DESCRIPTIVE LINGUISTICS
KUN CHANG
.Since 1949 there has been a remarkable increase in linguistic activity on the mainland. Before 1949 the linguistic section of the Institute of History and Philology of Aca- demia Sinica had eight people working on Chinese and other national languages. Now the Academy of Sciences has a full-fledged and well-staffed Institute of Lin- guistics for general and Chinese linguistics, and a separate institute for the other national languages. Most universities have introduced linguistic curricula and established linguistic research centers. There have been conferences and debates on linguistics, with many participants. Under the auspices of local governments and with the participation of institutions of higher education linguistic surveys have been conducted throughout the country. Several journals on language study and learning have been founded. More than fifty works on Chinese grammar have been published. Perhaps these undertakings have been overambitious; in any case, the results are rarely impressive. Chinese scholars have done almost no original work on descriptive linguistic theory. The theories they subscribe to can only be inferred from their linguistic descriptions. Mainland emphasis in linguistics is on practical applications. The aim of phonemic analysis is an economical alphabet. A definition of a word is sought in order to determine when there should be a space between two forms in alphabetic writing. Dialectologists establish correspondences between the standard language and other dialects to make standard-language learning more efficient. Three groups have been prominent among recent mainland linguists: (1) those active as linguists before 1949, e.g. Lo Ch'ang-p'ei (1899-1958), Lii Shu-hsiang, Wang Li, Li Chin-hsi, Lu Chih-wei,Kao Ming-k'ai (1913-1965), Ting Sheng-shu, Ts'en Ch'i-hsiang, and Yüan Chia-hua; (2) World War II students of these linguists, who are themselves now members of the Institute of Linguistics and professors of lin- guistics in the universities, e.g. Chu Te-hsi, Fu Mao-chi, Hsing Kung-wan, Li Jung, Lin T'ao, Ma Chung, Ma Hsüeh-liang, and Yü Min; and (3) the Latinizers, such as Ts'ao Po-han (1897-1959) and Lin Han-ta. This third group, termed "rebels" by the Nationalist Party since they favored a romanization which originated in the Soviet Union, after 1949 joined the traditional linguists in developing alphabetic systems for the languages of China. In addition to these three groups, there are many new names, presumably those of. the younger generation of linguists. 60 KUN CHANG Since the other Chinese dialects and other national languages of China are treated in separate articles in this volume, I shall restrict my discussion to mainland work on Mandarin. The following chronological chart supplements this discussion. In it I list, for each year from 1950 to 1963, the significant publications (including translations of Russian linguistic works), conferences, and contacts with the outside world - e.g. the visits abroad and the foreign visitors - which influenced the devel- opment of linguistics in China.
CHRONOLOGY
1950 June — The Academy of Sciences in Peking establishes the Institute of Linguistics. July 11 — Jen-min jih-pao (The people's daily, hereafter, JMJP) publishes a Chinese translation of Stalin's "On Marxism in linguistics".1 July 31 — JMJP publishes a Chinese translation of Stalin's "On several problems of linguistics". October — The Chinese translation of Stalin's two articles on linguistics is pub- lished as a monograph. November 2 — The Institute of Linguistics and Peking University sponsor a joint conference on Stalin's views on linguistics. December 9 — Lo Ch'ang-p'ei presents a paper, "The relationship,between Stalin's views on linguistics and linguistic studies in China", at a conference of the Institute of Linguistics. 1951 February 11 — The Institute of Linguistics holds a conference on grammatical problems. March — Lu Chih-wei publishes the revised edition of his monograph, Pei-ching-hua tan-yin-tz'u tz'u-hui (Monosyllabic words in the Peking dialect). June 6 — JMJP publishes an editorial, "The proper use of our national language and the struggle for the purity and health of our language". JMJP begins publishing Lii Shu-hsiang and Chu Te-hsi's Yii-fa hsiu-tz,u chiang- hua (Discussions on Chinese grammar and rhetoric). (This publication continued until December 15,1961; the articles were published as a monograph in December, 1952). Reviews: Wang Sung-mao, Chung-kuo yii-wen 40.20-1 (October, 1955); Hsieh Yung-jen, ibid. 45.47-50 (March, 1956). August 15 — Yii-wen chiao-hsiieh, a monthly journal oh language teaching and learning, is founded in Tientsin. October 20 — Yii-wen hsueh-hsi (hereafter, YWHH), a monthly journal on language learning, is founded in Peking.
1 All publications cited in this article are in Chinese; I have translated the titles into English for the convenience of the reader who may not know Chinese. DESCRIPTIVE LINGUISTICS 61 1952 July 20 — Chung-kuo yil-wen (hereafter, CKYW), a monthly journal on the languages of China, is founded in Peking. The grammar section of the Institute of Linguistics publishes the first installment of Yu-fa chiang-hua (Discussions on Chinese grammar) in CKYW (this publication continued until November, 1953; the installments were published, with revisions, as a monograph in 1961). Reviews: Teng Yi, CKYW23.20-2 (May, 1954); Chang Ju-chou, ibid. 25.16-7 (July, 1954); Liu Shih-jung, ibid. 29-8 (November, 1954); Lii Chi-p'ing, ibid. 116.279-84 (June, 1962). September to November — A Chinese translation of the Soviet Sinologist, I. N. Kon- rad's Treatise on the Chinese language appears: CKYW3.26-8; 4.29-32; 5.22-7, 17 (this translation was published as a pamphlet in December, 1956).
1953 January — A Chinese translation of the "Syllabus of the Introduction to linguistics approved by the Ministry of Education in the Soviet Union" appears: CKYW 7.30-2, 5. February to May — Lii Shu-hsiang visits the Soviet Union as a representative of the Academy of Sciences. March 5 — Stalin dies. April — CKYW (10.32-4, 12) publishes a Chinese translation of the "Syllabus of Stalin's fundamental linguistic theories approved by the Ministry of Education in the Soviet Union". May — CKYW (11.30-2, 13) publishes a Chinese translation of P. S. Kuznecov's article on grammar in the Soviet encyclopaedia. September — Li Chin-hsi and Liu Shih-ju publish the first fascicle of their Chung- kuo yu-fa chiao-ts'ai (Teaching materials on Chinese grammar) (this work was completed in August, 1955). October — CKYW begins publishing articles on form classes. (This debate, in which B. G. Mudrov participated, lasted until July, 1955; two monographs con- taining some of these articles were published in 1955 and 1956).
1954 January — CKYW publishes Lo Ch'ang-p'ei's article, "How should linguists render service to their country in accordance with the general governmental policies [ideological orientation, social reform, and industrialization] during this transi- tional period [the first five-year plan]?" Lo asserts that the first task of Chinese linguists is to devise alphabetic systems for the languages of China. To carry out this task they must select a basic dialect, analyze its word structure and syntactic constructions, and study the differences between the standard dialect and other dialects. He urges that linguists work together to develop a standard method of grammatical, analysis, with a standard terminology. 62 KUN CHANG CKYW begins publishing monographs (twenty-six volumes had appeared by June, 1959). CKYW publishes the first installment of Lo Ch'ang-p'ei and Wang Chun's Yii- yin-hsueh ch'ang-shih (General phonetics) (publication continued until May, 1955; in February, 1956, the installments were published, with revisions, as a monograph under the title P'u-t'ung yu-yin-hsiieh kang-yao [Outline of general phonetics]). Reviews: Szu-ching Li, CKYW 44.38-41 (February, 1956); Chun-shan Lao, ibid. 60.44 (June, 1957); P'u-yii, ibid. 105.43-6 (June, 1961). August — Kao Ming-k'ai's, P'u-fung yil-yen-hsileh (General linguistics), Vol. 1, is published (Vol. 2 was published in January, 1955; a revised edition, in one volume, was published in October, 1957). Reviews: Yu Min, CKYW 34.39-40, 23 (April 1955); Wang Tsung-yen, ibid. 50.45-6 (August, 1956); Kuan-ch'iin Liu, ibid. 50.46-7 (August, 1956). October — The Soviet linguist G. P. Serdyuchenko comes to the Institute of Lin- guistics and the Central Institute of Nationalities as a consultant. (Serdyuchenko returned to the Soviet Union in July, 1957). December — CKYW (^>0.1-11) publishes a Chinese translation of Janusz Chmielews- ki's discussion on the syntactic and morphological problems of Chinese. Review: Lu Chih-wei, CKYW 33.22-4 (March, 1955).
1955 January — CKYW begins publishing a Chinese translation of A. A. Dragunov's Studies on modern Chinese grammar (publication continued until September, 1955). March — CKYW (33.17-20) publishes an article by Hu Ming-yang criticizing the capitalistic ideology of contemporary linguists. April 9 — The editorial board of CKYW organizes a conference in Peking to discuss problems in the standardization of the Chinese language: (1) whether the Peking dialect should be used as the basis for the standard language; (2) whether other Chinese dialects should be taken into consideration in developing an alphabetic writing system; (3) how variant pronunciations for the same form could be elim- inated (e.g. wei-hsien, wei-hsien 'to be dangerous'); and (4) how the number of homonyms could be reduced (e.g. ydng-hui, shui-ni 'cement').- Among the more than twenty participants are these linguists: Fu Mao-chi, Kao Ming-k'ai, Lin Han-ta, Lin T'ao, Lu Chih-wei, Lii Shu-hsiang, Ting Sheng-shU, Ts'ao Po-han, Ts'en Ch'i-hsiang, and Yii Min. May 24 — Looking toward the national conference in October, the Institute of Linguistics organizes a preliminary conference to discuss some problems in the standardization of the Chinese language. The more than forty participants rep- resent different professions in Peking: linguists (Lo Ch'ang-p'ei, Lii Shu-hsiang, Ma Hsiieh-liang, and Yu Min), language teachers, writers, performers, translators, and radio announcers. June — A group of Czech linguists visits China. DESCRIPTIVE LINGUISTICS 63 July — YWHH begins publishing articles on subject and object. (This debate was concluded in March, 1956; a monograph containing some of these articles appeared in December, 1956). September — Hu Fu and Wen Lien's, Hsien-tai han-yii yii-fa fan-so (An inves- tigation of modern Chinese grammar), a brief but excellent book, is published. The Rumanian linguist A. Graur visits China. October 25 to 31 — The Division of Philosophy and Social Sciences of the Academy of Sciences organizes a national conference in Peking to discuss the standardization of the Chinese language; Soviet and Polish delegates participate (I. M. Oshanin andN. N. Korotkov; Witold Jablonski and Janusz Chmielewski). There are one hundred and twenty-six participants representing various professions: linguists, language teachers, writers, actors, singers, radio announcers, newspaper reporters, and stenographers. (A brief report on this conference was published in CKYW 41.36-42 [November, 1955], The full proceedings were published in July, 1956). October 30 — The editorial boards of CKYW YWHH play host to the delegates to the October conference. At this time they review the accomplishments of the two journals and discuss their future. October — The French linguist A. D. Haudricourt visits China.
