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3985 Journal of Applied Sciences Research, 9(6): 3985-3991, 2013 ISSN 1819-544X This is a refereed journal and all articles are professionally screened and reviewed

ORIGINAL ARTICLES

Effect of Substitution of Wheat with Flour on Some Properties of Weaning Food Formula

1Afaf O. Ali, 2M. Abd El-Aziz, 2Jihan M. Kassem and 1Zeinab M. Abd El-Ghany

1Regional Center for Food & Feed, Research Center, Giza, Egypt. 2Dairy Department, National Research Center, Dokki, Giza, Egypt.

ABSTRACT

Effect of substitution of wheat flour with taro flour on some properties of weaning food was evaluated. Wheat flour was substituted with taro flour at rate of 30.0, 70.0 and 100.0%. Another sample had no taro flour, serve as a control. The results showed that substitution of wheat flour with taro flour slightly decreased , and contents, while increased calcium, potassium and fiber content of weaning food formula. The increasing in calcium content and decreasing in phosphorus content can be increased the Ca:P ratio as mentioned by Sun Coast Gliders (SCSG) in weaning food (> 1.0). Substitution of wheat flour with taro flour improved some amino acids content, especially aspartic and tyrosine and reduced others especially glutamic and proline content in weaning food. On the other hand, substitution of wheat flour with taro flour had adverse effect on oxalic acid content, but could be increased the content and water holding capacity of weaning food.

Key words: Weaning food, taro flour, wheat flour, casein, whey protein concentrate (WPC), chick pear.

Introduction

Food industry aims at the development of new products towards functional food and ingredients with regard to the consumer’s demands on healthy nutrition. Functional foods are eatables; provide also a health benefit to the consumer. Alternative of functional foods is cereals due to their wide accessibility (Havrlentova et al., 2011). Nutritionally, there are two biological revolutions in life; the first one is the change from the intra-uterine nutrition to breastfeeding at birth. The second is the weaning to other foods other than milk (Mosha and Lorri, 1987). The weaning period mean the period which an infant becomes accustomed to foods other than milk. This period covers the time between six months to about two and a half years of age (Ikpeme-Emmanuel et al., 2009). In developing countries commercial weaning foods are very expensive and out of reach of low-income families. This may pose a risk to the life of children as they may be susceptible to malnutrition. However, the formulation and development of nutritious weaning foods from local and readily available crops has received a lot of attention, stimulating interest, in the use of notably , groundnuts and cowpeas in supplementation with cereals/starchy root tubers (Ikpeme-Emmanuel et al., 2009). Milk is a complex biological fluid with high amount of , lipid and minerals. The function of milk is to supply nutrients such as essential amino acids required for the growth of the newborn (Phadungath, 2005). Casein is a complete protein and also contains the minerals calcium and phosphorous (Hoffman and Falvo, 2004). Whey protein has the potential to increase muscle mass, which may be beneficial for a healthy body composition in children (Hoppe et al., 2008). Whey proteins are also rich in the sulfur containing amino acids cysteine and . With a high concentration of these amino acids, immune function is enhanced through intracellular conversion to glutathione (Marshall, 2004). Infant receiving a formula with a casein/whey protein ratio of 40/60 showed significantly greater weight gain and growth in head circumference, the blood urea concentrations were lower, and constipation was less frequent than in the infants given a casein-predominant formula (Lingjie et al., 2008). Taro (Colocasia esculenta) and Tania (Xanthosoma sagittifolium) are widely cultivated in Africa (Nwanekezi et al., 2010), where they represent the third most important root crop after yam and cassava (Obomegheive et al., 1998). Taro can also be stored for a longer time than all other root crops, without much change in quality and taste (Darkwa and Darkwa, 2013). Taro is rich in , fiber and is a fair source of oils and . Also, it has the highest source of phosphorus, and (Kebly, 2012). Essential contents of taro corm proteins were fairly similar to the (FAO) reference pattern, though in low histidine and . It is fairly rich in carotene, ascorbic acid, , riboflavin and nicotinic acid. Taro has

