a wide range of production objectives, with respect to PC1. This cluster shows variability in both the farm size and the contribution of family labour to timber production, with respect to PC2. However, the contribution of family labour to timber production is generally low, while the farm size is generally large.

61 Performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin

4 Cluster 1 2 3 3

0 Second Component (21.6%) Second Component -1

-2

0,00.0 2,52.5 5,05.0 7,57.5 First Component (59.8%)

Figure 3.3. Score plot for principal components 1 and 2 from PCA. Clusters from the hierarchical ascending classification are shown as triangles (cluster 1), squares (cluster 2), and dots (cluster 3).

The characteristics of the clusters are summarised in Table 3.3. Clusters 1 and 2 were characterised by a single production objective which was pole, while cluster 3 had several production objectives (post or log, besides pole). Estates of teak plantation were small, and averaged less than 1 hectare within clusters 1 and 2. Farmers in cluster 3 had much larger estate of teak plantation, as compared to cluster 1 (3 times higher) and cluster 2 (9 times higher). Furthermore, they had a larger farm size, and affected a higher percentage of their land to teak planting (two fifth); this figure was one quarter and one tenth for clusters 1 and 2, respectively. Farmers in cluster 2 were using almost exclusively family labour to produce timber, a marked difference as compared to the farmers in clusters 1 and 3 who manage their teak plantations based on financial capital (remuneration of hired labour). Given their respective characteristics (Table 3.3), clusters 1, 2, and 3 have been typified, and will be further referred to as ‘medium - capital dominant’ planting system, ‘small - labour dominant’ planting system, and ‘large - capital dominant’ planting system, representing 37.56%, 33.48%, and 28.96% of the sample, respectively.

62 Chapitre 3 : Socio-economics of smallholder teak ( Tectona grandis L.f.) planting in Southern Benin: a farming system approach

Table 3.3. Characteristics of the teak planting systems identified. Clusters Variables Cluster 1 Cluster 2 Cluster 3 (N=83) (N=74) (N=64) Production objectives* 1 (Pole only) 1 (Pole only) 2–3 (Pole, post and/or log) Teak plantation estate (ha) 0.93 a*** 0.33 b 3.13 c Farm size (ha) 4.12 a 5.04 a 8.15 b Percentage of farm planted 28.04 a 11.53 b 43.57 a with teak (%) Contribution of family labour 22 a 98 b 14 c to the production ** (%) * ‘Production objectives’ is the number of production objectives. ** Proportion of labour performed by family workers in the total, during the production cycle. *** Figures followed by the same letter for a given item are not significantly different at 5% level (ANOVA and Least Significant Difference test).

3.3.3. Characterisation of the teak planting systems 3.3.3.1. Farmers’ socio-demographic profile Farmers’ socio-demographic characteristics across the teak planting systems are presented in Table 3.4. Gender balance was overwhelmingly dominated by men. Regarding age, planters were old, but no consistent differences were found across the systems (ANOVA; p=0.1). Education level distribution varied across the planting systems ( χ2=13.526; p=0.035). Planters were illiterate in majority, and a small proportion had university degree. The ‘large - capital dominant’ system diverged from the two other systems, with a lower proportion of illiterate people, and a higher proportion of planters with university degree. The majority of planters in all clusters were farmers, but the sample also included craftsmen, traders, employees and retired people. Professional background distribution did not vary across the planting systems ( χ2=4.973; p=0.290).

63 Performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin

Table 3.4. Farmers’ socio-demographic characteristics across the teak planting systems. Teak planting systems Socio-demographic ‘Small - labour ‘Medium - capital ‘Large - capital characteristics dominant’ (N=74) dominant’ (N=83) dominant’ (N=64) Gender (%) Male 94.6 98.8 98.4 Female 5.4 1.2 1.6 Age (years) 52.6±3.3 51.2±2.5 54.1±2.9 Education (%)* No schooling 56.8 53.0 39.1 Primary 27.0 24.1 29.7 Secondary 16.2 16.9 17.2 University 0.0 6.0 14.1 Principal activity (%) Farmers 68.9 56.6 59.4 Craftsmen and traders 24.3 30.1 23.4 Employee and retired 6.8 13.3 17.2 people * Variable showing a significant variation of frequency distribution according to the planting systems (Chi-Square test; p<0.05).

3.3.3.2. Motivations for planting teak Farmers were driven mainly by three motivations by planting teak: income seeking, satisfaction of household timber needs, and securing land ownership (Table 3.5). Kendall’s test of concordance showed a high level of agreement among farmers about the ranking of motivations, whichever the planting system considered (Table 3.6). Revenue seeking was the first most important motivation, with also a high rating within all systems (Table 3.5). The importance of the satisfaction of household timber needs and the enforcement of ownership on land varied across the planting systems. These two elements were respectively the second and the third motivations in the ‘small - labour dominant’ and the ‘medium - capital dominant’ systems; but the inverse ranking was found in the ‘large - capital dominant’ system (Table 3.5).

64 Chapitre 3 : Socio-economics of smallholder teak ( Tectona grandis L.f.) planting in Southern Benin: a farming system approach

Table 3.5. Ranking of motivations for planting teak across the teak planting systems. Teak planting systems Motivation ‘Small - labour ‘Medium - capital ‘Large - capital dominant’ (N=74) dominant’ (N=83) dominant’ (N=64) Get income 1 (6.11) 1 (6.40) 1 (6.44) Meet household’s 2 (4.49) 2 (4.34) 3 (3.92) timber need Enforce ownership 3 (4.08) 3 (3.84) 2 (4.53) on land Note: The bracketed figures are the average rating on a 7 points Likert scale.

Table 3.6. Results of Kendall’s test of concordance on motivation ranking across the teak planting systems. Teak planting systems Parameters ‘Small - labour ‘Medium - capital ‘Large - capital dominant’ dominant’ dominant’ N 74 83 64 Kendall's W a 0.573 0.760 0.804 Chi-Square 84.838 126.241 102.941 df 2 2 2 Asymp. Sig. 0.000 0.000 0.000 a Kendall's coefficient of concordance (0 = no agreement, 1 = total agreement).

3.3.3.3. Financial efficiency Intermediate inputs in the first rotation included teak planting material (69– 85% of inputs across the planting systems) and its transportation to the field, and broker commission (Table 3.7). The latter item was the sole input in coppicing rotations (Table 3.8). Intermediate inputs did not vary significantly across the planting systems, whichever the stage considered (all p>0.05). Teak pole was the main revenue source, accounting across the planting systems for 68–71% of the turnover in the first rotation (Table 3.7), and 93– 94% in coppicing rotations (Table 3.8). Maize was a remarkable revenue source in the first rotation; its contribution to the turnover ranged from 24 to 27% across the planting systems (Table 3.7). Teak pole revenue, as well as the turnover, did not vary significantly across the planting systems in the

65 Performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin first rotation (all p>0.05); but differences were significant in coppicing rotations (all p<0.001). In the latter case, the ‘small - labour dominant’ system had a smaller revenue for teak pole, and a smaller turnover, as compared to the ‘medium - capital dominant’ and the ‘large - capital dominant’ systems (Table 3.8). The value added was positive in all the planting systems, whichever the stage considered (Tables 3.7 and 3.8). It did not vary consistently across the planting systems in the first rotation (p=0.8); but differences in coppicing rotations were significant (p<0.001). In the latter case, the ‘small - labour dominant’ system created a lower value added, as compared to the two other planting systems (Table 3.8). The value added was shared among planters and workers (Tables 3.7 and 3.8). Planters’ gross profit was positive in all planting systems, whichever the stage considered. The gross profit represented 56–97% of the value added in the first rotation, and 84–98% in coppicing rotations (Tables 3.7 and 3.8). That return varied consistently across the planting systems in the first rotation (p<0.001), and marginally in coppicing rotations (p=0.13). In the first rotation, the return was larger in the ‘small - labour dominant’ system, as compared to the other planting systems (Table 3.7); but the picture was different in coppicing rotations where this system had the lowest gross profit (Table 3.8).

66 Chapitre 3 : Socio-economics of smallholder teak ( Tectona grandis L.f.) planting in Southern Benin: a farming system approach

Table 3.7. Production-trading account of teak pole across the planting systems for 1 ha of plantation, in the first rotation. Teak planting systems Item (XOF*) ‘Small - labour ‘Medium - capital ‘Large - capital dominant’ (N=19) dominant’ (N=27) dominant’ (N=18) Planting material 16,837 18,141 19,861 Seedling transport 0 370 852 Broker 3168 7785 2676 commission Intermediate inputs 20,005 a** 26,296 a 23,388 a Personnel 5226 87,016 86,158 remuneration Gross profit 195,706 a 112,645 b 119,998 b Value added 200,933 a 199,661 a 206,155 a Pole revenue 149,726 a 160,740 a 158,522 a Firewood revenue 11,675 10,738 14,937 Maize revenue 59,537 54,479 56,085 Turnover 220,938 a 225,957 a 229,544 a Note: ‘Intermediate inputs’ is the sum of the costs of teak planting material, seedlings transportation to the field, and broker commission. The value added is obtained by subtracting intermediate inputs from the turnover. The turnover is the sum of teak pole revenue, firewood revenue, and maize revenue. * XOF: Local currency; average exchange rate during the survey period (1 st July to 30 September 2010) was XOF 1=USD 0.002 (Source: http://www.exchangerates.org.uk/XOF- USD-exchange-rate-history.html; access on 13 December 2010). ** Figures followed by the same letter for a given item are not significantly different at 5% level.

67 Performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin

Table 3.8. Production-trading account of teak pole across the planting systems for 1 ha of plantation, in coppicing rotations. Teak planting systems Item (XOF*) ‘Small - labour ‘Medium - capital ‘Large - capital dominant’ (N=28) dominant’ (N=48) dominant’ (N=44) Broker commission 3992 4677 2542 Intermediate inputs 3992 a** 4677 a 2542 a Personnel 4326 28,376 36,331 remuneration Gross profit 178,478 a 197,479 b 187,515 a,b Value added 182,804 a 225,855 b 223,846 b Teak pole revenue 172,890 a 213,384 b 212,232 b Firewood revenue 13,905 17,148 14,156 Turnover 186,795 a 230,532 b 226,388 b Note: ‘Intermediate inputs’ encompasses only broker commission. The value added is obtained by subtracting intermediate inputs from the turnover. The turnover is the sum of teak pole revenue and firewood revenue. * The exchange rate during the survey period was XOF 1=USD 0.002. ** Figures followed by the same letter for a given item are not significantly different at 5% level.

3.4. Discussion 3.4.1. Teak planting systems The study showed the existence of various teak planting systems related to different strategies of integration of teak on the farm, as hypothesised. Differentiation was found regarding the use of all production factors (land, labour, and financial capital). According to the relative importance of teak planting on the farm, farmers can be typified as small planters for the ‘small - labour dominant’ system, medium planters for the ‘medium - capital dominant’ system, and large planters for the ‘large - capital dominant’ system. In general, teak plantation estates were relatively low, except in the ‘large - capital dominant’ system; but this is not surprising because even the farm size is low in Benin and averaged 1.7 ha per farm household (MAEP, 2007). Regarding plantation estate, the differentiation of farmers in the ‘large - capital dominant’ planting system, as compared to the two other planting systems, stems from their larger land asset. This also explains why a wider proportion of their farm land is planted with teak. These results are

68 Chapitre 3 : Socio-economics of smallholder teak ( Tectona grandis L.f.) planting in Southern Benin: a farming system approach consistent with the fact that the availability of land is a constraint to tree planting by smallholder farmers (Johnson and Delgado, 2003; Nduwamungu et al., 2004). Pole was planters’ main production objective across all the clusters. The wealthier status of farmers in the ‘large - capital dominant’ planting system might explain their partial involvement in the production of post and small log that require longer rotations (10 to 25 years). Teak is a high value tropical species well known for the production of logs for export (Pandey and Brown, 2000). The management of teak to produce pole is atypical. However, it does not represent a single pattern of Southern Benin, insofar as teak planting for the production of pole has also developed in neighbour Togo (Louis et al., 2003) and Cote d’Ivoire (Maldonado and Louppe, 1999). Farmers justified their interest in pole production by the need of getting their return in the short term. The smallholder teak planting systems appear as a responsive adaptation to valorise degraded lands and meet the urban demand for cheap timber: house construction, small sheds, fencing, etc. (Aoudji et al., 2011a). The practical lesson here is that policy intended to promote on- farm tree plantation should build on the opportunities offered by domestic markets, a view previously defended by Scherr (2004). In the Beninese case, policy intended to promote the production of high value timber (post and log) should put emphasis on large planters (‘large - capital dominant’ system).

3.4.2. Characterisation of the teak planting systems 3.4.2.1. Farmers’ socio-demographic profile City dwellers (absentee planters) were underrepresented in the sample; but the study provides an overview of their involvement in teak planting. Female-headed households were marginally engaged in timber production, a situation taking roots from the sociological ground. Land ownership is a prerequisite to tree growing; but women’s land asset is generally limited, because they are often excluded from inheritance in the patriarchal system prevailing in Southern Benin. Though other professional backgrounds (craftsmen, traders, employees, and retired people) were involved in teak planting, farmers represented the majority of planters across the planting systems. The predominance of farmers justifies why we used the concept

69 Performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin

‘smallholder forestry’ to typify teak planting in Southern Benin, drawing on Harrison et al. (2002).

3.4.2.2. Motivations for planting teak Revenue seeking, satisfaction of household timber needs, and enforcement of ownership on land were major motivations for planting teak in Southern Benin. Revenue seeking as a motivation for tree growing is not a typical pattern of farmers in Southern Benin, insofar as similar results were found in Asia (Malla, 2000; Salam et al., 2005). These findings are consistent with the positive influence of product price on farmers’ decision to establish tree plantations (Shively, 1999; Zhang and Owiredu, 2007). As implication, policy relying on smallholder forestry to satisfy the demand for forest products and environmental service should target a profitable return to farmers, to make this activity attractive. Our findings tally with previous results, regarding the importance of the satisfaction of household timber needs as a key factor on farmers’ decisions on tree management (Malla, 2000). This stems from the fact that the possibility to harvest trees from the wild has vanished, as consequence of deforestation. Accordingly, tree growing on the farm has become a mean to secure construction timber and firewood supplies. The enforcement of ownership on land had a higher importance in the ‘large - capital dominant’ planting system. This might originate from the larger land asset of those farmers, as compared to the two other categories. Following a traditional rule in Southern Benin, the cultivation of perennial crops is not permitted on hired lands. Therefore, growing a perennial crop (e.g., oil palm, teak) on a plot is an indirect mean to show one’s ownership on that land. In reality, the importance of this motivation might be higher than reported here. Respondents who are aware of the ethic aspect related to land appropriation might have deliberately given a lower rating there, to not appear as immoral. Other studies have brought evidence of the establishment of perennial crops, especially teak plantations, as a land appropriation strategy in West Africa (Louis et al., 2003; Maldonado and Louppe, 1999). In the French-speaking countries of West Africa, this rule was tacitly in force since the colonial period (Louis et al., 2003). As a practical policy

70 Chapitre 3 : Socio-economics of smallholder teak ( Tectona grandis L.f.) planting in Southern Benin: a farming system approach lesson, the results confirm that security in land tenure is essential to the successful development of on-farm tree plantations.

3.4.2.3. Financial efficiency The value added was positive whichever the stage considered (first and coppicing rotations), showing evidence that teak planting contributed to create wealth, as hypothesised. In reality, the total wealth created is higher than reported here, insofar as the study did not include the valuation of environmental benefits such as soil and water conservation that are often significant (e.g., Rasul and Thapa, 2006). Farmers’ gross profit was positive; this stems from the low level of inputs involved in the production of teak pole. Planting material was the main input; no fertiliser was used; and silvicultural treatments were limited mainly to weeding. However, teak is suited to this production system. For instance, the non establishment of firebreak increases fire risks; but since teak is fire resistant to some extent (Ruangpanit, 1995), no irreversible damage is caused to the plantations. Farmers were the main beneficiaries of the value added, but interestingly, timber production provided income to rural labourers. These confirm that, apart from meeting the demand for forest products and environmental services, smallholder forestry can be a policy option to improve rural livelihoods, as often argued (Russell and Franzel, 2004; Scherr, 2004). The viability of this policy option is strengthened by the existence of a domestic demand for timber (Aoudji et al., 2011a; Scherr, 2004). Though this study is based on ex-post evaluation, the results are consistent with previous studies, with respect to the positive return from timber production (Avohou et al., 2011; Bertomeu, 2006; Rasul and Thapa, 2006). Therefore, the low return to small-scale tree growers, as reported sometimes (Maldonado and Louppe, 1999; Nawir et al., 2007), could be viewed from a relative perspective, e.g. the profitability of tree growing as compared to alternative land use options, or the competitiveness of smallholder farmers in timber value chains. Comparisons between the first rotation and coppicing rotations are delicate, insofar as all investments of plantation establishment have been charged on the first rotation. Despite this choice justified by practical considerations, performance indicators in the first rotation were good. This is explained, at least partly, by the remarkable contribution of maize to the turnover in the

71 Performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin first rotation (24–27% across the planting systems; Table 3.7). Maize intercrop enables farmers to recover partly their investment during the unproductive stage of the plantation. The financial performance varied across the planting systems, confirming our assumption. However, differences in performance indicators were marginal in the first rotation, apart from the gross profit where the ‘small - labour dominant’ system differentiated with a larger return. This advantage stems obviously from the intensive use of family labour in this planting system, as compared to the ‘medium - capital dominant’ and the ‘large - capital dominant’ planting systems. In coppicing rotations, the small planters lost their advantage for all performance indicators; the large and medium planters were more competitive with respect to teak pole revenue, the turnover, the value added, and the gross profit. We therefore suspect a potential effect of return to scale, owing to the fact that the ‘small - labour dominant’ system is characterised by smaller plots of teak plantations, as compared to the two other planting systems (Table 3.3).