1956 March to September — CKYW begins publishing articles on the definition of a word (it published a monograph containing some articles on this problem in May, 1955). March — The Institute of Linguistics publishes Yii-yen-hsiieh lun-wen hsuan-i (Se- lected linguistic essays in translation), Vol. 1 (eight volumes had been published by December, 1958). May 31 — The first issue of Yti-yen yen-chiu t'ung-hsin (News of linguistic research) appears (twelve issues had appeared by December, 1957, when publication was suspended until July, 1958; after seven issues, it stopped again in July, 1959). May — CKYW (47.41-2) publishes a Chinese translation of P. V. Shcherba's dis- cussion on form classes. June — Yii-wen chiao-hsueh, a bimonthly journal on language teaching and learning, is founded in Shanghai. A Chinese translation of Y. M. Galkina-Fedoruk's Language as a social phenom- enon appears. July 27 to August 1 — CKYW organizes a conference on grammar in Ts'ing-tao. Discussions cover problems of grammatical source materials, methodology, and procedures; specific topics include form classes, word structures, syntax, and sentence types. Among the more than forty participants are the linguists Chu Te-hsi, Hsing Kung-wan, Lin Han-ta, Lo Ch'ang-p'ei, Lu Tsung-ta, Lii Shu-hsiang, Ting Sheng-shu, Ts'ao Po-han, Ts'en Ch'i-hsiang, Wang Li, and Yii Min. (The proceedings of this conference were published in CKYW 51.37-44 [September, 1956]). 64 KUN CHANG August — A Chinese translation of P. A. Pudagov's Outline of general linguistics appears. Lü Shu-hsiang's Chung-kuo wen-fa yao-liieh (Outline of Chinese grammar) (rev. ed.) is published. September 12 — The East German linguist Steinitz visits China. December — Yii-yen yen-chiu (A journal of linguistic research) is founded in Peking (publication was annual from 1956 through 1959). Two important articles appeared in the first issue: Lu Chih-wei's "Study of Chinese coordinative expressions in four syllables" (48-82), and Te-hsi Chu's "Study of adjectives in modern Chinese"
January 9 — The Institute of Linguistics organizes a conference to discuss Lu Chih-wei's manuscript, Han-yti te kou-tz'u-fa (Wordstructures in Chinese). Linguists outside the Institute are invited to participate. (A brief report on this conference appeared in CKYW 56.49 [February, 1957]. Lu's monograph was published in November, 1957). January — The Soviet linguists N. M. Oshanin and N. V. Solnceva visit China to consult on the compilation of a Chinese-Russian dictionary. March — Ts'en Ch'i-hsiang's P'u-fung yti-yen-hsiieh (General linguistics) is published. Reviews: Li-shan, CKYW60.44-5 (June, 1957); Po-ming, ibid. 99.438-42; Ya-Lo-Fu, ibid. 99.443-6 (December, 1960). July — CKYW (61.37-40) publishes a Chinese translation of V. A. Zvegincev and R. A. Budagov's "Syllabus of linguistics". August — CKYW (62.1) publishes an editorial, "Active participation in the struggle against the rightists and persistent pursuit of the socialist way". September — YWHH publishes an editorial, "Decisive attack on the rightists and active self-education". CKYW issues Yu-fa lun-chi (Essays on grammar) (hereafter, YFLC), Vol. 1 (Vol. 2 was issued in October, 1957; Vol. 3 in December, 1959). October — The Department of Chinese of Peking University publishes Yii-yen- hsiieh lun-ts'ung (Essays on linguistics) (hereafter, YYHLT), Vol. 1. Contributors are faculty and students of the department. (Vol. 2 was published in May, 1958; Vol. 3 in June, 1959; Vol. 4 in August, 1960; Vol. 5 in December, 1963). November 19 — Wang Li and Kao Ming-k'ai leave for Poland, where they have been invited to lecture for a month. December — CKYW (66.25-32, 35) publishes a Chinese translation of the first half of N. I. Gyapkina's Postpositions in modern Chinese (the second half was published in CKYW 67.35-9, 14 [January, 1958]).
1958 March — The National Planning Committee of Scientific Research holds a con- ference to discuss problems in the advancement of linguistic studies; linguists DESCRIPTIVE LINGUISTICS 65 are invited (Proceedings were published in CKYW 70.154-64 [April, 1958). April — The faculty of two schools of foreign languages, in Shanghai and Harbin, publish Yü-yen-hsüeh yin-lun (An introduction to linguistics). Dragunov's Studies in modern Chinese grammar (on form classes) is published in Chinese (the first two-thirds had appeared in CKYW from January to September, 1955). June — CKYW begins publishing a Chinese translation of B. Isaenko's Discussions on word boundaries in Chinese (the fifth, and last, installment appeared in Sep- tember, 1958). August — S. K. Kenesbayev and Nominkhanov, members of the Kazakh Republic Academy of Sciences, visit China. September — CKYW (75.401-2) publishes an editorial, "Criticism of capitalistic ideology among linguists". Whatever the specific charge, it was subsumed under the larger accusation of "capitalistic ideology". Under political pressure of this sort, the older men were brought to their knees; without exception, they confessed their guilt. Here are some of the linguistic bases for this accusation; their tenuous connection with capitalism is apparent: Wang Li uses Otto Jespersen's theory of three ranks in his grammatical analysis (CKYW 75.403-6, 407-8; 77.501-2, 506-10); Kao Ming-k'ai follows Western linguists indiscriminately (CKYW 75.409-13, 414-6; 76.458-64; 81.114-8); Lü Shu-hsiang mixes source materials of different historical periods in his grammatical analysis (CKYW 76.451-5); Li Chin-hsi insists on the interdependence of form classes and sentence-structure (CKYW 76.455-7; 78.559-68; 79.11-5). The Chinese Department of Peking University publishes Yü-yen-hsüeh yen-chiu yü p'i-p'an (Linguistic research and its evaluation and criticism), Vol. 1 (Vol. 2 appeared in 1963). I have not been able to obtain this work; it is reported to con- tain ten articles criticizing Wang Li and six articles criticizing Kao Ming-k'ai. September — The younger instructors in the Chinese Department of Peking Uni- versity compile and publish Ma-k'e-szu chu-i yü yü-yen (Marxism and language). October — CKYW begins publishing Yü-yen-hsüeh ming-tz'u chieh-shih (Linguistic terminology), a work compiled by the Linguistic Research Center of Peking Uni- versity (publication continued until September, 1959; the installments were reissued, as a monograph, in March, 1960). Reviews: Wang Yai and P'an Kung, CKYW 80.89-90 (February, 1959); P'u-yü, ibid. 105.43-6 (June, 1961). November 15 — Yü-yen-hsüeh i-ts'ung (Linguistic works in translation), a quarterly journal, is founded in Peking. November — A Chinese translation of S. E. Yakhontov's Grammatical categories of Chinese verbs appears. Review: B. I. Kolelov (?), CKYW 83.242-4 (May, 1959). CKYW (77.513-21) publishes a Chinese translation of A. A. Dragunov and E. I. Dragunova's "The syllabic structure of Mandarin Chinese". December 13 — The Soviet linguist B. A. Serebrennikov visits China. Ch'ang-p'ei Lo dies in Peking. 66 KUN CHANG December — Han-yil chiang-i (Lectures on the Chinese language : a tentative version) is published. This is the product of a collective research project of the faculty and students in the Chinese Department of Peking Teachers College. Review : Huang Hao-sen, CKYW 82.192-4 (April, 1959).
1959
January — CKYW (79.1-10) publishes Liu Chien-hui and Li Hsieh-ch'un's article on capitalistic and mentalistic ideology in works on Chinese grammar. March — CKYW (81.119-24) publishes a Chinese translation of E. I. Rozhdest- venskaya's "Discussion on Chinese adverbs". April — The French linguist Marcel Cohen visits China. May — The Institute of Linguistics, Peking University, and Peking Teachers College sponsor a joint conference on form classes. Participants : Chang Chih-kung, Chao Shih-k'ai, Cheng Lin-hsi, Chou Pien, Chou Tsu-mo, Chu Te-hsi, Fu Ch'ien, Kao Ming-k'ai, Ko Hsin-yi, Kuo Hsi-liang, Lin T'ao, Lu Chia-wen, Lu Shu-hsiang, Shih An-shih, Shih Hsi-yao, Teng Yi, Ts'en Ch'i-hsiang, Tu Sung-shou, Wang Li, Wei Chien-kung, and Yuan Chia-hua. Proceedings were published in YYHLT 4.1-82 (1960). CKYW (83.232-8) publishes a Chinese translation of A. A. Dragunov's "Structural units in Chinese". June — YYHLT 3.160-76 (June, 1959) publishes Shih-fu Kan's "On phonemic theories". September — The Chinese Department of Peking University publishes Hsien-tai han-yii (Modern Chinese), Vol. 1. Review: Nien-i, CKYW92.95-6 (February, 1960). November — The Linguistic Research Center of the Chinese Department of Peking University publishes Yii-yen-hsueh chi-cKu (Foundations of linguistics). Review : Chao Chen-to, CKYW 92.97-9 (February, 1960).
