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Nutritional quality of chickpea (Clcer aricfinum L. I: current status and future research needs
lntrinlllonrl Crops Rclralih In,ll!utr lot the S
Key *orb( rhlrkpea, nulrltlonrl u>!>?puiltlon.praculilne, clurapi' anfi.nu:ilcnlr. future rrrearch
AhmrL The autr~tnonsl compvr#l#ionmd thr a!lrciq 01 pnlcerung end llclraer snd I"fl-nYl,len,l on nulril,onal "all,. 01 ~hlopercl,C ,"$?cued I a,.rr. rr\rlrrh "*ad, o.e d~iru$rcd
Among the world's grain food itguines, ~hckpea(Clcer o"rrmvm 1.1. Bcngal gram or garbam" bean Is second lo dry beans (Phseoiur ~vuigons)~n area grown and thud ~n production lo dry beans and dry pear (Pirum wiivum). In Indla. lt a the most Important pulse crop Ciuckpeas are two haslc types kabuli and dcrl. Kabul, seeds are gcnrrally large and lhghr colored whlis dcr~ reeds range from yellow la black, rre generall) rmaller, and have a rougher surface lndla grows about 751 of the world acreage and total producuon of uhlckpea Cluckpcas are also tnlportanl ~n Bura~a.Elhopla. Iran, Hex~ou. Morocco, Pakistan. Spa!". Tanzan~aand Turkey It IS euli~iatedas a wlnter crop cn the troptir and rr a spilng or rulnrner crop I" rempcrntc cllner Uost of Ihc crop li prepnred by Iradit$onal nlcthodr for human consumptiun The trsdltlonal processing pracllces ured to convert chlckpee Inlo consurrlabie forms mclude soaktng, iprouttng, fermentar~on. bolllng. roasttng. parchtng. frying and rteamlng. Because the rupplementat~on uf cereals with hrgh pmtcin legumcs 1s one of the best rolut~vna to world proteln calorle.malnutr~t~on.the Protetn Advlsoiy Group of the United Nations recommended In 1972, urgent research attention to the product~anand nutrtttonal aspects of the eight major food legumes dry bean,(Phaeolus vulgonr], plgeonpea, icu~onuscalan 1.1, cowpea, (Vwu~nc&ra), chrkpaa, (Cicrr nrierinum 1.1, broad bran, (Viein fobo), drv. .oea, iPilum rrivum),.. rovbean iGlvcine, mnl), and "nroundnut (Anchls hypopm)) which account for about 93%ofthr total worldlegume product~on (PAC. 19721. Since then. canstderable research effort has been devoted to the nutritional and technological aspects of grain legumes The consumer
lottrnailonal Crops Reescrrrh lnst~tutrfor acceptance characteristics, and the effects of lmproved processing technology and storage on the overall nutritional quality of gram legumes have also received considerable atlentloo In the past decade. This paper summarlses the resultsofstudieron nutr~t~onalaspects ofchickpea In four major categories.
I. Nutritional composition The l~teratureon the nutr~t~onalcompusit~on and quality of ch~ckpeais voluni~nous.Chickpea IS a very good source of carbohydrates and proteins which together constitute about 80 percent of the total dry seed wecghl. Chickpea seed crude prateln content ranges between 12.6 and 30 59i 11-31 Chrckpea reed conta~nsa coos~derableamount of nonprotein n~tro~en(~~N) ..141. Nunoroteln. nltronen and total seed nitrogen In chlckvea... are ~os~tlvelv and s~gn~ficantlycorreiated. Any large varlatlon in NPN would affect the estlmaled protein of the sample and would consequently affect the proteln lnlake estlmate In the d~el.A variety of factors mdy cause varratlon in chlck. pea seed protein content and its quahty. 60th locallon and agronotnlc prac. tlces have impurtdnt effecls an proteln quality. Results have shown that location grown had the greatest Influence on seed prtttem content (51. The appltcatiorl of nltrugeli, phosphorus and sulphur feruluers to the growlng crop cuni~derdbly increased the proicln and antino ac~dsIn seeds [hl. Al. though h~ghprotein genotypes exist, l~ttleprogress has been made in de. veloplng a high proteln culuvars of ltnproved agronumtc performance c;ipable of producing nlore proteln per unll area. Starch lithe principal iarbohydrate constituent of chickpea. The starch cuntclll of whole seed samoles of several chickoea culuvars ranged between 41.0 and 50.8'X ultli a mean of 47 32. but considerably hlgher values were obtained for dhal (decort~cateddry split cotyledons) samples [7] Starch values for whole seeds of,desl cultivars were lower than fur kabull culttvars (71. Total Med carbohydrates have been reported lo vary froni 52.4 to 70.9% (3.81 Ch1ckpeasterch1s?0-309aniylose, depend~ngontheanalyt~cal method used 191 and the renialnder IS amylopectln Soluble sugars range from 4.80 to 8.539 17, 91. kabuit types containing slightly higher amounts than des~[7]. The bioavaildbil~ly of carbohydrates is important in terms of calorific value. Unfortunately the concentration of unamlable carbohydrates In ch~ckpeaIS the highest (?5.6%l among the commonly consumed lnd~an pulses (101. Cluckpea also has the lowest carbohydrate Qgestibil~tyas deter. mlned by using In vivo and in ntro procedures [I I]. Chckpea contributes a cons~derableamount of fat lo the human dlet Its fat content ranges between 3.8 and 10.2% 17, 8, I?. 131. The major fatty acids of cfuckpea flour lipids are Ilnolen, oleic and palm~ticacids (141. The hypocNolesterolacmic effect of chickpa n considered to be due to its hgh content of essential fatty aciL particularly Unolinic and lrnoleic [IS]. Tri. glycerides and phospholipids are the predominant components of chickpa 341 liplds The triglyccrtder arc the major components of ~~cutrvlIlpldr (noo. polar) and leclthln the major palrr ihpid component 1151. The nurrillonal s~gn$tii.aoceol vrrluus fiber components an the human diet has been recogn~ccdrn recent yrars The cunccntriltlon ol crude llhe~I, dtreclly related to the amount of rvcd coat in chickper and the seed cost conrent of chickpea eultivarr ranger from beru,ecn 5 2 and 19 4': (71 Thc dletaiy fiber cumponerllr of bolh dhal and reed desl rnd lahull uult~virs d~ffcrqual~lat~vcly and quantltatlvely 1161 In tern>$ at c~lo81fiivaluc and ut>l~ratbonof dietary nutrlcnts kahull wiioic 3rd rh<>uldbe preferred to desl as the latter contains largcr amounts uf dlctdiy fihcr par!bcularlv ccllulosc and hem~celluloie (161 Whtte seeded cultlvarr lhavc tiif hcst rood tcih. nologlc*l quri~t~rrbccausc of their I~lwer reed coat contmt and th~akctrrr iuygertlny..