3.5. Conclusions The focal target of this chapter was to draw on the farming system approach to characterise the integration of teak planting on the farm in Southern Benin, and its potential to improve livelihoods. The study led to the identification of three planting systems related to different strategies of integration of teak on the farm: ‘small - labour dominant’, ‘medium - capital dominant’, and ‘large - capital dominant’ systems. Farmers were specialised in the production of pole which enabled them to valorise degraded lands, and take advantage of the urban demand for cheap timber. Farmers across the teak planting systems had distinctive features with respect to the motivations for planting teak, but differences in socio-demographic profiles were less marked. Policy relying on smallholder forestry for the provision of forest products and environmental service should target the profitability of timber production to keep the farmers motivated, because revenue seeking was a strong motivation for them. Other motivations for planting teak were the satisfaction of household’s timber needs, and the enforcement of ownership on land, especially among the large planters.

72 Chapitre 3 : Socio-economics of smallholder teak ( Tectona grandis L.f.) planting in Southern Benin: a farming system approach

It appeared from the financial analysis that teak planting contributes to create wealth, as hypothesised (positive value added). The gross profit (return to household’s factors of production) was positive. Moreover, teak planting provided income to rural labourers. These confirm in Southern Benin the potential of smallholder forestry to improve rural livelihoods, as hypothesised. The assertion that the financial performance varied across the teak planting systems was also confirmed. The gross profit is influenced by the contribution of family labour to the production. In coppicing rotations, large planters and medium planters were more competitive, as compared to small planters, despite a more intensive use of family labour in the latter group. This result enables us to suspect a potential return to scale.

Chapitre 4 : Coûts et valeur ajoutée dans la commercialisation des perches de teck au Sud-Bénin

Aoudji, A.K.N., Adégbidi, A., Agbo, V., Ganglo, J.C., Lebailly, P., 2011. Cahiers Agricultures, doi : 10.1684/agr.2011.0529.

Résumé Nous avons analysé les coûts, la valeur ajoutée et ses composantes dans la commercialisation des perches de teck au Sud-Bénin, pour identifier les interventions pouvant améliorer la performance du système de commercialisation du bois. Cent sept (107) commerçants de perches de teck, sélectionnés suivant un échantillonnage par grappes, ont été interviewés dans cinq villes. Les informations sur leurs activités ont été collectées grâce à des entretiens structurés. Ces commerçants se différencient en diverses catégories selon leurs fonctions. La structure des coûts de commercialisation révèle que le transport et les pots-de-vin sont les principales composantes sur les lesquelles des gains d’efficience sont réalisables. La commercialisation des perches de teck génère une valeur ajoutée positive, et constitue donc une activité créatrice de richesse. Il ressort des résultats que toute amélioration des infrastructures de transport dans les régions rurales aura des retombées positives sur le système de commercialisation du bois. Des réformes dans le secteur forestier sont nécessaires pour réduire les pots-de-vin. Mots clés : commercialisation, coût, valeur ajoutée, bois, teck.

Abstract

Costs and value added in the marketing of teak poles in Southern Benin. We analysed the costs, the value added and its components in the marketing of teak poles in Southern Benin, to identify areas where interventions can improve efficiency in the timber marketing system. 107 traders of teak poles were surveyed in five cities, based on cluster sampling, and information on their business was collected by using a standardised questionnaire. Traders included various categories according to their marketing functions. The structure of marketing costs showed that transport and rent to civil servants are the main items on which significant efficiency gains can be reached.

74 Chapitre 4 : Coûts et valeur ajoutée dans la commercialisation des perches de teck au Sud-Bénin

Teak poles marketing is a wealth creating activity, as it generates a positive value added. The results suggest that any improvement of transport infrastructure in rural areas will benefit to market efficiency. Reforms in the forestry sector are essential to tackle rent-seeking behaviour. Keywords : marketing, costs, value added, timber, teak.

75 Performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin

4.1. Introduction L’édification de marchés efficients pour la foresterie paysanne – c’est-à-dire l’aménagement à buts multiples de petites parcelles boisées par les petits exploitants (Harrison et al., 2002) – constitue un défi majeur pour les décideurs (Russell et Franzel, 2004). Cela est nécessaire pour faire de ce type de foresterie, devenu crucial dans la satisfaction des besoins en produits forestiers et la fourniture de services environnementaux (Anyonge et Roshetko, 2003 ; Russell et Franzel, 2004), une opportunité d’amélioration du revenu des paysans. En effet, la capacité des petits exploitants à tirer un revenu de leurs productions dépend de la performance du système commercialisation (Dorward et al., 2004 ; Markelova et al., 2009). Pour éclairer les décideurs sur les orientations de politique à mener, il est nécessaire de leur fournir des données sur la performance du système de commercialisation des produits de la foresterie paysanne. C’est dans cette optique que s’inscrit le présent chapitre dont l’objectif est d’évaluer les coûts de commercialisation et la valeur ajoutée dans le commerce des perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin. En effet, la plantation du teck est répandue parmi les petits exploitants du Sud-Bénin. Ces planteurs produisent essentiellement des perches (bois de 5 à 15 cm de diamètre), suivant une conduite en taillis, avec un cycle de production de 3 à 5 ans (Figure 4.1). Les coûts de commercialisation traduisent l’efficience avec laquelle le système de commercialisation remplit ses fonctions au service des producteurs et des consommateurs (Shepherd, 2007). De même, la capacité de toute activité, y compris la commercialisation, à créer de la valeur ajoutée est un élément important pour la société (Lebailly et al., 2000). Cependant, les acteurs opérant dans un système de commercialisation ne constituent pas souvent un groupe homogène selon leur efficience (Fafchamps et Gabre-Madhin, 2006 ; Lebailly et al., 2000). Partant de ce fait, nous avons élaboré une typologie des commerçants de perches de teck ; puis nous avons évalué les coûts de commercialisation et la valeur ajoutée par catégorie de commerçant, tout en comparant ces catégories entre elles. La prise en compte de la diversité des acteurs est déterminante dans l’efficacité des interventions visant l’amélioration du système de commercialisation ; d’où l’intérêt d’une typologie des commerçants. Nous supposons qu’il existe des opportunités de réduction des coûts de commercialisation des perches de teck. Nous émettons aussi l’hypothèse que la commercialisation des perches de teck est

76 Chapitre 4 : Coûts et valeur ajoutée dans la commercialisation des perches de teck au Sud-Bénin une activité créatrice de richesse, c’est-à-dire qu’elle génère une valeur ajoutée positive.

Figure 4.1. Perches de teck fraîchement coupées. Photo K.N.A. Aoudji (2010).

4.2. Méthodologie 4.2.1. Collecte des données Une enquête a été menée en mars et avril 2010 auprès de 107 commerçants de perches de teck répartis dans les villes de Cotonou, Abomey-Calavi, Porto-Novo, Sèmé-Kpodji et Ouidah (Figure 2.1). Etant donné que nous ne disposions pas d’une base de données de ces commerçants, un échantillonnage par grappes a été effectué, comme recommandé par Giannelloni et Vernette (2001). La procédure d’échantillonnage a déjà été décrite dans le chapitre 2 (voir section 2.2.1). Les données ont été collectées à base d’un questionnaire standardisé comportant 21 questions fermées. L’interview commence par l’identification des fonctions remplies par le commerçant, en nous basant sur la typologie des fonctions de commercialisation de Goossens (1998). Ensuite, un inventaire détaillé des coûts et des recettes relatifs à la dernière livraison de perches a été fait, en traitant séparément les ventes en gros et celles en détail. Le guide de Shepherd (2007) sur la détermination des coûts de commercialisation a été suivi, pour identifier tous les coûts liés à la commercialisation des perches de teck. Les données ont été collectées en franc CFA (XOF). Le taux de change

77 Performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin au moment de l’étude a été utilisé pour les conversions en dollar US (1 XOF = 0,002 dollar US).

4.2.2. Traitements et analyses des données Nous avons d’abord élaboré une typologie des commerçants, basée principalement sur leurs fonctions d’échange. Ensuite, nous avons déterminé les coûts de commercialisation et la valeur ajoutée par type de commerçant et par segment de marché (gros et détail). Ces paramètres ont été calculés sur la base d’un chargement de 600 perches (unité de vente en gros), afin de permettre les comparaisons entre commerçants. Des analyses de variance à un facteur et des tests t de Student pour échantillons indépendants ont été faits, pour comparer les types de commerçants entre eux. La comptabilité analytique a été utilisée pour la détermination des coûts fixes. Le coût total a été calculé en faisant la somme des coûts supportés pendant la commercialisation. La structure des coûts a été obtenue, en calculant le pourcentage de chaque composante dans le coût total. La valeur ajoutée est la différence entre le chiffre d’affaires et les consommations intermédiaires (Lebailly et al., 2000 ; Tallec et Bockel, 2005a). Classiquement, elle englobe les salaires, les frais financiers, les taxes, l’amortissement, et le résultat net d’exploitation qui rémunère les commerçants pour les capitaux investis, le travail familial et le management. Les méthodes de détermination de la valeur ajoutée et de ses composantes sont exposées dans Lebailly et al. (2000) et Tallec et Bockel (2005a).

4.3. Résultats 4.3.1. Typologie des commerçants de perches de teck Tous les commerçants de perches de teck interviewés sont engagés dans la vente de détail qui constitue la base de leur activité. En plus de cela, une partie des commerçants s’investit dans la vente de perches de teck en gros à d’autres commerçants. À cette étape, deux groupes de commerçants se différencient, selon les fonctions d’échanges remplies : les ‘grossiste- détaillants’ et les ‘détaillants’. Les ‘grossiste-détaillants’ s’approvisionnent auprès des paysans. Ils se séparent en deux catégories, selon le mode d’organisation du transport des perches de teck : les ‘gros grossiste- détaillants’ et les ‘petits grossiste-détaillants’. Le transport est internalisé

78 Chapitre 4 : Coûts et valeur ajoutée dans la commercialisation des perches de teck au Sud-Bénin chez les premiers et externalisé chez les derniers. La différence entre ces deux types de commerçants est liée en réalité au capital engagé dans ce commerce. En effet, le camion de transport, élément dont la possession différencie les deux types de commerçants est un gros investissement – 14 000 000 à 17 500 000 XOF (28 000 à 35 000 dollar US) pour un produit de seconde main. Les ‘détaillants’ forment aussi deux groupes, selon leur stratégie d’approvisionnement. Le premier groupe s’approvisionne auprès des ‘grossiste-détaillants’, alors que le second groupe s’approvisionne directement auprès des paysans. Pour résumer, quatre types de commerçants de perches de teck ont été identifiés (Figure 4.2) : les ‘gros grossiste- détaillants’, les ‘petits grossiste-détaillants’, les ‘détaillants s’approvisionnant auprès des planteurs’, et les ‘détaillants s’approvisionnant auprès des grossistes’ qui représentent respectivement 9,35%, 9,35%, 64,5%, et 16,8% de l’échantillon.

Planteurs de teck

'Petits grossiste- 'Gros grossiste- détaillants' détaillants'

'Détaillants 'Détaillants s’approvisionnant s’approvisionnant auprès des planteurs' auprès des grossistes'

Consommateurs urbains

Figure 4.2. Système de commercialisation des perches de teck au Sud-Bénin.

79 Performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin

4.3.2. Coûts de commercialisation Les coûts de commercialisation varient selon le type de commerçant (Tableaux 4.1 et 4.2). Dans le segment de vente en gros, les ‘gros grossiste- détaillants’ ont des coûts de commercialisation plus faibles. Dans le segment du détail, les ‘détaillants s’approvisionnant auprès des grossistes’ présentent les plus faibles coûts de commercialisation ; car ils n’ont pas les frais des opérations d’exploitation, du chargement/déchargement, et du transport. Les ‘gros grossiste-détaillants’ ont des coûts de commercialisation plus faibles que les ‘petits grossiste-détaillants’ et les ‘détaillants s’approvisionnant auprès des planteurs’. L’avantage des ‘gros grossiste-détaillants’ est dû vraisemblablement à la possession d’un plus grand capital permettant l’internalisation du transport, comme le montre le plus faible coût du transport chez eux (Tableaux 4.1 et 4.2). Les ‘petits grossiste-détaillants’ et les ‘détaillants s’approvisionnant auprès des planteurs’ présentent des coûts de commercialisation comparables (Tableau 4.2). Cela s’explique par la similarité du mode opératoire de ces deux types de commerçants dans le segment du détail : approvisionnement auprès des paysans et externalisation du transport du bois. La structure des coûts de commercialisation pour la vente en gros comprend les manutentions, le transport, les pots-de-vin aux agents de l’État, la commission du courtier intervenant dans les transactions avec les planteurs, les frais de téléphone et de voyage du commerçant, les intérêts financiers, les taxes, et les frais d’agrément (Tableau 4.1). En plus de ces composantes, la structure des coûts de commercialisation dans le segment du détail comprend la vente et le gardiennage, la location du dépôt de vente, et l’équipement de ce dépôt (Tableau 4.2). Les trois dernières composantes sont absentes de la structure des coûts dans le marché de gros (Tableau 4.1). En effet, la vente en gros consiste à s’approvisionner auprès des planteurs et à livrer directement le bois au dépôt du détaillant. Ainsi, elle n’implique pas des coûts de vente et de gardiennage, de location et d’équipement du dépôt. Par ailleurs, une partie des coûts de manutentions (tri et classement) est à la charge des ‘détaillants s’approvisionnant auprès des grossistes’. Les composantes les plus importantes dans la structure des coûts de commercialisation, par rapport à leur pourcentage, sont : le transport, les manutentions, et les pots-de-vin aux agents de l’État. Ces composantes totalisent ensemble 88–92% des coûts de commercialisation dans le marché

80 Chapitre 4 : Coûts et valeur ajoutée dans la commercialisation des perches de teck au Sud-Bénin de gros. Leur poids est aussi élevé dans le marché du détail (77–86% des coûts de commercialisation), sauf pour les ‘détaillants s’approvisionnant auprès des grossistes’ (25%). La particularité chez ces derniers est due à l’absence des coûts du transport et de certaines manutentions. Le transport des perches de teck du bord plantation au dépôt de vente se fait avec des camions de capacité 15 tonnes, contenant 300–800 bois. Les coûts de transport sont absents chez les ‘détaillants s’approvisionnant auprès des grossistes’ (Tableau 4.2), car les perches leur sont livrées au dépôt de vente. Les ‘gros grossiste-détaillants’ tirent avantage de la possession de leur propre moyen de transport, et supportent des coûts de transport plus faibles, quel que soit le segment considéré (Tableaux 4.1 et 4.2). Les pots-de-vin aux agents de l’État avoisinent 25 000 XOF (50 US$) par chargement de 600 perches, excepté pour les ‘détaillants s’approvisionnant auprès des grossistes’ chez qui cette rente est plus faible (Tableaux 4.1 et 4.2). Les pots-de-vin sont perçus aux postes de contrôle durant le transport du bois, et lors des procédures d’obtention du permis de coupe, du laissez- passer, de l’agrément et d’autres formalités administratives. Ces frais sont considérés à tort comme des taxes par certains commerçants.

Tableau 4.1. Structure des coûts de commercialisation, en franc CFA (XOF), dans le marché de gros, pour un chargement de 600 perches. Type de commerçant* Coûts GGD PGD Transport 38 265 (32,9) a** 82 000 (48,7) b Manutentions 40 400 (34,8) a 47 750 (28,4) a Pots-de-vin 24 061 (20,7) a 25 124 (14,9) a Commission du courtier 3 500 (3,0) 4 500 (2,7) Télécommunication 200 (0,2) 1 100 (0,7) Voyage du commerçant 1 300 (1,1) 3 095 (1,8) Frais financiers (intérêts seulement) 533 (0,5) 250 (0,1) Taxes 5 144 (4,4) 2 062 (1,2) Dépenses d’agrément 2 854 (2,5) 2 417 (1,4) Total 116 258 a 168 298 b Note : Entre parenthèses, se trouve le pourcentage de chaque composante dans le total. *GGD et PGD : respectivement ‘gros grossiste-détaillant’ et ‘petit grossiste-détaillant’. ** Les chiffres suivis d’une même lettre sur une ligne donnée ne sont pas différents au seuil de 5% (test t de Student).

81 Performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin

Tableau 4.2. Structure des coûts de commercialisation, en franc CFA (XOF), dans le marché de détail, pour un chargement de 600 perches. Type de commerçant* Coûts GGD PGD DAP DAG Transport 38 265 (27,1) a** 82 000 (44,0) b 78 841 (42,7) b 0 (0,0) Manutentions 45 600 (32,3) a,b 53 750 (28,8) a 40 058 (21,7) b 5 139 (21,1) c Pots-de-vin 24 061 (17,1) a 25 124 (13,5) a 24 639 (13,3) a 1 019 (4,2) b Commission du courtier 3 500 (2,5) 4 500 (2,4) 3 696 (2,0) 0 (0,0) Télécommunication 200 (0,1) 1 100 (0,6) 343 (0,2) 1 417 (5,8) Voyage du commerçant 1 300 (0,9) 3 095 (1,7) 945 (0,5) 1 667 (6,8) Vente et gardiennage 14 725 (10,4) 8 800 (4,7) 11 896 (6,4) 1 944 (8,0) Location du dépôt de vente 4 200 (3,0) 2 990 (1,6) 8 594 (4,7) 3 500 (14,4) Frais financiers (intérêts seulement) 533 (0,4) 250 (0,1) 502 (0,3) 933 (3,8) Taxes 5 144 (3,6) 2 062 (1,1) 7 768 (4,2) 4 046 (16,6) Dépenses d’agrément 2 854 (2,0) 2 417 (1,3) 5 978 (3,2) 3 819 (15,7) Equipement du dépôt 609 (0,4) 316 (0,2) 1 449 (0,8) 870 (3,6) Total 140 992 a 186 404 b 184 710 b 24 355 c Note : Entre parenthèses, se trouve le pourcentage de chaque composante dans le total. * GGD, PGD, DAP, et DAG : respectivement ‘gros grossiste-détaillant’, ‘petit grossiste-détaillant’, ‘détaillant s’approvisionnant auprès des planteurs’, et ‘détaillant s’approvisionnant auprès des grossistes’. ** Les chiffres suivis d’une même lettre sur une ligne donnée ne sont pas différents au seuil de 5% (ANOVA et plus petite différence significative).