1960
March — Kao Ming-k'ai's Yii-fa li-lun (Grammatical theories) (rev. ed.) appears. Review: Ma Yen-wu, CKYW 103.43-8 (April, 1961). May — CKYW publishes the following translations [into Chinese] of Soviet articles on linguistics : (1) B. V. Gornung, "Discussions on linguistic structures, mathematical linguistics, and applied linguistics", 95.225-7. (2) A. S. Chikobava's "Opinions on Some theoretical problems in linguistics" (a treatise written jointly by Bugadov, Vinogradov, Gornung, Guhman, Desnickaya, and Serebrennikov), 95.227-33. (3) S. K. Shaumyan's "On Some theoretical problems in linguistics", 95.233-6. (4) Resolutions on linguistic structures and analysis made by the Committee of DESCRIPTIVE LINGUISTICS 67 the Division of Literature and Linguistics in the Academy of Sciences in the Soviet Union", 95.236-7, 242. August — Chinese translations of two Russian articles are published in YYHLT (August, 1960): (1) Vinogradov's "The 21st Congress of the representatives of the Soviet Com- munist Party and the responsibilities of linguistics", 4.215-37. [The 21st Congress met from January 27 to February 5, 1959]. (2) The editorial from the first issue (1959) of the Bulletin of the Division of Lan- guage and Literature of the Academy of Sciences in the Soviet Union 4.238-48. 1961 April — CKYW (103.1-6) publishes Lii Shu-hsiang's article outlining the current responsibilities of researchers on Chinese language. July — CKYW (106.32-7) publishes a Chinese translation of V. A. Zvegincev's "Urgent problems in modern theoretical linguistics". October to November — CKYW (109.8-17) publishes Kao Ming-k'ai's "Semantic units in linguistic systems". December — CKYW (110.1-15) publishes Chu Te-hsi's "A discussion of the form te". (The same topic was discussed further by Ching-hsin Huang, ibid. 118.361-73, 411 [August and September, 1962]; by Lii Shu-hsing, ibid. 120.483-95 [November, 1962] and 121.582 [December, 1962]; and by Lu Chien-ming, YYHLT 5.219-31 [December, 1963]). The Institute of Linguistics publishes Hsien-tai han-yii yu-fa chiang-hua (Discus- sions on modern Chinese grammar) (rev. ed.). Collaborating on this work are: Ting Sheng-shu, Lii Shu-hsiang, Li Jung, Sun Te-hsiian, Kuan Hsieh-ch'u, Fu Ch'ien, Huang Sheng-chang, and Ch'en Chih-wen. 1962 February — CKYW (112.55-66) publishes Wang Chun's "On standardizing lin- guistic variants". July — CKYW (117.340-5) publishes S. K. Shaumyan's "Urgent responsibilities of structural linguistics". December — CKYW (121.572-81) publishes a Chinese translation of V. A. Zvegin- cev's "On linguistic methods". 1963 February — CKYW changes to bimonthly publication, beginning in February. Book reviews and notes on activities are omitted. October — Kao Ming-k'ai publishes Yu-yen-lun (Language).
PHONEMICS If phonemics in China owes anything to linguists outside the Soviet Union, it is a debt the linguists there do not acknowledge. The few general discussions of phonemics 68 KUN CHANG are in fact historical surveys of the development of phonemics in the Soviet Union, with scornful sideglances at Western phonemicists. The doctrine thus propounded is based on the notion of a dialectic relationship between substance and phenomenon, universal and particular, matter and form. This is the relationship which obtains between speech sounds and phonemes. Pho- nemes exist, materially, in speech sounds: phonetics is an integral part of linguistics; and phonetics and phonemics are not to be separated. Thus, phonemics is included in Lo and Wang's P'u-t'ung yu-yin-hsueh kang-yao (Outline of general phonetics) (February, 1956). Daniel Jones is criticized for failing to recognize the dialectic opposition between speech sounds and phonemes. The accusation levelled at de Saussure, Sapir, Trubetz- koy, and Bloomfield is, in essence, that in defining phonemes in abstraction they failed to give the phonological reality of phonemes its due. Other Soviet contributions cited with approval are Akhmanova and Smirnicky's concept of a fundamental, phonemic variant as opposed to allophonic variants which are determined by context or position, and Smirnicky's assertion that grammatical, semantic, and etymological considerations are legitimate in phonemic analysis.
THE PHONEMIC ANALYSIS OF TONES
From September, 1955, to February, 1960, CKYW published ten articles on this problem: Fu Mao-chi (39.18-25, 47.3-12), Chang Ching (56.13-5), Shih Ts'un-chih (56.9-12, 63.15-9), Hsu Shih-jung (60.23-4), Ch'eng Hsiang-hui (60.25-6), Yin Chung- hsien (60.27-8, 30), Chou Yao-wen (68.88-9, 53), and Li Yung-sui (92.71-2, 96). The problem argued here is whether tones are suprasegmental or suprasyllabic. Tones always occur together with vowels and/or voiced consonants. In some syllables they accompany only the vowel (e.g. fa); in others, they extend through two segments, but not the entire syllable (e.g. an in fan); in yet others, they extend through the entire syllable (e.g. jeri). Shih, Hsu, Yin, and Li choose to regard tones as suprasyllabic; Fu, Chang, Ch'eng, and Chou assign them arbitrarily only to vowels. Following the Soviet linguist Serdyuchenko, Fu treats tones as vowel features. He thus establishes six types of vowels and twenty-four vowel phonemes. Shih, Hsu, Yin, and Li all oppose Fu's analysis; their arguments are: Shih: The main purpose of phonemics is to fit the complex data of phonetics into manageable categories. Phonemic analysis must, further, coincide with the speaker's subjective feeling: the speaker's life-long experience with his native language gives him a subjective consciousness of phonemic categories without which effective communication would be impossible. Native speakers of Chinese feel that tones are something that is added to whole syllables; that is all that is needed to justify the treatment of tones as suprasyllabic. Hsu: Tones are suprasyllabic: they cover whole syllables, whether these consist DESCRIPTIVE LINGUISTICS 69 of one or more than one phoneme. The principle that phonemes are minimal phonetic units cannot cope with the analysis of tones: there are suprasyllabic as well as seg- mental phonemes. Contrary to Shih, however, phonemics is a deductive method by which we systematize phonetic data. Simplicity (or economy) is the phonemicist's main concern, not the feeling of the speaker. Yin: Tones are not phonemes, nor are they tonemes or vowel features. "Tones are conditions under which variants of phonemes are differentiated in a phonemic system". [It is not clear just what Yin's 'variants of phonemes' are; they are not, however, allophones]. The physical basis of tones is the syllable, not the vowel, as Fu would have it. Li: Phonemic analysis is based on the social function of sounds. Articulatory and acoustic aspects are secondary. Since tones function socially, to differentiate meaning, we abstract them from syllables and recognize them as phonemic.