Corresponding Author: Afaf O. Ali, Regional Center for Food & Feed, Agriculture Research Center, Giza, Egypt. E-mail: [email protected] 3986 J. Appl. Sci. Res., 9(6): 3985-3991, 2013 been reported to have 70-80 % with granules of small size. The small size granules make taro highly digestible. Given these characteristics, taro flour has much potential for use in food formulation especially in infant foods (Sanful, 2011). Taro foods are useful to persons allergic to cereals and can be consumed by infants/children who are sensitive to milk. Studies conducted in Asia in have reported that babies who were fed Poi-a type of baby food prepared from taro were found to suffer less from health conditions such as diarrhea, pneumonia, enteritis and beriberi than babies fed with rice and bread (Darkwa and Darkwa, 2013). Furthermore, taro products found in most large supermarkets around the world included taro chips, taro bread, vegetable taro burger and baby food due to its high digestibility (Linden, 1996). Ali and Nail (2012) found that substitution of wheat flour with taro flour in weaning food had no significant effect on plasma IgA. Since food is part of a people’s culture and thus changes in cultural practices regarding food preparation and consumption patterns can easily alter research results, it is important to iterate that recent trends in people working for long hours and having less available time to cook has led to increases in the consumption of processed foods such as taro products listed earlier. Therefore, the aim of this study was evaluate the effect of substitution of wheat flour with taro flour on some properties of weaning food formula.

Materials and Methods

Raw materials:

Wheat seeds (Tritcum Vulgare); fresh corms of taro (Colocasia esculenta), and chickpea ( arietinum), were obtained from local market in Giza, Egypt. Casein and whey protein concentrated were obtained from Agri. Mark, USA. Wheat seeds were washed with tap water, and then dried at 60°C overnight. The dried wheat has been grind and then sieved into fine flour particles using a mesh screen sieve of 500 microns size to obtain wheat flour (Satter et al., 1989). Taro flour was prepared by peeling and slicing the corms and cornels, then washing the slices thoroughly in portable tap water in order to remove as much mucilaginous material as possible. The slices were then dried to a brittle texture in a convention oven at 60°C for 24 hrs. Dried slices were milled into flour using an attrition machine, using a mesh screen sieve of 500 microns size to obtain taro flour (Ikpeme- Emmanuel, et al., 2009). Dried raw chickpea seeds were soaked at room temperature for 8 hrs. The soaking water was drained off and the seeds were rinsed three times, then cooked in boiling tap water for 35 min and cooled with tap water. The seeds were hulled, and dried at 60°C for 12 hrs (Satter et al., 1989). The average chemical composition of raw materials is presented in Table 1.

Table 1: Average chemical composition of raw materials used in weaning food formula. Items Raw materials (%) Wheat flour Taro flour Chickpea flour Casein WPC Moisture 10.14 10.2 9.072 8.84 6.74 Total protein 13.4 9.42 20.6 87.73 70.2 Fat 2.05 0.58 7.0 0.15 0.62 72.56 72.57 59.46 - 6.90 Crude Fiber 0.98 2.81 1.69 0.46 0.20 Ash 0.87 4.42 2.17 1.65 2.99 WPC, whey protein concentrate

Preparation of wheat-taro weaning food:

Prepared taro flour was mixed with wheat and chickpea , casein, and whey protein concentrate as shown in Table (2). Wheat flour was substituted with taro flour at rate of 30.0, 70.0 and 100.0%. Another sample had no taro flour serve as a control.