82 Chapitre 4 : Coûts et valeur ajoutée dans la commercialisation des perches de teck au Sud-Bénin

4.3.3. Valeur ajoutée et ses composantes La valeur ajoutée est positive dans les deux segments de marché (Tableaux 4.3 et 4.4). La commercialisation des perches de teck est donc une activité créatrice de richesse. Chez les ‘gros grossiste-détaillants’, le transport qui est internalisé se décompose en coûts de gasoil, maintenance, salaire du conducteur, assurance, et amortissement ; les trois derniers éléments étant inclus dans la valeur ajoutée. La valeur ajoutée varie selon le type de commerçant dans les deux segments de marché (Tableaux 4.3 et 4.4). Ces variations reflètent les différences entre types de commerçants dans les fonctions de commercialisation remplies. Ainsi, les ‘gros grossiste- détaillants’ produisent la plus grande valeur ajoutée dans les deux segments de marché. Le résultat net d’exploitation (RNE) est positif chez tous les types de commerçants, mais il existe des différences d’une catégorie à l’autre (Tableaux 4.3 et 4.4). Le RNE représente généralement la plus grande part de la valeur ajoutée (entre 32 et 50% dans le segment de vente en gros, et entre 59 et 87% dans celui du détail). La commercialisation des perches de teck génère des emplois, et les ouvriers sont les deuxièmes plus gros bénéficiaires de la valeur ajoutée. Les salaires représentent 27–43% de la valeur ajoutée dans le segment de gros, et 7–28% dans celui du détail. Le reste de la valeur ajoutée est réparti entre les pots-de-vin, les frais financiers, les taxes aux niveaux local et national, et l’amortissement.

83 Performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin

Tableau 4.3. Compte de production-exploitation des commerçants dans le marché de gros, pour un chargement de 600 perches, en franc CFA (XOF). Type de commerçant* Eléments GGD PGD Perches de teck 71 250 a*** 73 500 a Transport 0 82 000 Carburant 21 238 0 Maintenance du camion 583 0 Autres** 7 854 11 112 Consommations intermédiaires 100 925 a 166 612 b Salaires 45 733 47 750 Pots-de-vin 24 061 25 124 Frais financiers (intérêts et 1 367 250 assurance) Taxes locales 2 708 0 Taxes nationales 2 991 2 062 Amortissement 9 722 0 Résultat net d’exploitation 85 492 35 702 Valeur ajoutée brute 172 075 a 110 888 b Chiffre d’affaires 273 000 a 277 500 a *GGD et PGD : respectivement ‘gros grossiste-détaillant’ et ‘petit grossiste-détaillant’. ** Cela comprend la commission du courtier, le voyage du commerçant, les télécommunications, et les dépenses d’agrément. *** Les chiffres suivis d’une même lettre sur une ligne donnée ne sont pas différents au seuil de 5% (test t de Student). Note: Les consommations intermédiaires découlent de la somme des coûts d’achat des perches de teck, le transport, le carburant, la maintenance du camion, et des autres frais. La valeur ajoutée brute est la différence entre le chiffre d’affaires et les consommations intermédiaires. Elle est décomposée en salaires, pots-de-vin, frais financiers, taxes, amortissement, et résultat net d’exploitation.

84 Chapitre 4 : Coûts et valeur ajoutée dans la commercialisation des perches de teck au Sud-Bénin

Tableau 4.4. Compte de production-exploitation des commerçants dans le marché de détail, pour un chargement de 600 perches, en franc CFA (XOF). Type de commerçant* Eléments GGD PGD DAP DAG Perches de teck 71 250 a*** 73 500 a 69 928 a 268 333 b Transport 0 82 000 78 841 0 Carburant 21 238 0 0 0 Maintenance du camion 583 0 0 0 Autres** 12 054 14 102 19 557 10 403 Consommations intermédiaires 105 125 a 169 602 b 168 325 b 278 736 c Salaires 65658 62 550 51 954 7 083 Pots-de-vin 24 061 25 124 24 639 1 019 Frais financiers (intérêts et 1 367 250 502 933 assurance) Taxes locales 2 708 0 2 667 787 Taxes nationales 2 991 2 062 5 101 3 259 Amortissement 10 331 316 1 449 870 Résultat net d’exploitation 176 158 a 131 596 b 127 971 b 93 034 c Valeur ajoutée brute 283 275 a 221 898 b 214 284 b 106 986 c Chiffre d’affaires 388 400 a 391 500 a 382 609 a 385 722 a * GGD, PGD, DAP, et DAG : respectivement ‘gros grossiste-détaillant’, ‘petit grossiste- détaillant’, ‘détaillant s’approvisionnant auprès des planteurs’, et ‘détaillant s’approvisionnant auprès des grossistes’. ** Cela comprend la commission du courtier, le voyage du commerçant, les télécommunications, la location du dépôt, et les dépenses d’agrément. *** Les chiffres suivis d’une même lettre sur une ligne donnée ne sont pas différents au seuil de 5% (ANOVA et plus petite différence significative). Note: Les consommations intermédiaires découlent de la somme des coûts d’achat des perches de teck, le transport, le carburant, la maintenance du camion, et des autres frais. La valeur ajoutée brute est la différence entre le chiffre d’affaires et les consommations intermédiaires. Elle est décomposée en salaires, pots-de-vin, frais financiers, taxes, amortissement, et résultat net d’exploitation.

4.4. Discussion et conclusions Quatre types de commerçants opèrent dans le système de commercialisation. Les possibilités de réduction des coûts de manutention sont minces ; car ils concernent des opérations essentielles : récolte du bois, chargement, déchargement, tri et classement des bois. Ces opérations mobilisent une

85 Performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin main-d’œuvre non qualifiée, et s’accompagnent d’une distribution de salaires dans le compte d’exploitation ; d’où l’impact social positif de l’activité commerciale. Le transport et les pots-de-vin sont les composantes offrant plus d’opportunités de réduction des coûts de commercialisation. Le transport représente souvent un élément clé dans les coûts de commercialisation des produits agricoles en Afrique au Sud du Sahara (Fafchamps et Gabre-Madhin, 2006 ; Jatau, 2008). En dehors de l’effet de la distance, les coûts de transport sont influencés par la qualité des routes (Shepherd, 2007). Par conséquent, toute amélioration des infrastructures de transport en milieu rural peut contribuer à la réduction des coûts de transport. Cependant, il paraît difficile de viser l’amélioration des conditions de transport dans le seul cadre de la commercialisation du bois. Cela pourrait s’inscrire dans une politique globale de soutien à la commercialisation des produits agricoles. L’ampleur du coût du transport s’explique aussi par l’état souvent vétuste des camions ; d’où des pannes fréquentes et des coûts de maintenance élevés. Cela traduit une insuffisance de capital et pose la question de l’accès au crédit pour les agents économiques. Cette question s’inscrit dans le cadre global des politiques de soutien à l’entrepreneuriat. L’importance des pots-de-vin versés aux agents de l’Etat découle du fait que le commerce du bois est sujet à des lois auxquelles peu de commerçants se conforment. Les pots-de-vin pénalisent le système de commercialisation ; car ce coût n’est pas la contrepartie d’un service. En outre, il constitue une contrainte majeure à la foresterie paysanne, compte tenu de son effet négatif sur le revenu des planteurs. En effet, le prix du bois sur pied étant une valeur résiduelle (Burns et al., 1999), toute rente perçue lors de la commercialisation amenuise le revenu des paysans. Pour réduire ce type de comportement, nous nous accordons avec Siebert et Elwert (2004) sur la nécessité d’entreprendre des réformes dans le secteur forestier, et d’améliorer le fonctionnement de l’administration forestière. Le commerce des perches de teck génère une valeur ajoutée positive. Cette valeur ajoutée est limitée essentiellement au transfert du bois jusqu’au dépôt de vente ; car il n’y a pas de transformation véritable en dehors d’un équarrissage manuel. Toutefois, les possibilités de transformation sont limitées, vu le faible diamètre des bois. L’activité des commerçants – premiers bénéficiaires de la valeur ajoutée – est profitable, ce qui est un résultat intéressant. En effet, cette profitabilité est une condition pour que les

86 Chapitre 4 : Coûts et valeur ajoutée dans la commercialisation des perches de teck au Sud-Bénin commerçants continuent de remplir leurs fonctions au bénéfice des paysans et des consommateurs (Shepherd, 2007). Dans un même segment, on note des différences significatives entre types de commerçants suivant les coûts de commercialisation, la valeur ajoutée, et le résultat net d’exploitation. La coexistence d’agents d’efficience variable dans un marché signifierait que les gros commerçants bénéficient de rente, et ne tirent pas avantage de leur plus grande productivité, pour éliminer les agents moins performants (Fafchamps et al., 2005). Toutefois, dans le contexte béninois, la disparition des petits détaillants (81,3% de l’échantillon) est peu souhaitable. En effet, outre l’auto-emploi, leur activité génère des emplois à travers les opérations de manutention. Ce rôle social est important dans un pays où le chômage et le sous-emploi sont élevés.

Chapter 5: Value added and equity in the smallholder-produced teak ( Tectona grandis L.f.) poles value chain in Southern Benin

Aoudji, A.K.N., Adégbidi, A., Akoha, S., Agbo, V., Lebailly, P. Manuscript submitted to Tropicultura.

Abstract This study assesses the value added created, and equity in the smallholder- produced teak poles value chain in Southern Benin. The questions intended to be addressed were as follows: how well does the value chain contribute to create wealth? How fairly is the value added shared among chain participants? What are the opportunities for smallholder farmers to capture a wider share of the value added? The study was based on data from 103 teak planters surveyed in the Atlantique department, and 89 teak poles traders operating in five major cities. The consolidated production-trading account of the value chain was elaborated. The level of equity in the value chain was analysed based on the costs borne, the contribution to the value added, and the share of value added received by each stakeholder. The value chain generated a positive value added. Traders were the main contributors, and the first beneficiaries of the value added. However, there was no sufficient evidence of inequity to the disadvantage of farmers. There is avenue for farmers to upgrade in the value chain by acquiring new functions, to increase the farm gate value of timber. The related policy implications were discussed. Keywords : value chain, value added, equity, tree planting, teak pole.

Résumé

Valeur ajoutée et équité dans la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck (Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin. Cette étude a évalué la valeur ajoutée créée, et l’équité dans sa répartition entre les agents de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck au Sud-Bénin. Les questions abordées sont : la chaîne de valeur créée-t-elle de richesse ? Y a-t- il équité dans la répartition de la valeur ajoutée entre les agents de la chaîne ?

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Quelles sont les opportunités pour les petits exploitants d’obtenir une plus grande part de la valeur ajoutée ? L’étude est basée sur les données de 103 planteurs de teck du département de l’Atlantique, et 89 commerçants de perches de teck opérant dans cinq grandes villes. Après l’élaboration du compte consolidé de la chaîne de valeur, le niveau d’équité a été analysé en considérant les coûts supportés, la contribution à la valeur ajoutée, et la part de valeur ajoutée reçue par chaque acteur. La chaîne de valeur génère une valeur ajoutée positive. Les commerçants sont les principaux contributeurs, et aussi les premiers bénéficiaires de la valeur ajoutée. Les résultats ne traduisent pas d’iniquité en défaveur des paysans. Ces derniers peuvent améliorer leur part de valeur ajoutée, en s’appropriant de nouvelles fonctions permettant d’accroître la valeur bord champ du bois. Les implications de politique ont été discutées. Mots clés : chaîne de valeur, valeur ajoutée, équité, plantation d’arbres, perche de teck.

89 Performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin

5.1. Introduction Economic activities are targeted to create wealth, an indicator of which is the value added (Riahi-Belkaoui, 1999; Tallec and Bockel, 2005a). Therefore, the potential of an industry to generate value added is a performance indicator (Keyser, 2006; Lebailly et al., 2000). The value added, as the economic outcome of a value chain is shared among various beneficiaries involved in the chain. The ability of smallholder farmers in developing countries to capture a significant share of that value added is a critical policy matter (Altenburg, 2006; Boughton et al., 2003). The rationale is that poverty alleviation – especially in rural areas – remains a major policy matter in those countries. One controversial debate about farm products value chains in developing countries is related to the distribution of benefits among stakeholders. As highlighted by Fafchamps and Gabre-Madhin (2006), traders are usually viewed alike as speculative, and benefiting from excessive profits, to the detriment of farmers. Regarding timber value chains, it is often reported that smallholder farmers receive a small share of the benefits (Herbohn et al., 2007; Nawir et al., 2007). Therefore, the following questions are of interest to enlighten policy makers on relevant options to support smallholder- produced timber value chains: (i) how well do farm-grown timber value chains contribute to create wealth? (ii) How fairly is the value added shared among value chain participants? (iii) What are the opportunities for smallholder farmers to capture a wider share of the value added? Those are important questions, given antecedents about the marketing of agricultural products. Indeed, the view that agricultural products traders were getting excessive profits had provided rationale for attempts to eliminate them, through the setting-up of government-led marketing boards and arbitrary pricing; but those policies were clearly unsuccessful (Chilowa, 1998; Jayne and Jones, 1997). Our goal in this chapter was to assess the potential of the smallholder-produced teak poles value chain in Southern Benin to create wealth, as well as equity in benefits sharing. Teak planting by smallholder farmers Benin has developed in Southern. Pole – i.e., timber with diameter ranging from 5 to 15 cm – is the main category of timber produced by farmers. In Southern Benin, especially in metropolitan regions, teak pole is the main construction timber (Aoudji et

90 Chapitre 5 : Value added and equity in the smallholder-produced teak ( Tectona grandis L.f.) poles value chain in Southern Benin al., 2011a). Two main stakeholders were involved in the value chain: teak planters – also referred to as farmers – and timber traders. Farmers sell stumpage timber to traders who in turn make the product available to urban consumers in retail outlets, after logging, loading, transportation, off- loadiing, and sorting (Aoudji et al., 2012). It was hypothesised that the smallholder-produced teak poles value chain contributes to create wealth. It was also asserted that the value added is unfairly distributed to the detriment of farmers. Studies concluding on the exploitive nature of trade often build only on benefits sharing (Maraseni et al., 2006; Vodouhê et al., 2008). The limitation of this approach stems from the ignorance of the costs borne by traders to perform marketing functions to the benefit of farmers and consumers. Equity, as a performance indicator, is related to how fairly benefits and costs are shared among chain participants (Coughlan et al., 2001; Fraval, 2000). Since participants in a given channel perform various functions to move on the product from production to consumption, they bear various levels of costs that should be taken into account while discussing about equity in the value chain. In this study, we consider both the gross profit and the costs to assess equity in the value chain.

5.2. Methods 5.2.1. Sampling and data collection The data used in this chapter were collected between March and September 2010, in the framework of surveys intended to assess the operational efficiency of teak planters and traders, the main stakeholders operating in the value chain. Teak planters were surveyed in the Atlantique department, across the communes of Allada, Kpomassè, Toffo, Tori-Bossito, and Zè while traders’ survey was carried out in the cities of Cotonou, Abomey- Calavi, Porto-Novo, Sèmé-Kpodji, and Ouidah (Figure 2.1). Sampling and data collection methods have been described in section 2.2.1 for both agents; and additional details have been provided in sections 3.2.2, and 4.2.1, respectively for teak planters and traders. Among others, detailed data were collected on the costs and revenue related to timber production (from planters), and marketing (from traders).

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Traders often purchase their consignment based on a unit consisting in the loading of one lorry of 15 metric tons capacity, containing on average 600 poles (Figure 5.1). In the planters’ survey, the acreage of plantation was recorded, and the number of loadings of 600 poles harvested as well. That way, it was possible to make all economic calculations on the basis of one loading of 600 poles 9.

Figure 5.1. A lorry being loaded plantation gate. Photo K.N.A. Aoudji (2010).

5.2.2. Data handling Data processing methods were built on existing guidelines on value chain analysis (Lebailly et al., 2000; Tallec and Bockel, 2005a). Since the final target of the study was the elaboration of a single production-trading account for the whole value chain, based on respondents’ individual accounts, it was critical to ensure the reference period of economic data be identical for all stakeholders involved in the analyses. The planter survey covered a total of 254 farmers. In a first stage, 36 respondents were excluded from the analysis. These included 33 planters whose sale data were missing; and 3 whose data were related to post (timber with diameter ranging from 15 to 25 cm), a production objective that falls outside the scope of this study. From the 218 remaining respondents, we were to identify and select those whose

9 As indicative figure, one hectare of teak pole yields on average 2.5–3.5 lorry loadings.

92 Chapitre 5 : Value added and equity in the smallholder-produced teak ( Tectona grandis L.f.) poles value chain in Southern Benin sale period coincided with the last consignment of teak poles purchased by traders. It took 7 to 120 days for traders to sell their consignment. The trader survey period (March to April 2010) plus backward the maximum duration required for traders to sell their consignment (4 months) was chosen as the period where planters’ sales matched the last consignment purchased and commercialised by traders. Practically, this implied that only the planters who sold their timber between November 2009 and April 2010 were eligible to be included in the analyses. These conditions were fulfilled by a total of 103 respondents. From the side of traders, 107 respondents were surveyed, 18 of whom were excluded from the analyses. These were traders who did not purchase their consignment from planters, but from other traders performing wholesale function on occasional basis. The rationale for excluding those traders was to concentrate on the dominant trade behaviour found in the value chain. Details of the calculations and analyses performed are presented hereunder. All parameters were calculated on the basis of a loading of 600 teak poles.

