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DA Otto Publish Word --- Zum Bedeutungsverlust formaler Standardisierung für die Marktrelevanz von Audio-Standards zur Online-Distribution --- Eine vergleichende Analyse anhand von Case Studies --- Vorgelegt von Werner Armin Otto Diplom-Mathematiker (Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg) Diplom-Tonmeister (Universität der Künste Berlin) aus Neumarkt / Bayern Von der Fakultät I – Geisteswissenschaften der Technischen Universität Berlin zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades Doktor der Philosophie Dr. phil. genehmigte Dissertation Promotionsausschuss: Vorsitzende: Prof. Dr. Elena Ungeheuer Berichter: Prof. Dr. Stefan Weinzierl Berichter: Dr. Thilo Pauck (MBA) Tag der wissenschaftlichen Aussprache: 22. Mai 2009 Berlin 2009 D 83 Abstract – deutsch Diese Arbeit evaluiert die Marktrelevanz von formalen, konsortialen und De-facto- Standards zur Audio-Distribution über das Internet anhand von Case Studies. Wir stellen einen zunehmenden Bedeutungsverlust formaler Standards, die vorrangig durch das MPEG-Gremium verabschiedet werden, fest. Gründe hierfür finden sich in der unverändert technologie-zentrierten Arbeitsweise dieses Gremiums, dem unzureichenden Umgang mit Patenten und der nicht effektiv ausgeprägten Marktorientierung. Diese Beobachtung lässt sich auf formale Standardisierung im Bereich der Informationstechnologie verallgemeinern. Gleichzeitig erkennen wir fehlende Marktrelevanz auch für die untersuchten konsortialen Standards in diesem Umfeld, die insofern von den üblichen Erfolgen informationstechnologischer Standards dieser Gremien abweicht. Ein sich rasch verändernder Markt und die Komplexität der mit dem Standard adressierten Aufgabenstellung können als Ursachen identifiziert werden. Erfolgreich auf diesem Markt agieren aktuell die betrachteten De-facto-Standards, die sich durch bedarfsgerechte und zu moderaten Konditionen lizenzierbare Technologie einerseits und durch die gezielte Adressierung weicher Faktoren wie Reputation und Markennamen andererseits auszeichnen. Abstract – english This thesis evaluates the market relevance of formal, consortial and de facto standards for audio distribution through the internet by means of case studies. We will examine an increasing loss of importance of formal standards which have been adopted mainly by the MPEG group. We will find that the reasons for this loss of importance lie in the mode of operation of the MPEG group which is solely focused on technology, as well as the insufficient handling of patents and ineffective market orientation. This observation can be expanded on formal standardization in the IT domain in general. We will also examine the missing market relevance of consortial standards in this environment, which deviates from the usually successful IT standardization of these groups. Rapidly changing market conditions and the complexity of these standards will be identified as possible reasons. The de facto standards which will be examined are currently acting with success in the considered market. These standards are characterized by tailored technology and moderate licensing conditions on the one hand, and the addressing of soft factors such as reputation and