GRAMMAR. FREE AND BOUND FORMS
Lii Shu-hsiang (CKYW 111.1-6) defines free forms as those which can be used as complete utterances in the following situations: (1) as a warning: shùi\ 'water (look out)!', shél 'snake (look out)!'; (2) as a command: Idi I 'come!', tsou ! 'let's go!'; (3) as a form of address: ke-ke ! 'older brother!', mèi-mei ! 'younger sister!'; (4) as an exclamation: aiya ! 'alas!'; and (5) as an answer to a question, e.g. 'what is this?' pi 'a writing instrument' ; 'is this good?', hao '[yes, this is] good'. Only a limited number of morphemes occurs in the above-mentioned situations. Lii considers morphemes semifree if they can occupy positions in constructions which are predominantly occupied by free forms. For instance [""indicates nonoccurrence] : (a) ni shùi pu shùil 'are you shùi 'to go to bed' shui te tsao 'to go to bed going to bed?' early' *ni hsing pu hsing? *hslng hsing te tsao 'to wake up early' (b) che shih shém-meì 'what chièn 'an arrow' chiing le chien 'to be hit is this?' by an arrow' chè shih shém-meì *shü chiing le shu 'to have a sunstroke' hsing is not a free form. Since it occurs before te tsao, however, where such free forms as shüi occur, it is a "semifree" form, even though it does not occur in another con- struction, nl... pu..., where shüi also occurs, shü stands in the same relation to chien as hsing to shüi. A morpheme may be free in one dialect, and bound in another; li 'pear' and hsie 'shoe', for instance, are free forms in standard Mandarin but bound forms in some other dialects. This also holds true of the literary language as opposed to the collo- 70 KUN CHANG quial. yUn 'cloud' and yen 'wild goose', for instance, are free forms in the literary language, but bound forms in the colloquial (e.g. standard Mandarin yân-ts'ai 'cloud', tà-yèn 'wild goose'). An apparent instance of a morpheme which is free in one environment but bound in another may in fact be an instance of two different, but homophonous, morphemes. For instance: fa hsin 'to mail a letter' fa yèn 'to express one's opinion' fa k'ud.i hsin 'to mail a special delivery fa k'uàng yèn 'to speak arrogantly' letter' hsin l-ching fa le 'the letter has been *yén l-ching fa le mailed' che shih shem-mel 'what is this?" hsin che shih shém-me'ì 'what is this?' *yén 'a letter' A morpheme may be bound in ordinary usage, but semifree in a fixed phrase. For instance, hu is bound in lào-hu 'tiger', but semifree in cKién p'à làng, hòu p'à hù 'afraid of wolves in front, and of tigers behind' [a cliché to describe the fears of one in a dangerous dilemma] ; chin and yin are bound in chin-tzu and yin-tzu, but semi- free in chin yin fung fiéh hsi 'gold, silver, copper, iron, and pewter'. A morpheme may be bound in one construction, but semifree in another con- struction. ch'i, for instance, is bound in chi-hsièn 'deadline', but semifree in kuò le ch'i 'he has missed the deadline' (Cf. kuò le hó 'he has crossed the river'); hsi is bound in chiu-hsi 'banquet', but semifree in i-chud hsi 'a unit of food served at a banquet [enough for perhaps eight to eleven people]' (Cf. i-chud ts'ài 'a unit of food [for perhaps eight to eleven people]'). Lii extends the concept of free and bound forms to sequences of morphemes. For instance, the following sequences of morphemes cannot be uttered independently as complete sentences : tzù-tùng in tzù-tùng pù-chiàng 'automatic rifle', tzù-tùng k'ùng-chih 'automatic control' ; jén-tsào in jén-tsào szu 'synthetic silk', jén-tsào shih-yu 'synthetic petroleum', jén-tsào wèi-hsing 'man-made satellite'. i-t'iào in i-t'iào chiù fiào kuo chiì le 'he jumped over it at the first try'; chèi-i-wèn in chèi-i-wen, wèn te hào 'this question is a really good question' ; ì-fièn ì-fièn te in ì-fièn ì-fièn te hào chi lai le 'he is getting better every day'; ts'ùng chèr in ts'ùng chèr wàng nan tsóu 'going south from here' ; ni yiièh shud in ni yiièh shuó fa yiìèh hù-fu 'the more you explain, the more confused he is' ; ni chì-jan chih-tao in ni chì-jan chih-tao kàn-mà pù shuó? 'since you know it, why don't you speak out?' A morpheme may be bound either to another morpheme, or to a sequence of mor- DESCRIPTIVE LINGUISTICS 71 phemes. For instance, wo te 'mine', wo kd-ko te 'my older brother's', wo ko-ko te p'eng-yu te 'my older brother's friend's'. When a morpheme is bound to another morpheme, the resulting sequence of morphemes can, in turn, be either free or bound. For instance, with che (or chih). (a) in free morpheme sequences: (b) in bound morpheme sequences: ni tsud-che\ 'Sit down!' pei-che jen 'secretly' nl chdn-che\ 'Stand up!' chlh-che t'a 'pointing at him' nl chi-che\ 'Remember!' w&n-che yao 'bending one's back'
THE DEFINITION OF A WORD
There are three current approaches to this problem, the semantic, the formal, and the semantic-formal: (1) The semantic: (a) There is in speech a word for each concept (Li Chin-hsi, Chung-kuo yu-fa chiao-cKeng [Syllabus of Chinese grammar]). This vague definition can hardly be operational in linguistic analysis, (b) Words are minimal semantic units (Wang Li, Chung-kuo hsien-tai yu-fa [Modern Chinese grammar]). This is, in fact, a partial definition of what we call morphemes. (2) The formal: Words are linguistic units which can be freely substituted for each other in utterances (Lu Tsung-ta and Yii Min, Hsien-tai han-yii yu-fa [Modern Chinese grammar]); Words are syntactic units (Li Jung, Pei-ching k'ou-yii wen-fa [Colloquial Pekinese grammar] transl. of Y. R. Chao, Mandarin Primer, ch. 3). These definitions ignore completely the semantic contents of words. (3) The semantic-formal: Words are minimal free units (i.e. recurring sequences of phonemes with constant semantic contents) (Lii Shu-hsiang, Yu-fa hsueh-hsi [Studies on grammar]); Words are at the same time minimal free forms and syntactic units (Ts'un-chih Shih, YFLC 1.13 [September, 1957]); Words are minimal free but linguistic units, with definite phonemic shapes and semantic contents (T'an Yung-hsiang, YFLC 1.51 [September, 1957]). The definition of words as free forms, i.e. as morphemes or morpheme sequences which may occur as independent utterances excludes many forms which are ordi- narily considered words. Shih Ts'un-chih's definition of a free form is this: any morpheme which can be used as one of the five main parts of a sentence — subject, predicate, object, complement, or adjunct. And since it is free, it is a word. What is left in a sentence, though not free, must also be a word (or words), because by Shih's definition sentences are composed of nothing but words. Shih's views are opposed by T'an, who distinguishes between linguistic units, i.e. words, and syntactic units, i.e. subject, predicate, object, complement, adjunct, and other parts of sentences. Mainland linguists recognize four morphological types of free forms in Chinese: morpheme words, primary derived words, secondary derived words, and compounds. 72 KUN CHANG Morpheme words are the smallest meaningful free forms, e.g. jén 'people', kóu 'dog', lai 'to come', hao 'good', p'u-t'ao 'grape', p'i-pa 'loquat', and wu-kung 'centipede'. Primary derived words consist of a base and an affix, e.g. hudr 'flower', war 'to play', chuó-tzu 'table', i-tzu 'chair', shih-fou 'stone', mù-t'ou 'wood', tì-szù 'fourth', and ti-wu 'fifth'. Secondary derived words consist of a free form and an affix, e.g. chti 'to saw' : chd -tzu 'a saw' ; shd 'stupid' : shà-tzu 'an idiot' ; ch'ih 'to eat' : ch'ih-t'our in mèi cKih-four 'not worth eating'; k'àn 'to look at' : k'àn-t'our in mèi k'àn-four 'not worth looking at'. Compounds may be composed of two bound forms, e.g. ch'ù-fàng 'kitchen', and yà-i 'a low-ranking official in a yamen' ; they may also be composed of a free form and a bound form (excluding affixes), or of two free forms, e.g. hsié 'shoe' : p'i-hsié 'leather shoe', pù-hsié 'cloth shoe', chiào-hsié 'rubber shoe', ts'ào-hsié 'straw sandal' ; cii'e 'vehicle' : mà-ch'è 'horse cart', niu-ch'e 'bull cart', ch'ì-ch'é 'automobile', and hud-cKé 'train'. The semantic content of a compound may not be the sum of the semantic content of their components. For example: pài-ts'ài 'celery cabbage' [pài 'white', ts'ài 'vegetable'] does not mean pài yén-se te ts'ài 'white-colored vegetables' ; hsi-fàn 'rice porridge' [hsi 'thin, watery', fàn 'cooked rice'] does not mean chu te hén hsi te fàn 'cooked rice which is too watery'. Further, pài-ts'ài can be modified by Id in lù pài-ts'ài 'green celery cabbage', and hsi-fàn can be modified by ch'óu in ch'óu hsi-fàn 'thick rice porridge'. On these grounds, some linguists classify pài-ts'ài and hsi-fàn as simple words, although they consist of something more than the simple words ts'ài and fàn. Separability is the criterion used to distinguish between compounds and phrases. Sequences of morphemes like fàng-tà 'to enlarge', fàng-k'uàn 'to widen', chid-shen 'to make deeper', chia-chln 'to intensify', chién-ch'ing 'to lighten, to reduce in weight', chién-shào 'to reduce in number', yén-ch'àng 'to prolong' consist of something more than the words tà 'large', k'uàn 'wide', shèn 'deep', chin 'tight', ch'ing 'light', shao 'few', and ch'àng 'long'. Nothing can be inserted in these sequences; therefore they are compounds. Some sequences of morphemes have only limited separability. For instance, sequences like nùng huài le 'it was ruined', nùng tuàn le 'it was broken', nùng pién le 'it was flattened', t'ui tao le 'it was pushed down', tà tao le 'it was knocked down', and pan tao le 'it was dragged down' can only be separated by te 'can' and pu 'cannot' : nùng te huài, nùng pu huài; nùng te tuàn, nùng pu tuàn; nùng te pién, nùng pu pién; t'ui te tao, t'ùipu tao-, tà te tao, tà pu tao; and pan te tao, pan pu tao. Some Chinese linguists consider these sequences compounds with infixes ; others consider them phrases. Mainland Chinese linguists also disagree on the analysis of such morpheme se- quences as the following. Some treat those given in (a) and (b) as phrases, but those given in (c) as compounds; others treat them all as phrases. DESCRIPTIVE LINGUISTICS 73 (a) hsl i-shang 'to wash clothes' hsl wo te i-shang 'to wash my clothes' hsl le chl-chien i-shang 'to have washed a few articles of clothing' hsl le i-t'ien te i-shang 'to have washed the clothes for one day' (b) hsl wan 'to wash dishes' hsl chin-Vien yung te wan "to wash the dishes that were used today" hsl le l-wan-shang te wan 'to have washed the dishes for one evening' A large variety of expressions can be inserted between hsl and i-shang, hsl and wan. Between hsl and tsao, however, only a limited number of expressions occur: (c) hsl tsao 'to bathe' hsl le i-hui tsao 'to have bathed once'.
FORM CLASSES
Writings on this topic include: two monographs on form classes published by CKYW, in July, 1955, and July, 1956, and articles in YFLC 1.71-144 (September, 1957), 2.76-97 (October, 1957), and YYHLT 1.113-29 (October, 1957) and 4.1-82 (August, 1960). What I present in this section is my own summary of whatever I could find of value in the current Chinese writings on form classes; this can only be a basis for further studies. The articles on form classes are, in most cases, short on examples and insight; they offer chiefly elementary arguments and general statements which are oversimplifications of the complicated linguistic data. Under serious criticism by the majority of linguists, Li Chin-hsi has retreated from his early position, that form classes can only be established by their functions in sentences, and Kao Ming-k'ai seems less convinced of the validity of his former idea that there is no way to classify words as nouns, adjectives, and verbs. Neither Li nor Kao, however, has come up with anything new.