5.2.3. Production-trading account per respondent The value added created by each respondent’s activity was calculated as: VA=SR-II (1); where VA is the value added, SR is the total sales revenue (turnover), and II is the value of intermediate inputs involved in the activity. In the production-trading account, the value added encompasses the agent’s return (gross profit), personnel remuneration, taxes, and finance charges (Lebailly et al., 2000; Tallec and Bockel, 2005a). The gross profit was calculated as: GP=VA –(PR+T+FC) (2); where GP is the gross profit, VA is the value added, PR is personnel remuneration, T is taxes, and FC is finance charges. All calculations were simple for traders; but cost accounting was used to charge fixed costs per consignment of 600 poles (licence costs, finance charges, taxes, and personnel remuneration). From the side of teak planters, the temporal value of money was integrated in the calculations, because the production cycle lasts several years (3–5 years). This was addressed by capitalising all costs and revenues from the first year to the end of the rotation. The procedure used for this purpose has been described in detail in chapter 3 (see section 3.2.3.2).

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5.2.4. Production-trading account per stakeholder At this stage, production-trading accounts were elaborated separately for planters and traders. This was done based on respondents’ individual accounts, by calculating the average value for each item, as follows: = X lm /1 nl ∑ X lm ; where X lm is the average value of the item m, for the n stakeholder l (planters or traders), nl is the number of respondents from the stakeholder l, X is the value of the item m in the account of the lm n respondent n belonging to the stakeholder l.

5.2.5. Accounts consolidation and analysis of equity in the value chain The consolidation of value chain accounts consists in elaborating a single production-trading account for the whole value chain. Internal flows of teak poles between farmers and traders are ignored; but only exchanges of goods and services between chain agents and external agents are taken into account (Lebailly et al., 2000; Tallec and Bockel, 2005a). Practically, we merged the average production-trading account elaborated for planters and traders (see the section above). Planters and traders were compared with respect to the costs borne, the value added created, and the gross profit received. This was done by performing Student’s t test for means comparisons.

5.3. Results 5.3.1. Value added in the value chain Table 5.1 shows the consolidated production-trading account of the value chain; and Table 5.2 is useful to understand inputs consumption and value added creation along the chain. Teak pole was the main revenue source in the value chain, and represented 97% of the turnover. Besides this main product, additional income was obtained at planters’ level from by-products, including firewood and maize intercrop which is grown during the first year of the establishment of the plantation (Table 5.1). The value added generated by the value chain was positive, and represented 76% of the turnover (Table 5.1). The ratio ‘value added/intermediate inputs’ amounted 3.2 (Table 5.1). Intermediate inputs encompassed teak planting

94 Chapitre 5 : Value added and equity in the smallholder-produced teak ( Tectona grandis L.f.) poles value chain in Southern Benin material (seed, seedlings) and its transportation to the field, teak pole transportation, trader’s travel costs, communication, renting of the retail outlet, licence costs, and broker commission. The vast majority of those inputs were related to marketing stage; inputs at production level were limited to the planting material and its transportation to the field, and 31% of the broker commission (Table 5.2). Teak poles transportation from plantation gate to the retail outlet in metropolitan centres was the major component (three quarters) of intermediate inputs in the value chain (Table 5.1).

Table 5.1. Consolidated production-trading account for a loading of 600 teak poles. Item Amount (XOF a) Planting material 2686 Transport of seedlings 46 Transportation of teak pole 72,789 Trader’s travel 1226 Communication 412 Renting of the retail outlet 7471 Licence costs 5227 Broker commission 5430 Intermediate inputs 95,287 Remuneration of rural workers 42,862 Remuneration of urban workers 25,229 Bribe 24,629 Finance charges 571 Local tax 2372 National tax 4523 Planters’ gross profit 60,022 Traders’ gross profit 140,797 Value added 301,005 Pole revenue 384,258 Firewood revenue 4376 Maize revenue 7658 Turnover 396,293 Note: ‘Intermediate inputs’ is the sum of teak planting material and its transportation to the field, transportation of teak pole, trader’s travel, communication, renting of the retail outlet, licence costs, and broker commission. The value added is obtained by subtracting intermediate inputs from the turnover. The turnover is the sum of teak pole revenue, firewood revenue, and maize revenue. a XOF: Local currency; the exchange rate from 1st March to 30 September 2010 – period where surveys were carried out – averaged XOF 1 = USD 0.002.

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Table 5.2. Price decomposition along the value chain, for a loading of 600 teak poles. Agent Item Amount (XOF a) Planters Planting material 2686 Transport of seedlings 46 Broker commission 1666 Remuneration of rural workers 13,407 Total costs 17,805 Pole revenue 65,793 Firewood revenue 4376 Maize revenue 7658 Turnover* 77,827 Value added 73,429 Gross profit 60,022 Traders Purchase of teak pole 65,793 Transportation of teak pole 72,789 Other** 18,101 Remuneration of rural workers 29,455 Remuneration of urban workers 25,229 Bribe 24,629 Finance charges 571 Taxes 6895 Total costs 243,461 Turnover 384,258 Value added 227,576 Gross profit 140,797 Note: The value added is obtained by subtracting ‘intermediate inputs’ from the turnover. A planter’s level, ‘intermediate inputs’ is the sum of the costs of teak planting material and its transportation to the field, and broker commission. At trader’s level, ‘intermediate inputs’ encompasses the purchase of teak pole, the transportation of teak pole, trader’s travel, communication, renting of the retail outlet, licence costs, and broker commission. * The turnover at planter level is the sum of teak pole revenue, firewood revenue, and maize revenue. ** This includes the following items: broker commission, trader’s travel, communication, renting of the retail outlet, and licence costs. a XOF: Local currency; the exchange rate during the survey period averaged XOF 1 = USD 0.002.

96 Chapitre 5 : Value added and equity in the smallholder-produced teak ( Tectona grandis L.f.) poles value chain in Southern Benin

5.3.2. Contribution to value addition, costs and benefits sharing in the value chain The price decomposition along the value chain is shown in Table 5.2. Further details on costs and benefits sharing among value chain participants are presented on Figure 5.2. Traders’ figures were consistently higher as compared to planters’ for the costs borne in the value chain, the value added created, the gross profit received (Student's t test; all p<0.01). Planters’ share of the total costs was low, as compared to traders’ (Figure 5.2). Regarding the contribution to the value added, the major part of the value added was generated through marketing activities, with three quarters of the value added created at traders’ level (Figure 5.2). Planters and traders, the main stakeholders shared 67% of the value added created in the value chain. Traders’ gross profit represented almost half of the value added while planters’ share was one fifth. One third of the value added was shared among other stakeholders (Table 5.2, Figure 5.2). Workers ranked second among value added beneficiaries, with a share of 22.6% (Table 5.1). The remuneration of rural workers included wages for tree planting, silvicultural treatments, and marketing functions performed at village level (logging and loading), while the remuneration of urban workers was related to the following activities: off-loading, sorting, retail sale and security. The fourth more important item in the value added was bribe to government workers which amounted to one tenth of the value added (Table 5.1). The other components were taxes at both local and national levels, and finance charges representing 2.3%, and 0.2% of the value added, respectively (Table 5.1). No tax was collected at planters’ level, and only traders secured credit from institutions of micro-finance in the framework of their activities (Table 5.2).

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100%

33%

76% 93% 47%

24% 20% 0% 7% Costs borne Value added Share of value created added received

Teak planters Traders Other stakeholders

Figure 5.2. Costs and benefits sharing among stakeholders in the smallholder- produced teak poles value chain in Southern Benin.

5.4. Discussion 5.4.1. Value added in the value chain The study brought evidence that the farm-grown teak poles value chain in Southern Benin contributed to wealth increase, as hypothesised, given the positive value added. Forestry is usually characterised by the existence of externalities. In the case of the smallholder-produced teak poles value chain in Southern Benin, the real contribution to wealth increase is higher than reported here because, at farmers’ level, the study did not value the environmental services provided by forest plantations (soil and water conservation, carbon sequestration, etc.) that are often significant (Cao et al., 2008; Zhou et al., 2002). Transport (three quarters of intermediate inputs) was a critical item in the value chain. As highlighted in a previous article (Aoudji et al., 2011b), these results suggest that transport should receive a careful attention if the overall efficiency of the value chain is to be improved. The issue of excessive transport costs, as well as potential policy options to address it have been discussed in the preceding chapter (see section 4.4).

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5.4.2. Equity in the value chain and upgrading potential for smallholder farmers Both teak planters and traders had a positive return from their activities. The profitability of activities is an essential criterion to expect those agents to continue to perform their functions in the value chain. Two distinct conclusions can be drawn from the analysis of costs and benefits sharing among value chain stakeholders, by considering separately the evenness in benefits sharing and equity in the value chain. First, the sharing of benefits is drastically uneven to the detriment of teak planters. This suggests a poor competitiveness of farmers with respect to value appropriation in the value chain. The distribution of consumer price among value chain agents showed a similar result (Aoudji et al., 2012). Second, given that traders were the main contributors to value addition and bore the major part of costs in the value chain (Figure 5.2), the results did not provide sufficient evidence of inequity to the disadvantage of teak planters, hence the rejection of the second hypothesis. The latter conclusion tallies with other studies reporting on the lack of evidence of an exploitive role of middlemen in non-timber forest products marketing channels (Avocèvou-Ayisso et al., 2009; Jensen, 2009). Farmers’ low costs in the value chain could be related partly to the non valuation of land; but the opportunity cost of that asset is low, owing to the fact that teak is planted on degraded land with a low production potential (see section 3.3.1). Even though farmers might be disadvantaged to some extent by their weak bargaining power, by accepting low prices for their products, the value share of a given agent depends basically on its functions in the value chain. Therefore, the low share of benefits captured by farmers stems from the fact that their involvement in value chains is often limited to low value added functions. In the timber value chain investigated, farmers concentrated merely on production function and sold stumpage timber. By contrast, the marketing functions performed by traders included a diversified range of activities: timber logging, loading, transportation, off-loading, sorting, and retailing (see Table 2.4). The upgrading potential of an agent depends on its ability to acquire new and more remunerative functions in the value chain (Gereffi, 1999). Rather than selling stumpage timber, planters could acquire new functions such as logging and sorting, so as to increase the farm-gate value of teak poles.

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However, this upgrading path requires the ability to supply consistent volumes over time; so that it is not realistic at the level of individual farmers, given the small estates of their teak plantations (see Table 2.2). This shows the necessity of collective marketing at planters’ level. Furthermore, group marketing has the potential to bring economies of scale, improve farmers bargaining power and their marketing performance (e.g., Kruijssen et al., 2009; Shiferaw et al., 2008). The analysis of the functioning of the value chain has also shown the importance of collective marketing at planters’ level, as a mean to strengthen the coordination between them and traders, so as to improve the overall efficiency of the chain (Aoudji et al., 2012). The present study confirms the interest in supporting the development of planters’ associations, a policy recommendation defended in previous works (Aoudji et al., 2011a; Aoudji et al., 2012). This policy path tallies with the view that empowering weak stakeholder groups is the best way to help them in the long run, while targeting equity (Tanzi, 1998). Besides the returns to planters and traders, 33% of the value added was shared among other stakeholders. The value chain had a positive social impact, as shown by revenues distribution to rural and urban workers (Table 5.1). Bribe was a key component of the value added. The negative implications of rent-seeking behaviour among forest service workers, as well as potential paths to address this issue have been discussed in chapter 4 (see section 4.4).

5.5. Conclusions The study was to assess the value added in the smallholder-produced teak poles value chain in Southern Benin, and the fairness in its distribution among chain stakeholders. The value added was positive, so that the farm- grown teak poles value chain contributed to wealth increase, as hypothesised. Transportation was a critical issue to the overall efficiency of the value chain. The general picture emerging from the analysis of costs and benefits sharing is the uneven distribution of the value added to the detriment of teak planters; but there was no sufficient evidence of inequity to their disadvantage, hence the rejection of the second hypothesis. For policy makers, the critical issue is to seek out relevant upgrading paths for farmers

100 Chapitre 5 : Value added and equity in the smallholder-produced teak ( Tectona grandis L.f.) poles value chain in Southern Benin in the value chain. In order to improve their competitiveness with respect to value appropriation, teak planters need to acquire new functions such as logging and sorting that can be performed at village level. This upgrading path would require collective marketing through planters’ associations. Bribe was a key component of the value added. Tackling rent-seeking behaviour among government workers, through a proper implementation of the forest regulation, could improve farmer’s return in the value chain.

101

Chapter 6: Satisfaction across urban consumers of smallholder- produced teak ( Tectona grandis L.f.) poles in Southern Benin

Aoudji, A.K.N., Adégbidi, A., Ganglo, J.C., Agbo, V., Yêvidé, A.S.I., De Cannière, C., Lebailly, P., 2011. Forest Policy and Economics 13 (8), 642–651.

Abstract The study used the expectancy-disconfirmation framework to investigate the satisfaction among urban consumers of teak poles in Southern Benin, so as to identify the areas where interventions are needed to secure market opportunity for smallholder forestry. A survey was conducted in five cities; and 223 household-heads were interviewed using systematic sampling, with a random start. Data were collected on socio-demographic characteristics, teak pole consumption forms, behaviour patterns, and motivations. Respondents also rated their expectations and perceptions for a set of nine attributes on a 7 points Likert scale. Hierarchical ascending cluster analysis was performed to identify consumer segments; and satisfaction level was analysed per segment, by determining the gap between expectations and perceptions, for all attributes. Four consumer segments were identified; and socio-demographic profiles differed across those segments. Competitive price was an important purchasing motivation across the identified segments. Consumers were dissatisfied with price, availability, knot frequency, bending, length, hardness, and durability of teak pole. The efforts to meet the consumer expectations should be concentrated on building farmers’ capacity in silvicultural management, and ensuring the availability of good planting material. The issue of competitive price might be addressed through the improvement of the overall efficiency in the value chain. Keywords : consumer, satisfaction, profile, smallholder forestry, teak pole, marketing.

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Résumé

Satisfaction des consommateurs urbains de perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin. Le paradigme de la disconfirmation des attentes a été utilisé pour étudier la satisfaction des attentes des consommateurs des perches de teck au Sud- Bénin, dans le but d’identifier les interventions pouvant assurer des débouchés à la foresterie paysanne. Une enquête a été réalisée dans cinq villes, auprès de 223 chefs de ménage sélectionnés suivant un échantillonnage systématique. Les données collectées comprennent les caractéristiques socio-démographiques, les formes de consommation des perches de teck, les habitudes de consommation, et les motivations sous- tendant l’utilisation de ces bois. Les répondants ont aussi fait part de leurs attentes et perceptions au sujet de neuf attributs, en utilisant une échelle de Likert à 7 points. Une classification hiérarchique ascendante a permis de différencier les consommateurs en segments. Le degré de satisfaction a été analysé par segment, en déterminant l’écart entre les attentes et la perception, pour tous les attributs. Quatre segments de consommateurs, avec des profils socio-démographiques différents, ont été identifiés. La recherche de prix compétitifs est une importante motivation pour l’achat des perches de teck. Les consommateurs ne sont pas satisfaits pour les attributs suivants : prix, disponibilité, fréquence des bosses, courbure, longueur, dureté et durabilité du bois. Pour répondre aux attentes des consommateurs, il importe de renforcer les capacités des paysans en matière de sylviculture, et assurer la disponibilité d’un matériel végétal performant pour la plantation. La question du prix abordable peut être traitée à travers une amélioration de l’efficience globale de la chaîne de valeur. Mots clés : consommateur, satisfaction, profile, foresterie paysanne, perche de teck, marketing.

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6.1. Introduction Consumer satisfaction is viewed as a performance indicator in business, and has become a critical objective for firms and industries (Anderson, 1994; Anderson and Sullivan, 1993; Coughlan et al., 2001). It has been empirically shown that the better an industry meets the consumer needs, the more likely those consumers will buy its products (Fold and Gough, 2008). Therefore, customer satisfaction is often associated with improved profitability in business (Hauser et al., 1994). A critical issue to marketing organisations is to understand what consumers appreciate in their products, and to effectively and efficiently translate these needs into tangible products and service offerings (van den Heuvel et al., 2007). Measuring consumer satisfaction enables to identify areas where efforts are needed to improve performance. This is important to support smallholder forestry – meaning here, the multipurpose management of small woodlots by smallholder farmers (Harrison et al., 2002). Smallholder forestry is a promising option to meet the demand for forest products and services in developing countries, and is widely viewed as an opportunity to improve the livelihoods of smallholder farmers (Anyonge and Roshetko, 2003; Scherr, 2004). However, the ability to capture this potential depends on the extent to which smallholder farmers can meet market needs. Efforts to enhance small-scale timber production have often focused on tree planting, while the products and their marketing have received little attention (Anyonge and Roshetko, 2003; Russell and Franzel, 2004; Scherr, 2004). Smallholder farmers often plant and manage trees without information about buyers requirements, so that farm-grown timber is often of inadequate quality (Anyonge and Roshetko, 2003; Nawir et al., 2007). This results in low returns to farmers (Maldonado and Louppe, 1999; Nawir et al., 2007), since the price of a product often depends on its quality (Stiglitz, 1987). Intermediaries are also receiving low price, as they collect low quality wood from farmers (Nawir et al., 2007). Therefore, all agents involved in a given value chain can benefit from satisfying market needs. The design of policy to support smallholder forestry requires up-to-date information on the market. So far, unfortunately, we lack comprehensive studies on the consumption of service wood – meaning here, unprocessed timber used variously in small substructures. Previous investigation on timber consumption focused on high

104 Chapitre 6 : Satisfaction across urban consumers of smallholder-produced teak ( Tectona grandis L.f.) poles in Southern Benin quality timber (Smorfitt et al., 2002), and did not include consumer satisfaction. The objective of this study was to assess the satisfaction across urban consumers of smallholder-produced teak ( Tectona grandis L.f.) pole in Southern Benin. Teak planting by smallholder farmers in Southern Benin developed from the 1970s. These plantations are managed by coppicing, and targeted to the production of pole – i.e., service wood with diameter ranging from 5 to 15 cm. Smallholder-produced teak pole is commercialised, and used as service wood in metropolitan regions. The current study generates the market information necessary for timber value chain agents in Southern Benin to develop appropriate silvicultural management and marketing service, in order to take advantage of domestic timber markets. The rapid growth of urban population in most developing countries (UNDP, 2009), with the resulting demand for service wood represents an opportunity for the agents in farm-grown timber value chains, if they can meet market requirements. The assessment of consumer satisfaction used the expectancy- disconfirmation framework. This model involves two factors, namely expectations and perception. Expectations are understood as the attributes consumers are seeking while purchasing the product (Anderson, 1994; Gupta and Stewart, 1996; Taylor, 1997), whereas perception – or the perceived performance – represents the consumer evaluation of the product (Kelley and Turley, 2001; Ragaert et al., 2004). The model assumes that the consumer has some standard of comparison in mind before purchasing the product. After consumption, the perceived performance is compared to the expectations. Perceived performance that exceeds expectations leads to satisfaction, while performance that falls short of expectations is dissatisfying (Oliver, 1980; Taylor, 1997). Therefore, the satisfaction level experienced by consumers derives from the gap between expectations and perception. To investigate consumer satisfaction, we assumed heterogeneity across them, as highlighted by previous studies (e.g., Bock and Uncles, 2002; Thompson et al., 2010), so that we performed a segmentation to identify different groups or segments of teak pole consumers. It had been argued that clustering consumers into segments with similar characteristics can provide a

105 Performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin better understanding of consumption patterns (Brunsø et al., 2002). Another rationale supporting consumer segmentation is that it might be more profitable to treat certain types of consumers in different ways than to treat all of them uniformly; so that useful segmentations improve business performance (Bock and Uncles, 2002). Consumer are usually characterised based on their socio-demographic profile (Kilchling et al., 2009; Ngapo et al., 2004), their behaviour patterns (Verbeke and Vackier, 2004; Santosa and Guinard, 2011), and their motivations (Cameron and Galloway, 2005; Close and Kukar-Kinney, 2010; Ragaert et al., 2004). It was hypothesised that there are different segments of teak pole consumers which differ in their socio-demographic profile, behaviour patterns, and motivations. It was also asserted that consumer satisfaction requires collective efforts from all stakeholders in the value chain.