brand name on the other hand. 1 0 EINLEITUNG 3 0.1 AUSGANGSSITUATION UND ZIELSETZUNG 3 0.2 THESEN , METHODIK UND VORGEHENSWEISE 4 0.3 AUFBAU DER ARBEIT UND ABGRENZUNG 5 0.4 STAND DER LITERATUR 7 0.5 DANKSAGUNG 9 1 STANDARDS UND PATENTE – ÜBERSICHT 10 1.1 STANDARDS 10 1.1.1 Definition 10 1.1.2 Ziele 12 1.1.3 Typen 14 1.2 STANDARDISIERUNGSORGANISATIONEN UND –FORMEN 17 1.2.1 Formale Standardisierung 18 1.2.2 Konsortien, “graue” Standardisierung 25 1.2.3 De-facto-Standards 27 1.2.4 Finanzierung 28 1.2.5 Vergleich und Diskussion 30 1.3 PATENTE / INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS 36 1.3.1 Definition und Ziele 36 1.3.2 Einzelne Regelungen 37 1.3.3 Diskussion 41 1.4 STANDARDISIERUNGSPROZESS 46 1.4.1 Treiber 47 1.4.2 Prozess 49 1.4.3 Ergebnis 54 1.5 STANDARDS UND PATENTE : KOMPATIBILITÄT , TYPENBESCHRÄNKUNG , INNOVATION UND WETTBEWERB 59 2 STANDARDS ZUR AUDIO-ONLINE-DISTRIBUTION – WERTSCHÖPFUNGSKETTE, TECHNOLOGIEN UND MARKTRELEVANZ 65 2.1 WERTSCHÖPFUNGSKETTE UND STAKEHOLDER AUDIO -ONLINE -DISTRIBUTION 65 2.1.1 Wertschöpfungskette Audio-Online-Distribution 66 2.1.2 Stakeholder Audio-Online-Distribution 67 2.1.3 Wirtschaftliche Bedeutung 75 2.2 ORIGINÄRE UND INTEGRIERTE TECHNOLOGIEN 77 2.2.1 Originäre Technologien 78 2 2.2.2 Integrierte Technologien 79 2.3 UNTERSUCHTE STANDARDS UND MARKTREVELANZ 101 2.3.1 Originäre Technologien 104 2.3.2 Integrierte Technologien 105 3 STANDARDS UND MARKT – EINFLUSSGRÖßEN 108 3.1 MOTIVATION UND EINFÜHRUNG 108 3.2 EINFLUSSGRÖßEN – STANDARDS 109 3.2.1 Ressourcen und Reputation 109 3.2.2 Timing 110 3.2.3 Marktreife 110 3.2.4 Kompatibilität 111 3.2.5 Nutzbarkeit und Bedingungen 111 3.3 EINFLUSSGRÖßEN – MARKT 112 3.3.1 Marktsituation 112 3.3.2 Marktentwicklung 113 3.4 EINFLUSSGRÖßEN – KATALOG 114 4 STANDARDS ZUR AUDIO-ONLINE-DISTRIBUTION – CASE STUDIES 115 4.1 MP3 115 4.2 AAC 125 4.3 MICROSOFT WINDOWS MEDIA 130 4.4 SDMI 138 4.5 MPEG-21 146 4.6 APPLE I TUNES MUSIC STORE 155 4.7 CORAL ECOSYSTEM 164 5 ERGEBNIS UND DISKUSSION 172 5.1 ERGEBNIS 172 5.2 ZUSAMMENFASSENDE DISKUSSION 181 6 REFERENZEN 187 7 ANHANG 202 7.1 FIRMEN UND ORGANISATIONEN – GLOSSAR 202 7.2 ONLINE -MUSIKPLATTFORMEN – ÜBERSICHT 206 7.3 SELEKTIERTE ONLINE -MUSIKPLATTFORMEN – EIGENSCHAFTEN 207 7.4 ABBILDUNGSVERZEICHNIS 208 7.5 TABELLENVERZEICHNIS 208 3 0 Einleitung 0.1 Ausgangssituation und Zielsetzung „Standards, Standards Everywhere.“ 1 Allerorten finden sich in der (post-)industriellen Gesellschaft Standards unterschiedlichster Typen und Formen: als Netzspannung oder Kraftstoffklasse, als Videoformat oder Öko-Siegel, als Schuhgröße oder Netzwerkprotokoll. Diese Aufzählung skizziert bereits inhaltliche, zeitlich-historische und regionale Dimensionalitäten und Spannbreiten, denen die jeweils aktuelle Nutzung von Produkten und Dienstleistungen auf Basis von Standards unterliegen. Und die (subjektive) Wahrnehmung und Einschätzung der Qualität dieser Standards variieren ebenfalls. Einige grundlegende Fragen drängen sich auf: • Weshalb haben sich diese Standards am Markt durchgesetzt, weshalb andere nicht? • Welche Einflussgrößen spielen dabei eine Rolle? Haben sich die Ausprägungen dieser Einflussgrößen in der Historie möglicherweise verändert? • Kann ein allgemeiner oder zumindest tendenzieller Zusammenhang