Langues Sinitiques Et Typologie : Deux Études De Cas

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Langues Sinitiques Et Typologie : Deux Études De Cas Langues sinitiques et typologie : deux études de cas Christine Lamarre* INTRODUCTION La linguistique chinoise connaît depuis une trentaine d’années un regain d’intérêt pour la variation spatiale - et sa signification du point de vue de la caractérisation typologique - de ce qu’on appelle «le chinois», ou parfois les «langues sinitiques», définies comme suit par Alain Peyraube (2011) dans le Dictionnaire des langues (Bonvini, Busuttil & Peyraube 2011). Les langues sinitiques ou langues chinoises constituent l’une des deux branches de la famille des langues sino-tibétaines, l’autre branche étant le tibéto-birman. Comme taxon ou sous-groupe des langues, elles sont aussi diverses que les langues romanes ou germaniques de la famille indo-européenne. Ainsi, le cantonais et le mandarin, sous leurs formes parlées, ne sont pas du tout mutuellement compréhensibles, au même titre que le roumain et le portugais, ou l’anglais et l’allemand. Pour illustrer l’apport de ces recherches à la réflexion typologique, nous abordons ici deux domaines pour lesquels la prise en compte de la variation interne aux langues sinitiques peut avoir une conséquence pour la caractérisation typologique du chinois : 1) la morphologie, 2) l’expression du déplacement. Avant de rentrer dans le vif du sujet, il nous faut revenir sur la notion de «mandarin». La variation la plus évidente au sein des langues sinitiques est celle opposant le mandarin aux langues sinitiques parlées au sud-est de la Chine, comme le min, le yue, le hakka1 ou le wu. Le chinois standard, fondé sur le dialecte de Pékin, est généralement adopté comme représentant du groupe mandarin, c’est le cas par exemple du Dictionnaire des langues cité plus haut, ou encore de l’Atlas des structures des langues du monde (WALS, Haspelmath et al. 2005) : nous ne disposons pas de descriptions systématiques et détaillées de dialectes mandarins non standard. Mais ceci peut induire en erreur les linguistes n’ayant pas accès à la littérature publiée en chinois, en laissant penser que le groupe mandarin» est homogène. Bien que Zhu Dexi (Zhu 1987) ait attiré l’attention des grammairiens sur la nécessité d’être extrêmement vigilant sur l’origine des données qu’ils traitent, et de se méfier de conclusions fondées sur des faits de langue trop hétérogènes, l’analyse du pékinois parlé à laquelle il les * Inalco-CRLAO. Courriel : [email protected] 1 Nous renvoyons le lecteur aux diverses sections du Dictionnaire des langues consacrées au mandarin (Paris 2011), au cantonais (Busuttil et al. 2011), au hakka (Chappell et al. 2011) et au min (Chappell et al. 2011). Downloaded from Brill.com10/02/2021 12:58:40AM via free access 144 Christine Lamarre appelait s’est de fait heurtée à l’urbanisation accélérée de la métropole pékinoise, ainsi qu’à l’essor de l’éducation et des médias (voir Chirkova 2003 : chapitre 1). Nous essaierons donc ici de compenser cette surreprésentation dans les travaux en langues occidentales d’une langue dont le caractère «construit», voire artificiel, est bien connu, en nous référant si besoin est à des dialectes mandarins non standard. Les deux études de cas présentées ici montrent qu’en comparant une koïné écrite – le «mandarin» - à des langues régionales principalement orales et décrites comme telles, nous pouvons minimiser certains aspects des langues sinitiques non dénués d’intérêt pour la typologie. Ces deux études de cas se réfèrent aux chapitres 2 et 3 du volume 3 de l’ouvrage Typologie linguistique et description syntaxique : Les catégories grammaticales et le lexique, qui portent respectivement sur les typologies lexicales et la morphologie flexionnelle (Bickel & Nichols 2007 ; Talmy 2007). 1. UNE MORPHOLOGIE PAS TOTALEMENT INEXISTANTE, MAIS ASSEZ «LOCALE» 1.1. La mise à jour de l’approche morphologique en typologie Le chinois est souvent choisi, avec le vietnamien, comme exemple canonique de langue «analytique» ou «isolante», selon la classification des langues dominante au 19ème siècle (Li et Thompson 1981 :10, Hagège 1982 : Introduction). Ainsi les mots sont invariables quelle que soit leur fonction de sujet ou d’objet dans la phrase, leur ordre est capital, la catégorie du nombre n’y est pas systématiquement marquée. Mais les travaux plus récents ont entrepris de décomposer les caractéristiques morphologiques qui permettaient d’identifier les langues analytiques, synthétiques ou agglutinantes en plusieurs paramètres jusque-là considérés comme régulièrement corrélés et covariants. Bickel et Nichols (2007) nous proposent ainsi de mesurer sur des échelles séparées le comportement des langues en ce qui concerne le degré de fusion phonologique des formants intervenant dans la flexion avec la base nominale ou verbale (il s’agit de formants - le terme reprend anglais formative - exprimant des catégories telles que le temps, l’aspect, le mode, le nombre, le genre, le cas etc.), le nombre de catégories susceptibles d’être