6.2. Methods 6.2.1. Sampling and data collection A consumer survey was carried out in five major cities in Southern Benin, namely Cotonou, Abomey-Calavi, Porto-Novo, Sèmé-Kpodji, and Ouidah (Figure 2.1). Two enumerators were enrolled and trained to data collection that took place between May and June 2010. The sampling was intended to randomly select houses, for household heads interviews. In Benin’s administrative structure, towns are subdivided in districts (lower administrative entities), with a total of 25 urban districts in the five cities under study. All those districts were covered by the study, and crossroads were chosen as starting points for systematic sampling among residents. First, three crossroads were randomly selected per district, and for each of them, one street connected to it was randomly selected. Then, all houses in the selected streets were assigned a number. Last, three (3) houses were selected per street, for household heads interviews (one respondent per house), by using systematic sampling procedure (see Giannelloni and Vernette, 2001). This led to a sample of 225 respondents 10 , but two of them were excluded from analyses because of incoherent responses. Face-to-face interviews were used to collect data with a standardised questionnaire. At the

10 This figure is obtained as follows: 25 urban districts × 3 crossroads per district × 1 street per crossroad × 3 respondents per street.

106 Chapitre 6 : Satisfaction across urban consumers of smallholder-produced teak ( Tectona grandis L.f.) poles in Southern Benin beginning, the objectives of the study were presented, and data confidentiality was assured, so as to encourage respondents to provide outspoken answers. First, the socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents were recorded. At this point, ownership of motorbike, car, and house was recorded as indicators of wealth status, so as to substitute income that respondents were reluctant to disclose. Second, the respondents provided information about teak pole consumption. They were to state their interest in teak pole as service wood, and to specify whether they have ever used this product, and if so how often, and the various consumption forms. Participants could choose from 12 listed consumption forms identified during the exploratory study. Respondents were provided with photographic illustrations of those consumption forms, to ensure answer reliability. In addition, we recorded whether respondents were using any substitute material to teak pole. Third, respondents were to rank four motivations selected from an exploratory study, namely the price, the quality, the suitability, and the easy availability of teak pole. Next, behaviour patterns were recorded. At this point, respondents provided details about the duration since the last purchase of teak pole, the decision-making process, the source of supply, the person responsible for purchase, the criteria underlying the selection of a sale venue, the quantity of teak pole purchased for the latest consumption, and the amount spent for that purchase. The last two items of the questionnaire were expectations and perception. With regard to expectations, the respondents rated the importance of a set of nine attributes of smallholder-produced teak pole, by using a 7 points Likert scale, ranging from 1 (not at all important) to 7 (very important). Likert scale is used to measure the degree to which people agree or disagree with a statement (e.g., Kelley and Turley, 2001; Shim et al., 2001). The attributes submitted to respondents were selected from the exploratory study; these included ‘competitive price’, ‘easily available’, ‘low knot frequency’, ‘no significant bending’, ‘long enough’, ‘diversified diameter sizes’, ‘convenient humidity’, ‘hard’, and ‘durable’ 11 . To assess perception, the same attributes were used in the form of statements. Respondents were to give their agreement with these statements,

11 During the exploratory study, this attribute was stated by consumers as ‘resistant to termites and other damaging insects’. By referring to wood property, the resistance to termite attacks relates to wood durability (e.g., Arango et al., 2006).

107 Performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin on a 7 points Likert scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree).

6.2.2. Data processing and analysis

6.2.2.1. Segmenting and profiling consumers Hierarchical ascending cluster analysis was performed to identify consumer segments. This was done based on Ward’s method, by using SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences), version 16. The classificatory variables included teak pole consumption forms. Binary codification (presence/absence) was used for all those variables. The number of consumer segments was chosen, based on the distance between clusters and the profile that resulted from the dendrogram (Ngapo et al., 2004). The identified consumer segments were profiled based on the socio-demographic characteristics, and behaviour patterns. The socio-demographic profiles were described based on gender, age, education level, profession, and wealth status (ownership of motorbike, car, and house). Chi-Square test for equality of distributions (Dagnelie, 1975) was performed, to test for the variation of socio-demographic and behaviour characteristics across consumer segments. The motivations for teak pole consumption were generated with their respective priority ranking. In addition, the uniformity level of motivation ranking within each consumer segment was assessed, based on Kendall’s test of concordance, as performed by Dossabhoy and Berger (2002).

6.2.2.2. Assessment of consumer satisfaction The first stage consisted in identifying the attributes that were important to consumers. An attribute is important if its average score in expectations equals at least the midpoint of the 7 points Likert scale (Kelley and Turley, 2001) which in our case equals 4. Important attributes list was generated, by performing Student’s t test of conformity on each attribute, 4 being the reference value. With respect to satisfaction, the following rule was used: consumers are satisfied for a given attribute if the average score in the perception (µ p) exceeds the score in the expectations (µ e). This was checked by performing Student’s t test of mean comparison on paired sample; the null hypothesis was H0: µ p–µe≤0. In addition, one-way ANOVA was performed, to test for the difference between consumer segments, with respect to expectations and perception of the various attributes.

108 Chapitre 6 : Satisfaction across urban consumers of smallholder-produced teak ( Tectona grandis L.f.) poles in Southern Benin

6.3. Results 6.3.1. Characteristics of the sample The sample included a total of 223 respondents. Those respondents were made up of two groups consisting of 13 persons who have never purchased teak pole previously, and 210 who have already purchased and used teak pole for various purposes. The latter group was considered as teak pole consumers. Of the 13 respondents who have never used the product, 12 showed interest in teak pole, and one who preferred substitute materials was not interested in teak pole. Only the 210 actual teak pole consumers have been considered in subsequent analyses, and the characteristics presented hereafter are theirs. The gender balance of the sample was dominated by men (71.9% men and 28.1% women). Respondents’ age ranged between 23 and 60, and averaged 37.9±1.2 years old. Socio-cultural background was fairly diversified and included twenty (20) ethnic groups from Benin, and citizens from other West African countries such as Niger and Mali. Professional background, though diversified, was dominated by craftsmen (31.0%), employees (33.8%) and petty traders (26.2%). The sample also included self-entrepreneurs and professionals (3.3%), unemployed and trainees (1.4%), students (1.0%), and retired people (3.3%). With respect to education background, the sample included 16.7% of respondents who did not attend school. The percentage of respondents according to education level was 21.4% for primary school, 42.4% for secondary school, and 19.5% who reached university degree. About the marital status, the majority of the respondents were married (83.3%), but there was also an important share of single men and women (14.3%). The remainder included widowed and divorced, 1.0% and 1.4% respectively. With regard to wealth indicators, the majority of respondents had got at least a motorbike (75.7%); 18.1% of them had got a car, and 37.6% had a house. The distribution of socio-demographic characteristics showed that a wide range of economic classes purchased teak pole.

6.3.2. Categories of teak poles and consumption forms Smallholder-produced teak pole consists of a diversified range of diameter. This product was differentiated by value chain agents in three main categories according to the diameter: small poles, medium poles, and large

109 Performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin poles (Table 6.1). The unit price recorded in retail outlets in 2010 ranged from XOF 300 to 2500 (USD 0.6 to 5; average exchange rate from 1 st May to 30 June 2010 was XOF 1 = USD 0.002 12 ). Eleven (11) different consumption forms of teak poles were found among urban consumers, namely hangar, shack, grass hut, roof structure, stake for building suspended slab, scaffolding, TV aerial support, shelves, electricity transportation, fence, and clothes airer. Some of those consumption forms are specific to the local context, e.g., hangar, shack, stake, TV aerial support, clothes airer, and electricity transportation; so that explanations are provided hereafter, with illustrative photos (Figure 6.1). Hangars are small unfenced sheds (Figure 6.1a), while shacks are small sheds covered with metal sheets or local material such as raffia (Figure 6.1b). Hangars and shacks are often used as workplace by craftsmen and petty traders. By stake, we refer to teak pole used as support in the building of suspended slab (Figure 6.1c). TV aerial support is one piece of teak pole to which TV aerial is fixed (Figure 6.1d). Clothes airer means a set of teak poles arranged vertically, and supporting strings on which clothes are dried. Electricity transportation involves teak poles supporting wire to connect houses with electricity (Figure 6.1e). This occurred in the areas where the public electricity supply network has not yet been settled. The consumption forms depended on the category of pole (Table 6.1). Quarrying – i.e., the removal of the bark and part of the sapwood to have approximately parallelepipedic shape – was sometimes performed on large poles intended for use in roof structure. Smallholder- produced teak pole was the main service wood used by urban consumers in Southern Benin. 24.3% of the respondents reported the occasional purchase of substitute materials such as acacia pole, bamboo, rafter, and steel.

12 Source: http://www.exchangerates.org.uk/XOF-USD-exchange-rate-history.html (Access on 20 October 2010).

110 Chapitre 6 : Satisfaction across urban consumers of smallholder-produced teak ( Tectona grandis L.f.) poles in Southern Benin

Table 6.1. Diameter, unit retail price, and consumption forms of smallholder- produced teak poles in Southern Benin. Category of Diameter Unit retail price Consumption forms poles (cm) in 2010 (XOF a) Small poles 5–7 300–500 Electricity transportation, TV aerial support, shelves, fence, and clothes airer Medium poles 7–12 600–1200 Hangar, shack, stake, grass hut, roof structure, TV aerial support, and scaffolding Large poles 12–15 1500–2500 Roof structure, stake, and shack a The exchange rate during the survey period was XOF 1 = USD 0.002.

111 Performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin

a: Hangar.

d: TV aerial support.

b: Shack.

e: Electricity transportation.

c: Stake for building suspended slab. Figure 6.1. Pictures showing consumption forms of smallholder-produced teak poles in Southern Benin. Photos K.N.A. Aoudji (2010).

6.3.3. Teak pole market segmentation The hierarchical cluster analysis, based on the consumption forms of teak poles, resulted in four segments of teak pole consumers (Figure 6.2). The dominant consumption forms in each consumer segment are shown in Table

112 Chapitre 6 : Satisfaction across urban consumers of smallholder-produced teak ( Tectona grandis L.f.) poles in Southern Benin

6.2. Cluster 3 (35.2% of the sample), typified as typical users, was associated with the use of teak poles mainly for hangar, shack, shelves, and TV aerial support (Table 6.2). Cluster 2 (13.3% of the sample), typified as narrow users, was associated with the use of teak poles for hangar, and electricity transportation to a lesser extent. Cluster 4 (19.0% of the sample) was typified as diversified users, with eight different consumption forms of teak poles (Table 6.2). Cloth airer was the single use not encountered among cluster 1 (32.4% of the sample) which was typified as wide users. TV aerial support was a common use across all consumer segments except the narrow users, while fence and clothes airer represented scarce consumption forms (Table 6.2).

Table 6.2. Percentage of respondents per consumption form across consumer segments. Consumer segments Consumption forms a (%) Typical users Narrow users Wide users Diversified (N=74) (N=28) (N=68) users (N=40) Hangar 55.4 100.0 67.6 50.0 Shack 41.9 0.0 23.5 35.0 Grass hut 0.0 0.0 8.8 100.0 Roof structure 0.0 0.0 79.4 32.5 Stake for building 0.0 3.6 5.9 30.0 suspended slab Scaffolding 0.0 0.0 11.8 0.0 TV aerial support 83.8 0.0 58.8 90.0 Electricity 1.4 21.4 36.8 2.5 transportation Shelves 24.3 0.0 29.4 32.5 Fence 0.0 0.0 1.5 0.0 Clothes airer 1.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 a The percentage for each consumption form, per consumer segment was calculated as follow: Number of respondents who reported the consumption form×100/Total number of respondents in the segment.