-. that cultlvrr. wlth thinner seed coats have hcttcr grain quality 11 '1 Chlckpes is a very good source uf ~nmerrlsand trdcc cler~leiilr Will, thu cxicptlun oi calc~unl the d~llcicnicrbetween rbr llllrleial CI>IIIpL>EI1101101 witole yrain and cofylcdiinr 1dh.l) are ntarglnrl 118 191 Culilunl .(nd xriir, are ~mpoitunttnurrlenta bur rrc o,uall> drflc~entlib the djels of law IIK<~II~C people part~culariymiants. preschoul chlldrcn. rrld prelmnt arid lrctatitip women ln Inat,) developing c<,c~ntrlcrSince the seed coar ccintrlhutcs about 70'; of the total reed -alc~unl,the consumption ill whole seed wuold he nutrltlonally derlrihle wherc crlclum dclicleniy exlrlr 1181 Chlikpca la r very good souric of lion rlncc its r\a$lab!lit) ts higher (Yi',:) than ~n ~>thcr gram Icgunle5 1201 Protecn qunlity cr prlrn~rilyar,esied bycumparln~~tratr>lnoac~dco~~~pc>scllon wth standard reference patterns, the rnort I~rn~tingammu rcld determtnlng the nutrltlve value [?I 1. By applying thlr cali-ulalton tu the orcntral a~rl~no acld curnposllinn of chickpea, 11 is clcdr thdl two ~ulphur-contdlnlngPrnlno actdr, methlonme and oyite!ne/cyriinr ilre the prmarlly lmmlting ammo acids 122. 23. 241 Arhur et al 11973) reoorted that ihlck~camct adult hurnan requlrementr for all essential amno acids exccpt for methlonme and cystetnel cyrtrne 1251 The tryptophan score appears to be saltsfactory ~lthoughlherc ts a canrideinhie varirtton for thtr amino acid arnong clilckpcr pcnatypes 1231, Next to the sulphur amino acids and tryptophrn.threon~neand vullne appear tmporrant as in the majority of carer the cbemlcal $cures lor these ammo acldr are below satisfactory lcvelr [241 In vtew of the drflclency ot threonlne I" Eome cereals, lack of ths ammo accd would lower the nutritlvc value of a ch~ckpea-cerealsbared diet. Bared on their ammo acid cumposition. the proteins of cluckpea seed were found to have a hlgher nutrttlve value than that of other gram legumes 1261 Btological evaluarton of protetn IS important because chemical analyrtr does not always isveal how much of a protetn 8s bsalogxally avsnlable. The PER of chckpea protein Ir hlgher than the PER'S of red Dam. (12jonut cojan L.). black gram (Vitm aconitifolin). and green gram (Vlgno rodtaro) 1271. The PER value9 of ch~ckpea(2.64), soybean (Glycine mx)(?.55) and horse bean (Vimfaba)(l.4?1 were sanlfi. cantlv less than those of cawn 1?81. . In grain legumes the storage protelns Iglobulins) constitute a nlalor pro portion of the seed proteins These are of poor nutritive value for humanand other monueastr~canimals because of their low sul~huramino ac~dconcen- tration hia amino actd camposltlun of food crops'can be altered elther by varying the relative proportton of embryo and endosperm or by changlng the relative proportion of metabolic and storage protelns Chickpea cotyledons conslllute about 832 of the total seed dry wetght and the globulinsare the,, predulnlnanl protelnr cuntrihuting ahuut 35'h of their total sulphur amlncr ac~ds The glutelin fraction contains a greater propnrtion of sulphur alnino ac~ds 129. 301 Althitugh the proporlions of these proleln fractions did nut greatly differ among the limited nunlher of cult~varsanalysed, the idcntlfi. carton uf chlckpca culttvars %'it11higher pluteitn 111 piobulin ratlos would help to improve protein quolity 1301 Curther. the tnllation of a methloninc or other essential ammo ao~d-r~chprirteln frsrttan under independent genetlc cantrnl m~ghtaln~ aPslst In iinpravlng the nutritional quality Grain legumes are musr lrequcntly considered In terms of iltetr comple. lnlenlarv nutrlli~~nalvalue In cereal based diets parllcularly In relation to amifnl acids Suppleinentatlun with 10. 20, 30. 40 and SF4 chrckpea flour slgniftcantly enhanced the nutrlrrve value of Arahic bread, but 20'; supple. mentation wds sat~siactoryin terms of its organoleptic properues 131 I. The chemical uomposit~iin.amino ~crdsand PER vdlue afoereals (aheat, rrlt~cale and rnai,e) chickpea nlixtuiei (50 50, 60 40.'70 30) were lowcr than tllose of chickpea arid cereal ilours alone 1321 The addition of chtckpea to noritlal dnd opaque.? maile In the ratio of3 7 on a protein basts raised then nutntlonal quality comparable w~ththat of atillnu ac~dssupplemented diets 1331, Chickpea supplemenlatlon war observed tu lnlprove the nutritional quality t,f tradltinnal yenlral Aslan breads iol~.nonlsecond only lo drled skim inilk (341. The lnaxlmutn recn~nendedquantity of chickpea was 11% and it considerably linproved the anilno acid adequacy of the mixture (341
2. Effect of pruceminp practices on nutritional compositions
