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Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (Pahs) in Urban Waters

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Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (Pahs) in Urban Waters Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Urban Waters Purpose of this document Recent studies by the US Geological Survey (USGS) and several universities indicate that PAHs are an important emerging contaminant in urban waterways, including the rapidly growing metro areas of North Carolina. This document offers an overview of recent studies of potential sources for PAHs in urban waterways and provides information on management strategies for reducing the risks of PAH impacts on aquatic ecosystems. What are PAHs? weight PAHs tend to be more stable, persist in the PAHs, or Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons, environment longer, are less water soluble, and consist of hundreds of separate chemicals that are more toxic. Exposure to UV light can increase occur together as mixtures. PAHs are naturally toxicity of PAH compounds and increase toxicity occurring and are concentrated by the burn- to some aquatic species. (Garrett 2004) ing of fossil fuels and the incomplete burning Scientific studies have documented detri- of carbon-containing materials (such as wood, mental impacts from PAHs on aquatic organ- tobacco, and coal). PAHs are a wide and varied isms. Examples include: group of compounds whose sources include tire • In Austin, Texas biological studies revealed particles, leaking motor oil, vehicle exhaust, a loss of species and decreased number of crumbling asphalt, atmospheric deposition, organisms in streams with PAHs present coal gasification, and parking lot sealants, as (Van Metre 2005) well as sources inside the home (such as tobacco smoke, wood fire smoke, grilling or char- ring meat). PAHs are also commonly found in particulate matter of air pollution. PAHs tend to adhere to surfaces, attaching readily to sedi- ment particles and leading to elevated con- centrations in sediments. PAHs have complex chemical structures (see figure 1), so they do not break down easily and are persistent in the environment. Why should we be concerned about PAHs? Some PAHs are known to be toxic to aquatic Figure 1. The chemical structure of Benzo[a]- pyrene, a carcinogenic PAH. animals and humans. Generally, higher molecular Urban Waterways • In Puget Sound, Washington’s and immunity. PAHs generally have their tendency to attach to particles Ambient Monitoring Program a low degree of acute toxicity to rather than dissolve in water. USEPA (WA DFW) found PAHs were humans, meaning harmful effects has a maximum contaminant level associated with: through a single or short-term (MCL) for PAH in drinking water of – Liver lesions and tumors in fish, exposure are minimal. Mammals 0.2 ppb of drinking water. Human – Liver problems leading to repro- absorb PAHs through inhalation, health risks from consuming fish ductive impairment, contact with skin, and ingestion (EPA are thought to be low because PAHs – Malformations in fish embryos Ecological Toxicity). Recent research do not readily bioaccumulate within and embryonic cardiac by USGS raises concerns about expo- vertebrates. Bivalve mollusks read- dysfunction, sure of children through inhalation ily accumulate PAHs in their tissues, – Reduction in aquatic plants (eel- and ingestion of house dust con- however. (Garrett 2004). The U.S. grass) that provide fish habitat. taminated by PAHs that have abraded Food and Drug Administration (FDA) • Benzo(a)pyrene was lethal to newt from nearby parking lots sealed with has not established standards govern- larvae at low levels (50 parts per coal tar sealant (Mahler 2010).The ing the PAH content of foodstuffs billion) (Fernandez and Lharidon International Agency for Research on (USDHHS 2009), with the excep- 1994) Cancer (IARC) classifies two PAHs tion of issuing levels of concerns for • A 2006 study showed develop- as probable human carcinogens and PAHs in fish and shellfish following mental delays and deformities three as possible human carcinogens. the Deepwater Horizon oil spill. The in amphibians with exposure to The US EPA classifies seven PAHs as European Union has set a maximum coal tar pavement sealants (which probable human carcinogens, while allowable level of benzo(a)pyrene for contain PAHs), with larger levels the state of California classifies 25 bivalve mollusks on the market (EU of sealant causing greater devel- PAHs as carcinogenic PAHs (cPAHs). Commission 2006). opmental problems and death. The IARC and EPA both classify (Bryer 2006) benzo(a)pyrene and benz(a)anthra- How do PAHs get into streams, • Brown bullhead catfish and cene as probable human carcinogens. lakes, estuaries, and the ocean? English sole have been docu- Benzo(a)pyrene is often used as an PAHs enter water bodies through mented as among the more environmental indicator for PAHs. atmospheric deposition and direct sensitive bottom-dwelling fish to PAHs in streams and lakes are releases of substances through petro- the carcinogenic effects of PAHs thought to rarely pose a human health leum spills and use, municipal waste- (Garrett 2004). risk via drinking water