Table 2: Formula of wheat-taro weaning food formula. Weaning formula Wheat Taro Chickpea Casein WPC ------(%) ------Control (C) 50.0 - 40.0 4.0 6.0 Treatment (A) 35.0 15.0 40.0 4.0 6.0 Treatment (B) 15.0 35.0 40.0 4.0 6.0 Treatment (C) - 50.0 40.0 4.0 6.0 WPC, Whey Protein Concentrate

Methods:

Total protein, crude fiber and ash contents of raw materials and weaning food were determined according AOAC (2007). The protein content was obtained by multiplying the percentage of TN by 6.38 for casein and 3987 J. Appl. Sci. Res., 9(6): 3985-3991, 2013

WPC, and 6.25 for wheat, taro and chickpea flour. Fat content was determined by ANKON Technology Method according to AOSC (2004). The method described by Dubois et al. (1956) was used for the total carbohydrate contents analysis. Minerals content were determined by Microwave Digestion Lab. Station, ICP technique optima 2000DV according to AOAC (2007). Amino acids determination was performed according to AOAC (2007) using amino acid analyzer exchange resin with ninhydrin post-column derviatization Biochrom, 30. Oxalate level was estimated by the method of Dye (1956). Oxalic acid was extracted from weaning food formula and precipitated as calcium salt, then dissolved in hot 25% sulphuric acid. The concentration of oxalates in the solution was determined by titration with KMnO4. Phytates acid was determined by the method described by Wheeler and Ferrel (1971). Total bacterial counts (TBC) were estimated on glucose yeast extract nutrient agar medium using pouring plate technique. Plates were counted after incubation at 37°C for 24 hrs. Water holding capacity (WHC): The samples (50 g) were dispersed in 100 ml of hot distilled water using a magnetic stirrer and cooled to room temperature (25 ±2°C). WHC was measured as the percentage of water recovered after centrifugation (Sigma Laborzentri Fugen, 2 K15, Germany) at 1190 xg for 20 min as described by Aguilera and Kessler (1989).

Results and Discussion

Chemical composition:

Table (1) show the average of chemical composition of raw materials used in weaning food formula. It is clear that protein content of wheat flour was higher than that of taro flour, therefore substitution of wheat flour with taro flour would slightly decrease the protein content of weaning food; the decrease was proportional to the substitution level. The same trend was observed in fat content; fat content of wheat-taro weaning food decrease with increasing of taro flour in weaning food as shown in table (3). These results were expected and compatible with the EOSQ (2005). Inversely, substitution of wheat flour with taro flour caused gradual increased in total ash and crude fiber contents (as other important ingredients) of wheat-taro weaning food. In particular, total ash and crude fiber of wheat-taro weaning food increased from 1.0 to 3.91% and 1.11 to 2.12%, respectively. These observations could be attributed to taro flour which had higher content of ash and crude fiber than those of wheat flour (Table 1). A similar observation was found by Eva (1983). Ammar et al. (2009) found that the increase of the taro flour level in bread decreased the crude protein while, ash, total carbohydrates and fiber contents increased. Crude fiber has useful role in providing roughage that aids digestion. Fiber depleted diets cause pathological effects which manifest in the gastro-intestinal tracts as well as other anatomical structures such as the arteries, lower limb veins and gall bladder, suggesting therefore that there is need for minimum obtainable level of fiber in diets (Umoh et al., 1984)

Table 3: Effect of substitution of wheat flour with taro flour on chemical composition of weaning food. Samples Moisture Protein Crude fiber Fat Ash Carbohydrates ------(%) ------Control 10.06 22.85 1.32 3.36 1.34 71.1 A 10.07 22.15 1.44 3.08 1.86b 66.6 B 10.99 20.75 1.64 2.84 2.27 68.7 C 9.637 19.45 2.11 2.30 3.52 68.6 A, weaning food containing 35 % wheat flour and 15% taro flour; B, weaning food containing 15% wheat flour and 35% taro flour; C, weaning food containing 0.0% wheat flour and 50% taro flour.