In grain legumes. traditional processing practices not only renlove toxtc substances and anttnutr~tional factors but alsn improve palatability and digestibility. Cenerall). the soaktng of chickpeas befnre cooklng IS the mosi common practice. When cooked after soalung for ?Oh and sprouting for 24 h. the PER values ofchlckpea were stgnificantly increased 1351. Separately. cooking and sprouting were effective lo almost the same exlent 1361. Al. though 11 depends on the method of cooking, protetn qulity of chickpea a ~mprovedmore by moist heat than by dry heat treatment, as available lysine was less In roasted as compared to boiled and presrure.cooked chickpea (371. Heat treatment causes considerable nutritional damage to 343 n~ethxonme.the most miportant amino accds ~n gram ieg\~rnes 138, 39). Tinw and temperature should not he ahwe lomiti at 120°C for ch~ckpe~ 139. 401 Roarrlnp chichpea iced at 100-llOCT for Inim rnd aulosiavinp for 20mm were observed to glve cornpardble protan qurin) lndlcer 141 1 Moreover. rtudler indlcslcd that 12- IS? of the ihslnc conretll Ir rendeicd unsva~lsble whtle In wtrn d~gertihlllty1s decreased hb 15 ro 281 by ror$ll,lg at 130 135'C for 30nun 1421 The destructl~n of anl~nutr~t~onaifacti,rr durtng ~uvklngi5 benef~clil Denafurat~rwh) heal IS rcported to tmprove dlgert~h~llt)h? thc protcrre enqmes. but er~crr~vuhcstlnp reducer the nutritive vrlue ol protetn pornhi) hv pronlollng alntdp cross lllllagc oTnnllno acld slde.cholns 1781 LO(ECLof mclhlonlnc fiunl leeunlc proletns durine botlrnp arc rlgnlf!ca!lt 13'11 It IS fhercfore derlrrhlc ti, dctcrm~neboth tllr optlmoni duriit~onind c<>nd~lic>nr 01 heallnp to derlvc the maxlrnuln ni~tr~tlc,naladvsntapcr iron1 cuoklng chlckpes Apurl from clianpci ln prnteln qoallty, $tic 1iealln.s process hrmgs aboul ~
Like other gram legumes, chtckpa seeds conraln a varlets of chemical sub. stances whch have deleter~oureffcctr on the human dlsertive system. It has 344 been recognl~edfor many years that the nutrtttve value and protetn dtgestl. btltty of uncooked legumes are very poor because of heat labile prolease inhlbttors and other compounds Protease inhib~tors,amylase ~Rh~bit~rs, oligosacchar~desand polyphenalr have formed the subjects of several studies. Protease inhhltors (trypsin and chymotrypnn tnh~bltors) have been extens~vely studled and rhclr mode of actlon establ~shed. Among grain legumes, chickpeas offer less problem as far as these factors are concerned Under idenucal assay condlt~ons,trypsln inh~bltoractiwty was observed In decreas~ngimportance In soybean. common bean. broad beans. peas. Ientlls (Lms culinanr) and chtckpea 1521 and in another study In black gram. k~dneyhcan IPha~enlusvulgaris). red grdm, nlung bean ( Vignn rndiurul and chickpea 1531 The ievck of protease lnh~h~tursof cll~ckpeakary constderably In ih~ckpeagenotypes 1541. Thc chyniotryps~n~nluhttor was more heat- stable rhnn the Irypsln ~nhjhttor The inh~httorswere completely destroyed only when subjected to heat treatment under acidic condit~uns1551 Fer. mentation resulted 111 a conriderable reduct~onIn ant~tryptl~activity 1561 Trypsln i~lhib~torsarc a rtcli rtlurce of cystine which IS not readiiy svatlable lor growth urilers ~n~irdif>edhv. heat 1571 Le~umeDrotelns do lnot fulfil their nutrttlonal potenual even after cooking because the digest~bil~tyof proletn and avaiiah~ilt) of arninii acids (part~cularlysulphur.contain~ng ammo acids) are qijlte l,>w (50 BU'/;) In ilus context the role 01 protease ~nhihltors should be studled 111 dctall 1581 The nutr~tlonrisignificance of alpha-am)Iahe tnh~h~turshas been realtsed 111 reccllt vears Patliieauc rrnvlase ~nhlbltor1s presrrn ln ninny. ienumes.- but the ~nhlhtlvrrcttvlty appears to be cons~dciablylower In ch~ckpearhan in other tliiportant fwd lepumrs 1591 Amylase tnh~b~toractlvlly was more toward, paticrears alrlylase than human sailvary attlylase and rlirs was found In bulb desi and kabuli culttvars IhO]. The amylase inhtb~torsoi chtckpea becumr cotl~pletelyIna,ctlve when hotled for IOmtn 1601. Slnce must chick. peas are consunled alter boiltng, the amyiase inhtbitor IS not of practlcdl Inlportancc, except n the case of unheated chtckpen meal where some ~nhibft~anof starch digestion 1s expected. The abil~tyof lcgume seeds to srnnulale lntestlnal gas formatton has been recognired for many years. Microbial fermentation In the large lntestlne IS responsible for flatus components such as hvdrogen, methane and carbon d~oxlde It has frequently been suggested that the galactose cuntaintng olmosaccharides (raffinose. stachvose. and verbaxox) are the comuonents in-the legume seeds that are rekonstble fur flatulence. Gas production is greater from cluckpea than from other legumes and this may be due to its higher content of oligoracchar~des161, 621. Although these oligosaccharides are components of water soluble sugars. 