113 Performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin

Rescaled Distance Cluster Combine

CASE 0 5 10 15 20 25

Label Num + ------+ ------+ ------+ ------+ ------+ PN67 193 ─ ┐ PN76 210 ─ ┤ CT2 87 ─ ┼ ─ ┐ PN4 172 ─ ┤ │ PN60 190 ─ ┘ ├ ─── ──┐ CT42 113 ─ ┐ │ │ PN73 207 ─ ┼ ─ ┘ │ CT20 105 ─ ┘ │ PN18 73 ─ ┐ ├───────────┐ PN64 85 ─ ┼── ─┐ │ │ PN65 191 ─ ┤ │ │ │ PN23 199 ─ ┘ │ │ │ AC88 59 ─ ┐ ├ ─ ─ ─ ┘ │ PN6 79 ─ ┤ │ │ AC7 6 ─ ┼ ─ ┐ │ │ PN17 72 ─ ┘ ├ ─ ┘ │ CT17 102 ─ ┐ │ │ PN3 171 ─ ┼ ─ ┘ │ CT71 130 ─ ┘ │ CT122 161 ─ ┐ │ PN1 169 ─ ┼ ─ ┐ │ AC98 63 ─ ┤ │ │ CT129 168 ─ ┤ ├ ─ ─ ─ ┐ │ AC15 14 ─ ┘ │ │ │ 1 CT25 107 ─ ┐ │ │ ├───────────────────┐ CT121 160 ─ ┼ ─ ┘ │ │ │ AC19 16 ─ ┤ │ │ │ CT19 104 ─ ┘ │ │ │ AC100 65 ─ ┐ ├─────────┐ │ │ PN34 76 ─ ┤ │ │ │ │ AC34 28 ─ ┼ ─ ┐ │ │ │ │ AC72 52 ─ ┘ │ │ │ │ │ CT77 135 ─ ┐ │ │ │ │ │ CT89 147 ─ ┤ │ │ │ │ │ AC6 5 ─ ┤ ├ ─ ─ ─ ┘ │ │ │ CT24 106 ─ ┤ │ │ │ │ CT26 108 ─ ┤ │ │ │ │ AC47 41 ─ ┤ │ │ │ │ AC48 42 ─ ┤ │ │ │ │ AC42 36 ─ ┼ ─ ┘ │ │ │ AC45 39 ─ ┤ ├ ─ ─ ─ ┘ │ AC24 19 ─ ┘ │ │ CT15 100 ─ ┐ │ │ CT73 132 ─ ┼ ─ ┐ │ │ AC10 9 ─ ┤ │ │ │ AC30 24 ─ ┘ ├ ─ ┐ │ │ AC74 54 ─ ┐ │ │ │ │ PN9 174 ─ ┼ ─ ┘ │ │ │ AC11 10 ─ ┤ ├─ ─── ─┐ │ │ AC44 38 ─ ┘ │ │ │ │ PN41 186 ─ ┐ │ │ │ │ PN21 197 ─ ┼── ─┤ │ │ │ PN42 187 ─ ┘ │ │ │ │ PN11 70 ─ ┬── ─┘ ├─ ─── ─┘ │ PN20 74 ─ ┘ │ │ PN2 170 ─ ┐ │ │ PN22 198 ─┼───────┐ │ │ PN15 177 ─ ┘ │ │ │ PN8 173 ─ ┐ │ │ │ PN13 175 ─ ┤ ├ ─ ┘ │ AC46 40 ─ ┼ ─ ┐ │ │ CT113 157 ─ ┘ ├ ─ ┐ │ │ PN10 69 ─ ┬ ─ ┘ │ │ │ PN19 196 ─ ┘ ├ ─ ─ ─ ┘ │ AC13 12 ─ ┐ │ │ PN14 176 ─ ┼ ─ ┐ │ │ PN7 80 ─ ┘ ├ ─ ┘ ├───────┐ PN12 71 ─ ─ ─ ┘ │ │ PN27 203 ─ ┐ │ │ PN71 205 ─ ┤ │ │ AC35 29 ─ ┤ │ │ PN24 200 ─ ┤ │ │ PN25 201 ─ ┤ │ │ PN32 181 ─ ┤ │ │ PN40 185 ─ ┤ │ │ CT128 167 ─ ┤ │ │ PN31 180 ─ ┤ │ │ CT91 149 ─ ┤ │ │ CT127 166 ─ ┤ │ │ CT86 144 ─ ┤ │ │ CT88 146 ─ ┤ │ │ CT47 118 ─ ┤ │ │ CT51 122 ─ ┤ │ │ CT43 114 ─ ┤ │ │ CT46 117 ─ ┤ │ │ PN63 84 ─ ┤ │ │ CT39 110 ─ ┤ │ │ AC97 62 ─┼─────┐ │ │ PN33 75 ─ ┤ │ 2 │ │ AC41 35 ─ ┘ │ │ │ PN36 183 ─ ┐ ├───────────────────────┐ │ │ PN28 204 ─ ┤ │ │ │ │ PN5 78 ─ ┤ │ │ │ │ CT18 103 ─┼─────┘ 2 │ │ │ PN35 182 ─ ┤ │ │ │ CT16 101 ─ ┘ │ │ │ CT41 112 ─ ┐ │ │ │ CT92 150 ─ ┤ │ │ │ AC36 30 ─ ┼ ─ ┐ │ │ │ AC38 32 ─ ┘ │ │ │ │ PN30 179 ─ ┐ ├ ─ ─ ─ ┐ │ │ │ PN74 208 ─ ┤ │ │ │ │ │ PN68 77 ─ ┤ │ │ │ │ │ PN29 178 ─ ┼ ─ ┘ │ │ │ │ PN26 202 ─ ┘ │ │ │ │ CT112 156 ─ ┐ │ │ │ │ CT117 158 ─ ┤ ├─────────────┐ │ │ │ AC29 23 ─ ┤ │ │ │ │ │ CT74 133 ─ ┼── ─┐ │ │ ├─────────┘ │ CT83 141 ─ ┤ │ │ │ │ │ AC96 61 ─ ┤ │ │ │ │ │ CT48 119 ─ ┘ │ │ │ │ │ CT84 142 ─ ┐ ├ ─ ┘ │ │ │ CT85 143 ─ ┤ │ │ │ │ AC12 11 ─ ┤ │ │ │ │ CT81 139 ─ ┤ │ │ │ │ CT82 140 ─ ┤ │ │ │ │ AC85 56 ─ ┼── ─┘ │ │ │ CT80 138 ─ ┤ │ │ │ AC33 27 ─ ┤ │ │ │ AC39 33 ─ ┘ │ │ │ PN70 195 ─ ┐ │ │ │ PN75 209 ─ ┤ │ │ │ CT1 86 ─ ┤ │ │ │ PN66 192 ─ ┤ │ 3 │ │ PN69 194 ─ ┤ │ │ │ CT123 162 ─ ┤ ├─────────┘ │ CT124 163 ─ ┤ │ │ CT62 124 ─ ┤ │ │ CT68 127 ─ ┤ │ │ CT10 95 ─ ┤ │ │ CT13 98 ─ ┤ │ │ CT7 92 ─ ┼── ─┐ │ │ CT8 93 ─ ┤ │ │ │ CT3 88 ─ ┘ │ │ │ CT6 91 ─ ┐ ├─────────┐ │ │ CT66 126 ─ ┤ │ │ │ │ AC2 2 ─ ┤ │ │ │ │ CT4 89 ─ ┼── ─┘ │ │ │ CT5 90 ─ ┤ │ │ │ CT12 97 ─ ┘ │ │ │ PN43 188 ─ ┐ │ │ │ PN59 189 ─ ┤ │ │ │ AC23 18 ─ ┤ │ │ │ CT126 165 ─ ┤ │ │ │ PN37 184 ─ ┤ │ │ │ CT90 148 ─ ┤ ├ ─── ──┘ │ CT125 164 ─ ┤ │ │ CT44 115 ─ ┤ │ │ CT64 125 ─ ┤ │ │ CT11 96 ─ ┤ │ │ CT40 111 ─ ┤ │ │ AC49 43 ─ ┤ │ │ CT9 94 ─ ┤ │ │ AC40 34 ─┼───────────┐ │ │ AC43 37 ─ ┤ │ │ │ AC28 22 ─ ┤ │ │ │ AC32 26 ─ ┘ │ │ │ PN61 83 ─ ┐ ├ ─ ┘ │ CT78 145 ─ ┤ │ │ AC69 49 ─ ┤ │ │ PN38 81 ─ ┼ ─ ┐ │ │ CT45 116 ─ ┘ │ │ │ CT50 121 ─ ┐ ├─────────┘ │ PN72 206 ─ ┤ │ │ CT14 99 ─ ┼ ─ ┤ │ CT49 120 ─ ┘ │ │ CT38 109 ─ ┐ │ │ CT52 123 ─ ┼ ─ ┘ │ AC73 53 ─ ┘ │ AC99 64 ─ ┐ │ PN39 82 ─ ┼ ─ ┐ │ AC64 44 ─ ┘ │ │ AC95 60 ─ ┐ ├ ─ ─ ─ ┐ │ CT70 129 ─ ┤ │ │ │ AC37 31 ─ ┼ ─ ┤ │ │ AC86 57 ─ ┘ │ │ │ AC71 51 ─ ┐ │ │ │ CT107 154 ─ ┼ ─ ┘ ├─────────┐ │ AC70 50 ─ ┘ │ │ │ AC5 4 ─ ┐ │ │ │ AC31 25 ─ ┤ │ │ │ AC102 67 ─ ┼── ─┐ │ │ │ AC27 21 ─ ┘ ├ ─ ┘ │ │ AC67 47 ─ ┐ │ │ │ AC103 68 ─ ┼── ─┘ │ 4 │ AC9 8 ─ ┤ │ │ CT111 155 ─ ┤ ├───────────────────────────────┘ CT69 128 ─ ┤ │ CT78 136 ─ ┘ │ CT75 134 ─ ┐ │ CT105 153 ─ ┤ │ AC66 46 ─ ┤ │ CT72 131 ─┼───────┐ │ AC1 1 ─ ┘ │ │ AC20 17 ─ ┐ │ │ AC84 55 ─ ┤ │ │ AC4 3 ─ ┤ ├───────┘ AC17 15 ─┼─────┐ │ AC8 7 ─ ┤ │ │ AC14 13 ─ ┘ │ │ AC101 66 ─ ┐ ├ ─ ┘ CT118 159 ─ ┼ ─ ┐ │ AC87 58 ─ ┤ │ │ CT103 151 ─ ┤ ├ ─ ─ ─ ┘ AC25 20 ─ ┘ │ AC65 45 ─ ┐ │ AC68 48 ─ ┼ ─ ┘ CT79 137 ─ ┤ CT104 152 ─ ┘

Figure 6.2. Hierarchical ascending cluster showing the consumer segments. The vertical line shows the cluster selection used. 1, 2, 3, and 4 represent clusters’ numbering.

114 Chapitre 6 : Satisfaction across urban consumers of smallholder-produced teak ( Tectona grandis L.f.) poles in Southern Benin

6.3.4. Profiling the consumer segments

6.3.4.1. Socio-demographic profile The socio-demographic characteristics of teak pole consumers are presented in Table 6.3. Chi-Square test for equality of distributions showed that frequency distribution varied significantly across the consumer segments for gender (χ2=43.797; p<0.001), age ( χ2=40.481; p<0.001), education level (χ2=68.492; p<0.001), and professional background ( χ2=35.379; p<0.001). Significantly more women belonged to the segment of narrow users, with a percentage three times higher than the percentage of women in the entire sample. The respective percentage of men and women in the typical users segment was close to the one of the entire sample, confirming this market segment was representative of the average teak pole consumers. On the other hand, diversified and wide users were characterised by the predominance of men. With regard to age, the respondents under 30 years old were more represented in the narrow users segment, while those above 45 were predominant among diversified and wide users. With respect to education level, the illiterates were more represented among the narrow users. On the contrary, the respondents with university degree appeared to be in larger number than the other education levels in the diversified users segment. The segments of typical users and wide users showed similar distribution of education levels, and were characterised by the predominance of respondents with secondary school degree. Professional background was characterised by the predominance of craftsmen and small traders in the typical and narrow users segments, while employees and the other categories were more represented among diversified and wide users. Wealth indicators also showed significant difference across consumer segments for car ownership (χ2=27.163; p<0.001), and house ownership ( χ2=50.825; p<0.001). A higher proportion of respondents within diversified and wide users segments owned a car and a house. However, no significant dependency was found between consumer clustering and motorbike ownership ( χ2=3.963; p=0.3). The general picture emerging from these results is a differentiation of socio- demographic profile across consumer segments, as hypothesised.

115 Performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin

Table 6.3. Socio-demographic characteristics of teak pole consumers per market segment. Consumer segments Socio-demographic Typical users Narrow users Wide users Diversified characteristics (%) (N=74) (N=28) (N=68) users (N=40) Gender *

Male 60.8 32.1 88.2 92.5 Female 39.2 67.9 11.8 7.5 Age *

≤30 25.7 42.9 25.0 7.5 31 – 45 70.3 46.4 39.7 50.0 > 45 4.1 10.7 35.3 42.5 Education level *

No schooling 12.2 46.4 16.2 12.5 Primary 25.7 35.7 20.6 2.5 Secondary 51.4 14.3 50.0 30.0 University 10.8 3.6 13.2 55.0 Profession *

Craftsmen 40.5 42.9 26.5 12.5 Small traders 27.0 46.4 22.1 17.5 Employees 28.4 10.7 41.2 47.5 Other a 4.1 0.0 10.3 22.5 Wealth status b

Motorbike ownership 74.3 64.3 76.5 85.0 Car ownership * 5.4 3.6 25.0 40.0 House ownership * 10.8 21.4 64.7 52.5 a This encompasses self-entrepreneurs and professionals, unemployed, trainees, students, and retired people. b For each wealth indicator, the percentage was calculated per consumer segment as follow: Number of respondents who reported ownership of the item in the segment×100/Total number of respondents in the segment. * This indicates the variables showing significant variation of frequency distribution across the consumer segments, with p-value associated to Chi-Square test of equality of distributions inferior to 0.001.

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6.3.4.2. Behaviour patterns The results showed a diversified range of behaviour patterns among consumers (Table 6.4). The duration since the last purchase of teak pole varied marginally across the consumer segments ( χ2=11.530; p=0.073), similarly to the decision-making process for teak pole purchase (χ2=12.376; p=0.054). Two variables showed clear-cut differences of frequency distribution with regard to consumer segments, namely the person responsible for teak pole purchase (χ2=38.855; p<0.001), and the quantity of timber purchased (χ2=25.595; p<0.001). On the other hand, no variation of frequency distribution across consumer segments was found for teak pole source (χ2=1.306; p=0.73), and the criterion underlying the choice of the sale venue (χ2=1.076; p=0.78). With respect to the duration since the last purchase, the majority of consumers purchased the product more than 6 months ago, and over one third of the last purchase occurred more than 1 year ago across the market segments. About decision-making, the two predominant processes were consumers’ personal initiative, and service providers’ advice. Relatives (friends and parents) were also involved, to a lesser extent, in decision-making. The importance of personal initiative in decision-making suggested that teak pole as service wood was well known to consumers, and most of them purchased the product consciously. With regard to supply, the majority of consumers bought teak pole from timber traders, but a small share purchased directly from farmers. With respect to the person responsible for the purchase, three cases were found: purchase by the consumer alone, the service provider alone, or both actors together. Noticeably, the segment of narrow users was characterised by the predominance of service providers in the supply. Since timber is a heavy product, its handling is a delicate task for women – the majority of respondents in this segment – so that they preferred the assistance of service providers to purchase the product. On the other hand, diversified users preferred buying pole together with the service provider. Consumers explained that, accompanying the service provider enabled them to benefit from his expertise for purchasing good quality timber. Meanwhile, it helped preventing any potential cheating behaviour that could occur if the service provider was to handle the purchase alone. The results showed that consumers across the various segments overwhelmingly purchased teak pole from the nearest outlet. The main reason supporting such behaviour is that

117 Performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin the transportation cost is cheaper when timber is bought from an outlet close to the consumption place. The quantities of timber purchased for the last consumption of teak pole, and the amount spent are shown per consumer segment in Table 6.5. The highest quantities of timber as well as amount spent were related to house construction jobs. These included grass hut, roof structure, stake for building suspended slab, and scaffolding. Hangar and shacks that were wide consumption forms across consumer segments required 10 to 20 pieces of poles on average; while TV aerial support required only one piece of pole. With regard to electricity transportation, the average quantity of timber used ranged from 1 to 10, according to the transport distance. Since fence and clothes airer were scarce consumption forms, the related figures might be unrepresentative. No respondent reported shelves as the last consumption form of teak pole. According to our investigations, this required 5 to 10 poles, with an expenditure of XOF 2500–10000 (USD 5–20).

118 Chapitre 6 : Satisfaction across urban consumers of smallholder-produced teak ( Tectona grandis L.f.) poles in Southern Benin

Table 6.4. Behaviour patterns of smallholder-produced teak pole consumers across segments. Consumer segments Behaviour patterns (%) Typical users Narrow users Wide users Diversified (N=74) (N=28) (N=68) users (N=40) Duration since the last use Less than 6 months ago 36.5 42.9 42.6 15.0 6 – 12 months 27.0 21.4 23.5 25.0 More than 1 year 36.5 35.7 33.8 60.0 Purchase decision (first use) Parent/friend advice 17.6 10.7 8.8 7.5 Service provider’s advice 31.1 57.1 33.8 52.5 Personal initiative 51.4 32.1 57.4 40 Responsible of purchase * Service provider 24.7 59.3 34.8 7.7 Consumer or a relative 47.9 33.3 33.3 25.6 Consumer or a relative 27.4 7.4 31.8 66.7 with the service provider Teak pole source From planters 6.8 7.1 7.4 12.5 From traders 93.2 92.9 92.6 87.5 Criterion of choice of sale venue From a particular supplier 11.0 11.1 13.3 17.5 From the closer depot 89.0 88.9 86.7 82.5 * This indicates the variables showing significant variation of frequency distribution according to the consumer segments. In all cases, p-value associated to Chi-Square test of equality of distributions was inferior to 0.001.

119 Performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin

Table 6.5. Average quantity of teak poles purchased and average expenditure for the last consumption, per consumer segment. Typical users Narrow users Wide users Diversified users Consumption forms Quanti- Expen- Quanti- Expen- Quanti- Expen- Quanti- Expen- ties diture a ties diture ties diture ties diture Hangar 13 10,868 12 9559 16 12,345 12 10,500 Shack 18 15,386 – – 19 14,000 15 11,250 Grass hut 30 20,000 – – 20 25,000 22 19,222 Roof structure –b – – – 37 37,917 50 38,333 Stake for suspended slab (purchase) – – – – 200 100,000 383 225,000 Stake for suspended slab (hire) c – – – – – – 600 130,000 Scaffolding – – – – 150 80,000 – – TV aerial support 1 1227 – – 1 1392 1 1656 Electricity transportation 5 6000 10 7000 7 3833 1 700 Fence – – – – 20 10,000 – – Clothes airer 3 2500 – – – – – – Note: It was delicate to perform comparative statistical analysis here, because not all consumption forms were represented across consumer segments. a Expenditure figures are in local currency (XOF). The exchange rate during the survey period was XOF 1 = USD 0.002. b – means that no respondent in this segment has reported the item as the last consumption form of teak pole. c Since the building of suspended slabs required large quantities of teak pole, certain consumers preferred hiring the product (XOF 100–200 per pole), in order to reduce expenditures. The poles were brought back to the traders after completion of the job.

120 Chapitre 6 : Satisfaction across urban consumers of smallholder-produced teak ( Tectona grandis L.f.) poles in Southern Benin

6.3.4.3. Consumers' motivations The motivation ranking was uniform for the wide users, the narrow users, and the typical users. Buying at a competitive price was ranked as the first most important motivation, followed by suitability and easy availability. On the other hand, suitability was ranked first most important motivation by the diversified users, followed by price. Surprisingly, timber quality was the less important motivation across the consumer segments (Table 6.6). Consumers made a subtle difference between product suitability and quality. For them, suitability refers to whether the material can serve for the targeted use, even if it will provide little comfort and deteriorate after a short period of time. By contrast, quality refers to a high standard product that can provide more comfort and last over the time. Kendall’s test of concordance showed a high level of agreement among respondents about the ranking of motivations, except in the segment of wide users; even in that case, however, the coefficient of concordance was close to 0.5 (Table 6.7). Contrary to our assertion, the results showed, to some extent, similarities between segments, with respect to motivations underlying teak pole purchase.

Table 6.6. Motivations across smallholder-produced teak pole consumer segments. Consumer segments Motivation Typical users Narrow users Wide users Diversified users ranking (N=74) (N=28) (N=68) (N=40) 1st Price (1.5) Price (1.5) Price (1.6) a Suitability (1.5) 2nd Suitability (2.2) Suitability (2.0) Suitability (2.1) Price (2.2) 3rd Easy availability Easy availability Easy availability Easy availability (2.4) (3.1) (2.7) (2.5) 4th Quality (3.9) Quality (3.5) Quality (3.7) Quality (3.8) a The bracketed figures are the average rank of each motivation.

121 Performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin

Table 6.7. Results of Kendall’s concordance test on motivation ranking within teak pole consumer segments. Consumer segments Parameters Typical users Narrow users Wide users Diversified users N 74 28 68 40 Kendall's W a 0.606 0.537 0.482 0.562 Chi-Square 134.465 45.129 98.276 67.500 df 3 3 3 3 Asymp. Sig. 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 a Kendall's coefficient of concordance (0 = no agreement, 1 = total agreement).