zwischen den Einflussgrößen und der Bedeutung / Marktrelevanz eines Standards hergestellt werden? Bei Kenntnis grundlegender Mechanismen (technologischer) Standardisierung konkretisieren sich die Fragen weiter. Z. B. gibt es verschiedene Formen der Standardisierung durch unterschiedliche Gremien und Institutionen. In wie weit spiegelt sich der Zusammenhang zwischen Einflussgrößen und Marktrelevanz in der jeweiligen Standardisierungsform wider? In Standards eingesetzte Technologien sind häufig durch Patente geschützt. Wie stellt sich die Situation um diese Rechte und ihre Lizenzierbarkeit dar? Welche Einflussgrößen stehen mit der Lizenzierung von patentierten Technologien in Verbindung? Betrachten wir speziell den Markt für Audio-Distribution über das Internet. Dieser ist aktuell von einigen wenigen technologischen Standards beherrscht. Darunter finden sich neben MP3 zwei Standards von Einzelfirmen (Microsoft und Apple). Dies repräsentiert bei weitem nicht die Landschaft existierender Audio-Distributions- 1 Cargill (1997), S. 5 4 Standards und zeichnet sich zudem durch nahezu durchgängige Inkompatibilität aus. Um das Dickicht aus möglichen Zusammenhängen zwischen Standards und Standardisierungsformen, Technologien und Patenten, Märkten und Vertriebsstrukturen parziell zu entwirren, fokussieren wir obige Fragestellungen auf eine spezielle Standardisierungsform, die der formalen Gremien ISO und IEC. Deren Standards haben von Beginn der Internet-Ära an die Audio-Distribution begleitet und mit MP3 das erste und ein bis heute relevantes Format geschaffen. Das bis heute einzige marktrelevante formale Format zur Audio-Online-Distribution trotz einer großen Zahl weiterer MPEG-Standards in Folge. Es liegt nahe, die eingangs aufgeworfenen Fragen entlang der Historie der formalen Standards zur Audio-Online-Distribution zu erörtern. Deren Bedeutungsverlust kann einen ersten Aufschluss über die Zusammenhänge zwischen der Marktrelevanz von Audio-Distributions-Standards und den möglichen Einflussgrößen geben. 0.2 Thesen, Methodik und Vorgehensweise Die zentralen Thesen dieser Arbeit sind: • Wesentliche marktrelevante Einflussgrößen werden durch formale 2 Standards zur Audio-Distribution über das Internet zunehmend weniger positiv ausgeprägt werden. Dabei hat sich die Bedeutung einzelner Einflussgrößen für die Marktrelevanz in der Historie verändert. Formale Standardisierung hat auf diese Veränderung bislang nicht reagiert, sondern verharrt in ihrem Paradigma der besten Technologie. • Für Digital Rights Management Systeme (DRMS), eine Teilmenge der Audio- Distributions-Standards, prägen bis dato auch die konsortialen Standardisierungsformen einige der relevanten Einflussgrößen nicht hinreichend positiv aus. • Eine positive Ausprägung der Einflussgrößen wird aktuell ausschließlich durch De-facto-Standardisierungsformen geleistet. Zur Untersuchung der obigen These bedarf es einerseits eines Sets von Einflussgrößen, andererseits einer (möglichst vollständigen) Aufstellung der relevanten Audio-Distributions-Standards. Ersteres lässt sich aus der Literatur herleiten, zweiteres durch Studium der bis dato verabschiedeten Standards der Moving Pictures Experts 2 Zur Definition der
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