11 may he d~fficultto predict the levels of these sugars on the bas~sof the total soluble sugar content of the xed 1601. Germinated chickpeas produced less flatus than ungerminated seeds 161 1 Raffinose, stachyose and verbascose are decreased considerably by germtnatlon (63, 641 The deerelre ln raftinosc, srachyose and rerhascure. used as e~sllyavaliahlc sourccs of energy durtng gcrlntnatrun, a sontewhat slower ~n chickpea than in other legumes [751 In contrast, caoktng slgnifi. cantly lncreared the ol~psaccharidecontents of all pulses and this Increase was greatest fur chickpea 1621 kcrrnentat~oi, reducer the level ot these sugars Fermentatton of chlcLpenr fur four days at ?SrC s~gnllicantly re. duced the~rrafflnore content (hSI Slncr thrrc ruyarr are accumulated at the later stages of seed msturatlun. the cunsumptian of chickpea a\ green seed rcduccr the problem of flatus producuun [he] The adverse rake of ~henollccomnounds. I" ~ntlucnclnr. .orolean dtucst~. bllity 1s wcll known. A hlghly slgnlficant Inverse relatlonsh~pihar hcrn re. ported between in wtru prirleln dtgertlblllty. . and rutdl phcnol~ccompounds of ehlckpca seed (54j. Tannms were not dctected I" cl~xkpeapcnotypcs dtffcrlng In seed color and ortpin 1671. On the uthcr lhind, shtckpua soedr contain cons>dtiable amount of polyphenollu co~npauiid, whlclt i~ihlhit the ritwlty ui iilgertlvc cnrynler 1681. Chickpea phenoltc compuundr arc htghly asroc!ated wlth the seed curt 1541 and thts find~ngis uicunr~dcrdblc Importancc fur icglorrs wllcre ch~ckpeas are rnnlnly consu~nedw~thaut dc. hurklng, In addillon to prcncasr inhlh~tors, romc legumcs cuntrln pliytcl. hcmaggluttn~ns.so-called ieitinr These proteins lntcrvcl wlth the glyco. protclns on the red hlilad cell surface iruilny agglutinarlon of thc cellr, and arc therelbrc tux^ ti, anlrnals Chrckpca sti~~wriillttlc a&lurlnrtlng octluity by uvng caw erythrocytes 153, 691. These results contradict the carllur obrcrvat~on thrt hemagplutlnat~ng*ot~\ity was ahrerct tn chlckpcil 1581 Moreaver iicrnab.gluuntni are t,,ghly renrlttve to heat treatmenl and the greater reducrlon of the agglutlnaung actlvlty was obtalncd wlth motst heat at > 100'~1701 Manv plants are ~otenuallvtoxic because they contam alvcoridti from which H& may be ;eleased dy hydroiyrls. It shoild he notedthat chtckpea seeds cuntatn traces of HCN but at levels much below the perm~ttedtoxiclty range 1531 The last antinutrttmnal factors and toxic constituents to be cons~deredarc myiotox~nswhlch were detected ~n ch~ckpeaseed using thin layer chromatography [71] Allatoxin contamjnattun ~ncrea~edwhen chick. pea reeds were rtured In gunny bags for 6 months and aflatoxln 01 was found tu be the component which tncreased most as a result of storage (721 The seed rnycoflora of dert and kabuli culttvarr were not very different [73l
4. UTect of rtotage on nutritio~lquality Adverse storage condttions reduce the nutrtt~onalquallty of food grains and products. Chickpeas Is stored as eather raw whale seed. dkhal or dhal flour (commonly called beran). The nutrttwe value of whole seed is indirectly influenced by the hardenmg of the red coal durmg storage over long periods at hrgh temperatures and this finally results In quantitattve and qualitattve ln~ll~nglosses 1741. The storage of chickpea dhal and nour up to 10.8% mi,inure at 0.57 water actinty dues not cause perceptrble changes tn flavour but at 14 01 moisture ch~ckpeasbecome moldy and develop a n:ustv odour In 8 weeks. These changes were attributed to the antoxidattie and hydrolyttc derradatton of both irce and bound It~rdsand changes tn the carolenoid contents 1751. This study also indicated that the proporiron of phosphu. itp~dslit bound lip~dsdecrmses, whlle that of neutral lipids Increases durtng storage at hlghcr mwsture levels. Generally hgh storage teniperatures have a direct effect on vttamitt iontents. A considerable aniount of thtaniine and r~boflavin 1s lost during storage 174) Inse~tsarid molds muse physical and chemtcai damage to the chtckpeas in conventir,nal storage cvndttlans The most common storage insects that attack chickpea are the pulses beetles ur bruchtdi Genotypic difference, in suscepl~b~lityto pulse bectle attack have been demonstrated For exaniple bruch~dsdeveloped nture rap~dlyun kabuli than on den cultlrars 1761. The chemical and nutrtt~ondlchanges in cluckpea seeds caused by pulses beetlcr during starrge have hceri the subjei.1 of scveral !nvestipttuns 177. 78. 791 liisect tnfestutton sign~ficantlydecreased the PER ofchskpea dhal 180. 811. Chickpea prvlctn quality deteriorated 111 storage because nf changes in the levels of certatn amrtto auld, The amount ui rvatlable Ilsinc decreased stgniitcintly whcn seeds were stored fur I2 manths 1821 Tryptophan and n~ellt>anineboth decreased with tnfertattim hut the effects were more pro. nounced ror tryptophan.. . where a decrease of 24% was observed 1781.. Trypsin.. tnhibiturs in chckpea were more resistant to changes on storage and ttiis ttt~nl~tcontrtbute to .uoui .Drutein d~~rst~bil~tv- ...181 1. There a considerable evi- dence that protetn rtch pulses are contaminated uith aflatoxiri whtle exposed to uniavourable envirottt~tcntalstorage condtttons Ch~ckpeascanbecontam~n. ated with mycoflura and ntyrotoxlns as a result of storage 171.72. 731. Seed treainients and storage ~niethodsinnucncethe nutrtttve value of chrk. peas, Chickpeas stored tn baas suffered greater lasses of itutnmts such as thi. atnrne than those stored in bottles probably because uf a freer crrculatlon of air m the bags [78. 821 Nulr~entlusses were greater for chtckpeas stured in cloth bag, than those in closed ntetal containers 1781. The niacin content of chlckper seeds rentained constant when chickpea was stored by etther of these two methods 1781 Lpidstn heat.processed clttckpea noursare fairly stable to axidativc changer. Lpids underwent greater hydrolyttc and on~dattvechanges In the flour of raw seeds than in the flour of roasted and vuffed chskoeas durlng storage 1431. Heat treatment resulted in retardatton of the oxidatton of unsaturated fatty acids and thts is beneficial to storage quality.