6.3.5. Satisfaction across the consumer segments The comparison of expectations across the consumer segments showed different pictures from one attribute to another. The average expectation scores (Table 6.8) varied across the consumer segments for the following attributes of teak pole: ‘low knot frequency’, ‘no significant bending’, ‘long enough’, ‘convenient humidity’, ‘hard’, and ‘durable’, with p-value from one-way ANOVA inferior to 0.05. Student’s t test of conformity revealed that eight attributes were important to consumers across the segments, with a mean value higher than 4. ‘Convenient humidity content’ was the only attribute with a mean value significantly lower than 4 (Table 6.8). Similarly to expectations, the variability of perception across consumer segments depended on the attribute considered. The following attributes differed across consumer segments: ‘competitive price’, ‘easily available’, ‘diversified diameter sizes’, ‘convenient humidity’, and ‘durable’ (one-way ANOVA; p<0.05). The comparison between expectations and perception showed dissatisfaction in all consumer segments (Table 6.8). Among the criteria that matter to them, consumers were satisfied only with the attribute ‘diversified diameter sizes of pole’, for all segments. In addition, the narrow users were satisfied with the low knot frequency on the poles. The attributes requiring effort for improved consumer satisfaction were as follows: ‘competitive price’, ‘easily available’, ‘low knot frequency’, ‘no significant bending’, ‘long enough’, ‘hard’, and ‘durable’. Those attributes were identical for all consumer segments except ‘low knot frequency’ that was fine with the consumers from the narrow users segment.

122 Chapitre 6 : Satisfaction across urban consumers of smallholder-produced teak ( Tectona grandis L.f.) poles in Southern Benin

Table 6.8. Gap analysis of the satisfaction level across teak pole consumer segments. Expectations Perception Attributes TU NU WU DU TU NU WU DU Competitive price 6.6a 6.7ab 6.7a 6.7a 5.2b* 5.0b* 4.8a* 5.2b* Easily available 5.8a 5.8a 5.9a 5.8a 5.0b* 4.8b* 5.3a* 5.1ab* Low knot frequency 5.2ab 4.7b 5.4a 5.0ab 4.0a* 4.3a 4.2a* 3.9a* No significant bending 6.5a 6.5a 6.5a 6.8b 4.7a* 4.8a* 4.6a* 4.7a* Long enough 6.6a 6.4b 6.6a 6.7a 5.4a* 5.4a* 5.3a* 5.4a* Diversified diameter sizes 4.9a 4.8a 5.1a 5.1a 5.0ab 5.3bc 4.8a 5.7c Convenient humidity 3.4a 3.6a 3.5a 2.1b 3.8a 4.1a 3.9a 2.8b Hard 6.5a 6.6ab 6.6ab 6.9b 4.6a* 4.8a* 4.7a* 4.8a* Durable 6.5a 6.6a 6.6a 6.9b 4.2b* 4.6a* 4.3ab* 4.4ab* Note: NU, TU, WU, and DU mean respectively narrow users, typical users, wide users, and diversified users. a; b; and c: For expectations and perception, scores in one row with different letters are significantly different at p<0.05 (one-way ANOVA and post hoc Least Significant Difference test). * Significance level of Student’s t test of mean comparison on paired sample between expectations and perception: means perception consistently inferior to expectations for this attribute in this market segment; all p<0.01.

123 Performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin

6.4. Discussion 6.4.1. Consumers segmentation and profiling Four segments were identified among urban consumers of smallholder- produced teak poles in Southern Benin, with a consistent differentiation of socio-demographic profiles across them. By scrutinising simultaneously teak pole consumption forms, socio-demographic profile, and behaviour patterns of consumers, it appeared that the narrow users segment was associated with women, relatively younger than average, who were predominantly small traders and craftsmen. They had low education background and low wealth status, as compared to the typical users. On the other hand, diversified and wide users were characterised by relatively aged consumers, with higher education level, most of them were employees. They showed a diversified range of consumption forms and purchased larger quantities of teak poles, for house construction job (e.g., roof structure and stake for building suspended slab). Compared to the typical users, diversified and wide users were wealthier. House ownership, that was dominant in the wealth status of diversified and wide users, is widely considered as an indicator of higher social status in Benin. On the other hand, the narrow users segment represented a poorer consumer group. For instance, they did not report TV aerial support among teak pole consumption forms, and then they failed to own a TV receiver, contrary to the majority of consumers in the three other segments. As highlighted previously by Scherr (2004), the study confirms the potential for smallholder forestry to supply timber to domestic markets for Benin. The identified consumer segments included a wide range of socio- demographic profiles, from the economically weak classes (e.g., narrow users) to wealthier consumers (diversified and wide users). Clearly, competitive price represented a strong motivation in the purchase decision of consumers, followed by suitability, and then the availability while quality received less attention. The high ranking for suitability showed that even though consumers gave up quality for affordable price, they were concerned with the adequacy between teak pole and the targeted consumption forms. Our findings are consistent with previous results with respect to the competitive price as strong motivation in consumer behaviour (Cameron and Galloway, 2005; Close and Kukar-Kinney, 2010; Ragaert et al., 2004). With regard to timber consumption, the current results tally to a

124 Chapitre 6 : Satisfaction across urban consumers of smallholder-produced teak ( Tectona grandis L.f.) poles in Southern Benin large extent with previous findings by Smorfitt et al. (2002) on wood consumption by cabinet-makers in Queensland, Australia. Price, consistency of colour and grain (a quality attribute), availability, suitability, and customer request were the factors influencing cabinet-makers decision to use a particular timber for the task at hand. However, in contrast with our results, price received the lower rating among the five factors stated above. This contrast might originate from the differences between the populations under study, with respect to wealth status (developing country versus developed country), and the category of timber (rough timber versus processed wood). Since cabinet belongs to the category of furniture, consumers might be more sensitive to comfort to the detriment of price.

6.4.2. Satisfaction across the consumer segments The study raised concerns about smallholder forestry, since consumers across all segments were dissatisfied with the overwhelming majority of the attributes evaluated. Surprisingly, farm-grown teak remained the principal service wood for urban consumers in Southern Benin, with most of them purchasing the product repeatedly. This finding is consistent with the previous remark that dissatisfied consumers might continue to purchase the product (Gupta and Stewart, 1996). Presumably, this could mean that so far, consumers do not have a better alternative. Another probable reason is that the majority of dissatisfying attributes were related to technical quality which was an ancillary motivation for consumers (see section 6.3.4.3). Teak timber is often praised for its interesting properties (Pandey and Brown, 2000). Consumers’ complaints over hardness and durability might therefore seem surprising. However, a satisfactory explanation has been provided by Haslett et al. (1991) who showed that plantation-grown tropical tree species – teak included – produce wood with properties considerably lower than those from natural stands, for rotations under 20 years. These findings suggest that consumers’ complaints over hardness and durability originate from the fact that teak at the growth stage of pole is not yet mature. In the current silvicultural management regime, consisting in coppicing with rotations of 3 to 5 years on average, the harvested timber remains immature, with the predominance of sapwood. With regard to durability, treatments to improve timber resistance against termites and other insects are available (Hwang et al., 2005), including endogenous techniques such as timber

125 Performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin painting with waste oil. Since consumers cared about price, further information is required on the cost–benefit analysis of the use of such treatments. Apart from the potential impact of silvicultural management on the length of teak pole 13 , its rectitude and the knot frequency, a proper genetic material (i.e., provenance) choice might play a relevant role in improving these attributes. Indeed, the provenance influences the technical quality of planted trees (Bhat and Priya, 2004; Miranda and Pereira, 2002). In the specific case of teak in Benin, Azankpan et al. (2009) compared the performance of the two provenances grown locally, namely the local and the Tanzanian provenances, and found that the Tanzanian provenance had higher trunks. Unfortunately, smallholder teak plantations in Southern Benin have been established predominantly with unsorted material of local provenance. Therefore, efforts to meet market needs should include the building of the capacity of smallholder farmers in the silvicultural management of teak plantation, and the availability of good planting material. With respect to the ‘easy availability’, this relates to a closer proximity of retail outlets. Since the settlement of outlets is part of marketing service, any improvement in this field depends on traders’ decision, taking into account the potential market and the induced costs by the outlet. This can be promoted, to some extent, by the removal of excessive entry barriers to timber trade, i.e. licence costs. In Benin, licences are required to do business in the forestry sector: logging, trade, and processing activities (see section 2.3.3.2). Cheaper price is conflicting with consumers’ request for improved quality. However, competitive price might be promoted to some extent by general improvement of efficiency within the value chain. This requires efficiency in timber production at farm level – by strengthening farmers’ capabilities to implement proper technical itineraries – and lower marketing costs through improved coordination in the value chain. Regarding the latter point, traders were to seek a new supplier for each purchase of stumpage timber (increased search costs), because farmers had relatively small acreages of plantation (1.50±0.31 ha), so that they were unable to supply

13 Only one piece of pole is obtained from a single tree, so that pole length depends basically on the trunk height of the trees. In the framework of a survey carried out among timber traders, we measured pole length in retail outlets and found value ranging generally from 4 to 8 meters.

126 Chapitre 6 : Satisfaction across urban consumers of smallholder-produced teak ( Tectona grandis L.f.) poles in Southern Benin consistent quantities over time. This issue as well as relevant policy options to address it have been discussed in chapter 2 (see section 2.4.2). It has been argued that collective marketing can enable farmers to overcome this constraint, so as to strengthen coordination between them and traders. This involves support to the development of teak planters association which did not exist during the study period.

6.5. Conclusions The study consisted in segmenting and profiling urban consumers of smallholder-produced teak poles in Southern Benin, and assessing their satisfaction level. As hypothesised, the consumer segments differed with respect to their socio-demographic profile, but differences in behaviour patterns and motivations were less perceptible. Regarding satisfaction level, the general picture emerging from the study is that consumers were more or less dissatisfied than they would be using alternatives. The attributes on which improvement efforts were required included price competitiveness, easy availability, knot frequency, rectitude, length, hardness, and durability. Since those dissatisfying attributes were almost identical for all consumer segments, a single strategy might be satisfactory to address the consumers’ needs. Improving consumer satisfaction depends on the two main agents operating in the value chain, namely smallholder farmers and timber traders, as hypothesised. Farmers are concerned as far as the technical quality of teak pole is targeted, while traders are more concerned with the easy availability of the product. Both agents are concerned with the issue of price competitiveness. The results suggested that efforts should be concentrated mainly on strengthening the capacity of teak planters in silvicultural management, for improved technical quality. This involves the availability of good planting material, the transfer of stand management skills, and the shift toward longer rotation. The latter point has to be considered cautiously, because smallholder farmers clearly showed reluctance to long rotations which might decrease their profit. Price competitiveness was a critical issue that could be addressed through the improvement of the overall efficiency in the value chain. Lastly, the reduction of barriers to timber trade is expected to improve the availability of teak pole to urban consumers. The important question is who will take the lead in this action? Even if NGOs could play a significant role in supporting smallholder farmers, this is basically the

127 Performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin responsibility of governments, as part of their efforts to capture the potential of smallholder forestry as contributor to rural development and poverty alleviation, and to the provision of forest products and environmental service.

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Chapitre 7 : Discussion générale et conclusions

7.1. Discussion générale Les résultats ont été discutés au fur et à mesure dans les manuscrits qui composent la thèse. Dans cette section, nous revenons sur les points les plus importants, en passant en revue les conclusions relatives aux hypothèses de recherche, celles-ci étant dispersées dans les manuscrits. La discussion générale est structurée en quatre points : (i) opportunités et défis pour la chaîne de valeur, (ii) création de richesse et revenu des agents de la chaîne de valeur, (iii) partage des bénéfices et équité dans la chaîne de valeur, et (iv) satisfaction des consommateurs.

7.1.1. Opportunités et défis pour la chaîne de valeur La chaîne de valeur des perches de teck au Sud-Bénin permet d’approvisionner les centres urbains en bois de service. Cependant, la généralisation de la production des perches par les paysans pourrait entraîner à terme une offre excessive de ce bois, avec un risque de dépréciation des prix. Dans ce contexte, il serait utile d’inciter les planteurs à diversifier leurs objectifs de production, afin d’élargir les débouchés pour la foresterie paysanne. L’étude a montré l’existence d’opportunités de relations gagnant-gagnant, et d’une meilleure coordination entre les planteurs et les commerçants de perches de teck (vérification de l’hypothèse 1). Toutefois, la capitalisation de ce potentiel dépend de la capacité des associations de planteurs à garantir une offre régulière de bois. Les modalités de mise en place de ces associations doivent faire l’objet de réflexions approfondies, pour favoriser leur réussite. En effet, tout en reconnaissant les succès dans les actions collectives d’accès au marché (Kaganzi et al., 2009 ; Moustier et al., 2010), il faut noter que les organisations des producteurs s’écartent parfois des objectifs sous-tendant leur création. Au Sud-Bénin par exemple, les coopératives auxquelles l’Etat a rétrocédé les palmeraies industrielles sont traversées depuis plusieurs années par une profonde crise de gouvernance. Cependant, il existe des circonstances favorables à la réussite de l’action collective parmi les planteurs de teck du Sud-Bénin. En effet, il a été prouvé que les associations d’agriculteurs réussissent mieux, lorsqu’elles sont créées

129 Performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin autour de produits dont la commercialisation engendre des coûts de transaction élevés (Hellin et al., 2009). Les enquêtes auprès des agents de la chaîne de valeur ont montré que cette condition est remplie pour les perches de teck, même si l’étude n’a pas abordé la quantification des coûts de transaction. Aussi des opportunités de réduction des coûts de commercialisation du bois ont-elles été identifiées, conformément aux suppositions de départ (hypothèse 4). Elles concernent surtout les coûts de transport et les rentes perçues par les agents de l’Etat. La collecte des pots-de-vin lors de la commercialisation des produits agricoles est bien connue dans de nombreux pays (Shepherd, 2007). Cette rente apparaît lors de la répartition de la valeur ajoutée dans le compte d’exploitation des commerçants, et dans le compte consolidé de la chaîne de valeur. Au nombre des défis à relever, il y a l’évolution vers un environnement institutionnel porteur de performance. En effet, l’environnement institutionnel est connecté sous plusieurs angles à la performance de la chaîne de valeur, notamment les politiques incluant l’assistance technique aux planteurs en matière de sylviculture, la limitation des pots-de-vin dans le système de commercialisation, et les réformes dans la législation forestière. La question du financement constitue aussi un défi, en particulier au niveau des paysans ; mais ce problème n’est pas spécifique à la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck au Sud-Bénin. Toutefois, l’accès au crédit peut entraîner des retombées positives pour les planteurs de teck. En effet, il a été prouvé que l’accès des petits exploitants au crédit favorise des décisions optimales dans la gestion de l’exploitation, et améliore leur revenu (Foltz, 2004 ; Nelson et Temu, 2005). Ainsi, l’existence d’opportunités de crédit au profit des planteurs de teck peut leur permettre de limiter le recours au bradage des plantations immatures, cette pratique étant due aux contraintes de liquidités lors des problèmes sociaux.

7.1.2. Création de richesse et revenu des agents de la chaîne de valeur Les activités de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck au Sud-Bénin contribuent à créer de la richesse, à partir des ressources qu’elles emploient (vérification de l’hypothèse 2). Au sein des planteurs et des commerçants, il existe une différenciation en des catégories (trois types de planteurs, et

130 Chapitre 7 : Discussion générale et conclusions quatre types de commerçants) ; et l’efficience financière varie selon ces catégories (vérification de l’hypothèse 3). Les variations de performance entre agents opérant dans un même secteur sont couramment observées (Fafchamps et Gabre-Madhin, 2006 ; Somda et al., 2005). Ces résultats confirment la pertinence des typologies d’agents dans chaque maillon de la chaîne de valeur.

7.1.3. Partage des bénéfices et équité dans la chaîne de valeur Les résultats de cette étude concordent avec les observations précédentes de Nawir et al. (2007), sur le fait que les petits exploitants reçoivent une infime part des bénéfices générés par le bois. En plus des bénéfices perçus, nous avons pris en compte les coûts supportés par chaque agent, pour apprécier l’équité dans la chaîne de valeur. Ces deux critères réunis ne nous permettent pas de conclure à l’existence d’iniquité au détriment des planteurs de teck (rejet de l’hypothèse 5). Nos résultats se démarquent de la perception courante selon laquelle, les commerçants réalisent des superprofits au détriment des paysans (Maraseni et al., 2006 ; Vodouhê et al., 2008). Cette différence découle du fait que les études rapportées ci-dessus n’ont pris en compte les ressources investies par les commerçants, pour remplir leurs fonctions au bénéfice des producteurs et des consommateurs. Par ailleurs, nos résultats ne sont pas surprenants si on se réfère à Shepherd (2007) qui a souligné que, lorsqu’on tient compte de tous les coûts effectivement supportés par les commerçants dans les pays en développement, leurs profits ne sont souvent pas si élevés que ne le laisse penser une simple différence entre le prix du consommateur et le prix au producteur. En ce qui concerne l’équité entre les agents opérant dans un même maillon de la chaîne de valeur – qui implique l’égalité de chances pour tous les participants de pénétrer ou de quitter le marché (Couglan et al., 2000 ; Fraval, 2000) – on note l’existence d’iniquité dans le système de commercialisation des perches de teck. En effet, le gel de l’attribution des licences (cartes professionnelles) pénalise les nouveaux commerçants, en leur faisant supporter des coûts additionnels de location des licences, comparativement aux anciens.

131 Performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin

7.1.4. Satisfaction des consommateurs Cette thèse propose une démarche pouvant faciliter une meilleure prise en compte des consommateurs dans l’analyse des chaînes de valeur. Conformément aux suppositions de départ, l’étude a montré que les consommateurs de perches de teck se différencient en segments selon les formes d’utilisation du produit et le profil sociodémographique ; mais les différences relatives aux habitudes et aux motivations d’achat sont moins marquées (hypothèse 6). Malgré la non-satisfaction des consommateurs, les perches de teck restent le principal bois de service employé dans la région. Cette situation pourrait s’expliquer par le fait que les perches de teck répondent mieux aux attentes des consommateurs, pour certains attributs comme le prix abordable, la disponibilité facile, et la rectitude, comparativement aux matériaux concurrents (perches d’acacia et bambou). La satisfaction des attentes des consommateurs requiert le concours de tous les agents de la chaîne de valeur (vérification de l’hypothèse 7). En effet, les planteurs de teck et les commerçants de bois, principaux acteurs de la chaîne de valeur, sont concernés par l’amélioration de la qualité des produits et services offerts. Ce résultat concorde avec l’idée de compétitivité systémique qui sous-tend l’analyse des chaînes de valeur (Kaplinsky et Morris, 2002).