CLASS I. A. The numerals: i 'one', erh ~ liang 'two', san 'three', szii 'four', etc. B. chll 'how many?' C. chl 'several' D. -hsie in chei-hsie 'these' and nei-hsie 'those' Class I. A. and B. can be preceded by the prefix ti-, e.g. ti-i 'the first', ti-erh 'the second', tl-san 'the third', tl-szii 'the fourth', ti-chl 'which one [of a series]?' Bibliography: Chu Te-hsi, "Numerals and numeral constructions", CKYW 70.185-6 (April, 1958).
CLASS II. A. -ke in liang-ko jen 'two people' -pa in liang-pa l-tzu 'two chairs' -chang in liang-chang chuo-tzu 'two tables' 74 KUN CHANG B. -ts'iin in liang-ts'un pu 'a piece of cloth two inches long' -ch'lh in liang-ch'lh pit 'a piece of cloth two feet long' -chang in liang-chang pit 'a piece of cloth twenty feet long' C. -t'ung in liang-t'ung shui 'two pails of water' -wan in liang-wan shui 'two bowls of water' -p'ing-tzu in liang-p'ing-tzu shui 'two bottles of water' D. -hui in hsia le liang-hui y& 'it rained twice', shuo le liang-hui 'He spoke twice' E. -k'du in ch'ih le liang-k'ou 'he ate two mouthfuls' F. -t'ien in lidng-t'ien te kung-fur 'a two-day interval' -sheng in liang-sheng te ti-fangr 'a two-province area' G. -chung in liang-chung 'two kinds' Some members of Class II can be reduplicated, e.g. A: kò-kò 'everyone'; D: hui-hùi 'every time' ; F : fièn-fìar 'every day' ; and G : chung-chung 'various kinds'. Members of Class II follow members of Class I :
I.A. I.B. i.e. I.D. II.A. liang-ke 'two' chl-ko 'how many?' chl-ko 'several' chèi-hsie-ko 'these' II.B. liang-ts'un chi-ts'iin 'how many chi-ts'un 'several 'two inches' inches?' inches' U.C. liang-t'ung chl-t'ung 'how many chl-t'ung 'several chèi-hsie-t'ung 'two pailsful' pailsful?' pailsful' 'these pailsful' II.D. liang-hui chi-hui 'how many chl-hui 'several 'twice' times?' times' II.E. liang-k'du 'two chl-k'ou 'how many chl-k'ou 'several mouthsful' mouthsful?' mouthsful' II.F. liang-fien chl-t'ien 'how many chi-t'ien 'several 'two days' days?' days' II.G. liang-chung chl-chung 'how many chl-chung 'several chèi-hsie-chung 'two kinds' kinds?' kinds' 'these kinds'
CLASS III. One criterion by which members of this class are assigned to subclasses is their occurrence or nonoccurrence in the following six environments: 1. Classi.—II.A. liàng-ko, etc. 2. Class I.A.B.C.—II.B. liàng-ts'ùn, etc. 3. Class I.—U.C. liàng-fùng, etc. 4. Class I.—II.G. liang-chung 5. Class I.D. chèi-hsie 6. Class I.A.B.C.—II.D. liang-hui 'twice', liàng-tfù 'twice' (stylistically, more formal). Subclass III.A. occurs after 1, 4, and 5. For example: DESCRIPTIVE LINGUISTICS chuö-tzu 'table' 1. liäng-chäng chuö-tzu 'two tables' 4. liäng-chüng chuö-tzu 'two kinds of tables' 5. chei-hsie chuö-tzu 'these tables' läo-hu 'tiger' 1. liäng-chih läo-hu 'two tigers' 4. liäng-chüng läo-hu 'two kinds of tigers' 5. chii-hsie läo-hu 'these tigers' Subclass III.B. occurs after 1, 3, 4, and 5. For example: jen 'person, people' 1. liäng-ke jen 'two people' 3. liäng-ch'e jen 'two trainloads of people' 4. liäng-chüng jen 'two kinds of people' 5. chei-hsie jen 'these people' shih-t'ou 'stone, rock' 1. liäng-k'uäi shih-t'ou 'two stones' 3. liäng t'iäo-tzu shih-t'ou 'two loads of stones' 4. liäng-chüng shih-t'ou 'two kinds of stone' 5. chei-hsie shih-t'ou 'these stones' huär 'flower' 1. liäng-tuör huär 'two flowers' 3. liäng-p'ing-tzu huär 'two vases of flowers' 4. liäng-chüng huär 'two kinds of flowers' 5. chei-hsie huär 'these flowers' Subclass III.C. occurs after 3, 4, and 5. For example: shüi 'water' 3. liäng p'ing-tzu shüi 'two bottles of water' 4. liäng-chüng shüi 'two kinds of water' 5. chei-hsie shüi 'these bottles (puddles, etc.) of water' Subclass III.D. occurs after 1, 2, 4, and 5. For example: lü 'road' 1. liäng-t'ido lü 'two roads' 2. liäng-ll lü 'a distance of two IV 4. liäng-chüng lü 'two kinds of roads' 5. chei-hsie lü 'these roads' Subclass III.E. occurs after 6. For example: yü 'rain' 6. liäng-chen yü 'it rained twice' Subclass III.F. occurs after 4, 5, and 6. For example: 76 KUN CHANG chdn-cheng 'war' 4. liang-chiing chdn-cheng 'two kinds of wars' 5. chei-hsie chdn-cheng 'these wars' 6. liang-tz'ii chdn-cheng 'two wars, wars fought at two different times' Subclass III.G. occurs after 4 and 5. For example: chih-tu 'system' 4. liang-chiing chih-tu 'two kinds of systems' 5. chei-hsie chih-tu 'these systems' hsidng-far 'way of thinking' 4. liing-chung hsidng-far 'two (kinds of) ways of thinking' 5. chei-hsie hsidng-far 'these ways of thinking' k'6-ning-hslng 'possibility' 4. liang-chung k'd-neng-hsing 'two kinds of possibility' 5. chei-hsie k'o-ntng-hsing 'these possibilities' Subclass III.H. occurs after 5. For example: ch'e-lidng "vehicle" 5. chei-hsie ch'e-lidng "these vehicles"
Some forms which are ordinarily classified as members of Class III do not occur in any of these six environments, e.g. chin-jdu 'muscles and flesh', ll-mao 'manners, courtesy', and fiao-li 'order, organization, system'. Most members of Class III can be followed by -shang 'on; on top of; to; for; con- cerning' ; e.g. chuo-tzu-shang 'on the table', shih-V ou-shang 'on the stone', huar-shang 'on the flower', shui-shang 'on the water', lu-shang 'on the way', chan-cheng-shan- 'for war', chih-tu-shang 'concerning the system', k'd-neng-hsing-shang 'as for the possibility', chin-jdu-shang 'to the muscles and flesh', ll-mao-shang 'as to manners', fiao-li-shang 'as far as organization goes'. Few members of Class III can be reduplicated. Two that can are jen and chid: jen-jen 'everyone', chia-chia 'every family'. Among the few that can be followed by -men, indicating plurality, are jen, hai-tzu, and hstteh-sheng: jdn-men 'people' hai-tzu- men 'children', hsUeh-sheng-men 'students'.
CLASS IV. top, above -shang shdng-t'ou shdng-piar shdng-pu l-shdng -chih-shdng bottom, -hsia hsid-t'ou hsid-piar hsid-pu l-hsid -chih-hsid below [tl-hsia] front -ch'ien ch'ien-t'ou cKien-piar ch'ien-pii l-ch'ien back -hou hou-fou hou-piar hou-pu l-hdu -chih-hdu inside -li ll-t'ou ll-piar inside -nei nei-pit l-nei -chih-nei DESCRIPTIVE LINGUISTICS 77 outside -wdi wdi-fou wdi-piar wai-pu l-wai -chih-wai east -titng tung-four tung-piar tiing-pu l-tiing -chih-tung west -hsi hsi-t'our hsi-piar hsi-pii l-hsi -chih-hsi south -nan nan-four nan-piar nan-pit i-nan -chih-nan north -p$i pii-four pii-piar pgi-pii l-pii -chih-pii middle -chung chiing-chidr chung-pu chih-chung left -tsud tsud-piar -chih-tsud right -yii yu-piar -chlh-yii
Some examples: chud-tzu-shang 'on the table', chuo-tzu shang-fou 'on the table', chuo-tzu sMng-piar 'on the table', shen-fi shang-pu 'the upper part of one's body', wu-cHih l-shang 'more than five feet', wan-jin chih-shdng i-jdn chih-hsia 'above everyone, below one' [a standard expression describing the position of a prime minister, who is under the emperor, but above everybody else]. Two criteria by which Class IV is subdividided are (a) the possibility of redupli- cation, and (b) the possibility of occurrence after san-fien 'three days': (a) shang-shang hsia-hsia 'everyone, above and below' li-ll wai-wdi 'everywhere, inside and out' cKien-cKien hou-hou 'everyone, before and after' (b) san-fien l-ch'i£n 'three days ago' san-fien l-hou 'after three days' san-fien l-nei 'within three days'
Class V. Members of this class can enter into the construction Xpu X in final position in an interrogative sentence, e.g. cKU pu ch'ttl 'Is he going or not?' But this form is rare with wang 'to forget', tiu 'to lose', chung 'to hit a target', wan 'to finish', hslng 'to wake up', and she 'to break', and does not exist with yu 'to have'. Members of this class are assigned to subclasses by the following criteria: 1. Whether they can be preceded by hen 'very; very much' 2. Whether they can be reduplicated. If they can, whether they are reduplicated according to pattern (a) or (b): (a) k'an-k'an 'to look at for a little while', shang- liang shang-liang 'to discuss for a little while'; (b) man-mar (te) 'slowly', ch'ing- ch'ing ch'u-ch'u 'clearly'. 3. Whether they can be followed by le; 4. Whether they can be followed by che; 5. Whether they can be followed by an object (the definition of object varies from writer to writer); 6. Whether they can be preceded by ying-kai 'ought to'; 7. Whether they can be used in the environment sd ... te 78 KUN CHANG
In the following chart, x indicates yes,, - indicates no.