The chemtcal constituents of cluckpa seeds tncluding both nutritional and antinutritional factors have been studied by senral workers. Although there appears to be a large variation aniong cultlvars. few efforis have been made to show the effecl ofenvlron~rlent on such constlluents. An atternet shuuld he made to establrsh whether the phenolnenal differences arc conslslent across a varlety of environmenls. This lnforniatlon would also be useiul In l~nplicating the d~etary potential of chickpea In hurnan nutrltlon Also, the effects of ~mprovcdagionaniic practlces stluulti he Inore carefully studled pan~culnriy mtli reference ti, the vltamm and rn~neialcontents ofihickper seed Studlcs concernlngtlie interaction bctweencult~vnrsandsuch i'dctars on !lie nutrit~onal coiiiposltion would be des~rahle. As In other iood crops, nutritional improvement in rh~ckpca can he ach~eved in two ways (1) brcrd~ngfur ~mprovedgcnutypcs and (2) uslng ~n~provedprocessing techmlopy prior to ctinsuniptlon as a d~etr~y~tciii. t)cc3urc of seasoliai varlatlon In protein content, cftortr tu lapr rove nu. tr!tlonal qual~t) In chickpea by breeding have not been so~iessfulbut 11 would be derlrable la continue efforts in thlr dirrctlon Althouyli several reports lndlcatc the existence of hlgh protein genotypes. sources at htyh niethion~nchave yet to he ldentlf~ed It 1s necessary tu Idenilly the notritinndl potential lnclud~ngtox~c and undesiiablc factors uf related w~ldspccles wh~ch arc useful as sources of Insect and d~seascresistance The cooking quality of grain lcgunier hur been tile subject of many investi. gallons In the past. I1nfortunatcly. there have been few rystenlatlc studies on coak~ngquallty of chckpea. Factora such as gruwtng cond~~iot~s,chemlcil cumprls~tlonand storage should be studied In relation tu cuoking qual~tyIt IS recogn~red that the destruction uf antlnutr~llrrrirl frclora. trypstn and chymotryps~nlnhthltors in particular, 1s an Importart1 sccompl~shmcntnf cooking. It is particularly pertinent to study the b~oclielnical changes In protelni and c~rbohydrates~nduced by caoklng because dlgest~b~l~yof erotein and avatlabll~tv of ammo ac~dsdre low even after cuokinn on lnsses and b~u~va~iabiliryof vitamins and inlnerals The lntenslty and durai~onof heat treatment durlngcook~ngdependsonthe methodof foodoreearat~on. . S~ncechckveas are consurncd In varlous forms, 11 1s desirable to ~dentlfythe .majar forms'ln wh~chchlckpea is consumed In the regtans where 11 is grown, and to study the nutritional changes resulting from the varlous processing practlces. A knowledge of the nutrlt~unaland organo. Ieptic properties of chlckpea products would be useful m understanding the nutrltlonal potentla1 of chickpea and the effects of food preparation. The poss~btlityof util~ingchlckpea for the preparation of dhokla, idli. fempeh, and khnman-like products by fermentallon and thekr effects on nutrlt~onal qualtty needs to be explored. In India, most of the chlckpea IS processed Into dhal and dunng this process 11 undergoes quantltattve and qualitative losses. Al. though therea a need to examine d~fferentprocessing units to develop efficient dhal millina techniaues, the nutrtenc losses incurred dunng such milling pro. cedures lnciudlng the prctreatrnents should be studied. l'hi effects of~i~ling on storage stabihty and cook~ngquality needs further exammation. While some of the antlnvtrltlonal factors of ch~ckpeahave been exten. s~velysludted, no data are available on hemagglutin~ns,cyanogentc glucos~des. antrvltrmlns, esterogenic lactors. rneIal.bind~ng conrtltuenls, and tox~camtno acids, if thew are present at all In ch~ckpea.The flatulence