marquées sur le nom ou le verbe au niveau du mot, et la densité sémantique de ces marqueurs (susceptibles d’exprimer plusieurs catégories), qu’ils appellent de degré de synthèse. Le degré de synthèse en ce qui concerne la flexion verbale est représenté dans l’Atlas des structures des langues du monde (WALS, carte 22, Inflectional Synthesis of the Verb, Bickel & Nichols 2005b). On voit que le chinois standard (mandarin) fait partie des langues où l’on trouve entre zéro et une catégorie par mot. En effet il n’existe en chinois standard qu’un nombre très limité de suffixes - si l’on considère que l’on a bien affaire à des suffixes dans le cas de -le ou -zhe, qui marquent respectivement les aspects perfectif et duratif. Les suffixes nominaux sont en lien avec la dérivation diminutive, qui recouvre en fait un ensemble de sens assez disparates, mais là aussi, on en observe un seul par mot. Les verbes comme les noms s’utilisent souvent sous leur forme non suffixée, avec en ce cas la valeur «zéro». D’après cette carte seules 5 langues sur les 145 Downloaded from Brill.com10/02/2021 12:58:40AM via free access Langues sinitiques et typologie 145 examinées sont dans ce cas, ce qui suffit à expliquer que le chinois soit souvent choisi comme représentant des langues analytiques. Les autres langues sinitiques se comportent sur ce point comme le chinois standard. Le degré de fusion phonologique des morphèmes fonctionnels avec la base fléchie est représenté sur la carte 20 (Fusion of Selected Inflectional Formatives, Bickel & Nichols 2005a), où le mandarin appartient au type «isolant / concaténatif». Notons qu’ici le type «isolant» fait référence à des langues où les marqueurs sont des mots phonologiquement autonomes, alors que la concaténation peut induire des phénomènes de cliticisation et d’assimilation comme le voisement ou l’harmonie vocalique. Les suffixes aspectuels du pékinois comme le ou zhe relèvent bien du type concaténatif, de par leur réduction phonologique : perte du ton, ajustement du contour mélodique du ton en fonction de la syllabe qui précède. Comme le notent Bickel & Nichols (2007 : 180 note 7), l’échelle de fusion qu’ils proposent est applicable également à la morphologie dérivationnelle, nous n’engageons donc pas la discussion sur la validité de la distinction et son application au chinois. Les phénomènes abordés ici concernent la morphologie nominale (section 1.2) et verbale (section 1.3), ils montrent que le chinois peut présenter des cas de fusion assez poussée du suffixe avec la base, allant jusqu’au type présentant le degré le plus élevé de fusion, le type «non linéaire» de Bickel & Nichols (2007 :180-183). 1.2. La morphologie nominale Bien que la morphologie chinoise soit notoirement pauvre, la plupart des dialectes disposent d’un ou plusieurs procédés de suffixation nominale, fréquents et productifs, qui jouent un rôle structurant au sein du lexique. Ces suffixes prennent le plus souvent leur source (quand celle-ci est traçable) dans des morphèmes signifiant «fils» ou «enfant», la suffixation est d’abord associée au trait sémantique «petit», nous reprenons donc l’appellation générale et l’appelons «dérivation diminutive». Elle véhicule également diverses connotations affectives (familiarité, proximité, affection, ou dédain), dont Chao (1968 : 228-245) a donné dans sa description détaillée des suffixes du pékinois un nombre considérable d’exemples. En pékinois, la suffixation en –r, «le seul suffixe non syllabique» du chinois standard, se réalise par une modification de la coda de la syllabe, qui prend une sonorité rhotique et rétroflexe. Après avoir traité les valeurs sémantiques corrélées à la suffixation en -r : petite taille, registre familier ou trivialité, légèreté du propos, Chao analysait le cas de figure le plus fréquent, où la rhoticisation permet à un morphème lié d’accéder au statut de mot, ex. bànr «compagnon», hér «noyau (d’un fruit)», wèir «odeur», et táor «pêche», dont la base est un morphème dépendant (ainsi táo a le sens de «pêcher» - l’arbre, et non de «pêche»). Ce suffixe, s’il s’applique sur une base qui est un morphème libre, peut ou non en modifier le sens. Il permet enfin de dériver des noms à partir de verbes, comme par exemple2 dans les paires gài [kai51] «recouvrir» et 2 La transcription en italique est celle généralement utilisée pour noter le chinois standard, le pinyin. Les transcriptions phonétiques en API sont placées entre crochets [ ], les tons Downloaded from Brill.com10/02/2021 12:58:40AM via free access 146 Christine Lamarre gàir [ka˞51] «couvercle», ou dòng [tõŋ51] «geler» (climat) et dòngr [tõ˞ 51] «gelée» (en charcuterie), mais aussi à partir d’adjectifs, ou de classificateurs. Mais cette fonction dérivationnelle ne s’applique que sur certains lexèmes, dont la liste devra être mémorisée, et diffère en fonction des dialectes. Le manque de systématicité et l’opacité sémantique de ce procédé morphologique en ont fait un sujet de controverses dans la construction de la norme linguistique du chinois standard.
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