1 2 3 4 5 6 2 3 4 chil'$ 'to go' — X — X
2 3 5 tsuo 'to sit' x(a) X X 4 X k'an 'to look at; to read' 2 x(a) X X8 X X
2 3 5 shlh-yen 'to experiment' x(a) X — X
2 3 7 5 shang-liang 'to discuss' x(a) X — X
8 p'a 'to be afraid of X — — — X — hdi-p'a 'to be afraid' X
8 hsl-huan 'to be fond of' X — — — X X
kao-hsing 'to be happy' X x(b) X — — X 9 cKu-lai 'to come out' — — X — X 10 hui 'to know' — — X — X X
11 11 hili 'to know how to do X — X — X X something'
12 tiing 'to understand' X — X — X X 13 14 mdn 'to be slow' X x(b) X —
cKing-cKu 'to be clear' X x(b) X — — — 14 sung 'to be loose' X x(b) X — —
2 h£n ch'ii le chi-t'ang '(he) went (there) quite a few times'. hen tsuo le i-huer '(he) sat (there) for quite a while'. h(n k'an le chl-pir shit '(he) read quite a few books'. hen shih-yen le chl-hiii '(he) performed the experiment quite a few times'. Mn shang-liang le i-chen-tzu '(he) discussed it (with him) for quite a while'. * ch'u le liang-t'dng '(he) went (there) twice'. tsuo le i-huer '(he) sat (there) for a while'. shih-yen le chl-tz'u '(he) performed the experiment several times'. shang-liang le i-huer '(he) discussed it (with him) for a while'. 4 ch'u p'lr 'to peel the skin (e.g. of an orange)'. ch'u hiir 'to get out a kernel or stone'. tsd ch'e 'to ride on a vehicle'. tsd ch'udn 'to ride in a boat'. 5 ying-kai tsud-tsuo 'to feel obliged to sit for a while'. ying-kai shlh-yen shih-yen 'to feel obliged to perform an experiment once or twice'. ying-kai shang-liang shang-liang 'to feel obliged to discuss something for a while'. ' k'an-che shu ne '(he) is (or was) reading'. ' lid jen shang-liang-che tsd 'those two are doing it while they are discussing it'. 8 hin p'a t'a '(he) is very much afraid of him'. hen hsl-huan t'a '(he) is very fond of him'. 9 tiing-li ch'u lai le i-ke jen 'someone came out of the cave'. 10 hui chung-wen '(he) knows Chinese'. 11 hen hui shud-hud '(he) really knows how to talk'. 12 tung-shih '(he) has common sense'. 13 mdn-che! mdn-che! 'slow down a bit! wait a minute!'. 14 ying-kai mdn i-tiar '(he) should slow down a bit'. ying-kai sung i-tiar 'it should be a little looser'. ying-kai hen i-tiar '(he) shouldn't show too much mercy'. DESCRIPTIVE LINGUISTICS sung 'to loosen' — x(a) x — X15 X1S — hin 'to be cruel' x x(b) — — — X14 — 17 hin (hsin) 'to be cruel' — x(a) x" x X17 X17 — yung-kan 'to be brave' X — — — X — i-ting 'to be certain' — X hsiang 'to resemble' X18 X18 — shih 'to be' 19 19 yu 'to have' X20 x X21
The subdivision of this class is still in a primitive stage; it will require careful and thorough study. Bibliography: (1) On reduplication: Wang Huan, CKYW 122.23-5 (March, 1963); Li Jen-chien, CKYW 131.255-63 (August, 1964); Fan Fang-lien, CKYW 131.264-78 (August, 1964); (2) On directional complements: Ch'en Ti-ming, CKYW 68.87 (February, 1958); Fan Chi-yen, CKYW 123.136-60, 175 (April, 1963); (3) On moods and tenses: Chang Hsiu, YFLC 1.154-74 (September, 1957); (4) On le\ Fan Chi-yen, CKYW 28.37 (October, 1954); Ch'en Kang, CKYW 66.33-4 (December, 1957); (5) On che and che ne: Meng Tsung, CKYW 115.212-4 (May, 1962), 124.227-31 (June, 1963); Sung Yii-k'o, CKYW 122.26-8 (February, 1963); (6) On auxiliary verbs (neng, hiii, k'i-i, ying-kai, etc.): Liu Chien, CKYW 91.1-5 (January, 1960); Liang Shih- chung, CKYW 95.213-6 (May, 1960); Wang Nien-i, CKYW 95.217-9 (May, 1960); (7) On adjectives: Liu Ching-wen, CKYW 29.20-1 (November, 1954); Chu Te-hsi, Yii-yen yen-chiu 1.83-111 (December, 1956); (8) On the distinction between verbs and adjectives: Huang Sheng-chang, YFLC 1.144-53 (September, 1957); (9) On the distinction between adjectives and adverbs: Fu Ch'ien, CKYW29.18-20 (Novem- ber, 1954); Huang Po-jung, YWHH 58.29-31 (July, 1956); (10) On constructions consisting of adverbs of degree and verbs: Lin Wen-chin, Yil-wen chiao-hsiieh 15.32-3 (November, 1957); Li Ch'un-lin and Yu Li-jen, CKYW 77.536, 545 (November, 1958); Jao Chi-t'ing, CKYW 107.15-6 (August, 1961); Fan Chi-yen and Jao Ch'ang- jung, CKYW 129.101-2 (April, 1964).
16 sung-sung k'u-ySo tai 'to loosen one's belt a little'. " ying-kai sung-sung k'u-yao tai '(he) should loosen his belt a little'. [Cf. 5 and 15]. 17 hin le hsin '(he) showed no mercy'. hin-che hsin 'showing no mercy'. ying-kai hln-che hsin '(he) should show no mercy'. 18 hin hsiang t'a pa-pa '(he) resembles his father very much'. ying-kai hsiang t'a pa-pa '(he) should be like his father'. " shih t'a 'it is he'. ying-kai shih t'a 'it should be he'. 80 yu ch'ien 'to be rich'; hin yu ch'ien 'to be very rich'. ying-kai yu ch'ien '(he) ought to be rich'. yu kimg-fur 'to have leisure' [yu kung-fur is rarely preceded by hin], ying-k&i yu kiing-fur '(he) ought to have leisure'. 81 sud yu te in suo yu te jen 'all people'. 80 KUN CHANG
CLASS VI. Members of this class govern objects in constructions which are not independent sentences. A. The members of this subgroup are also members of Class V. For example: 1. t'à ch'ào nèi-piar p'ào le 'he ran in that direction'. (Cf. chèi wu-tzu ch'ào péi 'this room faces north'.) 2. wd t'ì t'a hsié hsìn 'I'm writing a letter for him'. (Cf. wd t'ì t'a 'I'm taking his place'.) 3. wo jàng t'a ch'il 'I'm letting him go (somewhere)'. (Cf. wd jàng t'a 'I'm making a concession to him'.) 4. wd chiào t'a lài 'I asked him to come'. (Cf. wd chiào t'a le 'I called him'.) 5. wd kéi t'a hsié le ì-féng hsìn 'I wrote a letter for (or to) him'. (Cf. wd kéi t'a ch'ién le 'I paid him'.) 6. shèng hsia te kuéi wd fù-tsé 'I am responsible for the rest'. (Cf. shèng hsia te kuéi wo 'the rest belong to me'.) 7. t'a yu chl-t'ién mèi lài le 'he has not been here for several days'. (Cf. t'à yu hén to shu 'he has many books'.) 8. t'à chièn jén chiù shud 'he talks to people as soon as he sees them'. (Cf. t'a chièn-kuo wàng hsièn-sheng 'he has met Mr. Wang'.) 9. wd tao hsièn-tsài ts'ài chih-tao 'I found it out just now'. (Cf. tao shih-hour le 'it's time now [to do something]'.) B. Members of this subgroup take the verb suffix -che. Only one, ch'ùng, is also a member of Class V, and thus also of Class VI.A. a. Fixed position : 1. ch'ùng-che tung-piar k'ài le i-ke ch'uàng-hu 'a window was opened on the east side'. (Cf. ch'uàng-hu ch'ùng-che tung-piar 'the window faces east'.) 2. ni shùn-che (or yèn-che) chèi-t'iào lù tsdul 'walk along this road!' 3. wd chào-che ni te ì-szu tsuò 'I will act in accordance with your views'. 4. tsàm-men pén-che chèi-ke tsung-chìh tsuò 'we will act in accordance with this principle'. 5. t'à pèn-che wd lài le 'he came to me for help'. b. Movable position : 1. Either tsàm-men ch'èn-che chèi-ke chi-hui chuàn ì-tiàr ch'ién, or ch'èn-che chèi-ke chì-hui tsàm-men chuàn ì-tiàr ch'ién 'we should take advantage of this oppor- tunity to earn some money". 2. Either t'à p'ing-che shém-me tzù-kó chin le chèi-ke tà-hsiiéh, or p'ing-che shém- me tzù-kó t'à chìn le chèi-ke tà-hsùéhl 'on what his qualifications did he enter this university?" C. Members of this subgroup are not members of Class V, nor do they take the verb suffix -che. DESCRIPTIVE LINGUISTICS 81 a. Fixed position, noninitial : 1. ni ts'ung chèi-piar tsdul 'walk along this side!' 2. ni tài t'à chu'l 'take him along!' 3. wd kèn ni shudl 'let me tell you something!' 4. t'à tùi wd hén hào 'he is very nice to me'. 5. ni pài nèi-ke tung-hsi nà chin ¡ail 'bring in that thing!' b. Fixed position, initial: [Some writers consider lién a 'connective']. 1. lién niyèh pù chih-tào 'you don't know, either'. (Cf. ni yéh pù chih-tào.) 2. lién ni tsdm-men shih szù-ke jén 'there are four of us, including you'. c. Movable position : Either wd kuàn-yiì (or tùi-yii) chèi-chièn shìh méi-yu ì-chien, or kuàn-yii (or tùi-yìì) chèi-chièn shìh wd méi-yu ì-chien 'I have no opinion on this matter'.