causmgproperty of ch~ckpeais well known. Some stud~eshave clearly shown chat ol~go. sacchartdes are not the maln factors to have a marked influence on gas pro. ducuon. Eflortr should he made to identlry the orher reasons for flatulence cauxd by. ch~ckpear. . The developmen! uf culuvars with Increased resistance to postharvest infestatrun is a morl desirable steo and 11 musf be aoolicable for chlck~ea stored as whole reed, dhal and besan (fint dhai fluur) The effecl oi chemical Ircalmcnts fur conlrul of lnrecl lnfeslat~anand microhlal growl11 should be cxat~~lnedfrom nutrtt~nnalarnecrr
References
I PALtI A0 Nutrtt~onal Improvcnlrnt 01 loud Lc~umrrby Rrwdlnp Pmt Sym 1 A0 Kc~nic.lraiy. 3-5 July. 1972 2 Anllnll8lu Hr,laiakull M 11910i Prulrln ionlcnrr of dcffcrrnr varlcl!er 01 tlve ~peulc~~h puhe i~up~Prilr S>II~lr!lprovinp plant protein hy nurlear Icchniquer lAl All AO,Vlcnna, 8- 12 June 1970. pp 331 335 3 1 I Ilardallon SB. Srlih 14 lI9P.l I Che~nlialcharacienirkcr of twenty four ~vlllrais ol Lobull lypc 01 ~hbckpelprawn !n Ohidan LL~Y~IICRelearch 4 14-18 4 Smph 1'. Janlhim~rhrn R 11981 I R~lationrhrpbctuccn nanpiurcln nlrrirprn and loml nlttoern ~n L~IC~PCS(OCC~ onrrlnun 1 ) wed J Aert ruud rhcm 29 423- 424 5 Slnyh L, liunlnt 1. Gouda CLL 119R2I The prorctn content uf vhtckpn iOccr #nrItnum L lsraitertrd hy anvlr
I7 Kolnov G. Rsdkn P. Kolrrova M 119761 Currelatkan brtuern romc te~l~nolopeal gu811tte, and 'ulour of chlckpca medr Rartcntrv dnl Nouk~18ulgnrlaI I3 15--211 I8 Jambunarhan R. Slnph 1' 119811 Studlrr on drn and kabul! F~IC~~CPtO(t,r rnermun, L I cultlvan 3 Mtncral and trace element calnpo,ltlon. 1 Apt, 1 ood Chem 29 1091-1093 19. Sanku Rao DS. DWSthslt (19811 Mlncral comporltlon ot four Indurn loud legumu 1 I ood Sn 46 1962- 1963 20 Cowan IW. I.rfahsnl M. Snbl JP. Nahapctirn A 11967) Nutritlvr value ol tnlddlc castern foodr Ill. Phyr~olop~ialavallabllt) ut lron ~n rrlel'trd luodr iomnton to the mlddir earl J Sa l'ood Apc 18 227-231 21 I.AO WHO. hcrg) and prolrln raqulrcmen!$ tI97J) Report ol a~ainlI 40,W110 Adllnc Lrprrt Cumnllltce. 1973. p 63 22 Boullrr 11. Lvon, IM. Aurklsnd AK (1977) lllr ailllnr, mid conipoulcnn of seed m~alrof a range of ncpr anrnnum lch~~kpraltyprr Hull I rr. SCI Rlyud Llnn 8 1-6 23 Khan MA. lauohren I. i$gum HO 11979) I*uir~tlucbali~r ot bomr ~mprovedvarlcllrr of iupumer J Scj I ood Aprl30 395 4011 24 Sinph ti. Rslu SM. Iambunsthan H t19Rll Studlcr on dcil nnd kahvli rh>rkpea IClrrr arrcrrnvm L I cult~var\ I1 Scrd prulrtn tracrlunr and am~nnac~d ro~npu- urwn 1 Iood Sc! 6 Technil1 I8 86 88 25 Ash"! SS. Clark Ill. Muon Wtl. Malzer JL 11973) Nltmgcn adult hunlan ~ubtertr who con~unlcd*heat and rlcc supplentmt~dwtth chlrkpca. serasc, milk or whey Am 1 Clln hutr 26 1195- 12i11 26. Luptr YI', hnpoar AC 1198(11 Chemlcal rvaluatlon nt pristcln qu*ltt) of virrnm gram leeulnr$, lnd~anJ Agrl Scl 511 393- 398 27 Ch~ndrirekhuappaG 119791 Nurrmunol quirl~t)elf !he prntctnb of blrnd* ofwheul and ilcc wlth ben~alpram.redpram or black gram Nutr Kcp Int 19 401 410 28 Hennrlr KI 119771 The \!ud> md cbalualton ul pruleln from ihickpca IOrcr anrfrnum L ) DISSIAbs In, H 37 331 29 Mathur KS. Sharma KU Xnnl N 11968) Chromalopr~phlrBmlnlr acid p~ttcrnsut rar8ou.l protein trallon%uf hengal gram IClcrr orrrrmum L I and horse hran il'fca faha L I flours lndlan J hlcd Rci 56 863 30 bmlh Ll. Jambunathan R 11982) I>lrtrthuren of ued prolein Irililiun, and snllno acid, ~n different rnnlomlisl parts of 'hlckpca laccr oneltnum L)and p~pconpea ICqoilnur colon L.1 Ousl Plant Plant Id Hun) hut 31 347-354 31. Hallrb AH. Kharchadourlan HA, Jahr 1119741 The nutralvcvllur and orginoleprli propertho ol xhltc