because of water treatment plants, industrial • Crustaceans and fish metabolize PAH compounds more efficiently than do bivalve species such as mussels, clams, and oysters, which readily accumulate PAHs (Garrett 2004). • Interactions between aquatic organisms and PAHs in sediment are complex, depending on many factors including—but not limited to—sensitivity of species, stage of development, bioavailability of PAHs, and exposure to sunlight (Garrett 2004). The most significant effect of PAH toxicity to humans is cancer. Increased incidences of lung, skin, and bladder cancers are associated with occupational exposure to PAHs (USDHHS 2009). Other non-cancer effects are not well understood, though they may include adverse effects on reproduction, development, Figure 2. Bivalves, including oysters, readily accumulate PAHs in their tissues. 2 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Urban Waters discharges, stormwater runoff, landfill leachate, and surface runoff. Many studies have been conducted recently regarding runoff sources of PAHs. Rainfall runs off parking lot and road surfaces, transporting PAHs that originate from tire particles, leaking motor oil, vehicle exhaust, crumbling asphalt, atmospheric deposition, coal gasification, and parking lot seal- ants. PAHs attach readily to sediment particles, leading to high concentra- tions in bottom sediments of water bodies. A literature review on tire wear particles in the environment indicates that the high aromatic (HA) oils generally used in tires contain PAHs. Zinc, PAHs, and a suite of other organic compounds (including phthalates, benzothiazole derivatives, United States Geological Survey phenolic derivatives, and fatty acids) found in tires are noted to likely cause Figure 3. Sealant is applied to a parking lot. toxicity in aquatic organisms. Because of this toxicity, the European Union Austin study, parking lots with coal curing of the test plots at UNH con- has banned sales of tires that contain tar sealcoat yielded an average PAH tributed to the high concentrations HA oils. This is estimated to reduce concentration of 3,500 mg/kg on of PAHs found in runoff (LeHuray future PAH emissions from tires by particles in runoff, 65 times more 2009). The results of analyzing sources 98 percent. (Wik & Goran 2009) It is than from unsealed lots in simulated of PAHs in sediment cores from 40 unclear whether tire manufacturers rain events. The average concentra- lakes across the U.S. has led some will continue to sell tires containing tion of PAHs in particles washed off USGS researchers to conclude that HA oils in the United States. asphalt-based sealants was 620 mg/kg, coal tar sealcoat likely is the primary about 10 times higher than the aver- cause of upward trends in PAHs in Coal tar-based sealants age concentration from the unsealed response to urban sprawl in much of Research from the USGS in the City parking lots. The other sources of the United States. (Van Metre 2010) of Austin, Texas (Van Metre et al PAHs previously mentioned, besides 2005), nine other cities (Van Metre sealants, can account for the PAH Attributing sources of PAHs et al 2009)), and from the University concentrations found washing off the to land uses of New Hampshire (Mahler et al unsealed parking lots (Van Metre Determining the sources of PAHs in 2012) indicates that coal tar-based 2005). A recent UNH study compared streams is a complex process and is sealants (also called sealcoats) on runoff from lots they sealed with both usually done by evaluating the ratios parking lots likely contribute sig- types of sealants to an unsealed lot. of individual compounds found nificant amounts of PAHs to water- They found both types of sealcoat led in stream sediment. USGS is cur- ways via stormwater runoff. These to a rapid increase in PAH concentra- rently conducting research in North sealants (CTS) are made of coal tar, tions in the initial runoff—up to 5,000 Carolina to examine PAH concentra- a product created during the cok- parts per billion (ppb), compared to tions in bridge deck runoff. Research ing of coal. This type of sealant and 10 ppb released from the unsealed on metals and PAHs in Santa Monica, another sealant made from asphalt lot. Concentrations decreased after California, found that both com- are used to prevent damage to asphalt several rainstorms. The PAH concen- mercial and industrial land uses and surfaces. Friction from automobile trations in the sediments immediately roads provided higher concentrations tires causes the sealcoat to flake off. downstream of the coal tar sealed of both metals and PAHs than single- These flakes are then scrubbed from lot increased by nearly two orders of family residential land uses (Lau & the surface during a rain event and magnitude within the first year (14). Strenstrom 2005). A study of the rela- into storm-drain networks, and then The Pavement Coating Technology tive importance of individual source flow into lakes and streams. In the Council maintains that improper areas in contributing to contaminants 3 Urban Waterways in an urban watershed in Marquette, Michigan, found parking lots to be a major contributor (~64 percent) of PAH compounds (Steuer et al 1997).
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