D. Members of this class also occur without an object.
1. ni chiéh-che tsuò! 'continue the work!' (Cf. ni chiéh-che wó tsuò! 'take over from me and continue the work!'.) 2. wò chià-li pei t'ou le 'my house was burglarized'. (Cf. wó chià-li pòi tséi t'ou le 'my house was burglarized'.) 3. shù kéi szù le 'the book was torn'. hài-tzu kéi szù le 'it was torn by the child'. (Cf. hài-tzu pài shù kéi szù le, hài-tzu kéi shù szù le, shù kéi hài-tzu szù le 'the book was torn by the child'.
Bibliography: (1) On coverbs (ts'ùng, tài,jàng,pà, kéi, pei, etc.): Jao Ch'ang-jung, CKYW 94.166-71 (Aprii, 1960); Lu Chih-wei, CAT FT 95.220-1 (May, 1960); Li Lin- ting and Fan Fang-lien, CKYW 99.419-21 (December, 1960); (2) On kéi: Hsiang- juo, CKYW 92.64-5 (February, 1960); Yang Hsin-an, CKYW 92.66-8 (February, 1960); Hu Chu-an, CKYW 95.222-4 (May, 1960); (3) On pà: Liang Tung-han, YYHLT2.100-19 (May, 1958); (4) On lién: Huang Ch'eng-i, CKYW 52.22 (October, 1956); (5) On tùi and tùi-yii: Ma Chung, CKYW 98.384-5 (November, 1960); Tzu- ytìn, CKYW 123.183 (Aprii, 1963).
CLASS VII. Members of this class modify members of Class V. Some forms belong to both Class VII and Class V. As members of Class V, they modify members of Class III : Class V—Class III Class VII—Class V 1. pài chih 'white paper' pài ch'ili 'to eat without paying or working for one's food' pài chào-chi 'to worry unnecessarily' 2. kàn i-shang 'dry clothes' kàn chào-chi 'to worry helplessly, futilely' 82 KUN CHANG 3. kudng chiao 'bare feet' kuang shuo-hua, pu tsud-shih 'to talk without doing anything' 4. chih hsin-yar 'a straightforward chih k'u 'to cry continuously' person' 5. lao p'eng-yu 'an old friend' lao k'u 'to cry all the time' 6. ta fang-tzu 'a big building' ta kan i-cKi 'to do something on a grand scale' 7. ying mien 'hard dough' ying la-chu pu fdng 'to hold someone firmly' 8. chun jih-tzu 'a precise, definite chun chih-tao 'to know for sure' date' 9. k'uai cKe 'an express train or k'uai lai le 'he will be here soon'. bus' 10. hsin fang-tzu'a. new building' hsin mai te 'something newly purchased' 11. hao hai-tzu 'a good child' hao leng 'to be very cold' 12. kuai p'i-ch'i 'a peculiar dis- kuai yu i-szu 'to be quite interesting' position' 13. cKiung jen 'a poor man' ch'iung che-feng 'to run around in circles, i.e. to act to no purpose' 14. lao-shih jen 'an honest person' lao-shih ken ni shuo\ 'let me talk to you honestly!' 15. i-ting te chieh-kud 'a definite fa i-ting pu chih-tao 'he certainly does not result' know'. 16. fe-pieh tekung-tsuo 'a special chei-chien sh\h-cK ing fe-pieh nan 'this mat- assignment' ter is particularly difficult'. 17. tang-jan te chieh-kud 'a natural fa tang-jan pu chih-tao, or tang-jan fa pit result' chih-tao 'naturally he does not know'. 18. tzii-jan k'e-hsueh 'natural sci- fa tzu-jan pu chih-tao, or tzil-jan fa pit chih- ences' tao 'naturally he does not know'. 19. p'ing-ch'ang te shih-hour 'or- wo p'ing-cKang pit ch'du-yen, or pHng-cKang dinary times' wo pit cKou-yen 'ordinarily I don't smoke'. 20. yung-yiian te chi-hua 'a long- wo yung-yiian chi pu chu k'd-jen te ming-tzu range plan' 'I can never remember the names of my guests'. 21. fii-jdn te shih-chien 'something chiing-jih chan-cheng fit-jan fa sheng le, or which happens suddenly' fit-jan chung-jih chan-cheng fa-sheng le 'suddenly the Sino-Japanese War broke out'. 22. du-jdn te hsien-hsidng 'an acci- wo du-jdn hsiang chH lai le, or du-jdn wo dental phenomenon' hsiang ch(i lai le 'I recalled it acciden- tally'. DESCRIPTIVE LINGUISTICS 83 When members of Class VII modify yU or shih (members of Class V), the latter are optional before numeral phrases. (ching in 6. below is an exception to this state- ment: shih is optional here, even though it does not occur before a numeral phrase). Examples: 1. chih yu liang-ch'ih pit, or chlh liang-ch'ih pit 'there are only two feet of cloth'. 2. ts'ai yu san-ke jen, or ts'ai san-ke jen 'there are only three people'. 3. tsung-kung yu liang-k'uai ch'ien, or tsung-kiing liang-k'uai ch'ien 'there are al- together two dollars'. 4. l-ching yu liang-nien le, or i-ching liang-nien le 'it has been two years already'. 5. yu shih i-ke hsing-ch'i le, or yu i-ke hsing-ch'i le 'another week passed'. 6. shan-shang ching shih jen 'there are people all over the hill'. Members of Class VII can be subdivided on the basis of their limited occurrence with members of Class V. For instance, hen 'very', kuai 'quite', ting 'pretty', keng 'more', tsiii 'most', and hdi 'rather' occur with only one subgroup of Class V: käo 'high' yü ì-szu 'interesting' hén hén käo hén yü ì-szu kuài kuài käo te kuài yü ì-szu te fing fing käo te fing yü ì-szu te kèng kèng käo kèng yü ì-szu tsùi tsùi käo tsùi yü ì-szu hsién 'first', tsài 'again [only of a future or considered action or event]', yii 'again [only of actual events]', chiù 'right away, very soon', kàng 'just now', i-ching 'al- ready', and hai 'still' occur with another subgroup of Class V: ch'ìi 'to go' ch'ih 'to eat' hsién ni hsién ch'ili 'you go ni hsién ch'ihl 'you eat first!' first!' tsài wö tsài ch'il 'I will go wö tsài ch'ih 'I will eat later'. later'. wo ì-huir tsài ch'ìi 'I will wo ì-huér tsài ch'ih 'I will eat a little later'. go a little later'. yù wd yù ch'u le i-t'àng 'I wd yii ch'ih le i-wan 'I ate another bowl (of went there once again'. something'). chiù wd chiù ch'il 'I will go w5 chiu ch'ih 'I will eat right away'. right away'. wd-men chiù ch'u le 'we tsàm-men chiù ch'ih fàn le 'we will have dinner will be there very very soon'. soon'. käng wö käng ch'il le i-t'àng wd kàng ch'ih le ì-wàn 'I just now ate a bowl 'I just now went (of something'). there'. 84 KUN CHANG i-ching wd l-ching ch'ii le i-t'dng wd l-ching ch'ih le i-wan le 'I've eaten one le 'I've gone there bowl (of something), already', once, already'. hdi wd hdi ch'ii ne 'I still wd hdi ch'ih ne "I still want to eat more", want to go there once more'. tou occurs with both the above subgroups of Class V: kao: chei-liang-pa l-tzu tou kao 'these two chairs are both higher than I expected'. yu l-szti: chei-liang-pir shu tou yu i-szu 'these two books are both interesting'. ch'ii: wd-men tou ch'ii 'we'll all go'. ch'ih: t'a-men shim-me tou ch'ih 'they eat everything'. Some members of Class VII have fixed positions; others have movable positions: t'd chS-jdn Idi le, or chU-jdn t'd Idi le 'to my surprise, he came'. t'd kud-jdn lai le, or kud-jdn t'a lai le 'as I had expected, he came'. nl hsing-k'uei lai le, or hsing-k'uei nl lai le 'fortunately, you came'. wd ti-ch'iieh pit chih-tao, or ti-ch'iieh wd pit chih-tao 'indeed, I don't know'. Certain members of Class VII consist of two coordinate components: 1. yueh ... yUeh: t'ayueh shuo yiieh k'uai 'the more he speaks, the faster he speaks'. 2. yu ... yu: chei-sdr fdng-tzu yit kao yii td 'this building is both tall and large'. 3. yih ... ySh: wd ySh pit ch'ou yen ySh pit ho chiu 'I neither smoke nor drink'. 4. ju-kud ... chiu: ju-kud hsid yS, wd chiu pu ch'ii 'if it rains, I won't go'. 5. pu-tdn ... irh-ch'igh: t'dpu-tdn ch'ou yen ¿rh-ch'iih ho chiu 'he not only smokes, but drinks as well'. Bibliography: (1) On adverbs: Chang Ching, CKYW 107.1-14 (August, 1961); (2) On constructions consisting of adverbs and noun phrases: Hsing Fu-i, CKYW 115.215-7 (May, 1962).