Minerals contents:

Table (4) presents the minerals contents of wheat and wheat-taro weaning foods. Compared to wheat weaning food (control formula); calcium and potassium contents of wheat-taro weaning food gradually increase with increasing the level of taro flour in weaning food, this may be due to the increasing of calcium in taro flour. Also, potassium is the major in most roots crops while sodium tends to be low. Thus makes some root crops particularly valuable in the diets of patients with high blood pressure who have to restrict their sodium intake (Meneely and Battarble, 1976). Inversely, phosphorus and content gradually decrease with increasing the level of taro flour in weaning food. In particular, total phosphorus and iron content decreased from 290 and 6.7 mg/100g in control weaning food to 240 and 4.1 mg/100g in taro weaning food, respectively. However, slight decrease was observed in zinc content with substitution of wheat flour with taro flour. The EOSQ (2005) and National Research Council (1989) recommended that beyond the age of 6 months infants should be receive 5 mg/day of zinc. SCSG (2007) reported that a good menu should have a Ca: P ratio over 1. Foods high in phosphorus and low in calcium tend to make the body over acid deplete it of calcium and other minerals and increase the tendency towards inflammations (Appiah et al., 2011). In order to avoid these 3988 J. Appl. Sci. Res., 9(6): 3985-3991, 2013 problems, these flours need to supplementation with calcium and zinc to prevent mineral and osmotic imbalance.

Table 4: Effect of substitution of wheat flour with taro flour on mineral contents of weaning food formula. Minerals content (mg/100g) Samples Ca P Ca/P ratio K Zn Fe+2 Control 131 290 0.45 535 2.07 6.7 A 140 280 0.50 807.9 2.04 5.7 B 180 250 0.72 1088 2.02 5.1 C 212 240 0.88 1554 1.91 4.1 A, weaning food containing 35 % wheat flour and 15% taro flour; B, weaning food containing 15% wheat flour and 35% taro flour; C, weaning food containing 0.0% wheat flour and 50% taro flour; Ca, calcium; P, phosphorus; K, potassium; Zn, zinc; Fe, ferrous

Amino acid contents:

As shown in Table (5), aspartic acid (ASP) and tyrosine (TYR) were higher, while glutamic acid (GLU) and proline (PRO) were lower in taro flour than in wheat flour. Therefore, substitution of wheat flour with taro flour decreased both (GLU) and (PRO) contents, while increased both (ASP) and (TYR) in weaning food. However, other amino acids of taro flour were almost similar to the wheat flour. Hence, substitution of wheat flour with taro flour had no major effect on amino acid contents in weaning food. Concerning sulphur amino acids, we notice that substitution of wheat flour with taro flour slightly decreased both methionine and cysteine content compared with wheat weaning food.

Oxalates and phytates content:

Consumption of high levels of oxalates causes corrosive gastroenteritis, shock convulsive symptoms, low plasma calcium, high plasma oxalates and renal damage (Kelsay, 1985). Aletor & Omodara (1994) and Eka & Osagie, 1998) reported that high levels of phytates in human nutrition are toxic and limit the bioavailability of calcium, magnesium, iron and phosphorus by the formation of insoluble compounds or salts with the minerals. These minerals are indispensable to the child as they play important roles in the long term effects of growth, bone and tissue development in infants (Nelson and Cox, 2000). Oxalates and phytates as anti-nutritional contents of wheat-taro weaning food are presented in Table (6). It appears that, oxalates were not found in wheat weaning food (control treatment). When wheat flour substituted with taro flour, oxalates have been appeared; the oxalates content in weaning food were proportional to the taro flour level. A similar result was found in taro- and based weaning food by Ikpeme-Emmanuel et al. (2009). However, the level of oxalates in the wheat-taro weaning food was within the safe limit as to warrant any harmful effect to an infant. Inversely to oxalates, wheat weaning food had higher oxalates than wheat/taro weaning food. This means that, substitution of wheat flour with taro flour decrease phytates content in weaning food (positively affected on phytates content).