7.2. Conclusions L’objectif de cette thèse est d’évaluer la performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck au Sud-Bénin. Les aspects abordés sont : le fonctionnement de la chaîne de valeur, l’efficience opérationnelle des deux acteurs clés de la chaîne (planteurs et commerçants), l’équité dans la répartition de la valeur ajoutée entre ces acteurs, et le degré de satisfaction des consommateurs. Dans cette section, nous présentons une synthèse des résultats de l’étude et des enseignements qui en découlent, les implications en matière de politiques, les limites de l’étude, et les pistes de recherches futures.

7.2.1. Synthèse des résultats et principaux enseignements Les principaux résultats et enseignements à retenir de l’étude portent sur les points suivants : (i) le fonctionnement de la chaîne de valeur, (ii) la création de richesse et la rémunération des agents de la chaîne de valeur, (iii) l’équité

132 Chapitre 7 : Discussion générale et conclusions dans le partage des bénéfices entre les agents de la chaîne de valeur, (iv) la satisfaction des consommateurs, et (v) l’importance des conditions de transport et de l’environnement institutionnel dans la performance de la chaîne de valeur.

7.2.1.1. Fonctionnement de la chaîne de valeur La chaîne de valeur des perches de teck au Sud-Bénin comprend trois étapes, notamment la production du bois, la commercialisation, et la consommation. Le bois est destiné principalement aux centres urbains. Les agents participant à la chaîne de valeur sont les pépiniéristes, les planteurs, les intermédiaires locaux, les courtiers, les commerçants, les transporteurs, et les consommateurs. Concernant les organisations intervenant dans la chaîne de valeur, on distingue : les organisations informelles de commerçants, les institutions de micro-finance, et l’administration forestière. Cette dernière joue un rôle crucial dans le fonctionnement de la chaîne de valeur. Les attributs du service forestier comprennent la délivrance des cartes professionnelles (licences), des permis d’exploitation et des laissez-passer aux commerçants, et les contrôles inopinés auprès de ces agents. La chaîne de valeur est caractérisée par une faible coordination entre les maillons en présence. Planteurs et commerçants rencontrent des difficultés dans l’identification d’un partenaire commercial. Cette situation s’explique par les faibles superficies de teck dont disposent les paysans – 50 % des planteurs échantillonnés possèdent moins de 0,8 ha de plantation – et le caractère pluriannuel du cycle de production des perches de teck (3–5 ans). Il en résulte une incapacité des planteurs individuels à assurer une offre régulière de bois. Dans ces conditions, l’investissement dans des relations de long terme avec les paysans (réseaux par exemple) présente peu d’intérêt pour les commerçants. La commercialisation groupée au niveau des planteurs offre des opportunités de relations gagnant-gagnant entre eux et les commerçants.

7.2.1.2. Création de richesse et revenu des agents de la chaîne de valeur La chaîne de valeur des perches de teck au Sud-Bénin contribue à la création de richesse, avec une valeur ajoutée positive à toutes les étapes de la chaîne. La sylviculture du teck contribue à l’amélioration des moyens d’existence, comme le démontre le revenu du travail familial positif, et la distribution de

133 Performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin revenus aux travailleurs ruraux. De même, le commerce des perches de teck est une activité rentable. Toutefois, les revenus varient selon les catégories, aussi bien au sein des planteurs qu’au sein des commerçants.

7.2.1.3. Partage des bénéfices et équité dans la chaîne de valeur Les commerçants sont les principaux bénéficiaires de la valeur ajoutée, mais ce fait n’implique pas une iniquité en défaveur des planteurs. En effet, les commerçants sont les plus gros contributeurs à la création de valeur ajoutée. En outre, ils supportent la majeure partie des coûts dans la chaîne de valeur, de la production du bois à sa vente en détail aux consommateurs. Pour accroître leur part de valeur ajoutée, il faut que les planteurs acquièrent d’autres fonctions dans la chaîne de valeur, et ne se contentent plus de vendre le bois sur pied aux commerçants. En s’appropriant de nouvelles fonctions, les planteurs peuvent accroître la valeur bord champ du bois. Les fonctions que les planteurs peuvent s’approprier facilement sont : l’exploitation forestière, le tri, et le classement des bois.

7.2.1.4. Satisfaction des consommateurs Les perches de teck constituent le principal bois de service employé dans les centres urbains au Sud-Bénin. Le profil sociodémographique des consommateurs est diversifié. Les motivations sous-tendant l’achat des perches de teck sont, par ordre décroissant, la recherche de prix compétitifs, l’adéquation du bois avec l’usage envisagé, la disponibilité facile du bois, et la qualité du bois. La satisfaction des consommateurs dépend aussi bien des attributs de qualité fonctionnelle (‘prix compétitif’, ‘facilement disponible’) que des attributs de qualité technique des perches de teck (‘faible occurrence de nœuds’, ‘absence de courbure prononcée’, ‘assez longues’, ‘gamme de diamètre diversifié’, ‘humidité convenable’, ‘dures’ et ‘durables’). En dépit de l’avantage des perches de teck sur les matériaux concurrents, les planteurs et les commerçants doivent déployer des efforts, pour améliorer la satisfaction des consommateurs.

134 Chapitre 7 : Discussion générale et conclusions

7.2.1.5. Transport et environnement institutionnel, des éléments clés dans la performance de la chaîne de valeur Les conditions déficientes des pistes rurales et la vétusté des camions de transport influent notablement sur la performance de la chaîne de valeur. En effet, le transport du bois est la composante majeure des coûts de commercialisation, et représente trois quarts des consommations intermédiaires dans la chaîne de valeur. En ce qui concerne l’environnement institutionnel, la politique forestière est caractérisée par l’absence d’assistance technique aux planteurs. Cela contribue à expliquer pourquoi les qualités techniques du bois ne répondent pas aux attentes des consommateurs. La législation forestière n’inclut pas de différenciation dans les licences (cartes professionnelles) requises, selon l’ampleur des activités commerciales. Ainsi, les petits détaillants doivent utiliser les mêmes licences que les grossistes. Par ailleurs, le gel de l’attribution de nouvelles licences d’exploitation forestière, et de commerce du bois entrave la compétition dans le système de commercialisation. La non-application effective de la législation forestière entraîne la collecte de rente par les agents de l’Etat. Cette pratique illicite, et les coûts de transport élevés affectent négativement les revenus des planteurs, étant donné que le prix du bois sur pied est une valeur résiduelle. Toutefois, la politique fiscale est favorable à la foresterie paysanne, de par le faible niveau des prélèvements.

7.2.2. Implications en matière de politiques Les recommandations de politiques ont été discutées dans les différents manuscrits (chapitres 2 à 6). Cette section est donc une synthèse des éléments déjà abordés dans les manuscrits. L’étude met en lumière trois axes majeurs de politiques : (i) le soutien au développement d’associations de planteurs de teck, (ii) l’amélioration de l’environnement institutionnel, et (iii) l’amélioration des conditions de transport.

7.2.2.1. Soutien au développement d’associations des planteurs de teck L’intérêt des associations des planteurs de teck se situe à deux niveaux : améliorer l’efficience du fonctionnement de la chaîne de valeur, et accroître les retombées financières du teck au profit des paysans. En effet,

135 Performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin contrairement aux planteurs individuels, les associations peuvent assurer un approvisionnement régulier en bois aux commerçants, grâce à la commercialisation groupée ; ce qui contribuera à réduire les coûts de recherche de partenaires commerciaux. Concernant l’accroissement des revenus des paysans, la vente groupée renforce leur pouvoir de négociation, et peut leur permettre d’obtenir des prix plus rémunérateurs. Aussi est-elle nécessaire pour que les planteurs s’approprient de nouvelles fonctions (exploitation forestière, tri, et classement des bois), de façon viable. Enfin, les associations de planteurs peuvent servir de canal pour d’autres interventions de soutien à la foresterie paysanne, par exemple l’accès au crédit.

7.2.2.2. Amélioration de l’environnement institutionnel Les changements souhaitables concernent la politique forestière et la législation gouvernant les activités forestières. Concernant la politique forestière, le soutien à la foresterie paysanne devrait inclure la disponibilité de matériel végétal de qualité, et le renforcement des capacités des paysans en matière de sylviculture. Les retombées potentielles de ces mesures sont : la production du bois ayant les qualités techniques recherchées par les consommateurs, et l’accroissement des revenus générés par le teck au profit des paysans. Les réformes touchant la législation forestière sont essentielles, pour réduire les pots-de-vin, et améliorer la compétition dans le système de commercialisation. L’instauration d’un contrôle régulier du respect de la déontologie par les agents forestiers, et l’application effective des sanctions, pourraient induire un changement de comportement. Pour favoriser la spécialisation des commerçants par fonction, il serait utile de différencier les licences selon des critères tels que l’ampleur de l’activité (grossistes, détaillants), et l’origine des bois commercialisés (bois des forêts naturelles, bois des plantations paysannes). Enfin, il serait avantageux d’étendre la durée de validité des licences à plusieurs années – au lieu d’une seule année actuellement – pour réaliser des économies.

7.2.2.3. Amélioration des conditions de transport La réduction des coûts de transport requiert une amélioration des infrastructures de transport en milieu rural. Toutefois, il est plus réaliste

136 Chapitre 7 : Discussion générale et conclusions d’inscrire cette action dans le cadre général des politiques de soutien à la commercialisation des produits agricoles. La vétusté des camions de transport – qui entraîne des coûts de maintenance élevés – met en lumière une insuffisance de capital pour les agents économiques. La disponibilité de services financiers s’inscrit dans le cadre général des politiques de soutien à l’entrepreneuriat.

7.3. Limites de l’étude et suggestions pour des recherches futures La présente étude s’est limitée à une analyse statique de la chaîne de valeur, faute de données réparties sur plusieurs années ; ce qui ne permet pas d’apprécier les tendances d’évolution de la performance dans le temps. Par ailleurs, les analyses financières ne tiennent pas compte des intermédiaires locaux qui achètent les plantations immatures, les entretiennent, puis revendent plus tard le bois sur pied aux commerçants. Ce choix s’explique par l’impossibilité de réunir des données fiables sur ces transactions qui ont un caractère sporadique. Toutefois, les limites relevées ci-dessus n’affectent pas la validité des résultats de l’étude, eu égard à nos objectifs de recherche. Plusieurs pistes de recherche future ont été identifiées, pour mieux éclairer à terme les décideurs sur la foresterie paysanne et les activités connexes. Les domaines concernés sont : la production du bois, les attentes des consommateurs, la commercialisation et les formes d’utilisation des feuilles de teck, et l’évolution temporelle de la performance de la chaîne de valeur. A l’étape de plantation, les besoins de recherche comprennent l’étude des déterminants de la rentabilité – notamment, un éventuel rendement d’échelle – et l’évaluation des bénéfices environnementaux, pour une vision complète de la contribution de la foresterie paysanne au bien-être de la société. De même, la comparaison de la rentabilité du teck avec celle d’autres options d’utilisation des terres (palmier à huile, acacia, ananas) est utile, pour éclairer les paysans dans la gestion de l’exploitation. S’agissant des attentes des consommateurs, une enquête complémentaire, auprès des prestataires de service (menuisiers, maçons, coffreurs, etc.), est nécessaire. En effet, compte tenu de l’implication de ces acteurs dans les décisions de consommation, une telle enquête est utile pour avoir une idée plus complète des attentes du marché, en termes de qualité de produits et de services. Aussi est-il important d’évaluer l’efficacité et l’efficience des techniques endogènes, telles que la peinture du bois avec de l’huile de vidange, dans l’amélioration

137 Performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin de la durabilité des perches de teck, c’est-à-dire la résistance aux termites et autres insectes xylophages. En effet, dans les conditions actuelles, on ne peut pas miser sur un allongement de la durée de la rotation pour améliorer la durabilité du bois, compte tenu de la réticence des paysans. La commercialisation et les formes d’utilisation des feuilles de teck méritent aussi une certaine attention. En effet, même si les planteurs sont très réticents à l’exploitation des feuilles de teck – les techniques de récolte des feuilles ont un effet négatif sur la qualité du bois (courbure du tronc des jeunes arbres) – de nombreuses femmes récoltent ces feuilles, généralement à l’insu des planteurs, et les commercialisent dans la région. Il serait donc utile de quantifier les revenus générés par cette activité de même que les différentes formes d’utilisation des feuilles de teck, et analyser les possibilités de mise au point de techniques de récolte qui ne causent pas de préjudice à la capacité des arbres à produire du bois de qualité. Enfin, concernant la dynamique de la performance de la chaîne de valeur, elle est nécessaire pour suivre l’effet des politiques mises en œuvre, sur des points tels que l’évolution des prix, et l’évolution des parts de valeur ajoutée reçues par chaque agent dans la chaîne de valeur.

138

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Curriculum vitae

Kossi Nounagnon Augustin AOUDJI est né le 28 mai 1978 à Houègbo dans la commune de Toffo au Bénin. En 1998, il obtint son baccalauréat, série "D". Cette même année, il fut admis à la Faculté des Sciences Agronomiques de l’Université d’Abomey-Calavi (Bénin), établissement dans lequel il fera toutes ses études universitaires jusqu’au Doctorat. En 2003, il y obtint son diplôme d’Ingénieur Agronome, option Aménagement et Gestion des Ressources Naturelles. En 2007, il fut recruté dans le cadre du Projet Interuniversitaire Ciblé "Contribution au développement d’une filière de teck au départ des forêts privées du Sud-Bénin (Département Atlantique)", pour faire ses études de DEA (Diplôme d’Etudes Approfondies) et de Doctorat, tout en contribuant à la réalisation des activités de recherche définies par ce projet. L’année académique 2007–2008 fut consacrée aux études de DEA, option Économie et Sociologie du Développement Rural. Son mémoire de DEA a porté sur l’évaluation du coût de revient du bois sur pied dans les plantations privées de teck du Sud-Bénin. A partir de l’année académique 2008–2009, il a entamé sa thèse de Doctorat, en se consacrant à l’analyse de la performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck au Sud-Bénin.

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Liste des publications

Publications relatives à cette thèse Articles parus dans des revues à comité de lecture Aoudji, A.K.N. , Adégbidi, A., Agbo, V., Atindogbé, G., Toyi, S.S.M., Yêvidé, A.S.I., Ganglo, J.C., Lebailly, P., 2012. Functioning of farm-grown timber value chains: lessons from the smallholder-produced teak ( Tectona grandis L.f.) poles value chain in Southern Benin. Forest Policy and Economics, doi:10.1016/j.forpol.2011.10.004. Aoudji, A.K.N. , Adégbidi, A., Agbo, V., Ganglo, J.C., Lebailly, P., 2011. Coûts et valeur ajoutée dans la commercialisation des perches de teck au Sud-Bénin. Cahiers Agricultures, doi: 10.1684/agr.2011.0529. Aoudji, A.K.N. , Adégbidi, A., Ganglo, J.C., Agbo, V., Yêvidé, A.S.I., De Cannière, C., Lebailly, P., 2011. Satisfaction across urban consumers of smallholder-produced teak ( Tectona grandis L.f.) poles in South Benin. Forest Policy and Economics 13 (8), 642–651. Aoudji, K.N.A ., Vodouhê, F., Adégbidi, A., Lebailly, P., 2010 (Citable abstract). Teak ( Tectona grandis L.f.) planting by smallholder farmers in South Benin: typology and policy needs for sustainable wood supply. The International Forestry Review 12 (5), 414.

Articles en cours d’évaluation dans des revues à comité de lecture Aoudji, A.K.N. , Adégbidi, A., Agbo, V., Lebailly, P. Socio-economics of smallholder teak ( Tectona grandis L.f.) planting in Southern Benin: a farming system approach. Manuscript submitted to Agroforestry Systems. Aoudji, A.K.N. , Adégbidi, A., Akoha, S., Agbo, V., Lebailly, P. Value added and equity in the smallholder-produced teak (Tectona grandis L.f.) poles value chain in Southern Benin. Manuscript submitted to Tropicultura.

Communications dans des conférences Aoudji, A.K.N. , Adégbidi, A., Lebailly, P., 2010. La sylviculture paysanne du teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin : typologie des planteurs et coût

155 Performance de la chaîne de valeur des perches de teck ( Tectona grandis L.f.) au Sud-Bénin de revient du bois sur pied. Communication orale, Journées Scientifiques Internationales de Lomé, 14 ème édition, Lomé, Togo, 25–29 octobre 2010. Aoudji, A.K.N. , Adégbidi, A., Lebailly, P., Ganglo, J.C., Agbo, V., 2011. Functioning of smallholder-produced teak ( Tectona grandis L.f.) poles value chain in South Benin. Communication orale, Colloque des Sciences, Cultures et Technologies de l’Université d’Abomey-Calavi, 3 ème édition, Abomey-Calavi, Bénin, 6–10 juin 2011.

Autres publications récentes Yêvidé, A.S.I., Ganglo, J.C., Aoudji, A.K.N. , Toyi, M.S., De Cannière, C., De Foucault, B., Devineau, J.-L., Sinsin, B. 2011. Caractéristiques structurelles et écologiques des phytocénoses de sous-bois des plantations privées de teck du département de l'Atlantique (Sud-Bénin, Afrique de l'Ouest). Acta botanica gallica 158 (2), 263–283. Aoudji, A.K.N. , Yêvidé, A.S.I., Ganglo, J.C., Atindogbé, G., De Cannière, C., Azontondé, A., Adjakidjè, V., de Foucault, B. Sinsin, B.A., 2011. Spontaneous plant communities as a tool for forest site identification and characterization in Pahou forest reserve (South-Benin). Bois et Forêts des Tropiques. Bois et Forêts des Tropiques 308 (2), 47–58.

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