afnblc bread rupplrnienicd v~rhroyboan and chi~kpea.Cercal Chcm51 106-112 32 Angel AH. kl Sotcla A 119781 Nutrltiunal rvalvatlon of c~t~at.I~p~nlcmlxlur~s urmg normal and prnrt~callylmprovsd cereals and chiakpcn Int Con8 lood SCI& le~hnol-Ahrtr~ctr.p 285 33 (;upla HO. Lodha ML. Mehta SL. Ri8tuyl UK, Joglder Slngh 11979) I.tfect 01 ammo acld and pulr rupplcmentatlon on nutrltlonal quallty of normal and mod> fled opsquc.2 malrr (Zeo mavr L.). J Agrl I rrodChcm 27 787-790 34. Mnkhudor A 11980) Increasing the nulrbt~onal value of qsllonnl brcada ut tho central orlan rcpubllcr Voprnsy Pllanlyl IUSSRI 6 64-66 35 Deep D, Bqaj S, Bhat CM (1978) The effectsol waktng, rptuutlng md cooklngon the protern qusI11y of two pulaer 1 Rcr Punjab Agn Cni IS 446-450 36, Jnyn N.Krlrhnamvrthy US, Vcnkatanrnan LV 119751 Fffcct ofgcrmlnatlon end ~~oklnpon the protetn sfflclrncy iatla of lome legumes Nutr Rep Int 12 175- I83 37. CFervanr P. 7heaphPur ). (1980) llfcct of home proccrlinr on nutrlcnt campo. ntaon of rrrtam high yrclding lcgume varirtier Indun I Nutr Dlct 17 443-446 38 Shcmcr M, Perbna EG (1975) Dcgrsdation of mclhlonlnc ~n hcstcd soybean pioteln md the fomstzon of 8-mcthyl meruptoprop~unaldchyde.I Agrl 1 ood Chcm 23:201-205 39. Raa M (1973) In viuo~vdabrlltyofervntisl mtnosndsandthe protein cflinency ratio of cooked ace? arierlnum. Dlrs Abrtr In: B 31.4369 40. RIo GR 11974) Effcct of heat on the proamr of groundnut md bengsl p.m. lndnn J Null he1 ll 268-312 of raw. roarlcd and autocbvcd lepumc' svpplcmrntrd vlth sulphur contmnmg amino acidr lndlan INulr & D,rt 18.281--288 Yowral)a Murty 5. Ksnrhara) Urc M 119801 Effect of roarltnp benpal pram IClcer ori~rznumL i on lyrtne ava~lib~l~lyand m vltro dipert~bll~!>of protrlnr 1 rood 30 -& 'leihnol.. . .17 -~2011-201 - Ki>u.lrl)a Mutt) 5. kinihars) I r6 M 11979)Chan~rr~n~nplpramIC~crr0n~fmum L 1 Ihpld. durlng heat prorcbslnp J I vod Scl & Tcchnut 11 87- 89 Vcnkelarrman I\', lay8 TV. Yrlrhnamurty KS 11916) 111rcl af gcrmlnathon inn tllr h~oluv,ial value dlrcrllhdttv ioefl~c!ent and net rrrorcln uitluat6on uf ronlc lepunlr pr'olctnr hulr Rip In, lj197-205 Irbe TV. Vcnkatirrmrn LV II9RII lnflurncr of ecrmlnatton on thu'iiboh,dralc (I!geslcb~l~oiln v!lfuj Allso S. ~~eivdn'lY 1I9811 An r,srs,mcnl ur the prorcln qualll). and bltamln 1% ionlrnl ol iomntc>nlr tmrd trrnmlcd produitr ol lcyumr, and millct~J St8 Iood Apn 32 137- 842 Zunluru Al. I ~rldbMI 119791 Nutr8llve qual~tbof lbimcntud cuupca, ll'trno nno?rrrland ~brckpra. lOrrr anrirnunl L 1 J Iood Su 44 234-?3b Zanlorv At. 11cldr ML. (19791 Mictobloioplcrl md loxlcolo~lcilrvalultlon ill Iermcntrd cmpr ll'knr mnrnnri and chekpmr (CYecrarirrlnum L i.J Foud Scl dd.OlP "I10 -7 ,.,, ,., (;allidrdo I.Arr?u 11. Flk N. loele MA 119'4,7n\ii factor, tn chllcun Irgumc, 11 Iryprln ~nlilbili~~nirlilly Arth latn dl Nulr 24 I81 189 Pdk N. H~rja1 119741 (cu,nparlllon, content of toxii suhslani~r.prolcln quallt) dnd prulcln value uf prcmpear, chlikpmr 2nd Icnt~l$grou'n I" Chllc (~cnilac lnvsrilyilclon Aprar!~I 1115 11 1 Smelt I.Jurnhunr*ll,n Kl1981~Slud~rr0nderiandkabuhchlrkper lC>crronertrtum L ) cultivars Level$ 01 protcasc ~nhlbltori.levelr of polyphenol~crompaunds and ~n vllro prillem d\prrl!hdllj J I clod SCI 46 1364- 1367 Sulrlrllil S. Paltub#rrii>rntY 119761 Nzlural plan! cnz)mc lnlub~torr Pdrt 11 Pruteau tnhsbltar oludr. lndvn J Blochen>Blophsr 13 52-56 Zsmom A1 ,19791 Nutr8tninal cvvlulllon 01 lrrmenrsd cuvpenr lI',flu nne!lro) and chtckpra, IOcrronrr~numL I lhri Ahr Int B 1979 39.4 K8kad1 ML Arnclld KL. Ltencr It. 4ixbd PI 119641 l~nn\ailib~lil~of cyrtlnr lrum 1r)pun tnhlbltorr as a factor cunlrlbut~ngto the pour nvtrltlvc ralue of Inany hcanr 1 Nulr 99 34-42 Llenrr IF 119761 A revw Leyumc !o\lnr m rrlallan lo prolctn d~pe,r!b'illlles J IoodSc1411117b-1081 Jdfc WC (1973) Amylrae~nhlb~torrin kgvrne seeds. Nuu RrpInt 7'169-174 Srch t Kherdck~rMS. Jambunarhan R 11982) Studsr on den and Labull i'hlck- u::hn!lacx and 10n:rr s!ucn a~cl..5~ll!) I I maSrl 47 511 - 512 11)1 W,h,u HS. \clkararaman L! .19'9. rilcct olgtrmaw!ra ,eyLncl>n Inr rote of m muo s.3 pdu.wn b) domldlum wtnngcn$ lr~uRep Lnl 2C 39i- -".