Table 5: Effect of substitution of wheat flour with taro flour on amino acids contents of weaning food. Amino acids Flour (mg/100g) Weaning food formula (mg/100g) Wheat Taro A B C Control ASP 0.56 1.02 1.23 1.72 1.88 1.94 THR 0.27 0.31 0.56 0.73 0.74 0.86 SER 0.37 0.39 0.61 0.80 0.83 0.90 GLU 2.90 0.90 2.86 2.82 2.71 2.71 PRO 0.99 0.30 1.00 0.98 0.93 0.89 GLY 0.45 0.39 0.63 0.56 0.58 0.48 ALA 0.39 0.3 7 0.83 0.73 0.69 0.57 VAL 0.87 0.74 1.9 1.52 1.48 1.25 ISO 0.34 0.27 0.98 0.78 0.74 0.60 LEU 0.68 0.64 1.8 1.45 1.38 1.10 TYR 0.38 0.60 0.5 0.68 0.75 0.91 PHE 0.68 0.56 1.18 1.12 0.98 0.8 HIS 0.28 0.18 0.59 0.44 0.43 0.35 LYS 0.31 0.42 0.78 1.33 1.08 1.04 ARG 0.52 0.52 0.73 1.00 0.95 0.98 CYS 0.24 0.18 0.38 0.35 0.27 0.26 MET 0.12 0.07 0.32 0.22 0.20 0.17 A, weaning food containing 35 % wheat flour and 15% taro flour; B, weaning food containing 15% wheat flour and 35% taro flour; C, weaning food containing 0.0% wheat flour and 50% taro flour.

3989 J. Appl. Sci. Res., 9(6): 3985-3991, 2013

Table 6: Effect of substitution of wheat flour with taro flour on oxalates and phytates content of weaning food formula. Sample Oxalates (%) Phytates (%) Control - 0.521 A 0.145 0.478 B 0.290 0.470 C 0.430 0.463 A, weaning food containing 35% wheat flour and 15% taro flour; B, weaning food containing 15% wheat flour and 35% taro flour; C, weaning food containing 0.0% wheat flour and 50% taro flour

Total bacterial count:

The total bacterial count (TBC) of weaning food formula as affected by substitution of wheat flour with taro flour is presented in Fig (1). In general, weaning food formula containing taro flour had higher TBC than control formula, the differences were more pronounced in weaning formula containing 50.0% taro flour (4.16 Log10 cfu/gm) compared with control formula (3.29 cfu/gm). The TBC was similar in both weaning food formula containing 15.0 (3.95 Log10 cfu/gm) and 35.0% (3.72 Log10 cfu/gm). A similar observation was found by (Ahmed et al., 2008). The TBC of control, A and B formula was compatible with limit recommended by compatible with the EOSQ (2005).

5

4

3 gm /

cfu 2 10 Log 1

0 Control A B C Samples

Fig. 1: Effect of substitution of wheat flour with taro flour on total bacterial count of weaning food (A, weaning food containing 35 % wheat flour and 15% taro flour; B, weaning food containing 15% wheat flour and 35% taro flour; C, weaning food containing 0.0% wheat flour and 50% taro flour).

Water holding capacity:

Water holding capacity (WHC) is an important parameter which has implications for viscosity. Substitution of wheat flour with taro flour on the WHC of the weaning food is shown in Fig (2). In general, taro flour has higher WHC than wheat flour. Therefore, substitution of wheat flour with taro flour increased WHC of weaning food; the increasing was proportional with the substitution level. The ability of food materials to absorb water could be attributed to their protein (Kinsella et al., 1976) and starch contents. The Farinograph results showed that the increase of substitution level of taro flour increase the water absorption and dough weakening but decrease the mixing time and dough stability (Ammar et al., 2009).

3990 J. Appl. Sci. Res., 9(6): 3985-3991, 2013

56

48

40 ) 32 100 gm / 24 ml ( 16 WHC 8

0 Control A B C Samples

Fig. 2: Effect of substitution of wheat flour with taro flour on water holding capacity (WHC) of weaning food (A, weaning food containing 35 % wheat flour and 15% taro flour; B, weaning food containing 15% wheat flour and 35% taro flour; C, weaning food containing 0.0% wheat flour and 50% taro flour)

Conclusion:

Substitution of wheat flour with tara flour increased Ca/p ratio, and improved some aminoacids as well as phytic acid content in weaning food.Also,substitution of wheat flour with taro enhances water absorption,but decreasing the mixing time.

References

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