CLASS VIII consists of the following members: A. wd, nl, t'd; B. wd-men, tsam-men, nl-men, t'a-men; C. tzu-chl; D. td-•chia (or td-hudr, or td-chia-hudr); E. jin-chia; and F. shei. For example: A. wtf'I' nl 'you' t'd 'he; she' wd i-ke jen 'I alone' nl i-ke jen t'd i-ke jin wd tzu-chl 'I myself' nl tzu-chl t'd tzii-chl wd tzu-chl i-ke jen 'I myself alone' nl tzxi-chl i-ke jen t'd tzii-chl i-ke jen wd ko-ko 'my older brother' nl ko-ko t'd ko-ko wd ch'ien-t'ou 'in front of me' nl ch'iin-t'ou t'd ch'ien-t'ou wd te p'ing-yu 'my friend' nl te p'ing-yu t'd te p'eng-yu B. wd-men 'we (exclusive)' nl-men 'you' (pi.) t'a-men 'they' wd-men liang-ke jen 'we two' nl-men liang-ke jen t'a-men liang-ke jin DESCRIPTIVE LINGUISTICS 85 wd-men tà-chia 'all of us' nl-men tà-chia fa-men tà-chia wd-men chid 'our family' nl-men chid fa-men chid wd-men ch'ién-fou 'in front of us' nl-men ch'ién-fou fa-men ch'ién-fou wd-men te p'éng-yu 'our friends' nl-men te p'éng-yu fa-men te p'éng-yu tsàm-men 'we (inclusive)' tsàm-men liàng-ke jén tsàm-men tà-chia tsàm-men chid tsàm-men ch'ién-fou tsàm-men te p'éng-yu C. tzù-chl 'oneself' tzù-chl i-ke jén tzù-chl te ko-ko tzù-chl te chid tzù-chl te ch'ién-fou tzù-chl te p'éng-yu D. tà-chia 'all ; everyone' tà-chia te ch'ién-fou tà-chia te p'éng-yu E. jén-chia 'others' jén-chia te ch'ién-fou jén-chia te p'éng-yu F. shéil 'who?' shéi te kd-kol shéi te chiaì shéi te ch'ién-t'oul shéi te p'éng-yu?
Class IX consists of the following members: che, chèi, nà, nei; chèr, nàr; tsèm-me, nèm-me; nà, nei; nàr; tsém-me; tó-me; shém-me; mei; and kè. For example:
near reference remote reference interrogative 1. che in chè shih shém-me"1. nà in nà shih shém-mel 'What is this?' 'What is that?' 2. chei-ke 'this' nèi-ke 'that' néi-ke 'which?' 3. chei-ke tung-hsi 'this thing' nèi-ke tùng-hsi néi-ke tùng-hsil 4. chei-hsie 'these' nèi-hsie néi-hsiel 5. chei-hsie-ke 'these' nèi-hsie-ke néi-hsie-kel 6. chei-hsietung-hsi'thcsethings' nèi-hsie tung-hsi néi-hsie tung-hsil 7. chei-hsie-ke tung-hsi 'these nèi-hsie-ke tùng-hsi néi-hsie-ke tung-hsil things' 8. chèi liàng-ke 'these two' nèi liàng-ke nei liàng-ke? 86 KUN CHANG
9. chei lidng-ke tung-hsi 'these nei lidng-ke tung-hsi nei lidng-ke tung-hsil two things' 10. chei-chung 'this kind' nei-chung nei-chungl 11. chei-cMng tung-hsi 'this kind nei-chung tung-hsi nei-chung tung-hsil of thing' 12. chei-yangr tung-hsi 'this kind nei-ydngr tiing-hsi nei-ydngr tung-hsil of thing' 13. chei-yangr te tung-hsi 'things nei-ydngr te tung-hsi shem-me-yangr te tung- of this kind' hsil 14. chei-huer 'this moment' nei-huSr to-huerl 15. cher 'here' ndr 'there' narl 'where?' 16. men cher 'here, near the door' men nar 17. wo cher 'here, with me' nl nar shei narl 18. cher te tung-hsi 'things nar te tiing-hsi nar te tung-hsil which are here' 19. tsem-me (yangr) 'in this nem-me (ydngr) 'in tsem-me (yangr)l 'in manner' that manner' which manner?' 20. tsem-me (yangr) tsdl 'Do it nem-me (ydngr) tsdl tsem-me (yangr) tsol this way!' 21. tsem-me ta 'this big' nem-me td to-me tal or to tal 22. tsem-me hsie 'this much, nem-me hsie to-shaol 'how many?' this many' 23. nl tsem-me lei 'What happened to you'? 24. chei-pSr shu tsem-me yangl [not yangr] 'How is this book?' 25. shem-mel 'what?' shem-me tung-hsil 'what thing?' shem-me shih-hourl or chl shihl or to huirl 'what time?' mei and ko are distributives: 1. mei 'every' mei jen 'everyone' mei-ke (jen) 'everyone' mei lidng-ke (jen) 'every two (persons)' mii-chung (tung-hsi) 'every kind (of thing)' mei-yangr (tung-hsi) 'every kind (of thing)' 2. kd 'each' kd jen 'each one (each person)' DESCRIPTIVE LINGUISTICS 87 kd-ke (jen) 'each one (each person)' ko-cMng (tung-hsi) 'various kinds (of things)' ko-yangr (tung-hsi) 'various kinds (of things)' Bibliography: (1) On pronouns: Nai-fan, CKYW34.41 (April, 1955); Tseng Ts'ung- ming, CKYW52.19-21 (October, 1956); Lin Wen-chin, CKYW75.429-31 (September, 1958); (2) On the reduplication of interrogative pronouns: Yu Hsi-liang, CKYW 131.279, 263 (August, 1964); (3) On the use of -men: Hsing Fu-i, CKYW 96.289, 292 (June, 1960); (4) On mei and numeral constructions: Li Lin-ting and Fan Fang-lien, CKYW 98.379-83 (November, 1960).
CONSTRUCTIONS
Mainland linguists distinguish between broad and narrow structural identity. They posit four requirements for the narrow structural identity of two utterances, or con- stituents of utterances: (1) they must have the same number of components; (2) the components of the one utterance must belong to the same form classes as their cor- respondents in the other utterance; (3) the order in which these components occur must be the same in both utterances; and (4) the internal relations of these com- ponents, i.e. the immediate constituent structure, must be the same. An example of narrow structural identity : (a) fa / hsiéh le liàng-féng hsìn 'he wrote two letters'. wo / mài le liàng-chàng p'iào 'I bought two tickets'. (b) hsiéh le / liàng-féng hsìn '(he) wrote two letters'. mài le / liàng-chàng p'iào '(I) bought two tickets'. (c) liàng-féng / hsìn 'two letters' liàng-chàng / p'iào 'two tickets'. (d) liàng / féng 'two (letters)'. liàng / chàng 'two (tickets)'. (e) hsiéh / le 'wrote'. mài / le 'bought'. Structural identity can be demonstrated by parallel expansions. For instance: hsiéh hsìn mài p'iào hsiéh le ì-féng hsìn mài le ì-chàng p'iào hsiéh wàn le hsìn mài wàn le p'iào hsiéh pu hsiéh hsìnl mài pu mài p'iàol t'à hsiéh te hsìn t'à mài te p'iào hsiéh le hsìn le mài le p'iào le Structural similarity can be demonstrated by limited parallel expansions. For in- stance, constituents 1, 2, 3, 4, and 6 in I below are structurally similar to constituents 5,7,8, and 9: they share some of the same expansions (II and III), but not all (IV and V). KUN CHANG
D -a '=3 JS % ^ t • a a S ft,ft. a , I5 ©M & >§ rs •«US K Se a " a a ft, ft. ft,
c- : a a f " 3 S» ft, f >§ ft.a ft, 'a R Si a --3 is •r a a ft, R ^i sp a ft, ft, o § <3 1? R R R3 ft, -•a R 3 R 3 I I '¡a •¡a a -jR i <33 •R a ¿2 g? o •R © •;3 C" --a --a ft, I. j R gp £ £ ^ I ft, s I f S -a R Si 3 r a S "S •R bo •R 3 « >R <3 -R •s a ft, 3 ft.•J R 3 ^ I •s ft, >3 >i -R -R "5 s i RI ft,o -Rft, >A -R Constructions are also classified on the basis of their transformations. For example: I. (1) fdi-shang tsd-che lai-pin. lai-pin tso-te fai-shang 'the visitors are sitting on the stage'; (2) ch'uang-shang t'dng-che ping-jen. ping-jen fang-te ch'uang-shang 'the sick man is lying on the bed'; (3) ch'iang-shang kud-che hilar, huar kua-te ch'idng-shang 'the picture is hanging on the wall'; (4) shen-shang kai-che t'an-tzu. t'an-tzu kai-te shen-shang 'the blanket covers his body'. II. (1) wai-fou hsid-che y&. wai-fou cheng-tsai hsia-che yti 'it is raining out- side' ; (2) ww-// k'ai-che hiii. wu-li cheng-tsai k'ai-che hiii 'a meeting is going on inside the room'; (3) fai-shang ch'ang-che hsi. fai-shang cheng-tsai ch'ang-che hsi 'an opera is being performed on the stage'; (4) hsin-li tien-chi-che hai-tzu. hsin-li cheng-tsai tien-chi-che hai-tzu 'the worry about (his) child preoccupies (his) mind'. III. (no transformations) (1) hai-tzu tiao-te chlng-li 'the child fell into the well'; (2) chien she-te pa-tzu-shang 'the arrow hit the target'; (3) fei-chi tiao-te hai-li 'the airplane fell into the sea'; (4) ?6u p'eng-te ch'iang-shang 'his head hit against the wall'. Bibliography: Chu Te-hsi, "On sentence structures", CKYW 118.351-60 (August and September, 1962); Fan Fang-lien, "On sentences with verbs like tsd-che 'sitting'", CKYW 126.386-95 (October, 1963).