*A! Rso PU. Bclandy B (1978) Olipomccharider m pulse,. Var!ctal d8ffewnres and effects ufcooklnp mdyermmatlon. J Agu Iood Chcm 26.316-319 Aman P (1979) Cubohydratu m nv and prmhatcd vrdr from mung bean and chlckpn. l Set 1 ood bii 30 869-87s lyvlpr AK. Kulbrni PR 09771 Ollp~~~hUldckxb of PTOECIUC~ Iqumer. J read Scl Tcahnol 14.212-223 35 1 Ra~slskshrnlR. Vnmls L (19671 Chrrnlcal and btolagtui cvalulrlan af thr eltcctr of fcrrn~ntatlonon Lhc nutrlliuc \slue of foods prcpartd from rtce and gram Brlf I kulr 21 467.413 Stngh U. lsrnbunathan R (1982) Chanprx in starch, ol~goenrcharldrr 2nd soluble rugus m dcvclopmp pod wall and wed of chickpea Phytochcn?lrtry 21 297 299 Pr~ceML. Haperman AE. Butler LC 0980) Tanntn ionlrnl of ruwpras chlckpesi. psgcon pear and rnunp beans J Aprl toad Chern 28 459-461 Slngh U (19841 The lnhlblt~onof dlpcltlvc cnzymcl h! polyphcnolr of rhlrkpcn lacerrnennum L land plpronpca tColonur coj#i! L 1 Nurr Rep In! 29.745- 753 Conrrcrar S. Tapit MA 11974) Tovc Iactilrs ~n chtlcan lcpun~cs ill licnlayplutln- rtinp rcllb~ts.Arch Lrrm dc Nuti 24 191199 Llencr 11 119771 Prolearc lnhlbltorr and lerrlnr In Nrllhetpcr A. Jukrl TI1 lcd\) Alorhcmarr) of nufrlt!un. Voi 27, pp 97 122 Hoffrbrn A. Lrrrrlo P. Rlccl V 11979) UEC01 thc b~lalt~)l>~~thod l~lranafyx~b 01 myco!uxm% In vailour ~rrodutlsol plant orcyln Rlilrta Dells Socxcla. llahsna DI Silenzs lXlla Ailncntszlnne I8 299-302 Nshd~S. husr~th\I. Batoal 11. N~pan>aotV (1982) Atlata\ln HI coiltlili,natbon and rccd nl)iohra uf pis!" !Clcrr#ricrirlum L I dutlny rtorapr lndlan J Hut 1982, 5 196 I)nr PP (;~nla IS 11980i A note on thr mvaonora auorlated will lied$ 01 nlam durlnp rtoraec Seed Rcrcairh 8 83-84 rhllre R(;. Ikcm DB. Rnui VS I19551 lhecffrut of StOrsgE on tlllaslnc, rtboflavin 2nd n8itonli arld m rrrealiand nuiso lndlan J Ycd Re1 13 585- 589 Arya SS 119811 1 lfccl of u,alcr a'flrlty on rlorrgr chanpsr ~n total uurolsno~dr and llpcdr tn hrngal ptam IClcrrorirttnum L.1 dhal and now 1 Ioild Sri d T~rhnol 18 139-142 Xadncrka! IIH, haunralr PI', Pawrr \M 11918) Sludter on prelcrencr of pulrc hectic IColiosuhruihus macuiiltur @hi lo rclnic rarlrrrlel nl arhar and gram Ruli Creln Tcchnol 16 122- 124 Dane1 VA. R~anP. Sqneevrngrppa KV, Srxnxvaran KS, Swaminathan M (19771 I llrci of ~nvc!mtrrlauon on iht rhctnlral conlponl!un and rhr prhlleln rfl~c>cncy ratlo of !he protclns of bcnpalpram and rcd pram lndlan J Nutr Ulrt 14 70 73 Shchnw A. Thenphllul 1 119751 lffcrt of ~nwcllnfEltatlon on Ihc chrnncai mrnpomtlon md nuir~live\rluc of bengal gram and field l~mIDolleur bhblel. IIaod SiaTecltnol 12 299- 102 Vallidcv~A. Ranlznvjim MN. Rao NAN, Ulh H 11972) Lffrct of pruLclrlnp and btora#c on thr thvamlnr rihallawnc and nlcoflnlr acld contents of four varlatlel -. lndlsn p.lr$ Inldan 1 \.:r !hr~'r Z3b 341 P.ICII P.ICII llAB ,lJ'? I I.Jloll>O p: slrrn, in '.UJ hs.n:c, Ir \.'rl'. n.. fri.il,c 111~' ~n looc Ik#.rnc 0% otrrl~o( PC:Cjm Y4b I A0 1-5 I., Klmc 1111, ,.- _".7. \anna. 2. Zti!lrirmnnn L l3'l. In!l.rn'e 71 . mnirrlrd it.,ladr ,' wn: .lip.e !vod$ on !he.: p!.!rs nu:r.t.w sr..e m lrrlnr l~c~lcad rth I1 P.dtr.n n.'r>l $r ..IYcand antllr,oll. sahlt, JI It.bbcan ma :n :Local J I c~aS;l 1c;mc '